African-American literature

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are also written by people of color. While her perspective is broad and marketed towards writers and readers themselves, incorporating her same themes and analysis to authentic narratives proves useful in a classroom setting. She challenges what previous 'diverse' narratives might have accomplished while also dissecting why they were demeaning to the culture of authentic storytelling itself. This article fits into the discourse on having diverse literature for students to see themselves in the classroom and the importance of choosing texts who's storytelling resonates with their own culture. Mikkelsen writes, "The idea of multicultural literature (that in which the idea of different world views or cultural references are built into the texture of the book itself-its focus, its emphasis, its subject matter) is a challenging one for readers who are not insiders of the culture being depicted." She believes providing students with content that portrays authentic and genuine reflections of multi-cultural experiences, allows for better engagement and connection in the classroom for those who resonate with these cultures.

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overly aggressive and male-dominated academic writings in higher education and balance them with more female voices, hence Cooper is widely recognized as the "mother of Black feminism". Furthermore, Cooper did not just see higher education as a way to improve the socioeconomic situation of African American communities, but also as a foundation for the continuous learning and a community based approach to upliftment that would cause the "universal betterment" of people and humanity as a whole. Cooper advocated for the democratization of both public and private higher education which has been seen as "bastions of white, male elitism" and a "focus on reproducing English culture and cementing Christian doctrine", as the changing nature of American culture that now grapples with centuries of relegating women and racial minorities to the lowest rungs of society.

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identification as Negro writers." He writes that "bsent white suspicion of, or commitment to imposing, black inferiority, African American literature would not have existed as a literature". Warren bases part of his argument on the distinction between "the mere existence of literary texts" and the formation of texts into a coherent body of literature. For Warren, it is the coherence of responding to racist narratives in the struggle for civil rights that establishes the body of African American literature, and the scholar suggests that continuing to refer to the texts produced after the civil rights era as such is a symptom of nostalgia or a belief that the struggle for civil rights has not yet ended.

2377:. If her work was written in 1853, it would be the first African American novel written in the United States. The novel was published in 2002 with an introduction by Henry Louis Gates, Jr. The work was never published during Crafts' lifetime. Some suggest that she did not have entry into the publishing world. The novel has been described as a style between slave narratives and the sentimental novel. In her novel, Crafts went beyond the genre of the slave narrative. There is some evidence that she read in the library of her master and was influenced by those works: the narrative was serialized and bears resemblances to 2618:, she adopted the name Sojourner Truth after 40 years of struggle, first to attain her freedom and then to work on the mission she felt God intended for her. This new name was to "signify the new person she had become in the spirit, a traveler dedicated to speaking the Truth as God revealed it". Truth played a significant role during the Civil War. She worked tirelessly on several civil rights fronts; she recruited black troops in Michigan, helped with relief efforts for freedmen and women escaping from the South, led a successful effort to desegregate the streetcars in Washington, D.C., and she counseled President 2208:, who thanked her for a poem written in his honor. Some whites found it hard to believe that a Black woman could write such refined poetry. Wheatley had to defend herself to prove that she had written her own work, so an authenticating preface, or attestation, was provided at the beginning of her book, signed by a list of prominent white male leaders in Massachusetts, affirming her authorship. Some critics cite Wheatley's successful use of this "defensive" authentication document as the first recognition of African American literature. As a result of the skepticism surrounding her work, 2527:, and George White. William L. Andrews argues that these early narratives "gave the twin themes of the Afro-American 'pregeneric myth'—knowledge and freedom—their earliest narrative form". These spiritual narratives were important predecessors of the slave narratives which proliferated the literary scene of the 19th century. These spiritual narratives have often been left out of the study of African American literature because some scholars have deemed them historical or sociological documents, despite their importance to understanding African American literature as a whole. 2480: 3248: 3381: 2535:, often calling themselves "doers of the word". The study of these women and their spiritual narratives are significant to the understanding of African American life in the Antebellum North because they offer both historical context and literary tropes. Women who wrote these narratives had a clear knowledge of literary genres and biblical narratives. This contributed to advancing their message about African American women's agency and countered the dominant racist and sexist discourse of early American society. 2142: 2033:, and more. African American literature presents experience from an African American point of view. In the early Republic, African American literature represented a way for free blacks to negotiate their identity in an individualized republic. They often tried to exercise their political and social autonomy in the face of resistance from the white public. Thus, an early theme of African American literature was, like other American writings, what it meant to be a citizen in post-Revolutionary America. 4215: 2465:. The narrative details Jacobs' struggle for freedom, not only for herself, but also for her two children. Jacobs' narrative occupies an important place in the history of African American literature as it discloses through her first hand account specific injustices that black women suffered under slavery, especially their sexual harassment and the threat or actual perpetration of rape as a tool of slavery. Harriet Beecher Stowe was asked to write a foreword for Jacob's book, but refused. 9137: 4229: 1748: 2590:. These two narratives were published in 1836 and 1849 respectively. Both works spoke about Lee's life as a preacher for the African Methodist Church. But her narratives were not endorsed by the Methodists because a woman preaching was contrary to their church doctrine. Some critics argue that Lee's contribution to African American literature lies in her disobedience to the patriarchal church system and her assertion of women's rights within the Methodist Church. 2668:. The essays on race were groundbreaking and drew from Du Bois's personal experiences to describe how African Americans lived in rural Georgia and in the larger American society. Du Bois wrote: "The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color-line", a statement since considered prescient. Du Bois believed that African Americans should, because of their common interests, work together to battle prejudice and inequity. He was a professor at 2896: 36: 2647: 3123: 2156:. She was enslaved in Deerfield at the time of the attack, when many residents were killed and more than 100, mostly women and children, were taken on a forced march overland to Montreal. Some were later ransomed and redeemed by their families or community; others were adopted by Mohawk families, and some girls joined a French religious order. The ballad was first published in 1854, with an additional couplet, in 2709:(1911). In contrast to Du Bois, who adopted a more confrontational attitude toward ending racial strife in America, Washington believed that Blacks should first lift themselves up and prove themselves the equal of whites before asking for an end to racism. While this viewpoint was popular among some Blacks (and many whites) at the time, Washington's political views would later fall out of fashion. 2608:. These publications were both spiritual narratives and travel narratives. Similar to Jarena Lee, Prince adhered to the standards of Christian religion by framing her unique travel narrative in a Christian perspective. Yet, her narrative poses a counter narrative to the 19th century's ideal of a demure woman who had no voice in society and little knowledge of the world. 2600:, and was of African and Native American descent. She turned to religion at the age of 16 in an attempt to find comfort from the trials of her life. She married Nero Prince and traveled extensively in the West Indies and Russia. She became a missionary and in 1841 she tried to raise funds for missionary work in the West Indies, publishing a pamphlet entitled 2773:. Brown wrote the first ten chapters of the narrative while studying in France, as a means of satisfying her classmates' curiosity about her father. After returning to America, she discovered that the narrative of her father's life, written by him, and published a few years before, was out of print and thus produced the rest of the chapters that constitute 2737:, was published in 1854 and sold more than 10,000 copies within three years. Harper was often characterized as "a noble Christian woman" and "one of the most scholarly and well-read women of her day", but she was also known as a strong advocate against slavery and the post-Civil War repressive measures against blacks. 2350:, in the early 1980s. He labeled the work fiction and argued that it may be the first novel published by an African American. Parallels between Wilson's narrative and her life have been discovered, leading some scholars to argue that the work should be considered autobiographical. Despite these disagreements, 2083:, said, "My desire has been to allow the black tradition to speak for itself about its nature and various functions, rather than to read it, or analyze it, in terms of literary theories borrowed whole from other traditions, appropriated from without." One trope common to African American literature is " 4088:

argues for the importance of authenticity when it comes to writing stories for young African-American audiences. Mikkelsen tracks the significance of having students exposed to diversity while also maintaining authentic narratives by incorporating stories that not only include characters of color but

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By refuting the claims of the dominant culture, African American writers were also attempting to subvert the literary and power traditions of the United States. Some scholars assert that writing has traditionally been seen as "something defined by the dominant culture as a white male activity." This

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However, for each of those literary works, there were dozens of novels, short stories and poems written by white authors that gained the same or even greater recognition. What is more, there were many literary pieces written by non-English speaking white authors that were translated into the English

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has said, all African American literary study "speaks to the deeper meaning of the African-American presence in this nation. This presence has always been a test case of the nation's claims to freedom, democracy, equality, the inclusiveness of all." African American literature explores the issues of

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Cashmore, Ellis (April 25, 1997). "Profit and oppression: Black culture was long denied recognition. The danger now is that it is being turned into another commodity" [Review of Gates, Henry Louis, Jr; McKay, Nellie Y (eds.), The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, W W Norton].

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argued for greater and more widespread attainment of higher education for African Americans, especially women. Her work attempts to cultivate a sense of educational rigor in African American female intellectuals and the black community in the US would benefit from as a whole. This is to counter the

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experience of Black people in the United States. Even though African Americans have long claimed an American identity, during most of United States history they were not accepted as full citizens and were actively discriminated against. As a result, they were part of America while also outside it.

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in 1846, while still living in England. Her narrative was meant to be an account of her spiritual experience. Yet some critics argue that her work was also meant to be a literary contribution. Elaw aligns herself in a literary tradition of respectable women of her time who were trying to combat the

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crystallized the canon of African American literature as black writers conscripted literature as a means to counter notions of inferiority. During this period, "whether African American writers acquiesced in or kicked against the label, they knew what was at stake in accepting or contesting their

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The Harlem Renaissance marked a turning point for African American literature. Prior to this time, books by African Americans were primarily read by other Black people. With the renaissance, though, African American literature—as well as black fine art and performance art—began to be absorbed into

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wrote accounts of their lives, with about 150 of these published as separate books or pamphlets. Slave narratives can be broadly categorized into three distinct forms: tales of religious redemption, tales to inspire the abolitionist struggle, and tales of progress. The tales written to inspire the

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In the article "Mechanisms of Disease: African-American Women Writers, Social Pathologies, and the Limits of Medicine" (1994), Ann Folwell Stanford argues that novels by African American women writers Toni Cade Bambara, Paule Marshall, and Gloria Naylor offer a feminist critique of the biomedical

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The general consensus view appears to be that American literature is not breaking apart because of new genres such as African-American literature. Instead, American literature is simply reflecting the increasing diversity of the United States and showing more signs of diversity than before in its

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Throughout American history, African Americans have been discriminated against and subject to racist attitudes. This experience inspired some Black writers, at least during the early years of African American literature, to prove they were the equals of European-American authors. As Henry Louis

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born in the North. Free blacks expressed their oppression in a different narrative form. Free blacks in the North often spoke out against enslavement and racial injustices by using the spiritual narrative. The spiritual addressed many of the same themes of enslaved people narratives but has been

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According to Joanne Gabbin, a professor, African American literature exists both inside and outside American literature. "Somehow African-American literature has been relegated to a different level, outside American literature, yet it is an integral part," she says. She bases her theory in the

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While African American literature is well accepted in the United States, there are numerous views on its significance, traditions, and theories. To the genre's supporters, African American literature arose out of the experience of Blacks in the United States, especially with regards to historic

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Similarly, African American literature is within the framework of a larger American literature, but it also is independent. As a result, new styles of storytelling and unique voices have been created in relative isolation. The benefit of this is that these new styles and voices can leave their

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illustrates a unique vampire mythology, tackling notions of racial superiority and gender roles. Authors like Brandon Massey strategically places some of his stories in Gothic southern settings that fuel the fear of his plots. Much like Morrison's haunted house, placing mystery and suspense in

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In broad terms, African American literature can be defined as writings by people of African descent living in the United States. It is highly varied. African American literature has generally focused on the role of African Americans within the larger American society and what it means to be an

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is literature created by American women of African descent. African American women like Phillis Wheatley Peters and Lucy Terry in the 18th century are often cited as the founders of the African American literary tradition. Social issues discussed in the works of African American women include

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on this topic, saying in 1921: "We want everything that is said about us to tell of the best and highest and noblest in us. We insist that our Art and Propaganda be one." He added in 1926, "All Art is propaganda and ever must be, despite the wailing of the purists." Du Bois and the editors of

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movements, African American literature began to be defined and analyzed. A number of scholars and writers are generally credited with helping to promote and define African American literature as a genre during this time period, including fiction writers Toni Morrison and Alice Walker and poet

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A genre of African American literature that developed in the middle of the 19th century is the slave narrative, accounts written by fugitive slaves about their lives in the South and, often, after escaping to freedom. They wanted to describe the cruelties of life under slavery, as well as the

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Beginning in the 1970s, African American literature reached the mainstream as books by Black writers continually achieved best-selling and award-winning status. This was also the time when the work of African American writers began to be accepted by academia as a legitimate genre of American

2072:, which make use of deliberate repetition, cadence, and alliteration. African American literature—especially written poetry, but also prose—has a strong tradition of incorporating all of these forms of oral poetry. These characteristics do not occur in all works by African American writers. 2274:" ("The Mulatto") in 1837. It is the first known work of fiction by an African American, but as it was written in French and published in a French journal, it had apparently no influence on later American literature. Séjour never returned to African American themes in his subsequent works. 3795:

language. These works are widely known across the United States now. It is proof that there is a considerable gap in the literature that is available for US readers. This issue contributes to the problem of racial discrimination fostering the ignorant awareness of the white community.

2747:, she lost her job and found herself reduced to doing odd jobs. Although she acknowledged the cruelties of her enslavement and her resentment towards it, Keckley chose to focus her narrative on the incidents that "moulded her character", and on how she proved herself "worth her salt". 3919:

People opposed to this group-based approach to writing say that it limits the ability of literature to explore the overall human condition. Critics also disagree with classifying writers on the basis of their race, as they believe this is limiting and artists can tackle any subject.

2505:, which was published in 1845. At the time some critics attacked the book, not believing that a black man could have written such an eloquent work. Despite this, the book was an immediate bestseller. Douglass later revised and expanded his autobiography, which was republished as 1867:

Like most writers, African American writers draw on their every day lived experiences for inspiration on material to write about, therefore African American literature was dominated by autobiographical spiritual narratives throughout much of the 19th century. The genre known as

3139:, which made a powerful impression on Black writers during the 1940s, '50s and '60s. Just as Black activists were pushing to end segregation and racism and create a new sense of Black nationalism, so too were Black authors attempting to address these issues with their writings. 4064:, 2014) suggests a different composition for the tradition and argues its contemporary vitality. Her thesis is that legally cognizable racial identities are sustained through constitutional or legislative act, and these nurture the "legal fiction" of African American identity. 4007:

criticized Walker's novel for its negative portrayal of African American men: "I leave it to readers to decide which book pushes harder at the boundaries of convention, and inhabits most confidently the space where fiction and philosophy meet." Walker responded in her essays

2715:(1825–1911) wrote four novels, several volumes of poetry, and numerous stories, poems, essays and letters. Born to free parents in Baltimore, Maryland, Harper received an uncommonly thorough education at her uncle, William Watkins' school. In 1853, publication of Harper's 2634:

After the end of slavery and the American Civil War, a number of African American authors wrote nonfiction works about the condition of African Americans in the United States. Many African American women wrote about the principles of behavior of life during the period.

2307:, who Jefferson owned. (In the late 20th century, DNA testing affirmed that Jefferson was the father of six children with Hemings; four survived to adulthood, and he gave all their freedom.) The novel was first published in England, where Brown lived for several years. 2496:–1895) first came to public attention in the North as an orator for abolition and as the author of a moving slave narrative. He eventually became the most prominent African American of his time and one of the most influential lecturers and authors in American history. 3850:

means that, in American society, literary acceptance has traditionally been intimately tied in with the very power dynamics which perpetrated such evils as racial discrimination. By borrowing from and incorporating the non-written oral traditions and folk life of the

4041:. In order to substantiate this claim, he cites both the societal pressures to create a distinctly black American literature for uplift and the lack of a well formulated essential notion of literary blackness. For this scholar, the late 19th and early 20th centuries 2049:, although scholars distinguish between the two, saying that "African American literature differs from most post-colonial literature in that it is written by members of a minority community who reside within a nation of vast wealth and economic power." 9912: 2436:

abolitionist struggle are the most famous because they tend to have a strong autobiographical motif. Many of them are now recognized as the most literary of all 19th-century writings by African Americans, with two of the best-known being

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wrote many poems throughout her career including, Forest Leaves (1845), Sketches of Southern Life (1891), and Lola Leroy or Shadows Uplifted (1892). Many of her poems were written about alcoholism and its effect on the black community.

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in the United States and other parts of the world. These critics reject bringing identity politics into literature because this would mean that "only women could write about women for women, and only Blacks about Blacks for Blacks."

4895:"William Wells Brown, 1814?-1884: Clotel; or, The President's Daughter: A Narrative of Slave Life in the United States. By William Wells Brown, A Fugitive Slave, Author of 'Three Years in Europe.' With a Sketch of the Author's Life" 3766:

As a matter of fact, the literature industry in the United States including publishing and translation has always been described as predominantly white. Definitely, there were some principal works written by black authors such as

1683: 1570: 2329:, that is, a mixed-race person deciding to identify as white rather than black. It also explored northern racism, in the context of a brutally realistic race riot closely resembling the Philadelphia race riots of 1834 and 1835. 2530:

African American women who wrote spiritual narratives had to negotiate the precarious positions of being black and women in early America. Women claimed their authority to preach and write spiritual narratives by citing the

6202: 3966:. Du Bois thought the novel's frank depictions of sexuality and the nightlife in Harlem appealed only to the "prurient demand" of white readers and publishers looking for portrayals of Black "licentiousness". Du Bois said, 3936:

Some of the criticism of African American literature over the years has come from within the community; some argue that black literature sometimes does not portray black people in a positive light and that it should.

2238:". Writing at the age of 76 after a lifetime of slavery, Hammon said: "If we should ever get to Heaven, we shall find nobody to reproach us for being black, or for being slaves." He also promoted the idea of gradual 3923:

Proponents counter that the exploration of group and ethnic dynamics through writing deepens human understanding and previously, entire groups of people were ignored or neglected by American literature. (Jay, 1997)

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has facilitated publication of African American literature. Founded in 1996 by Memphis Vaughn, TimBookTu has been a pioneer offering an online audience poetry, fiction, essays and other forms of the written word.

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Gates, Jr, has said, "it is fair to describe the subtext of the history of black letters as this urge to refute the claim that because blacks had no written traditions they were bearers of an inferior culture."

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argues that the social imagination of race is expressly constituted in law and is expressively represented through the imaginative composition of literary fictions. As long as US law specifies a black body as

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articulated this view in his essay "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain" (1926). He wrote that Black artists intended to express themselves freely no matter what the Black public or white public thought.

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Since African American literature is already popular with mainstream audiences, its ability to develop new styles and voices—or to remain "authentic," in the words of some critics—may be a thing of the past.

4755: 2981:(1950) is a collection of stories about centering on Simple published in book form. Until his death in 1967, Hughes published nine volumes of poetry, eight books of short stories, two novels and a number of 6803: 2795:(UNIA). He encouraged black nationalism and for people of African ancestry to look favorably upon their ancestral homeland. He wrote a number of essays published as editorials in the UNIA house organ, the 3134:

This migration produced a new sense of independence in the Black community and contributed to the vibrant Black urban culture seen during the Harlem Renaissance. The migration also empowered the growing

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an autobiography published in 1789 that became one of the first influential works about the transatlantic slave trade and the experiences of enslaved Africans. His work was published sixteen years after

8509: 8504: 2729:, brought her national attention. Harper was hired by the Maine Anti-Slavery Society and in the first six weeks, she managed to travel to twenty cities, giving at least thirty-one lectures. Her book 5160: 2743:(1818–1907) was a former slave who managed to establish a successful career as a dressmaker who catered to the Washington political elite after obtaining her freedom. However, soon after publishing 8516: 1555: 6688: 5981: 5914: 2499:

Born into slavery in Maryland, Douglass eventually escaped and worked for numerous abolitionist causes. He also edited a number of newspapers. Douglass's best-known work is his autobiography,

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in 1929. Addressing prejudice between lighter-skinned and darker-skinned Blacks, the novel infuriated many African Americans, who did not like the public airing of their "dirty laundry".

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It is also worth noting that a number of important essays and books about human rights were written by the leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. One of the leading examples of these is

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While Hurston and Hughes are the two most influential writers to come out of the Harlem Renaissance, a number of other writers also became well known during this period. They include

1826:'s work (c. 1753–1784). She was an enslaved African woman who became the first African American to publish a book of poetry, which was published in 1773. Her collection, was titled 1550: 3185:(1940), which tells the story of Bigger Thomas, a Black man struggling for acceptance in Chicago. Baldwin was so impressed by the novel that he titled a collection of his own essays 5194: 203: 3829:

racism and discrimination, and is an attempt to refute the dominant culture's literature and power. In addition, supporters see the literature existing both within and outside

9904: 8192: 4073:," it confers a cognizable legal status onto that body. US fictions use that legal identity to construct narratives — from neo-slave narratives to contemporary novels such as 2501: 849: 4019: 6997: 2457:

was written under the pseudonym "Linda Brent", the autobiography can be traced through a series of letters from Jacobs to various friends and advisors, most importantly to

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Writers' Retreat: Despite the proliferation of Black authors and titles in today's marketplace, many look to literary journals to carry on the torch for the written word"

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Alice Walker is known for her contribution to African American Literature. One of her more famous novels is The Color Purple (1982) which received criticism and praise.

3053:, who in his poems described everyday black life (such as a trip he made to Baltimore that was ruined by a racial insult). Cullen's books include the poetry collections 2839:(1906) provide revealing glimpses into the lives of rural African Americans of the day. Though Dunbar died young, he was a prolific poet, essayist, novelist (among them 1560: 1512: 3887:

being just two artistic examples that developed in isolation within the Black community before reaching a larger audience and eventually revitalizing American culture.

2892:, it was part of a larger flowering of social thought and culture. Numerous Black artists, musicians and others produced classic works in fields from jazz to theater. 1522: 1517: 3970:'Home to Harlem' ... for the most part nauseates me, and after the dirtier parts of its filth I feel distinctly like taking a bath." Others made similar criticism of 3837:

of American literature. In addition, there are some within the African American community who do not like how their own literature sometimes showcases Black people.

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power." In producing their own literature, African Americans were able to establish their own literary traditions devoid of the white intellectual filter. In 1922,

9880: 2381:' style.– Many critics are still attempting to decode its literary significance and establish its contributions to the study of early African American literature. 1813: 2410:" novels in response, purporting to truly describe life under slavery, as well as the more severe cruelties suffered by free labor in the North. Examples include 6048: 2115:." Signifying also refers to the way in which African American "authors read and critique other African-American texts in an act of rhetorical self-definition." 1502: 2453:

Jacobs (1813–1897) was born a slave in Edenton, North Carolina and was the first woman to author a slave narrative in the United States. Although her narrative

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Criticism regarding African American literature in the spaces of education have influenced which stories can and should be taught in schools. Nina Mikkelsen's

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detective novels featuring "Coffin" Ed Johnson and "Gravedigger" Jones, two New York City police detectives. Himes paved the way for the later crime novels of

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in 1988. This story describes a slave who found freedom but killed her infant daughter to save her from a life of slavery. Another important Morrison novel is

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and those who were immigrants from Jamaica and other Caribbean islands. African American writers have been recognized by the highest awards, including the

5152: 2223:. Hammon, considered the first published Black writer in America, published his poem "An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ with Penitential Cries" as a 1507: 184: 3290:

focuses on a poor Black family living in Chicago. The play won the 1959 New York Drama Critics' Circle Award. Another playwright who gained attention was

1497: 1492: 2299:(1853), considered to be the first novel written by an African American. It was based on the persistent (and later confirmed true) rumor that president 1872:

in the 19th century were accounts by people who had generally escaped from slavery, about their journeys to freedom and ways they claimed their lives.

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is the author of the oldest known piece of African American literature, "Bars Fight". Terry wrote the ballad in 1746 after a Native American attack on

4081:– that take constitutional fictions of race and their frames (contracts, property, and evidence) to compose the narratives that cohere the tradition. 3191:, in reference to Wright's novel. However, their friendship fell apart due to one of the book's essays, "Everybody's Protest Novel," which criticized 10861: 8005: 7140: 6685: 5978: 5911: 5724: 4331: 3078: 1938:

included accounts of life in enslavement and the path of justice and redemption to freedom. There was an early distinction between the literature of

1527: 1407: 6775: 5698: 4636: 8499: 6976: 6710: 6631: 2614:(1797–1883) was a leading advocate in both the abolitionist and feminist movements in the 19th century. Born Isabella to a wealthy Dutch master in 2541:

was born in 1790 in America to free parents. She was a preacher for five years in England without the support of a denomination. She published her

6750: 6000: 2564:. Maria Stewart was known for her public speeches in which she talked about the role of black women and race relations. Her works were praised by 10402: 9047: 8287: 5796: 3539: 2235: 2212:

was republished with "several introductory documents designed to authenticate Wheatley and her poetry and to substantiate her literary motives."

723: 2188:. Wheatley was not only the first African American to publish a book, but the first to achieve an international reputation as a writer. Born in 9116: 9091: 4589:

Henry Louis Gates Jr., "The Blackness of Blackness: A Critique of the Sign and the Signifying Monkey", in Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan (eds),

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at a time when neither of these identities was accepted by American culture. In all, Baldwin wrote nearly 20 books, including such classics as

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and her efforts to obtain her freedom. Keckley was also deeply committed to programs of racial improvement and protection and helped found the

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into the field of literature. According to these critics, literature is splitting into distinct and separate groupings because of the rise of

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that allude to the social injustices African Americans have faced in American history. Incorporating these themes with characteristics of the

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Early African American spiritual autobiographies were published in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Authors of such narratives include

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merchant. By the time she was 16, she had mastered her new language of English. Her poetry was praised by many of the leading figures of the

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The West Indies: Being a Description of the Islands, Progress of Christianity, Education, and Liberty Among the Colored Population Generally

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As African Americans' place in American society has changed over the centuries, so has the focus of African American literature. Before the

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wrote that "the great mission of the Negro to America and to the modern world" was to develop "Art and the appreciation of the Beautiful".

1717: 1697: 1457: 949: 934: 421: 53: 6072: 100: 8859: 8631: 1850: 1462: 1442: 17: 5186: 3495:

The 1970s also saw African American books by and about African American life topping the bestseller lists. Among the first to do so was

3238:(1999), was pieced together from the 2,000-plus pages he had written over 40 years. A fuller version of the manuscript was published as 72: 9079: 8023: 8018: 6471:

Stanford, Ann Folwell (1994). "Mechanisms of Disease: African-American Women Writers, Social Pathologies, and the Limits of Medicine".

6180: 6158: 6136: 6109: 2511:(1855). In addition to serving in a number of political posts during his life, he also wrote numerous influential articles and essays. 2196:, Wheatley was captured and sold into slavery at around the age of seven. Kidnapped to Massachusetts, she was purchased and owned by a 1891:

in 1993. Among the themes and issues explored in this literature are the role of African Americans within the larger American society,

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freedom and equality long denied to Blacks in the United States, along with further themes such as African American culture, racism,

1392: 1269: 303: 5187:"The 100 best nonfiction books: No 68 – Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave by Frederick Douglass (1845)" 4762: 10397: 10171: 9086: 8716: 8237: 7459: 7291: 4804: 2406:(1852) by Harriet Beecher Stowe's representing the abolitionist view of the evils of slavery. Southern white writers produced the " 1848:

who was a former enslaved person who became a prominent abolitionist, orator, and writer famous for his autobiographies, including

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tells the story of Celie, a young woman who is sexually abused by her stepfather and then is forced to marry a man who physically

3413:. Morrison herself would later emerge as one of the most important African American writers of the 20th century. Her first novel, 2552:

published a collection of her religious writings with an autobiographical experience attached in 1879. The publication was called

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predates the emergence of the United States as an independent country, and African American literature has similarly deep roots.

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isolation and help revitalize the larger literary world (McKay, 2004). This artistic pattern has held true with many aspects of

10825: 10334: 10155: 10075: 9111: 9106: 9074: 8844: 8748: 8711: 8658: 8492: 6612: 5957: 3337:(1968), a collection of black writings released by a major publisher. This anthology, and Emanuel's work as an educator at the 1397: 1382: 1289: 5589: 2801:

newspaper. Some of his lecture material and other writings were compiled and published as nonfiction books by his second wife

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model of health that reveals the important role of the social (racist, classist, sexist) contexts in which bodies function.

3294:, who wrote controversial off-Broadway plays. In more recent years, Baraka became known for his poetry and music criticism. 10856: 10846: 10554: 9952: 9017: 9002: 8866: 8775: 8770: 8704: 7165: 6197: 2622:. Truth never learned to read or write but in 1850, she worked with Olive Gilbert, a sympathetic white woman, to write the 2543:

Memoirs of the Life, Religious Experience, Ministerial Travel and Labours of Mrs. Zilpha Elaw, an American Female of Colour

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of the 1920s was a great period of flowering in literature and the arts, influenced both by writers who came North in the

1836:

Other prominent writers of the 18th century that helped shape the tone and direction of African American literature were,

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poetry), heavily influenced the birth of the genre. Other influential African American anthologies of this time included

2820: 2683:(1856–1915), who in many ways represented opposite views from Du Bois. Washington was an educator and the founder of the 2293:. He was a prolific writer, beginning with an account of his escape to freedom and experience under slavery. Brown wrote 1339: 1319: 1164: 733: 579: 9312: 3195:

for lacking credible characters and psychological complexity. Among Wright's other books are the autobiographical novel

3015: 68: 10639: 10291: 10163: 9394: 8982: 8876: 8792: 8636: 8417: 8217: 7368: 7346: 6991: 6938: 6214: 5585: 5581: 5323: 5292: 5231: 5065: 4982: 4835: 4038: 3152: 3112: 2431:

The slave narratives were integral to African American literature. Some 6,000 former slaves from North America and the

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Nine Black Women: An Anthology of Nineteenth-Century Writers from the United States, Canada, Bermuda and the Caribbean

4026:

about jazz and music): "There is no such thing as Black literature. There's good literature and bad. And that's all."

3115:, Black people left the racism and lack of opportunities in the American South and settled in northern cities such as 3010:

to novel-length fiction, her writings fell into obscurity for decades. Her work was rediscovered in the 1970s through

2281:, lecturer, novelist, playwright, and historian. Born into slavery in Kentucky, he was working on riverboats based in 10851: 10649: 10584: 10392: 10352: 9129: 7519: 7170: 7019: 6959: 6907: 6725: 6627: 5895: 5874: 5764: 4882: 4510: 4488: 4443: 3806:. At times, she has brought African American writers a far broader audience than they otherwise might have received. 3732:

being just a few of the well-known authors. Many of these novelist take influence from writings like Toni Morrison's

3024:

and later retitled "Looking for Zora". Walker found in Hurston a role model for all female African American writers.

2919: 2884:

from 1920 to 1940 was a flowering of African American literature and art. Based in the African American community of

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Powerful pages: Unprecedented Public Impact of W.W. Norton and Co's Norton Anthology of African American Literature"

2658:(1868–1963), who had a doctorate in philosophy from Harvard University, and was one of the original founders of the 10740: 10484: 10440: 10211: 9057: 9022: 9007: 8765: 8367: 7611: 7581: 7397: 7126: 5696:

Powerful pages—unprecedented public impact of W.W. Norton and Co's Norton Anthology of African American Literature"

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academics and intellectuals argue that African American literature exists as a separate topic only because of the

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James Emanuel took a major step toward defining African American literature when he edited (with Theodore Gross)

3232:

was so influential that it secured his place in literary history. After Ellison's death in 1994, a second novel,

2850:

Other African American writers also rose to prominence in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Among these is

1259: 1126: 944: 871: 7011:

Interracial Encounters: Reciprocal Representations in African American and Asian American literatures, 1896-1937

5886:

Quote from Marjorie Pryse in "The Other Ghost in Beloved: The Specter of the Scarlet Letter" by Jan Stryz, from

5612: 3401:, meanwhile, helped promote Black literature and authors in the 1960s and '70s when she worked as an editor for 10725: 10544: 10424: 8834: 8728: 8643: 8247: 5499: 4577: 4547: 4467: 4397: 4340: 3527: 3240: 1668: 1344: 1294: 57: 4022:, critiqued the idea of African American literature by saying (paraphrasing the comment by the black composer 10272: 10099: 10004: 9888: 9755: 9590: 9167: 8871: 8804: 8787: 8733: 8682: 8621: 8526: 8487: 8427: 8227: 7616: 7596: 7403: 7382: 7090: 5638: 4915:"'Faithfully Drawn from Real Life' Autobiographical Elements in Frank J. Webb's The Garies and Their Friends" 3749: 3583: 3091:(1929), which focused on interracial prejudice between lighter-skinned and darker-skinned African Americans. 3087: 2087:". Gates claims that signifying "is a trope in which are subsumed several other rhetorical tropes, including 1359: 1329: 1314: 1299: 1274: 1254: 876: 510: 377: 3981:

Many African American writers thought their literature should present the full truth about life and people.

2862:

in 1897, a book of poetry on religious, spiritual, and occasionally feminist themes with an introduction by

2362:

is a counter-narrative to the forms of the sentimental novel and mother-centered novel of the 19th century.

10750: 10599: 10432: 10387: 10053: 9744: 9651: 9548: 8694: 8670: 8665: 8648: 8616: 8559: 7672: 7621: 7454: 4185: 4180: 4119: 3458: 2998: 2374: 1387: 1279: 1264: 1249: 1216: 515: 194: 9324: 5721: 4776:. Vol. 126, no. 4331. London, UK: Statesman and Nation Publishing Company, Ltd. pp. 52–53. 3955:

consistently stated that literature was a tool in the struggle for African American political liberation.

3833:

and as helping to revitalize the country's writing. To critics , African American literature is part of a

3179:, whom Baldwin called "the greatest Black writer in the world for me". Wright is best known for his novel 2662:

in 1910. At the turn of the century, Du Bois published a highly influential collection of essays entitled

10686: 10477: 10456: 10203: 9559: 8959: 8951: 8894: 8809: 8297: 8202: 8058: 8040: 7942: 7601: 7296: 7216: 7195: 6862: 5695: 4860:, by Jupiter Hammon, servant of John Lloyd, Jun, Esq; of the manor of Queen's Village, Long-Island. 1778. 4103: 3391: 3302: 3203: 2759:

in Washington, D.C., as a result. In addition to this, Keckley taught at Wilberforce University in Ohio.

2636: 1837: 1610: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1334: 806: 597: 567: 505: 382: 272: 93: 2256:(1817–1874) produced the earliest works of fiction by African American writers. Séjour was born free in 1934:, the literature primarily consisted of memoirs by people who had escaped from enslavement—the genre of 10644: 10619: 10609: 9968: 9749: 9194: 8977: 8914: 8904: 8454: 8212: 8172: 7529: 7223: 6858: 6661:

The Trials of Phillis Wheatley: America's First Black Poet and Her Encounters With the Founding Fathers

6232:"Insiders, Outsiders, and the Question of Authenticity: Who Shall Write for African American Children?" 5997: 4748: 4724:. Vol. 10, no. 45. London, UK: Statesman and Nation Publishing Company, Ltd. pp. 52–53. 3424: 2958: 2823:

of the day, was the first African American poet to gain national prominence. His first book of poetry,

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were a popular venue for essays, poetry and fiction as well as journalism, with newspaper writers like

2597: 1625: 1605: 1108: 1043: 816: 718: 685: 472: 357: 6021: 5788: 2961:" as a young teen. His single, most recognized character is Jesse B. Simple, a plainspoken, pragmatic 10745: 10629: 10594: 10519: 10265: 9928: 9896: 9661: 8886: 8699: 8531: 8092: 7591: 7429: 7236: 6807: 6642: 6426:"Intellectual Activism: The Praxis of Dr. Anna Julia Cooper as a Blueprint for Equity-Based Pedagogy" 4827: 4821: 4086:

Insiders, Outsiders, and the Question of Authenticity: Who Shall Write for African American Children?

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until his death. In the 19th century, his speech was later reprinted by several abolitionist groups.

1580: 1324: 1284: 573: 9439: 6549: 10755: 10589: 9976: 9621: 9160: 8576: 8140: 8053: 7697: 7486: 7301: 7241: 7231: 7157: 5142:, vol. 53, no. 3, 1981, pp. 479–486. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2926234. Retrieved April 25, 2021. 4265: 4250: 3876: 3798:

Finally, African American literature has gained added attention through the work of talk-show host

3758: 3642: 3338: 2153: 2135: 2046: 1892: 1159: 939: 786: 670: 444: 325: 153: 9416: 5578:

The Tar Baby and the Tomahawk: Race and Ethnic Images in American Children's Literature, 1880-1939

3688:

African Americans are also represented in the genres of science fiction, fantasy and horror, with

3505:. A fictionalized account of Haley's family history—beginning with the kidnapping of his ancestor 2777:. Brown was a qualified teacher but she was also extremely active as an advocate against slavery. 2075:

Some scholars resist using Western literary theory to analyze African American literature. As the

10820: 10775: 9846: 9770: 9692: 9575: 9227: 8909: 8459: 8113: 8082: 7862: 7802: 7667: 7410: 6799: 4914: 4286: 4244: 3783: 3705: 3429: 3176: 3162: 3156:, wrote deeply personal stories and essays while examining what it was like to be both Black and 2664: 2626:. This narrative was a contribution to both the slave narrative and female spiritual narratives. 2615: 2412: 1963: 1673: 1615: 1078: 1038: 761: 660: 538: 352: 46: 10709: 10634: 10534: 10529: 10514: 10230: 10147: 9636: 9464: 9347: 9330: 9251: 8824: 8554: 7792: 7586: 7576: 7514: 7324: 7263: 6851: 6342: 6069: 5315: 5309: 4741: 4138: 3958:

Du Bois's belief in the propaganda value of art showed when he clashed in 1928 with the author

3854:, African American literature broke "the mystique of connection between literary authority and 3298: 3143: 2734: 2569: 2417: 2347: 2080: 372: 362: 342: 10810: 5284: 5278: 5223: 5217: 5057: 5050: 2576:

tradition and focus on the specific plight of African Americans in America during the period.

10704: 10179: 10115: 9728: 9702: 9600: 9364: 9299: 9221: 8899: 8412: 8277: 8232: 8048: 7767: 7732: 7551: 7534: 7341: 7258: 7096:

African American Literatures and Cultures Institute of The University of Texas at San Antonio

6843: 4733: 4061: 3674: 3220: 3187: 3136: 2913: 2720: 2425: 2318: 2290: 2185: 1959: 996: 986: 918: 881: 665: 655: 555: 236: 6927: 6674: 6449: 6425: 6175: 6153: 6131: 6106: 3269:. Along with Brooks, other female poets who became well known during the 1950s and '60s are 3037:, a famous collection of stories, poems, and sketches about rural and urban Black life, and 10805: 10735: 10549: 10377: 10367: 10029: 9920: 9813: 9615: 9141: 8549: 8312: 8123: 8075: 7947: 7837: 7742: 7509: 7499: 7471: 7336: 7190: 6084: 5543: 4234: 4070: 4053: 3803: 3773: 3638: 3358: 3066: 2924: 2863: 2816: 2725: 2712: 2680: 2402: 2355: 2354:

is a literary work which speaks to the difficult life of free blacks in the North who were

2322: 2261: 2224: 2017: 1955: 1752: 1204: 449: 241: 174: 7068: 6786:

Scott, Daniel M. III (Fall–Winter 2004). "Harlem Shadows: Re-evaluating Wallace Thurman's

8: 10730: 10696: 10681: 10614: 10571: 10539: 10372: 9984: 9775: 9682: 9564: 9523: 9518: 9411: 8924: 8282: 8197: 7677: 7466: 7356: 7286: 5732: 4772:

Cashmore, Ellis (April 25, 1997). "The Norton Anthology of African-American Literature".

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heritage and shaped it in many countries. It has been created within the larger realm of

1979: 1620: 1098: 1060: 477: 308: 8929: 6870: 3802:, who repeatedly has leveraged her fame to promote literature through the medium of her 1103: 10800: 10664: 10604: 10500: 10326: 9605: 9376: 9275: 8997: 8934: 8677: 8135: 7902: 7882: 7787: 7712: 7539: 7444: 7434: 7422: 7313: 7210: 7185: 6835: 6819: 6531: 6488: 6453: 6445: 6406: 6367: 6318: 6251: 5030: 4955: 4797: 4777: 4458:

Katherine Driscoll Coon, "A Rip in the Tent: Teaching African American Literature", in

4412:

Doers of the Word: African-American Women Speakers and Writers in the North (1830–1880)

4300: 4292: 4004: 3809: 3555: 3453: 3281: 3234: 3168: 3147: 2993: 2949:, and a collection of short stories. In 1926, Hughes published a collection of poetry, 2881: 2875: 2802: 2684: 2669: 2565: 2520: 2483: 2474: 2437: 2285:, when he escaped to Ohio. He began to work for abolitionist causes, making his way to 2021: 1971: 1931: 1876: 1845: 991: 776: 543: 520: 209: 9852: 9257: 6574: 6273: 4894: 3247: 10780: 10624: 10238: 9824: 9708: 9421: 8444: 8165: 7827: 7797: 7392: 7149: 7025: 7015: 6987: 6965: 6955: 6934: 6910: 6903: 6877: 6866: 6827: 6767:

Nishikawa, K. "Crime and Mystery Fiction". Hans Ostrom and J. David Macey, Jr (eds),

6623: 6523: 6480: 6457: 6410: 6359: 6322: 6210: 5891: 5870: 5831:, Vol. 35, No. 1, Transgressing the Borders of "America" (Spring 2010), pp. 184–186. 5760: 5495: 5319: 5288: 5227: 5119: 5061: 4978: 4878: 4831: 4793: 4785: 4725: 4696: 4673: 4573: 4543: 4506: 4484: 4463: 4439: 4415: 4393: 4220: 4168: 4162: 3912: 3753: 3693: 3650: 3587: 3406: 3380: 2885: 2832: 2752: 2740: 2673: 2458: 2286: 2205: 2053: 1975: 1908: 796: 637: 144: 6733:

Haiti and Black Transnationalism: Remapping the Migrant Geography of Home to Harlem"

5954: 5280:

Sisters of the Spirit: Three Black Women's Autobiographies of the Nineteenth Century

5219:

Sisters of the Spirit: Three Black Women's Autobiographies of the Nineteenth Century

3598:

also have been praised for their innovative work. Notable black playwrights include

1176: 10815: 10676: 10668: 10654: 10037: 9792: 9483: 9318: 8600: 8571: 8566: 8464: 8432: 8405: 8130: 7747: 7717: 7707: 7702: 7269: 7110:

Guide to the Alfred Willis Collection of African-American Popular Fiction 1958-2016

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In the African-American Grain: Call and Response in Twentieth-Century Black Fiction

6515: 6437: 6398: 6351: 6310: 6243: 6022:

Haiti and Black Transnationalism: Remapping the Migrant Geography of Home to Harlem

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argues that black American writing, as a literature, began with the institution of

3995: 3859: 3851: 3788: 3721: 3689: 3662: 3613: 3535: 3489: 3477: 3472: 3342: 3280:

During this time, a number of playwrights also came to national attention, notably

3256: 3255:

The Civil Rights time period also saw the rise of female Black poets, most notably

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to Phillis Wheatley, in which he discussed their shared humanity and common bonds.

2220: 2168: 2129: 2042: 1994: 1967: 1951: 1869: 1823: 1171: 1028: 856: 791: 771: 680: 5865:"The Other Ghost in Beloved: The Specter of the Scarlet Letter" by Jan Stryz from 4850: 2927:, this anthology featured the work of the period's most talented poets, including 2479: 2253: 10795: 10408: 10362: 10187: 10139: 10123: 10091: 9960: 9803: 9739: 9671: 9554: 9513: 9470: 9370: 9269: 9183: 8595: 8422: 8332: 8327: 8258:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

8108: 8063: 7917: 7907: 7887: 7872: 7772: 7647: 7637: 7276: 7100: 7009: 6949: 6692: 6441: 6206: 6184: 6162: 6140: 6113: 6094: 6076: 6052: 6028: 6004: 5985: 5961: 5938: 5918: 5836: 5728: 5702: 5678: 5671: 5663: 4921: 4901: 4870: 4857: 4616: 4388:

Jerry W. Ward, Jr., "To Shatter Innocence: Teaching African American Poetry", in

4359: 4270: 4115: 3982: 3971: 3778: 3745: 3626: 3621: 3547: 3438: 3419: 3362: 3082: 2908: 2762: 2693: 2619: 2611: 2390: 2378: 2008: 1935: 1904: 1809: 1199: 1006: 756: 675: 6847: 4737: 2745:

Behind the Scenes; or, Thirty Years as a Slave and Four Years in the White House

2396:

persistent humanity of the slaves as persons. At the time, the controversy over

2332:

The first novel published in the United States by an African American woman was

2141: 1978:. Today, African American literature has become accepted as an integral part of 10790: 9818: 9798: 9785: 9723: 9687: 9610: 9528: 9445: 9382: 9245: 9239: 9032: 8437: 8400: 8390: 8150: 8145: 8087: 7922: 7852: 7782: 7777: 7281: 7205: 6893: 5931: 5746: 4320: 4133: 4023: 3741: 3729: 3709: 3701: 3599: 3575: 3518: 3463: 3384: 3270: 3260: 3050: 3020: 2982: 2933: 2788: 2447: 2333: 2216: 2068:. This oral poetry also appears in the African American tradition of Christian 2030: 2003: 1855: 1658: 1083: 1053: 811: 801: 632: 5818: 5756: 2400:

led to impassioned literature on both sides of the issue, with novels such as

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The Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States

6760:

Nishikawa, K. "African American Critical Theory". Emmanuel S. Nelson (ed.),

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Written By Herself: Literary Production by African American Women, 1746–1892

4118:. African American women's literature can be dated as far back as 1845 with 3228:

in 1953. Even though he did not complete another novel during his lifetime,

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Yellin, Jean Fagan. "Written by Herself: Harriet Jacobs' Slave Narrative."

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was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize in 1994. Cassells is a recipient of the

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back to the attention of the literary world. In 1982, Walker won both the

10021: 9765: 9713: 9533: 9476: 9281: 9233: 8322: 8307: 8155: 8118: 7957: 7912: 7897: 7662: 7657: 7504: 7080: 6998:"Seeds of Rebellion in Plantation Fiction: Victor Séjour's 'The Mulatto'" 6387:""In Service for the Common Good": Anna Julia Cooper and Adult Education" 5821:

Writing the Future of Black America: Literature of the Hip-Hop Generation

5116:

Expression of Self Emancipation: A Study of Black Women's Autobiographies

3855: 3717: 3654: 3506: 3434: 3374: 3366: 3350: 3322: 3265: 3104: 3046: 3028: 2797: 2538: 2365:

Another recently discovered work of early African American literature is

2265: 2257: 2243: 1907:. African-American writing has tended to incorporate oral forms, such as 1884: 1377: 1033: 886: 766: 550: 6371: 5996:, College of Education, Cal State San Bernardino; Stephanie Y. Mitchem, 5052:

In Search of Hannah Crafts: Critical Essays on The Bondwoman's Narrative

4637:"Brief History of African-American Literature. Part 1. Slave Narratives" 2342:(1859). It expressed the difficulties of lives of northern free Blacks. 10246: 10195: 10131: 9858: 9733: 9646: 9630: 9538: 9287: 7857: 7842: 7812: 7807: 7556: 7524: 7363: 7331: 6839: 6535: 6492: 6402: 6314: 6255: 5034: 4959: 4939: 4668: 4651: 4098: 3946: 3865: 3609: 3522: 3510: 3502: 3410: 3181: 3119:, where they found work in factories and other sectors of the economy. 2579: 2193: 2149: 2112: 2096: 2012:

by Toni Morrison achieving both best-selling and award-winning status.

1989: 1943: 1805: 482: 221: 8193:

Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)

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Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England

4570:

The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African American Literary Criticism

4503:

Beyond Douglass: New Perspectives on Early African-American Literature

3665:, to name a few. African American literature has also crossed over to 3605:

For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide When the Rainbow Is Enuf

2895: 2793:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League

1950:

At the turn of the 20th century, non-fiction works by authors such as

10469: 8471: 8317: 7822: 7606: 7544: 7439: 7113: 7105:

Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress

6902:"Negro Tales from Pine Bluff, Arkansas, and Calvin, Michigan", 1958. 6704:

Historical Research and Narrative of Chicago and the Great Migration"

6355: 5745:

Weinauer, Ellen (November 23, 2017). "Race and the American Gothic".

5722:

James A. Emanuel: A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress

4652:"Liberation Technology: Black Printed Protest in the Age of Franklin" 4255: 3658: 3567: 3441:, and brotherhood. Morrison is the first African American to win the 3197: 2787:(1887–1940), was a newspaper publisher, journalist, and activist for 2432: 2104: 1707: 1048: 781: 560: 387: 7118: 6815: 6519: 6247: 5026: 4951: 2807:

Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey Or, Africa for the Africans

35: 10013: 9697: 9655: 9152: 8944: 8939: 8449: 7104: 6744:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, Second Edition

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of literature over the last few decades, or as an extension of the

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as a way to end slavery. Hammon is thought to have been a slave on

2092: 2088: 2026: 1939: 1093: 1018: 1011: 8208:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

3756:'s have begun to gain literary honor and critique. Butler's work, 2646: 2041:

African American literature has both been influenced by the great

10083: 7561: 6550:"Frances Ellen Watkins Harper House (U.S. National Park Service)" 5157:

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

4938:

O'Meally, Robert; Wilson, Harriet E.; Gates, Henry Louis (1984).

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Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States

5670:, Houghton Mifflin Co. Retrieved July 6, 2005. James Grossman, " 2965:

whose comedic observations appeared in Hughes's columns for the

1958:

debated how to confront racism in the United States. During the

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has become popular recently in the African American community.

2962: 2572:. Stewart's works have been argued to be a refashioning of the 2295: 2264:) and moved to France at the age of 19. There he published his 2197: 2069: 1912: 1896: 1088: 9905:

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave

7085: 6899:"Negro Folktales in Michigan", Harvard University Press, 1956. 5013:

Stern, Julia (September 1995). "Excavating Genre in Our Nig".

4869:

Victor Séjour, Philip Barnard (translator). "The Mulatto." In

2502:

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave

1851:

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave

8207: 7095: 7048: 6762:

The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Multiethnic American Literature

6632:

Review of the Norton Anthology of African American Literature

5827: 4020:

Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress

3941: 2917:

in 1921. He first received attention in the 1922 publication

2659: 2100: 2061: 1920: 1808:

produced in the United States by writers of African descent.

861: 3620:, who won two Pulitzer Prizes for his plays. More recently, 8252: 4695:. New York: Oxford University Press. Kindle Location 1289. 4481:

Burnin' Down the House: Home in African American Literature

4436:

The Columbia Guide to Contemporary African American Fiction

3880: 2907:

Among the most renowned writers of the renaissance is poet

2854:, a well-known short story writer, novelist, and essayist. 2791:

who became well known in the United States. He founded the

2765:(born 1839), the youngest child of abolitionist and author 2629: 2556:. She also had two works published in 1831 and 1832 titled 2303:

had fathered a mixed-race daughter with the enslaved woman

2052:

African American oral culture is rich in poetry, including

891: 6948:

Graham, Maryemma; Ward, Jr., Jerry W., eds. (March 2011).

4540:

English Postcoloniality: Literatures from Around the World

1840:(1796–1830) An abolitionist and writer best known for his 7114:

University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center

6984:

The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Literature

6769:

The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Literature

6654:

Teaching African American Literature: Theory and Practice

4621: 3840: 3417:, was published in 1970. Among her most famous novels is 3002:(1937). Although Hurston wrote 14 books that ranged from 2228: 9881:

The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano

4438:, New York: Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 10-11, 3371:

We Speak As Liberators: Young Black Poets — An Anthology

2827:, was published in 1893. Much of Dunbar's work, such as 2606:

A Narrative of the Life and Travels of Mrs. Nancy Prince

2373:

between 1853 and 1860. Crafts was a fugitive slave from

2029:, enslavement, a sense of home, segregation, migration, 1815:

The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano

6299:"Black Feminist Studies: The Case of Anna Julia Cooper" 6199:

Legal Fictions: Constituting Race, Composing Literature

5584:, in conjunction with the Center for the Humanities at 5580:. Center for Digital Research in the Humanities at the 4937: 4058:

Legal Fictions: Constituting Race, Composing Literature

3894: 3558:. African American poets have also garnered attention. 2325:. It was the first African American fiction to portray 6771:. 5 vols. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005. 360–67. 5731:, prepared by T. Michael Womack, Manuscript Division, 4092: 3999:(1982). In his updated 1995 introduction to his novel 2992:

Another notable writer of the renaissance is novelist

6764:. 5 vols. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005. 36–41. 4714: 4712: 3763:

antebellum style houses is strategic to their craft.

3590:

won the 2007 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry with her book

2582:

published two religious autobiographical narratives:

6951:

The Cambridge History of African American Literature

6697:

Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism

5941:", James Madison University. Retrieved July 6, 2005. 5888:

The New Romanticism: a collection of critical essays

5867:

The New Romanticism: a collection of critical essays

5481:, University Press of Mississippi, January 1, 2007. 5118:. North Carolina: Lulu Publication. pp. 34–35. 4505:. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press. p. 69. 4210: 3866:

Existing both inside and outside American literature

3353:(now known as Amiri Baraka) and Larry Neal in 1968; 3341:(where he is credited with introducing the study of 3103:

A large migration of African Americans began during

3049:

Black family. Another popular renaissance writer is

2654:

Among the most prominent of post-slavery writers is

2123: 7043: 6929:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

6792:

MELUS: Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States

6652:Davis, M., M. Graham, and S. Pineault-Burke (eds). 6602:

The Oxford Companion to African American Literature

6046:

Black and Gay? A Painter Explores Historical Roots"

5990:

Johns Hopkins Guide Literary Theory & Criticism

5529:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

5514:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

5479:

Jennie Carter: A Black Journalist of the Early West

5447:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

4875:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

4823:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

3630:(2003), his novel about a black slaveholder in the 3259:, who became the first African American to win the 2588:

Religious Experience and Journal of Mrs. Jarena Lee

1947:largely ignored in current scholarly conversation. 1684:

Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers

60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 10449:Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery 7069:African American Women Writers of the 19th Century 6926: 6506:Christian, Barbara (1988). "The Race for Theory". 5049: 4851:An address to the Negroes in the state of New-York 4709: 4365:Timeline of African American children's literature 2317:, was also published in England, with prefaces by 27:Body of literature by Americans of African descent 7062:A Brief Chronology of African American Literature 6979:, Cambridge University Press - a 17 volume series 6883:Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2011. 5459: 5314:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 5283:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 5222:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 4649: 3513:through his life as a slave in the United States— 3347:Black Fire: An Anthology of Afro-American Writing 3263:when it was awarded for her 1949 book of poetry, 2771:Biography of an American Bondman, By His Daughter 2554:Meditations from the Pen of Mrs. Maria W. Stewart 10838: 8243:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 6622:, University of Illinois Press, reprinted 2001. 5735:, Washington, D.C., 2000. Retrieved May 6, 2006. 5465:Her Prologue: The Novels of Black American Women 4414:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 4. 3534:Other important writers in recent years include 2831:(1906), which includes photographs taken by the 2751:details Keckley's life in slavery, her work for 10403:List of last surviving American enslaved people 8288:Black players in professional American football 8238:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 6986:. 5 vols. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005. 6947: 6607:Brodhead, R. "An Anatomy of Multiculturalism". 6338:"Review: Daughters of Africa by Margaret Busby" 4174: 2733:, a collection of poems and essays prefaced by 2650:Portrait of W.E.B. DuBois, photographed in 1918 2584:The Life and Religious Experience of Jarena Lee 2236:Address to the Negroes of the State of New York 9993:Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo" 7055:American Slave Narratives: An Online Anthology 5751:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–98. 5639:"9 Fascinating Facts About Zora Neale Hurston" 5153:"The Slave Route: Who was Frederick Douglass?" 4926:Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 4542:, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1996, p. 135, 4171:discusses the issue of "minority disclosure". 3673:, who in the 1950s and '60s wrote a series of 3488:her. The novel was later made into a film by 2181:Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral 1842:Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World ( 1829:Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral 411:Education of freed people during the Civil War 10485: 9168: 7134: 6675:I hate that (The rise of identity journalism) 6126: 6124: 6122: 5906: 5904: 5861: 5859: 5709:, September 18, 1997. Retrieved July 6, 2005. 5604: 5113: 4483:, New York: Columbia University Press, 2005, 3993:of unfairly attacking black men in her novel 3931: 3321:, which was inspired by the Civil Rights and 2811:More Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey 2036: 1812:(c. 1745–1797) was an African man who wrote 1782: 8001:Historically black colleges and universities 6982:Ostrom, Hans and Macey, J. David, Jr. (eds) 6724:. Cornell University Press, 1997. Excerpted 6296: 5968:, no. 7 (Fall 1996). Retrieved July 6, 2005. 4010:The Same River Twice: Honoring the Difficult 3624:won the 2004 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for 3574:of the United States from 1993 to 1995, and 3405:, where she edited books by such authors as 3098: 2558:Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality 422:Historically black colleges and universities 6600:Andrews, W., F. Foster and T. Harris (eds). 5949: 5947: 5337: 5335: 4691:Adams, Catherine; Pleck, Elizabeth (2010). 3769:Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass 3637:Younger African American novelists include 3214:The other great novelist of this period is 3150:. Baldwin, who is best known for his novel 3088:Thinterracial heerry: A Novel of Negro Life 2679:Another prominent author of this period is 406:Education during the slave period in the US 10492: 10478: 9175: 9161: 7141: 7127: 6572: 6119: 5901: 5856: 5748:The Cambridge Companion to American Gothic 5668:The Reader's Companion to American History 4690: 4559:Ward, Jr., "To Shatter Innocence", p. 146. 4454: 4452: 4392:, ed. M. Graham, Routledge, 1998, p. 146, 3791:that were translated into many languages. 3335:Dark Symphony: Negro Literature in America 3146:, whose work addressed issues of race and 2691:in Alabama. Among his published works are 2643:(1830–1881) developing a large following. 2277:Brown, on the other hand, was a prominent 2215:Another early African American author was 1789: 1775: 729:National Black Caucus of State Legislators 10417:Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book 8218:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC) 6977:African American Literature in Transition 6505: 6297:Guy-Sheftall, Beverly (October 7, 2021). 6229: 4667: 4593:, 2nd edn, Wiley-Blackwell, 2004, p. 988. 4462:, ed. M. Graham, Routledge, 1998, p. 32, 3480:(a book written in the form of letters), 185:Slavery in the colonial history of the US 120:Learn how and when to remove this message 10862:American literature by ethnic background 10398:Treatment of slaves in the United States 10172:Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade 9486:(1766 Saint-Dominque – June 30, 1853 NY) 6722:American Literature and the Culture Wars 6470: 5944: 5744: 5717: 5715: 5685:3, no. 2 (1996). Retrieved July 6, 2005. 5332: 4997: 4972: 4907: 4771: 4718: 4602:Gates, "The Blackness of Blackness", in 4409: 3379: 3246: 3121: 2894: 2645: 2630:Reconstruction Era Literary Contributors 2478: 2140: 6384: 5912:"African-American Theory and Criticism" 5789:"Why Translating Black Writers Matters" 5276: 5215: 5197:from the original on September 22, 2018 4500: 4449: 4354:The Journal of African American History 4147: 2514: 2128:African American literature began with 14: 10839: 10499: 10335:Frederick Douglass and the White Negro 10156:Queen: The Story of an American Family 10076:Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp 9117:Topics related to the African diaspora 8223:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) 6684:Groden, M., and M. Krieswirth (eds). " 6335: 5979:African-American Theory and Criticism" 5610: 5541: 5429: 5341: 5307: 5181: 4863: 3928:history (Andrews, 1997; McKay, 2004). 3841:Refuting the dominant literary culture 3142:One of the first writers to do so was 3081:, earned him critical acclaim. Author 10473: 10108:Roots: The Saga of an American Family 9937:Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 9373:(c. 1745 Nigeria – 31 March 1797 Eng) 9156: 9097:Landmark African-American legislation 7148: 7122: 7044:African American Literature Book Club 6924: 6881:What Was African American Literature? 6785: 6686:African-American Theory and Criticism 6267: 6265: 6225: 6223: 6177:What Was African American Literature? 6155:What Was African American Literature? 6133:What Was African American Literature? 5955:"On the Debate Over Multiculturalism" 5712: 5592:from the original on October 11, 2015 5526: 5511: 5444: 5163:from the original on November 8, 2018 5109: 5107: 5095: 5080: 5047: 5012: 4819: 4031:What Was African American Literature? 3738:Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 3498:Roots: The Saga of an American Family 3175:Baldwin's idol and friend was author 2869: 2757:Home for Destitute Women and Children 2719:, which was one of many responses to 2468: 2455:Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 2443:Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 1985:Roots: The Saga of an American Family 1861:Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 927:Athletic associations and conferences 416:History of African-American education 9953:Life and Times of Frederick Douglass 9448:(1783 England – 1821 United States) 9182: 8228:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) 6423: 6035:, Fall 2000. Retrieved July 6, 2005. 5786: 5611:Miller, Monica (December 17, 2012). 5542:Dunbar, Paul Laurence (2000-07-14). 5414: 5399: 5371: 5356: 5261: 5246: 5056:. New York: Basic Civitas. pp. 4977:. New York: Routledge. p. 118. 4460:Teaching African American Literature 4390:Teaching African American Literature 4156: 4128: 3989:More recently, some critics accused 3895:Balkanization of American literature 2911:, whose first work was published in 2346:was rediscovered and republished by 2296:Clotel; or, The President's Daughter 850:Association for the Study of African 58:adding citations to reliable sources 29: 8582:African-American Vernacular English 7007: 6746:. W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. 4093:African American women's literature 3570:won a Pulitzer Prize and served as 3085:also made an impact with his novel 2931:, who also published three novels, 2769:, wrote a biography of her father, 2384: 2227:in early 1761. In 1778 he wrote an 1664:Race and ethnicity in the US census 1165:African-American Vernacular English 734:National Conference of Black Mayors 24: 10292:The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom 10164:Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons 9442:(c. 1710 Portugal – 1734 Montreal) 9395:Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioacchino 8500:U.S. cities with large populations 8203:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 6887: 6262: 6220: 5799:from the original on June 26, 2020 5586:Washington University in St. Louis 5104: 4572:, New York: Oxford, 1988, p. xix, 3452:wrote a famous essay that brought 2219:(1711–1806?), a domestic slave in 867:National Black Chamber of Commerce 25: 10873: 10393:Songs of the Underground Railroad 10353:Abolitionism in the United States 9861:(c. 1795 Nigeria – ? Brazil) 9492:(c. 1819 – ???, Puerto Rico) 7373:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013 7369:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 7176:African American founding fathers 7037: 6919:"American Negro Folktales", 1967. 6573:Foundation, Poetry (2023-11-27). 6385:Johnson, Karen (9 October 2021). 6271: 5672:Chicago and the 'Great Migration' 4904:. Documenting the American South. 4826:. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 4538:Radhika Mohanram and Gita Rajan, 3580:Soul Make a Path through Shouting 3308: 2920:The Book of American Negro Poetry 2899:Langston Hughes, photographed by 2124:Early African American literature 1571:Places by plurality of population 237:Civil rights movement (1954–1968) 227:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 180:Abolitionism in the United States 10441:Slave Songs of the United States 9945:The Underground Railroad Records 9855:(? Puerto Rico – 1555 Venezuela) 9135: 8253:United Negro College Fund (UNCF) 7398:Nadir of American race relations 6780:Black Issues in Higher Education 6715:Black Issues in Higher Education 5707:Black Issues in Higher Education 4327:List of African American writers 4227: 4213: 3521:and became a popular television 3448:In the 1970s, novelist and poet 3126:Richard Wright, photographed by 3107:, hitting its high point during 2847:, 1901) and short story writer. 2819:, who often wrote in the rural, 2775:Biography of an American Bondman 2699:The Future of the American Negro 2604:. Later, in 1850, she published 2546:immoral literature of the time. 2162:History of Western Massachusetts 2160:and in 1855 in Josiah Holland's 1746: 268:Black Belt in the American South 34: 9821:(19th century Indian Territory) 9795:(1766 Saint-Dominque – 1853 NY) 7259:Civil rights movement 1954–1968 7249:Civil rights movement 1865–1896 7081:North American Slave Narratives 6742:McKay, N., and H. Gates (eds). 6566: 6542: 6499: 6464: 6417: 6378: 6329: 6290: 6209:, Duke University Press, 2014. 6190: 6168: 6146: 6143:Harvard University Press, 2011. 6100: 6062: 6038: 6014: 5998:"No longer nailed to the floor" 5971: 5924: 5880: 5842: 5811: 5780: 5738: 5688: 5649: 5631: 5566: 5554:from the original on 2018-12-02 5535: 5520: 5505: 5484: 5471: 5453: 5438: 5423: 5408: 5393: 5380: 5365: 5350: 5301: 5270: 5255: 5240: 5209: 5175: 5145: 5132: 5089: 5074: 5041: 5006: 4991: 4966: 4931: 4888: 4844: 4813: 4684: 4643: 4629: 4609: 4596: 4583: 4562: 4192: 4141:: By a Black Woman of the South 3016:In Search of Zora Neale Hurston 2780:Although not a US citizen, the 2731:Poems on Miscellaneous Subjects 872:National Council of Negro Women 45:needs additional citations for 10425:Slave-Trading in the Old South 9479:(c. 1788 Bermuda – after 1833) 8248:Thurgood Marshall College Fund 7254:Civil right movement 1896–1954 6954:. Cambridge University Press. 6751:No Longer Nailed to the Floor" 6274:"Frances Ellen Watkins Harper" 5787:Carr, Michael (10 June 2020). 5582:University of Nebraska–Lincoln 5308:Foster, Frances Smith (1993). 5114:Arvind Tupere, Bharat (2020). 4877:Second edition, Norton, 2004. 4553: 4532: 4519: 4494: 4473: 4428: 4403: 4382: 4341:Mythology of Benjamin Banneker 4120:Frances Ellen Watkins Harper's 3940:W. E. B. Du Bois wrote in the 3771:(1845) by Frederick Douglass, 3528:The Autobiography of Malcolm X 3241:Three Days Before the Shooting 2996:, author of the classic novel 2145:Phillis Wheatley (c.1753–1784) 1858:, an enslaved woman who wrote 1669:Racism against Black Americans 13: 1: 10100:The Confessions of Nat Turner 10065: 10058: 9889:The Narrative of Robert Adams 9303: 8428:Cherokee freedmen controversy 7404:The Negro Motorist Green Book 7014:. New York University Press. 6594: 6336:Bruner, Charlotte H. (1994). 4740:(accession number 03258059); 4591:Literary Theory: An Anthology 4136:in her book from 1892 titled 4018:, the first African American 3594:. Lesser-known poets such as 3584:William Carlos Williams Award 3095:mainstream American culture. 2490: 2172: 877:National Pan-Hellenic Council 69:"African-American literature" 10433:Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon 10388:Slavery in the United States 9745:Greensbury Washington Offley 6450:10.5406/femteacher.23.3.0211 6442:10.5406/femteacher.23.3.0211 6272:Poets, Academy of American. 6116:. Retrieved August 25, 2005. 6081:Contemporary Black Biography 5494:Penguin Books, 1996, p. 10, 4186:Frances Ellen Watkins Harper 4181:Frances Ellen Watkins Harper 4175:Frances Ellen Watkins Harper 3962:over his best-selling novel 3879:over the last century, with 3823: 3669:. A pioneer in this area is 3459:Their Eyes Were Watching God 3063:The Ballad of the Brown Girl 2999:Their Eyes Were Watching God 2624:Narrative of Sojourner Truth 2375:Murfreesboro, North Carolina 2315:The Garies and Their Friends 2184:in 1773, three years before 1802:African American literature 1679:School segregation in the US 1217:Black American Sign Language 1191:Languages and other dialects 7: 10857:African-American mass media 10847:African-American literature 10457:The Hemingses of Monticello 10358:African-American literature 8298:Black players in ice hockey 8233:National Urban League (NUL) 8059:American Society of Muslims 7297:Selma to Montgomery marches 7217:Brown v. Board of Education 6925:Gates, Henry Louis (1997). 6668:African American Literature 6666:Gilyard, K., and A. Wardi. 6663:, Basic Civitas Books, 2003 6070:"Biography of Alice Walker" 5890:by Eberhard Alsen, p. 140, 5869:by Eberhard Alsen, p. 140, 5445:Gates, Henry Louis (1997). 5048:Gates, Henry Louis (2004). 4873:, Henry Louis Gates (eds), 4820:Gates, Henry Louis (1997). 4764:New Statesman & Society 4722:New Statesman & Society 4206: 4052:In an alternative reading, 4037:legislation and ended with 3392:West Point Military Academy 3303:Letter from Birmingham Jail 3218:, best known for his novel 2637:African-American newspapers 506:African-American businesses 18:African American literature 10: 10878: 10826:Women's writing in English 10273:A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin 9379:(c. 1705 Bornu – 1775 Eng) 9195:Slave Narrative Collection 8455:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 8213:Nashville Student Movement 7224:Children of the plantation 7101:African American Pamphlets 7077:, Mr. Africa Poetry Lounge 6112:November 11, 2004, at the 6107:Biography of Robert Hayden 6083:1; Jen Crispin, review of 6003:September 6, 2004, at the 5937:February 22, 2005, at the 5677:September 3, 2006, at the 5613:"Archaeology of a Classic" 5098:In Search of Hannah Crafts 5083:In Search of Hannah Crafts 4856:November 28, 2009, at the 4650:Richard S. Newman (2009). 4196: 4178: 4160: 3932:African American criticism 3425:Pulitzer Prize for Fiction 3153:Go Tell It on the Mountain 2959:The Negro Speaks of Rivers 2873: 2689:historically black college 2598:Newburyport, Massachusetts 2472: 2388: 2234:In 1786, Hammon gave his " 2178:–1784) published her book 2158:The Springfield Republican 2118: 2037:Characteristics and themes 1044:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 719:Congressional Black Caucus 686:African Diaspora Religions 473:Martin Luther King Jr. Day 10768: 10718: 10695: 10663: 10570: 10563: 10507: 10345: 10318: 10283: 10266:To a Southern Slaveholder 10257: 10222: 10054:The Bondwoman's Narrative 10003: 9929:My Bondage and My Freedom 9913:The Life of Josiah Henson 9897:American Slavery as It Is 9872: 9839: 9499: 9455: 9430: 9404: 9357: 9340: 9325:Andreas Matthäus Wolfgang 9214: 9203: 9190: 9125: 9092:Index of related articles 8970: 8885: 8609: 8542: 8480: 8380: 8341: 8273: 8266: 8181: 8101: 8093:Doctrine of Father Divine 8039: 7981: 7630: 7485: 7477:Women's suffrage movement 7430:Reconstruction Amendments 7237:Voting Rights Act of 1965 7156: 6933:. New York: W.W. Norton. 6808:University of Connecticut 6413:– via Project Muse. 6325:– via Project Muse. 6097:. Retrieved July 6, 2005. 6093:February 7, 2005, at the 5977:Theodore O. Mason, Jr., " 5921:. Retrieved July 6, 2005. 5757:10.1017/9781316337998.007 5277:Andrews, William (1986). 5216:Andrews, William (1986). 4920:February 4, 2019, at the 4900:October 28, 2012, at the 4756:nsts000020011007dt4p000dd 4501:Drexler, Michael (2008). 4097:African American women's 3815:In the 21st century, the 3443:Nobel Prize in Literature 3099:Civil Rights Movement era 2508:My Bondage and My Freedom 2461:, the eventual editor of 2422:The Sword and the Distaff 2367:The Bondwoman's Narrative 2210:Poems on Various Subjects 1551:US states and territories 852:American Life and History 574:Lift Every Voice and Sing 283:Treatment of the enslaved 10852:African-American culture 10212:The Underground Railroad 9977:The Peculiar Institution 9622:Sarah Jane Woodson Early 9142:United States portal 8577:African-American English 8006:Inventors and scientists 7698:George Washington Carver 7302:Chicago Freedom Movement 7086:Black Writers Conference 7075:"Famous Writers Section" 6611:, April 1994. Excerpted 6230:Mikkelsen, Nina (1998). 6205:August 30, 2020, at the 5683:Illinois History Teacher 5492:The Souls of Black Folk, 4998:Ferguson, Moira (1998). 4973:Ferguson, Moira (1998). 4568:Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 4479:Valerie Sweeney Prince, 4410:Peterson, Carla (1995). 4376: 4266:African American history 4251:Black sermonic tradition 3877:African American culture 3643:Karen E. Quinones Miller 3339:City College of New York 3251:Ralph Ellison circa 1961 3045:examined the life of an 2947:Harlem: Negro Metropolis 2154:Deerfield, Massachusetts 2136:African American history 2047:post-colonial literature 1893:African American culture 1753:United States portal 1160:African-American English 671:African-American Muslims 232:Jim Crow era (1896–1954) 10821:Postcolonial literature 10776:Anglo-Norman literature 10383:Films featuring slavery 9847:Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua 9771:William Henry Singleton 9576:Ellen and William Craft 9065:African-American firsts 8114:Back-to-Africa movement 8083:Black Hebrew Israelites 7863:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 7411:Partus sequitur ventrem 7091:BlackAuthorsConnect.com 6800:Oxford University Press 6737:African American Review 6643:An Imaginary 'Scandal'" 6391:African American Review 6303:African American Review 6236:African American Review 6051:April 27, 2006, at the 6033:African American Review 5960:March 17, 2005, at the 5701:March 30, 2005, at the 4287:Baltimore Afro-American 4245:African American Review 3784:The Souls of Black Folk 3075:I am the American Negro 2953:, and in 1930 a novel, 2703:Tuskegee and Its People 2665:The Souls of Black Folk 2616:Ulster County, New York 2369:, which was written by 1674:Reparations for slavery 762:Back-to-Africa movement 661:Black Hebrew Israelites 539:African-American beauty 10585:American Sign Language 10231:Amos Fortune, Free Man 9465:Juan Francisco Manzano 9440:Marie-Joseph Angélique 9348:Brigitta Scherzenfeldt 9331:Johann Georg Wolffgang 9313:Guðríður Símonardóttir 9252:James Leander Cathcart 9033:Spingarn Medal winners 8522:States and territories 8293:Black NFL quarterbacks 7793:Martin Luther King Jr. 7325:Dred Scott v. Sandford 7264:Montgomery bus boycott 7008:Lee, Julia H. (2011). 6865:Record Number 95366). 6343:World Literature Today 6196:Karla F. C. Holloway, 6075:July 20, 2005, at the 6044:Frederick B. Hudson, " 6027:July 16, 2012, at the 5835:July 25, 2020, at the 5727:June 25, 2017, at the 5544:"Paul Laurence Dunbar" 4928:137.3 (2013): 261–300. 4656:Early American Studies 4139:A Voice from the South 4079:The Man in My Basement 3456:and her classic novel 3395: 3377:and published in 1970. 3317:As part of the larger 3299:Martin Luther King Jr. 3252: 3224:(1952), which won the 3131: 3069:'s poetry collections 2979:Simple Speaks His Mind 2904: 2735:William Lloyd Garrison 2651: 2570:William Lloyd Garrison 2486: 2418:Mary Henderson Eastman 2348:Henry Louis Gates, Jr. 2146: 2081:Henry Louis Gates, Jr. 1970:wrote about issues of 1942:and the literature of 1144:Dialects and languages 304:Second Great Migration 10180:Walk Through Darkness 10116:Underground to Canada 9729:Jermain Wesley Loguen 9674:(1848/1854 VA – 1957) 9601:Ayuba Suleiman Diallo 9417:Konstantin Mihailović 9365:Lovisa von Burghausen 8343:Athletic associations 8278:Negro league baseball 8049:African-American Jews 7768:Ketanji Brown Jackson 7733:Henry Highland Garnet 7592:Negro National Anthem 7342:George Floyd protests 7307:Post–civil rights era 6788:The Blacker the Berry 6782:, September 18, 1997. 6183:May 16, 2013, at the 6161:May 16, 2013, at the 6068:Michael E. Muellero, 6057:The Black World Today 5984:May 15, 2005, at the 5953:Richard H. Brodhead, 5917:May 15, 2005, at the 4434:Darryl Dickson-Carr, 4062:Duke University Press 3976:The Blacker the Berry 3752:genres, stories like 3383: 3250: 3188:Notes of a Native Son 3137:Civil Rights Movement 3125: 3077:(1937), published by 2898: 2721:Harriet Beecher Stowe 2649: 2596:was born in 1799, in 2482: 2440:'s autobiography and 2426:William Gilmore Simms 2319:Harriet Beecher Stowe 2291:Boston, Massachusetts 2186:American independence 2144: 1982:, with books such as 1960:Civil Rights Movement 1556:US metropolitan areas 1383:List of neighborhoods 997:Alabama Creole people 987:African-American Jews 919:Negro league baseball 882:National Urban League 834:Civic/economic groups 666:African-American Jews 556:African-American hair 418:, after the Civil War 247:Post–civil rights era 10806:Great American Novel 10525:Early English Jewish 10378:Caribbean literature 10368:Atlantic slave trade 9921:Twelve Years a Slave 9814:Booker T. Washington 9616:Jordan Winston Early 8550:Afro-Seminole Creole 8076:Azusa Street Revival 7948:Booker T. Washington 7472:Underground Railroad 7337:Free people of color 7191:Atlantic slave trade 6861:(Update Code 20041, 6609:Yale Alumni Magazine 5574:"The Brownies' Book" 5548:Paul Laurence Dunbar 4336:Best Selling Authors 4235:United States portal 4148:Ann Folwell Stanford 4071:discrete and insular 4054:Karla F. C. Holloway 3774:Twelve Years a Slave 3736:and Harriet Jacobs, 3639:David Anthony Durham 3538:writers Gayl Jones, 3067:Frank Marshall Davis 2955:Not Without Laughter 2925:James Weldon Johnson 2864:Booker T. Washington 2817:Paul Laurence Dunbar 2713:Frances E. W. Harper 2681:Booker T. Washington 2515:Spiritual narratives 2489:Frederick Douglass ( 2413:Aunt Phillis's Cabin 2323:Henry, Lord Brougham 2262:free person of color 2018:Princeton University 1956:Booker T. Washington 1713:Criminal stereotypes 1488:District of Columbia 1205:Afro-Seminole Creole 647:Non-Christian groups 242:Black power movement 206:during the Civil War 175:Atlantic slave trade 54:improve this article 10811:Jèrriais literature 10801:European literature 10373:Captivity narrative 10204:The Book of Negroes 9985:The Slave Community 9849:(1845–1847, Brazil) 9776:James Lindsay Smith 9683:John Andrew Jackson 9618:(1814 – after 1894) 9572:(1845 KY – 1938 OH) 9565:William Wells Brown 9524:Jared Maurice Arter 9519:William J. Anderson 9412:Johann Schiltberger 8945:Trinidad and Tobago 8560:Black American Sign 8387:By African descent 8381:Ethnic subdivisions 8368:Southwestern (SWAC) 8283:Baseball color line 8198:Black Panther Party 8102:Political movements 8019:in computer science 7678:Carol Moseley Braun 7467:Tulsa race massacre 7460:Treatment of slaves 7292:March on Washington 7287:Birmingham movement 7049:BlackLiterature.com 6717:, November 6, 2003. 6679:Jewish World Review 5994:American Literature 5932:Coup of the Century 5823:by Daniel Grassian" 5733:Library of Congress 5655:David M. Katzman, " 5140:American Literature 5015:American Literature 4307:Daughters of Africa 4281:American literature 3831:American literature 3714:Charles R. Saunders 3616:, and the prolific 3525:. Haley also wrote 3468:American Book Award 3319:Black Arts Movement 3287:A Raisin in the Sun 3226:National Book Award 2945:a nonfiction book, 2856:Mary Weston Fordham 2852:Charles W. Chesnutt 2767:William Wells Brown 2707:My Larger Education 2356:indentured servants 2283:St. Louis, Missouri 2250:William Wells Brown 2202:American Revolution 1980:American literature 1109:Sierra Leone Creole 1070:Specific ancestries 955:Southwestern (SWAC) 478:Black History Month 309:New Great Migration 263:Agriculture history 10501:English literature 10327:Unchained Memories 9832:(b. c. 1780 Congo) 9606:Frederick Douglass 9377:Ukawsaw Gronniosaw 9276:Maria ter Meetelen 9043:US representatives 9038:US cabinet members 8930:Dominican Republic 8517:Metropolitan areas 8358:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 8183:Civic and economic 8161:Self-determination 7982:Education, science 7903:Fred Shuttlesworth 7883:A. Philip Randolph 7788:Coretta Scott King 7713:Frederick Douglass 7540:Harlem Renaissance 7445:Separate but equal 7435:Reconstruction era 7423:Plessy v. Ferguson 7314:Cornerstone Speech 7228:Civil Rights Acts 7211:Black Lives Matter 7186:American Civil War 7004:. August 28, 2007. 6894:Dorson, Richard M. 6691:2005-05-15 at the 6656:. Routledge, 1998. 6403:10.1353/afa.0.0023 6315:10.1353/afa.0.0019 6139:2013-05-16 at the 5662:2002-11-17 at the 5645:. January 7, 2021. 5432:Written by Herself 5344:Written By Herself 4940:"Slavery's Shadow" 4770: • 4669:10.1353/eam.0.0033 4617:"Slave narratives" 4527:The Columbia Guide 4301:Chicano literature 3810:Hip-hop literature 3556:John Edgar Wideman 3454:Zora Neale Hurston 3396: 3282:Lorraine Hansberry 3253: 3209:White Man, Listen! 3169:The Fire Next Time 3132: 3043:The Living is Easy 2994:Zora Neale Hurston 2989:and translations. 2914:The Brownies' Book 2905: 2882:Harlem Renaissance 2876:Harlem Renaissance 2870:Harlem Renaissance 2829:When Malindy Sings 2803:Amy Jacques Garvey 2685:Tuskegee Institute 2670:Atlanta University 2652: 2566:Alexander Crummell 2487: 2484:Frederick Douglass 2475:Frederick Douglass 2469:Frederick Douglass 2438:Frederick Douglass 2147: 2022:Albert J. Raboteau 1972:racial segregation 1962:, authors such as 1932:American Civil War 1877:Harlem Renaissance 1846:Frederick Douglass 1118:Sexual orientation 992:Afro-Puerto Ricans 945:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 580:Self-determination 544:Black is beautiful 210:Reconstruction era 10834: 10833: 10781:Celtic literature 10764: 10763: 10555:Twentieth century 10467: 10466: 10239:I, Juan de Pareja 10223:Young adult books 10030:Uncle Tom's Cabin 9873:Non-fiction books 9868: 9867: 9825:Harriet E. Wilson 9709:Elizabeth Keckley 9555:Henry "Box" Brown 9473:(1860–1965, Cuba) 9467:(1797–1854, Cuba) 9422:George of Hungary 9397:(1792 – fl. 1828) 9150: 9149: 8978:African Americans 8850:Dallas–Fort Worth 8445:Black Southerners 8376: 8375: 7828:Thurgood Marshall 7798:Bernard Lafayette 7393:Million Man March 7150:African Americans 6915:978-0-527-24650-1 6647:The New Criterion 6638:, April 25, 1997. 6579:Poetry Foundation 6088:, by Alice Walker 6059:, April 25, 2005. 5966:On Common Ground 5619:. Barnard College 5617:News & Events 5461:Watson, Carole M. 5415:Ferguson, Moira. 5402:Doers of the Word 5400:Peterson, Carla. 5386:Ferguson, Moira, 5376:. pp. 66–67. 5374:Doers of the Word 5372:Peterson, Carla. 5359:Doers of the Word 5357:Peterson, Carla. 5264:Doers of the Word 5262:Peterson, Carla. 5249:Doers of the Word 5247:Peterson, Carla. 5125:978-1-79488-064-1 4702:978-0-19-538909-8 4421:978-0-8135-2514-3 4221:Literature portal 4169:Barbara Christian 4163:Barbara Christian 4157:Barbara Christian 4134:Anna Julia Cooper 4129:Anna Julia Cooper 4029:Kenneth Warren's 3913:identity politics 3804:Oprah's Book Club 3754:Octavia E. Butler 3694:Octavia E. Butler 3651:Kalisha Buckhanon 3588:Natasha Trethewey 3566:'s inauguration, 3407:Toni Cade Bambara 3355:The Negro Caravan 3071:Black Man's Verse 3014:'s 1975 article " 2833:Hampton Institute 2753:Mary Todd Lincoln 2749:Behind the Scenes 2741:Elizabeth Keckley 2726:Uncle Tom's Cabin 2674:Howard University 2459:Lydia Maria Child 2403:Uncle Tom's Cabin 2287:Buffalo, New York 2206:George Washington 2079:literary scholar 2043:African diasporic 1976:black nationalism 1799: 1798: 1736: 1735: 1634: 1633: 1408:Dallas-Fort Worth 1225: 1224: 1135: 1134: 1079:Americo-Liberians 962: 961: 900: 899: 825: 824: 694: 693: 638:Womanist theology 588: 587: 530:Symbols and ideas 316: 315: 195:Antebellum period 190:Revolutionary War 145:African Americans 130: 129: 122: 104: 16:(Redirected from 10869: 10816:Literary fiction 10580:African American 10568: 10567: 10494: 10487: 10480: 10471: 10470: 10070: 10067: 10063: 10060: 10038:The Heroic Slave 9793:Pierre Toussaint 9788:(1793 VA – 1860) 9752:(1827 VA – 1900) 9484:Pierre Toussaint 9319:Antoine Qaurtier 9308: 9305: 9212: 9211: 9184:Slave narratives 9177: 9170: 9163: 9154: 9153: 9140: 9139: 9138: 9102:Lynching victims 8601:Louisiana Creole 8572:American English 8460:Louisiana Creole 8433:Choctaw freedmen 8271: 8270: 7808:Huddie Ledbetter 7748:Fannie Lou Hamer 7718:W. E. B. Du Bois 7708:Claudette Colvin 7703:Shirley Chisholm 7520:Family structure 7388:Military history 7270:Browder v. Gayle 7143: 7136: 7129: 7120: 7119: 7033: 6996:Piacentino, Ed. 6973: 6944: 6932: 6874: 6681:, June 15, 2005. 6670:. Penguin, 2004. 6630:* Cashmore, E. " 6589: 6588: 6586: 6585: 6570: 6564: 6563: 6561: 6560: 6546: 6540: 6539: 6508:Feminist Studies 6503: 6497: 6496: 6468: 6462: 6461: 6430:Feminist Teacher 6421: 6415: 6414: 6382: 6376: 6375: 6356:10.2307/40150048 6333: 6327: 6326: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6285: 6284: 6269: 6260: 6259: 6227: 6218: 6194: 6188: 6172: 6166: 6150: 6144: 6130:Kenneth Warren. 6128: 6117: 6104: 6098: 6086:The Color Purple 6066: 6060: 6042: 6036: 6018: 6012: 5975: 5969: 5951: 5942: 5928: 5922: 5908: 5899: 5884: 5878: 5863: 5854: 5853: 5846: 5840: 5815: 5809: 5808: 5806: 5804: 5793:thewordpoint.com 5784: 5778: 5777: 5775: 5773: 5742: 5736: 5719: 5710: 5692: 5686: 5653: 5647: 5646: 5635: 5629: 5628: 5626: 5624: 5608: 5602: 5601: 5599: 5597: 5570: 5564: 5563: 5561: 5559: 5539: 5533: 5532: 5524: 5518: 5517: 5509: 5503: 5490:Du Bois, W.E.B. 5488: 5482: 5475: 5469: 5468: 5457: 5451: 5450: 5442: 5436: 5435: 5427: 5421: 5420: 5417:Nine Black Women 5412: 5406: 5405: 5397: 5391: 5388:Nine Black Women 5384: 5378: 5377: 5369: 5363: 5362: 5354: 5348: 5347: 5339: 5330: 5329: 5305: 5299: 5298: 5274: 5268: 5267: 5259: 5253: 5252: 5244: 5238: 5237: 5213: 5207: 5206: 5204: 5202: 5185:(May 22, 2017). 5179: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5168: 5149: 5143: 5136: 5130: 5129: 5111: 5102: 5101: 5093: 5087: 5086: 5078: 5072: 5071: 5055: 5045: 5039: 5038: 5010: 5004: 5003: 5000:Nine Black Women 4995: 4989: 4988: 4970: 4964: 4963: 4935: 4929: 4911: 4905: 4892: 4886: 4867: 4861: 4848: 4842: 4841: 4817: 4811: 4810: 4768: 4716: 4707: 4706: 4688: 4682: 4681: 4671: 4647: 4641: 4640: 4633: 4627: 4626: 4613: 4607: 4600: 4594: 4587: 4581: 4566: 4560: 4557: 4551: 4536: 4530: 4523: 4517: 4516: 4498: 4492: 4477: 4471: 4456: 4447: 4432: 4426: 4425: 4407: 4401: 4386: 4261:African American 4237: 4232: 4231: 4230: 4223: 4218: 4217: 4216: 3996:The Color Purple 3969: 3860:W. E. B. Du Bois 3852:African diaspora 3789:W. E. B. Du Bois 3779:Solomon Northrup 3722:John M. Faucette 3690:Samuel R. Delany 3663:Colson Whitehead 3614:Suzan-Lori Parks 3536:literary fiction 3490:Steven Spielberg 3482:The Color Purple 3478:epistolary novel 3473:The Color Purple 3423:, which won the 3343:African-American 3257:Gwendolyn Brooks 3128:Carl Van Vechten 3018:", published in 2987:children's books 2968:Chicago Defender 2901:Carl Van Vechten 2835:Camera Club and 2656:W. E. B. Du Bois 2550:Maria W. Stewart 2533:Epistle of James 2521:James Gronniosaw 2495: 2492: 2385:Slave narratives 2301:Thomas Jefferson 2252:(1814–1884) and 2221:Queens, New York 2177: 2174: 2169:Phillis Wheatley 2130:slave narratives 2002:, which won the 1995:The Color Purple 1968:Gwendolyn Brooks 1952:W. E. B. Du Bois 1936:slave narratives 1870:slave narratives 1824:Phillis Wheatley 1791: 1784: 1777: 1751: 1750: 1749: 1698:media depictions 1647: 1646: 1542:Population count 1238: 1237: 1172:Liberian English 1151:English dialects 1148: 1147: 1104:Samaná Americans 1029:Creoles of color 975: 974: 913: 912: 857:Black conductors 838: 837: 707: 706: 681:Louisiana Voodoo 603: 602: 348:Family structure 331: 330: 278:Military history 273:Business history 204:military history 159: 158: 132: 131: 125: 118: 114: 111: 105: 103: 62: 38: 30: 21: 10877: 10876: 10872: 10871: 10870: 10868: 10867: 10866: 10837: 10836: 10835: 10830: 10796:English studies 10760: 10714: 10691: 10659: 10645:Native American 10620:Jewish American 10610:Franco American 10564:Regional/ethnic 10559: 10503: 10498: 10468: 10463: 10409:Book of Negroes 10363:Anti-Tom novels 10341: 10314: 10279: 10253: 10218: 10188:The Known World 10068: 10061: 9999: 9961:Up from Slavery 9864: 9853:Miguel de Buría 9835: 9804:Wallace Turnage 9740:Solomon Northup 9672:Fountain Hughes 9514:Jordan Anderson 9501: 9495: 9471:Esteban Montejo 9457: 9451: 9432: 9426: 9400: 9371:Olaudah Equiano 9353: 9336: 9306: 9270:Elizabeth Marsh 9258:Ólafur Egilsson 9246:Felice Caronni 9207: 9205: 9199: 9186: 9181: 9151: 9146: 9136: 9134: 9121: 9087:Historic places 9080:US state firsts 8966: 8881: 8605: 8538: 8510:2010 majorities 8505:2000 majorities 8476: 8423:Black Seminoles 8372: 8363:Southern (SIAC) 8346: 8345:and conferences 8344: 8337: 8333:Serena Williams 8328:Jackie Robinson 8262: 8186: 8184: 8177: 8097: 8064:Nation of Islam 8035: 7983: 7977: 7918:Sojourner Truth 7908:Clarence Thomas 7873:Gabriel Prosser 7773:Michael Jackson 7648:Crispus Attucks 7638:Ralph Abernathy 7626: 7582:Musical theater 7481: 7347:Great Migration 7319:COVID-19 impact 7277:Sit-in movement 7152: 7147: 7040: 7022: 7002:Southern Spaces 6962: 6941: 6890: 6888:Further reading 6816:10.2307/4141858 6693:Wayback Machine 6673:Greenberg, P. " 6641:Dalrymple, T. " 6618:John Callahan, 6604:. Oxford, 1997. 6597: 6592: 6583: 6581: 6571: 6567: 6558: 6556: 6548: 6547: 6543: 6520:10.2307/3177999 6504: 6500: 6469: 6465: 6422: 6418: 6383: 6379: 6334: 6330: 6295: 6291: 6282: 6280: 6270: 6263: 6248:10.2307/3042266 6228: 6221: 6207:Wayback Machine 6195: 6191: 6185:Wayback Machine 6174:Warren (2011), 6173: 6169: 6163:Wayback Machine 6152:Warren (2011), 6151: 6147: 6141:Wayback Machine 6129: 6120: 6114:Wayback Machine 6105: 6101: 6095:Wayback Machine 6077:Wayback Machine 6067: 6063: 6053:Wayback Machine 6043: 6039: 6029:Wayback Machine 6019: 6015: 6011:, Spring 2003;. 6005:Wayback Machine 5986:Wayback Machine 5976: 5972: 5962:Wayback Machine 5952: 5945: 5939:Wayback Machine 5929: 5925: 5919:Wayback Machine 5909: 5902: 5885: 5881: 5864: 5857: 5848: 5847: 5843: 5837:Wayback Machine 5817:Bragg, Beauty, 5816: 5812: 5802: 5800: 5785: 5781: 5771: 5769: 5767: 5743: 5739: 5729:Wayback Machine 5720: 5713: 5703:Wayback Machine 5694:Ronald Roach, " 5693: 5689: 5679:Wayback Machine 5664:Wayback Machine 5657:Black Migration 5654: 5650: 5637: 5636: 5632: 5622: 5620: 5609: 5605: 5595: 5593: 5572: 5571: 5567: 5557: 5555: 5540: 5536: 5525: 5521: 5510: 5506: 5489: 5485: 5476: 5472: 5458: 5454: 5443: 5439: 5430:Foster (1993). 5428: 5424: 5413: 5409: 5398: 5394: 5385: 5381: 5370: 5366: 5355: 5351: 5342:Foster (1993). 5340: 5333: 5326: 5306: 5302: 5295: 5275: 5271: 5260: 5256: 5245: 5241: 5234: 5214: 5210: 5200: 5198: 5180: 5176: 5166: 5164: 5151: 5150: 5146: 5137: 5133: 5126: 5112: 5105: 5100:. pp. 6–7. 5094: 5090: 5079: 5075: 5068: 5046: 5042: 5027:10.2307/2927939 5011: 5007: 4996: 4992: 4985: 4971: 4967: 4952:10.2307/2930697 4946:(20): 157–158. 4936: 4932: 4922:Wayback Machine 4913:Mary Maillard. 4912: 4908: 4902:Wayback Machine 4893: 4889: 4871:Nellie Y. McKay 4868: 4864: 4858:Wayback Machine 4849: 4845: 4838: 4818: 4814: 4769: 4717: 4710: 4703: 4689: 4685: 4648: 4644: 4635: 4634: 4630: 4615: 4614: 4610: 4606:(2004), p. 992. 4604:Literary Theory 4601: 4597: 4588: 4584: 4567: 4563: 4558: 4554: 4537: 4533: 4524: 4520: 4513: 4499: 4495: 4478: 4474: 4457: 4450: 4433: 4429: 4422: 4408: 4404: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4374: 4360:Southern Gothic 4271:Africanfuturism 4233: 4228: 4226: 4219: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4201: 4195: 4183: 4177: 4165: 4159: 4150: 4131: 4116:social equality 4095: 4005:Charles Johnson 3983:Langston Hughes 3972:Wallace Thurman 3967: 3934: 3897: 3868: 3843: 3826: 3746:science fiction 3627:The Known World 3622:Edward P. Jones 3562:read a poem at 3548:Jamaica Kincaid 3439:unrequited love 3433:, a tale about 3430:Song of Solomon 3363:Arthur P. Davis 3357:, co-edited by 3311: 3163:Another Country 3113:Great Migration 3101: 3083:Wallace Thurman 3079:Black Cat Press 2951:The Weary Blues 2909:Langston Hughes 2878: 2872: 2860:Magnolia Leaves 2763:Josephine Brown 2694:Up From Slavery 2632: 2620:Abraham Lincoln 2612:Sojourner Truth 2517: 2493: 2477: 2471: 2393: 2391:Slave narrative 2387: 2379:Charles Dickens 2313:'s 1857 novel, 2175: 2126: 2121: 2039: 1905:social equality 1881:Great Migration 1835: 1810:Olaudah Equiano 1804:is the body of 1795: 1747: 1745: 1738: 1737: 1732: 1688: 1644: 1636: 1635: 1630: 1575: 1537: 1513:Omaha, Nebraska 1478:Historic places 1472: 1364: 1235: 1227: 1226: 1221: 1186: 1145: 1137: 1136: 1131: 1113: 1065: 1007:Black Seminoles 972: 971:Sub-communities 964: 963: 950:Southern (SIAC) 910: 902: 901: 896: 851: 835: 827: 826: 821: 738: 704: 696: 695: 690: 676:Nation of Islam 642: 619: 600: 590: 589: 584: 525: 492: 459: 431: 392: 368:Musical theater 328: 318: 317: 299:Great Migration 156: 126: 115: 109: 106: 63: 61: 51: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10875: 10865: 10864: 10859: 10854: 10849: 10832: 10831: 10829: 10828: 10823: 10818: 10813: 10808: 10803: 10798: 10793: 10791:English poetry 10788: 10783: 10778: 10772: 10770: 10769:Related topics 10766: 10765: 10762: 10761: 10759: 10758: 10753: 10748: 10743: 10738: 10733: 10728: 10722: 10720: 10716: 10715: 10713: 10712: 10707: 10701: 10699: 10693: 10692: 10690: 10689: 10684: 10679: 10673: 10671: 10661: 10660: 10658: 10657: 10652: 10647: 10642: 10637: 10632: 10627: 10622: 10617: 10612: 10607: 10602: 10597: 10595:Asian American 10592: 10587: 10582: 10576: 10574: 10565: 10561: 10560: 10558: 10557: 10552: 10547: 10542: 10537: 10532: 10527: 10522: 10520:Middle English 10517: 10511: 10509: 10505: 10504: 10497: 10496: 10489: 10482: 10474: 10465: 10464: 10462: 10461: 10453: 10445: 10437: 10429: 10421: 10413: 10405: 10400: 10395: 10390: 10385: 10380: 10375: 10370: 10365: 10360: 10355: 10349: 10347: 10343: 10342: 10340: 10339: 10331: 10322: 10320: 10316: 10315: 10313: 10312: 10304: 10296: 10287: 10285: 10281: 10280: 10278: 10277: 10269: 10261: 10259: 10255: 10254: 10252: 10251: 10243: 10235: 10226: 10224: 10220: 10219: 10217: 10216: 10208: 10200: 10192: 10184: 10176: 10168: 10160: 10152: 10148:Middle Passage 10144: 10136: 10128: 10120: 10112: 10104: 10096: 10088: 10080: 10072: 10050: 10042: 10034: 10026: 10018: 10009: 10007: 10005:Fiction/novels 10001: 10000: 9998: 9997: 9989: 9981: 9973: 9965: 9957: 9949: 9941: 9933: 9925: 9917: 9909: 9901: 9893: 9885: 9876: 9874: 9870: 9869: 9866: 9865: 9863: 9862: 9856: 9850: 9843: 9841: 9837: 9836: 9834: 9833: 9827: 9822: 9819:Wallace Willis 9816: 9811: 9806: 9801: 9799:Harriet Tubman 9796: 9789: 9786:Austin Steward 9783: 9778: 9773: 9768: 9763: 9758: 9756:William Parker 9753: 9747: 9742: 9737: 9731: 9726: 9724:J. Vance Lewis 9721: 9716: 9711: 9706: 9700: 9695: 9690: 9688:Harriet Jacobs 9685: 9680: 9675: 9669: 9664: 9662:William Grimes 9659: 9654:(19th century 9649: 9644: 9639: 9634: 9624: 9619: 9613: 9611:Kate Drumgoold 9608: 9603: 9598: 9593: 9588: 9583: 9578: 9573: 9567: 9562: 9557: 9552: 9546: 9541: 9536: 9531: 9529:Solomon Bayley 9526: 9521: 9516: 9511: 9505: 9503: 9500:North America: 9497: 9496: 9494: 9493: 9487: 9480: 9474: 9468: 9461: 9459: 9456:North America: 9453: 9452: 9450: 9449: 9446:John R. Jewitt 9443: 9436: 9434: 9431:North America: 9428: 9427: 9425: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9408: 9406: 9405:Ottoman Empire 9402: 9401: 9399: 9398: 9392: 9386: 9383:Jean Marteilhe 9380: 9374: 9368: 9361: 9359: 9355: 9354: 9352: 9351: 9344: 9342: 9338: 9337: 9335: 9334: 9328: 9322: 9316: 9310: 9297: 9291: 9285: 9279: 9273: 9267: 9266:(late 19th c.) 9261: 9255: 9249: 9243: 9240:Isaac Brassard 9237: 9231: 9225: 9218: 9216: 9209: 9208:of enslavement 9201: 9200: 9198: 9197: 9191: 9188: 9187: 9180: 9179: 9172: 9165: 9157: 9148: 9147: 9145: 9144: 9132: 9126: 9123: 9122: 9120: 9119: 9114: 9109: 9104: 9099: 9094: 9089: 9084: 9083: 9082: 9077: 9072: 9062: 9061: 9060: 9055: 9053:Visual artists 9050: 9045: 9040: 9035: 9030: 9025: 9020: 9015: 9013:Mathematicians 9010: 9005: 9000: 8995: 8990: 8985: 8974: 8972: 8968: 8967: 8965: 8964: 8963: 8962: 8954: 8949: 8948: 8947: 8942: 8937: 8932: 8927: 8919: 8918: 8917: 8912: 8907: 8902: 8891: 8889: 8883: 8882: 8880: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8863: 8862: 8857: 8852: 8847: 8837: 8832: 8830:South Carolina 8827: 8822: 8821: 8820: 8812: 8807: 8802: 8800:North Carolina 8797: 8796: 8795: 8785: 8780: 8779: 8778: 8768: 8763: 8762: 8761: 8753: 8752: 8751: 8745:Massachusetts 8743: 8742: 8741: 8731: 8726: 8725: 8724: 8714: 8709: 8708: 8707: 8697: 8692: 8691: 8690: 8680: 8675: 8674: 8673: 8663: 8662: 8661: 8656: 8646: 8641: 8640: 8639: 8634: 8624: 8619: 8613: 8611: 8607: 8606: 8604: 8603: 8598: 8593: 8592: 8591: 8590: 8589: 8587:social context 8584: 8574: 8564: 8563: 8562: 8552: 8546: 8544: 8540: 8539: 8537: 8536: 8535: 8534: 8529: 8519: 8514: 8513: 8512: 8507: 8497: 8496: 8495: 8484: 8482: 8478: 8477: 8475: 8474: 8469: 8468: 8467: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8441: 8440: 8438:Creek Freedmen 8435: 8430: 8425: 8415: 8413:Alabama Creole 8410: 8409: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8384: 8382: 8378: 8377: 8374: 8373: 8371: 8370: 8365: 8360: 8355: 8353:Central (CIAA) 8349: 8347: 8342: 8339: 8338: 8336: 8335: 8330: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8310: 8305: 8300: 8295: 8290: 8285: 8280: 8274: 8268: 8264: 8263: 8261: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8245: 8240: 8235: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8200: 8195: 8189: 8187: 8182: 8179: 8178: 8176: 8175: 8170: 8169: 8168: 8158: 8153: 8148: 8146:Pan-Africanism 8143: 8138: 8133: 8128: 8127: 8126: 8116: 8111: 8105: 8103: 8099: 8098: 8096: 8095: 8090: 8088:Black theology 8085: 8080: 8079: 8078: 8068: 8067: 8066: 8061: 8051: 8045: 8043: 8037: 8036: 8034: 8033: 8032: 8031: 8029:in STEM fields 8026: 8021: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7993: 7987: 7985: 7984:and technology 7979: 7978: 7976: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7923:Harriet Tubman 7920: 7915: 7910: 7905: 7900: 7895: 7890: 7885: 7880: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7860: 7855: 7853:Michelle Obama 7850: 7845: 7840: 7835: 7830: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7783:Barbara Jordan 7780: 7778:Harriet Jacobs 7775: 7770: 7765: 7760: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7668:Amelia Boynton 7665: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7645: 7640: 7634: 7632: 7631:Notable people 7628: 7627: 7625: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7567:LGBT community 7564: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7548: 7547: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7491: 7489: 7483: 7482: 7480: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7463: 7462: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7437: 7432: 7427: 7419: 7414: 7407: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7366: 7361: 7360: 7359: 7354: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7310: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7282:Freedom Riders 7279: 7274: 7266: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7245: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7226: 7221: 7213: 7208: 7206:Black genocide 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7162: 7160: 7154: 7153: 7146: 7145: 7138: 7131: 7123: 7117: 7116: 7107: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7078: 7072: 7065: 7058: 7051: 7046: 7039: 7038:External links 7036: 7035: 7034: 7020: 7005: 6994: 6992:978-0313329722 6980: 6974: 6960: 6945: 6940:978-0393959086 6939: 6922: 6921: 6920: 6917: 6900: 6889: 6886: 6885: 6884: 6875: 6783: 6772: 6765: 6758: 6757:, Spring 2003. 6755:Cross Currents 6747: 6740: 6729: 6718: 6709:Hamilton, K. " 6707: 6702:Grossman, J. " 6700: 6682: 6671: 6664: 6657: 6650: 6639: 6616: 6605: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6590: 6575:"Alice Walker" 6565: 6541: 6498: 6463: 6436:(3): 211–229. 6416: 6377: 6328: 6289: 6261: 6219: 6215:978-0822355953 6189: 6167: 6145: 6118: 6099: 6061: 6037: 6020:John Lowney, " 6013: 6009:Cross Currents 5970: 5943: 5923: 5900: 5879: 5855: 5841: 5810: 5779: 5765: 5737: 5711: 5687: 5648: 5630: 5603: 5565: 5534: 5531:. p. 365. 5527:Gates (1997). 5519: 5516:. p. 491. 5512:Gates (1997). 5504: 5483: 5477:Eric Gardner, 5470: 5452: 5449:. p. 245. 5437: 5422: 5419:. p. 172. 5407: 5392: 5379: 5364: 5349: 5331: 5325:978-0253324092 5324: 5300: 5294:978-0253352606 5293: 5269: 5254: 5239: 5233:978-0253352606 5232: 5208: 5183:McCrum, Robert 5174: 5144: 5131: 5124: 5103: 5096:Gates (2004). 5088: 5081:Gates (2004). 5073: 5067:978-0465027149 5066: 5040: 5021:(3): 439–466. 5005: 5002:. p. 119. 4990: 4984:978-0415919043 4983: 4965: 4930: 4906: 4887: 4862: 4843: 4837:978-0393959086 4836: 4812: 4708: 4701: 4683: 4662:(1): 173–198. 4642: 4628: 4608: 4595: 4582: 4561: 4552: 4531: 4518: 4511: 4493: 4472: 4448: 4427: 4420: 4402: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4350: 4343: 4338: 4334:New York Times 4332:List of Black 4329: 4324: 4317: 4310: 4303: 4298: 4290: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4240: 4239: 4238: 4224: 4208: 4205: 4197:Main article: 4194: 4191: 4179:Main article: 4176: 4173: 4161:Main article: 4158: 4155: 4149: 4146: 4130: 4127: 4124:Forest Leaves. 4094: 4091: 4066:Legal Fictions 4024:Duke Ellington 4001:Oxherding Tale 3964:Home to Harlem 3933: 3930: 3896: 3893: 3867: 3864: 3842: 3839: 3825: 3822: 3730:Nalo Hopkinson 3710:Brandon Massey 3706:Robert Fleming 3702:Tananarive Due 3600:Ntozake Shange 3576:Cyrus Cassells 3519:Pulitzer Prize 3470:for her novel 3464:Pulitzer Prize 3415:The Bluest Eye 3385:Nobel Laureate 3359:Sterling Brown 3310: 3309:Recent history 3307: 3271:Nikki Giovanni 3261:Pulitzer Prize 3177:Richard Wright 3111:. During this 3100: 3097: 3051:Countee Cullen 3041:, whose novel 2943:Banana Bottom, 2934:Home to Harlem 2874:Main article: 2871: 2868: 2837:Joggin' Erlong 2789:Pan Africanism 2631: 2628: 2516: 2513: 2473:Main article: 2470: 2467: 2448:Harriet Jacobs 2389:Main article: 2386: 2383: 2334:Harriet Wilson 2217:Jupiter Hammon 2125: 2122: 2120: 2117: 2038: 2035: 2004:Pulitzer Prize 1964:Richard Wright 1856:Harriet Jacobs 1797: 1796: 1794: 1793: 1786: 1779: 1771: 1768: 1767: 1766: 1765: 1760: 1755: 1740: 1739: 1734: 1733: 1731: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1704: 1701: 1700: 1690: 1689: 1687: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1659:Black genocide 1655: 1652: 1651: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1638: 1637: 1632: 1631: 1629: 1628: 1623: 1618: 1613: 1608: 1603: 1598: 1593: 1587: 1584: 1583: 1577: 1576: 1574: 1573: 1568: 1566:US communities 1563: 1558: 1553: 1547: 1544: 1543: 1539: 1538: 1536: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1523:South Carolina 1520: 1518:North Carolina 1515: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1484: 1481: 1480: 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922: 921: 911: 908: 907: 904: 903: 898: 897: 895: 894: 889: 884: 879: 874: 869: 864: 859: 854: 846: 843: 842: 836: 833: 832: 829: 828: 823: 822: 820: 819: 814: 809: 804: 802:Pan-Africanism 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 759: 754: 748: 745: 744: 740: 739: 737: 736: 731: 726: 721: 715: 712: 711: 705: 702: 701: 698: 697: 692: 691: 689: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 652: 649: 648: 644: 643: 641: 640: 635: 633:Black theology 629: 626: 625: 621: 620: 618: 617: 611: 608: 607: 601: 596: 595: 592: 591: 586: 585: 583: 582: 577: 570: 565: 564: 563: 553: 548: 547: 546: 535: 532: 531: 527: 526: 524: 523: 518: 513: 508: 502: 499: 498: 497:Economic class 494: 493: 491: 490: 485: 480: 475: 469: 466: 465: 461: 460: 458: 457: 452: 447: 441: 438: 437: 436:Academic study 433: 432: 430: 429: 424: 419: 413: 408: 402: 399: 398: 394: 393: 391: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 339: 336: 335: 329: 324: 323: 320: 319: 314: 313: 312: 311: 306: 301: 293: 292: 288: 287: 286: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 257: 256: 252: 251: 250: 249: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 218: 217: 207: 197: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 164: 163: 157: 152: 151: 148: 147: 141: 140: 128: 127: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10874: 10863: 10860: 10858: 10855: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10844: 10842: 10827: 10824: 10822: 10819: 10817: 10814: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10804: 10802: 10799: 10797: 10794: 10792: 10789: 10787: 10786:English drama 10784: 10782: 10779: 10777: 10774: 10773: 10771: 10767: 10757: 10756:South African 10754: 10752: 10749: 10747: 10744: 10742: 10739: 10737: 10734: 10732: 10729: 10727: 10724: 10723: 10721: 10717: 10711: 10708: 10706: 10703: 10702: 10700: 10698: 10694: 10688: 10685: 10683: 10680: 10678: 10675: 10674: 10672: 10670: 10666: 10662: 10656: 10653: 10651: 10648: 10646: 10643: 10641: 10638: 10636: 10633: 10631: 10628: 10626: 10623: 10621: 10618: 10616: 10613: 10611: 10608: 10606: 10603: 10601: 10598: 10596: 10593: 10591: 10590:Arab American 10588: 10586: 10583: 10581: 10578: 10577: 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Roberts 9759: 9757: 9754: 9751: 9748: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9738: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9725: 9722: 9720: 9719:Lunsford Lane 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9704: 9703:Paul Jennings 9701: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9691: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9678:Omar ibn Said 9676: 9673: 9670: 9668: 9667:Josiah Henson 9665: 9663: 9660: 9657: 9653: 9652:William Green 9650: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9632: 9628: 9627:Peter Fossett 9625: 9623: 9620: 9617: 9614: 9612: 9609: 9607: 9604: 9602: 9599: 9597: 9594: 9592: 9589: 9587: 9586:Lucinda Davis 9584: 9582: 9581:Hannah Crafts 9579: 9577: 9574: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9561: 9558: 9556: 9553: 9550: 9549:James Bradley 9547: 9545: 9544:Leonard Black 9542: 9540: 9537: 9535: 9532: 9530: 9527: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9515: 9512: 9510: 9507: 9506: 9504: 9502:United States 9498: 9491: 9490:Marcos Xiorro 9488: 9485: 9481: 9478: 9475: 9472: 9469: 9466: 9463: 9462: 9460: 9454: 9447: 9444: 9441: 9438: 9437: 9435: 9429: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9409: 9407: 9403: 9396: 9393: 9390: 9387: 9384: 9381: 9378: 9375: 9372: 9369: 9366: 9363: 9362: 9360: 9356: 9349: 9346: 9345: 9343: 9339: 9332: 9329: 9326: 9323: 9320: 9317: 9314: 9311: 9301: 9298: 9295: 9294:Thomas Pellow 9292: 9289: 9286: 9283: 9280: 9277: 9274: 9271: 9268: 9265: 9264:Petro Kilekwa 9262: 9259: 9256: 9253: 9250: 9247: 9244: 9241: 9238: 9235: 9232: 9229: 9226: 9223: 9220: 9219: 9217: 9213: 9210: 9202: 9196: 9193: 9192: 9189: 9185: 9178: 9173: 9171: 9166: 9164: 9159: 9158: 9155: 9143: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9127: 9124: 9118: 9115: 9113: 9112:Neighborhoods 9110: 9108: 9105: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9095: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9075:Sports firsts 9073: 9071: 9068: 9067: 9066: 9063: 9059: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9046: 9044: 9041: 9039: 9036: 9034: 9031: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9021: 9019: 9016: 9014: 9011: 9009: 9006: 9004: 9001: 8999: 8996: 8994: 8991: 8989: 8986: 8984: 8981: 8980: 8979: 8976: 8975: 8973: 8969: 8961: 8958: 8957: 8955: 8953: 8950: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8938: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8922: 8920: 8916: 8913: 8911: 8908: 8906: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8897: 8896: 8893: 8892: 8890: 8888: 8884: 8878: 8877:West Virginia 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8846: 8843: 8842: 8841: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8819: 8816: 8815: 8814:Pennsylvania 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8794: 8793:New York City 8791: 8790: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8777: 8774: 8773: 8772: 8769: 8767: 8764: 8760: 8757: 8756: 8754: 8750: 8747: 8746: 8744: 8740: 8737: 8736: 8735: 8732: 8730: 8727: 8723: 8720: 8719: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8706: 8703: 8702: 8701: 8698: 8696: 8693: 8689: 8686: 8685: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8672: 8669: 8668: 8667: 8664: 8660: 8657: 8655: 8652: 8651: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8638: 8637:San Francisco 8635: 8633: 8630: 8629: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8614: 8612: 8610:By state/city 8608: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8594: 8588: 8585: 8583: 8580: 8579: 8578: 8575: 8573: 8570: 8569: 8568: 8565: 8561: 8558: 8557: 8556: 8555:American Sign 8553: 8551: 8548: 8547: 8545: 8541: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8524: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8502: 8501: 8498: 8494: 8491: 8490: 8489: 8488:Neighborhoods 8486: 8485: 8483: 8479: 8473: 8470: 8466: 8463: 8462: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8439: 8436: 8434: 8431: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8420: 8419: 8418:Black Indians 8416: 8414: 8411: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8392: 8389: 8388: 8386: 8385: 8383: 8379: 8369: 8366: 8364: 8361: 8359: 8356: 8354: 8351: 8350: 8348: 8340: 8334: 8331: 8329: 8326: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8304: 8301: 8299: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8275: 8272: 8269: 8265: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8244: 8241: 8239: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8190: 8188: 8180: 8174: 8171: 8167: 8164: 8163: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8125: 8122: 8121: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8107: 8106: 8104: 8100: 8094: 8091: 8089: 8086: 8084: 8081: 8077: 8074: 8073: 8072: 8069: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8056: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8046: 8044: 8042: 8038: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8016: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7996:Black schools 7994: 7992: 7991:Black studies 7989: 7988: 7986: 7980: 7974: 7973:Whitney Young 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7963:Oprah Winfrey 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7933:Denmark Vesey 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7878:Joseph Rainey 7876: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7861: 7859: 7856: 7854: 7851: 7849: 7846: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7834: 7833:Toni Morrison 7831: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7818:Joseph Lowery 7816: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7763:Jesse Jackson 7761: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7753:Kamala Harris 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7738:Marcus Garvey 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7688:Blanche Bruce 7686: 7684: 7683:Edward Brooke 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7673:James Bradley 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7653:James Baldwin 7651: 7649: 7646: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7635: 7633: 7629: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7597:Neighborhoods 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7546: 7543: 7542: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7492: 7490: 7488: 7484: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7461: 7458: 7457: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7450:Silent Parade 7448: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7428: 7425: 7424: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7412: 7408: 7406: 7405: 7401: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7378:Jim Crow laws 7376: 7374: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7349: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7327: 7326: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7272: 7271: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7261: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7229: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7219: 7218: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7201:Black cowboys 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7163: 7161: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7144: 7139: 7137: 7132: 7130: 7125: 7124: 7121: 7115: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7076: 7073: 7070: 7066: 7063: 7059: 7056: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7041: 7031: 7027: 7023: 7021:9780814752579 7017: 7013: 7012: 7006: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6978: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6961:9780521872171 6957: 6953: 6952: 6946: 6942: 6936: 6931: 6930: 6923: 6918: 6916: 6912: 6909: 6908:0-527-24650-6 6905: 6901: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6891: 6882: 6879: 6878:Warren, K. W. 6876: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6855: 6849: 6845: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6802:on behalf of 6801: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6784: 6781: 6777: 6773: 6770: 6766: 6763: 6759: 6756: 6752: 6749:Mitchem, S. " 6748: 6745: 6741: 6739:, Fall, 2000. 6738: 6734: 6730: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6705: 6701: 6698: 6694: 6690: 6687: 6683: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6669: 6665: 6662: 6658: 6655: 6651: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6637: 6636:New Statesman 6633: 6629: 6628:0-252-06982-X 6625: 6621: 6617: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6603: 6599: 6598: 6580: 6576: 6569: 6555: 6551: 6545: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6502: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6467: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6424:Sule (2013). 6420: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6381: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6344: 6339: 6332: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6293: 6279: 6275: 6268: 6266: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6226: 6224: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6201: 6200: 6193: 6186: 6182: 6179: 6178: 6171: 6164: 6160: 6157: 6156: 6149: 6142: 6138: 6135: 6134: 6127: 6125: 6123: 6115: 6111: 6108: 6103: 6096: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6071: 6065: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6047: 6041: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6023: 6017: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5980: 5974: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5956: 5950: 5948: 5940: 5936: 5933: 5927: 5920: 5916: 5913: 5907: 5905: 5897: 5896:0-8153-3547-4 5893: 5889: 5883: 5876: 5875:0-8153-3547-4 5872: 5868: 5862: 5860: 5851: 5845: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5829: 5824: 5822: 5814: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5783: 5768: 5766:9781316337998 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5749: 5741: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5723: 5718: 5716: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5697: 5691: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5658: 5652: 5644: 5640: 5634: 5618: 5614: 5607: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5569: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5538: 5530: 5523: 5515: 5508: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5487: 5480: 5474: 5466: 5462: 5456: 5448: 5441: 5434:. p. 86. 5433: 5426: 5418: 5411: 5404:. p. 74. 5403: 5396: 5389: 5383: 5375: 5368: 5361:. p. 57. 5360: 5353: 5346:. p. 85. 5345: 5338: 5336: 5327: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5312: 5304: 5296: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5281: 5273: 5265: 5258: 5250: 5243: 5235: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5220: 5212: 5201:September 21, 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5178: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5148: 5141: 5135: 5127: 5121: 5117: 5110: 5108: 5099: 5092: 5085:. p. xi. 5084: 5077: 5069: 5063: 5059: 5054: 5053: 5044: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5009: 5001: 4994: 4986: 4980: 4976: 4969: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4934: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4916: 4910: 4903: 4899: 4896: 4891: 4884: 4883:0-393-97778-1 4880: 4876: 4872: 4866: 4859: 4855: 4852: 4847: 4839: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4824: 4816: 4808: 4807: 4806:New Statesman 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4774:New Statesman 4766: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4745: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4715: 4713: 4704: 4698: 4694: 4687: 4679: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4646: 4638: 4632: 4624: 4623: 4618: 4612: 4605: 4599: 4592: 4586: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4565: 4556: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4535: 4528: 4525:Dickson-Carr, 4522: 4514: 4512:9780838757116 4508: 4504: 4497: 4490: 4489:0-231-13440-1 4486: 4482: 4476: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4455: 4453: 4445: 4444:0-231-12472-4 4441: 4437: 4431: 4423: 4417: 4413: 4406: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4385: 4381: 4371: 4370:Urban fiction 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4355: 4351: 4349: 4348: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4322: 4318: 4316: 4315: 4311: 4309: 4308: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4291: 4289: 4288: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4246: 4242: 4241: 4236: 4225: 4222: 4211: 4204: 4200: 4190: 4187: 4182: 4172: 4170: 4164: 4154: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4135: 4126: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4100: 4090: 4087: 4082: 4080: 4076: 4075:Walter Mosley 4072: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4050: 4047: 4044: 4040: 4039:desegregation 4036: 4032: 4027: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4016:Robert Hayden 4013: 4011: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3984: 3979: 3977: 3973: 3965: 3961: 3956: 3954: 3949: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3905:balkanization 3902: 3892: 3888: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3872: 3863: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3847: 3838: 3836: 3835:Balkanization 3832: 3821: 3818: 3813: 3811: 3807: 3805: 3801: 3800:Oprah Winfrey 3796: 3792: 3790: 3786: 3785: 3780: 3776: 3775: 3770: 3764: 3761: 3760: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3726:Sheree Thomas 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3698:Steven Barnes 3695: 3691: 3686: 3684: 3680: 3679:Walter Mosley 3676: 3672: 3671:Chester Himes 3668: 3667:genre fiction 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3635: 3633: 3629: 3628: 3623: 3619: 3618:August Wilson 3615: 3611: 3607: 3606: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3572:Poet Laureate 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3552:Randall Kenan 3549: 3545: 3541: 3540:Rasheed Clark 3537: 3532: 3530: 3529: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3499: 3493: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3474: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3460: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3431: 3426: 3422: 3421: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3399:Toni Morrison 3394:in March 2013 3393: 3389: 3388:Toni Morrison 3386: 3382: 3378: 3376: 3372: 3369:in 1969; and 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3329: 3328:James Emanuel 3324: 3320: 3315: 3306: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3293: 3289: 3288: 3284:, whose play 3283: 3278: 3276: 3275:Sonia Sanchez 3272: 3268: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3249: 3245: 3243: 3242: 3237: 3236: 3231: 3230:Invisible Man 3227: 3223: 3222: 3221:Invisible Man 3217: 3216:Ralph Ellison 3212: 3210: 3206: 3205: 3200: 3199: 3194: 3190: 3189: 3184: 3183: 3178: 3173: 3171: 3170: 3165: 3164: 3159: 3155: 3154: 3149: 3145: 3144:James Baldwin 3140: 3138: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3096: 3092: 3090: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3035: 3030: 3025: 3023: 3022: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3008:short stories 3005: 3001: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2975: 2974:New York Post 2970: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2935: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2921: 2916: 2915: 2910: 2902: 2897: 2893: 2891: 2890:New York City 2887: 2883: 2877: 2867: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2848: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2821:black dialect 2818: 2814: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2799: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2785:Marcus Garvey 2783: 2778: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2727: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2695: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2677: 2675: 2672:and later at 2671: 2667: 2666: 2661: 2657: 2648: 2644: 2642: 2641:Jennie Carter 2638: 2627: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2534: 2528: 2526: 2522: 2512: 2510: 2509: 2504: 2503: 2497: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2466: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2451: 2449: 2445: 2444: 2439: 2434: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2414: 2409: 2405: 2404: 2399: 2392: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2371:Hannah Crafts 2368: 2363: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2311:Frank 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Webb 2308: 2306: 2305:Sally Hemings 2302: 2298: 2297: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2275: 2273: 2272: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2254:Victor Séjour 2251: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2232: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2213: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2182: 2170: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2143: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2131: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2034: 2032: 2028: 2023: 2019: 2016:American. 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Wells 7943:David Walker 7938:C. T. Vivian 7893:Paul Robeson 7888:Hiram Revels 7868:Colin Powell 7848:Barack Obama 7803:James Lawson 7758:Jimi Hendrix 7728:James Farmer 7723:Medgar Evers 7693:Ralph Bunche 7643:Maya Angelou 7617:Middle class 7571: 7495:Afrofuturism 7421: 7409: 7402: 7323: 7268: 7215: 7181:Afrocentrism 7171:Abolitionism 7010: 7001: 6983: 6950: 6928: 6880: 6853: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6779: 6768: 6761: 6754: 6743: 6736: 6731:Lowney, J. " 6721: 6714: 6696: 6678: 6667: 6660: 6653: 6646: 6635: 6619: 6608: 6601: 6582:. Retrieved 6578: 6568: 6557:. Retrieved 6553: 6544: 6514:(1): 67–79. 6511: 6507: 6501: 6479:(1): 28–47. 6476: 6473:NWSA Journal 6472: 6466: 6433: 6429: 6419: 6394: 6390: 6380: 6347: 6341: 6331: 6306: 6302: 6292: 6281:. Retrieved 6277: 6242:(1): 33–49. 6239: 6235: 6198: 6192: 6176: 6170: 6154: 6148: 6132: 6102: 6085: 6080: 6064: 6056: 6040: 6032: 6016: 6008: 5989: 5973: 5965: 5926: 5887: 5882: 5866: 5844: 5826: 5820: 5813: 5801:. 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