African-American literature

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are also written by people of color. While her perspective is broad and marketed towards writers and readers themselves, incorporating her same themes and analysis to authentic narratives proves useful in a classroom setting. She challenges what previous 'diverse' narratives might have accomplished while also dissecting why they were demeaning to the culture of authentic storytelling itself. This article fits into the discourse on having diverse literature for students to see themselves in the classroom and the importance of choosing texts who's storytelling resonates with their own culture. Mikkelsen writes, "The idea of multicultural literature (that in which the idea of different world views or cultural references are built into the texture of the book itself-its focus, its emphasis, its subject matter) is a challenging one for readers who are not insiders of the culture being depicted." She believes providing students with content that portrays authentic and genuine reflections of multi-cultural experiences, allows for better engagement and connection in the classroom for those who resonate with these cultures.

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overly aggressive and male-dominated academic writings in higher education and balance them with more female voices, hence Cooper is widely recognized as the "mother of Black feminism". Furthermore, Cooper did not just see higher education as a way to improve the socioeconomic situation of African American communities, but also as a foundation for the continuous learning and a community based approach to upliftment that would cause the "universal betterment" of people and humanity as a whole. Cooper advocated for the democratization of both public and private higher education which has been seen as "bastions of white, male elitism" and a "focus on reproducing English culture and cementing Christian doctrine", as the changing nature of American culture that now grapples with centuries of relegating women and racial minorities to the lowest rungs of society.

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identification as Negro writers." He writes that "bsent white suspicion of, or commitment to imposing, black inferiority, African American literature would not have existed as a literature". Warren bases part of his argument on the distinction between "the mere existence of literary texts" and the formation of texts into a coherent body of literature. For Warren, it is the coherence of responding to racist narratives in the struggle for civil rights that establishes the body of African American literature, and the scholar suggests that continuing to refer to the texts produced after the civil rights era as such is a symptom of nostalgia or a belief that the struggle for civil rights has not yet ended.

2366:. If her work was written in 1853, it would be the first African American novel written in the United States. The novel was published in 2002 with an introduction by Henry Louis Gates, Jr. The work was never published during Crafts' lifetime. Some suggest that she did not have entry into the publishing world. The novel has been described as a style between slave narratives and the sentimental novel. In her novel, Crafts went beyond the genre of the slave narrative. There is some evidence that she read in the library of her master and was influenced by those works: the narrative was serialized and bears resemblances to 2607:, she adopted the name Sojourner Truth after 40 years of struggle, first to attain her freedom and then to work on the mission she felt God intended for her. This new name was to "signify the new person she had become in the spirit, a traveler dedicated to speaking the Truth as God revealed it". Truth played a significant role during the Civil War. She worked tirelessly on several civil rights fronts; she recruited black troops in Michigan, helped with relief efforts for freedmen and women escaping from the South, led a successful effort to desegregate the streetcars in Washington, D.C., and she counseled President 2197:, who thanked her for a poem written in his honor. Some whites found it hard to believe that a Black woman could write such refined poetry. Wheatley had to defend herself to prove that she had written her own work, so an authenticating preface, or attestation, was provided at the beginning of her book, signed by a list of prominent white male leaders in Massachusetts, affirming her authorship. Some critics cite Wheatley's successful use of this "defensive" authentication document as the first recognition of African American literature. As a result of the skepticism surrounding her work, 2516:, and George White. William L. Andrews argues that these early narratives "gave the twin themes of the Afro-American 'pregeneric myth'—knowledge and freedom—their earliest narrative form". These spiritual narratives were important predecessors of the slave narratives which proliferated the literary scene of the 19th century. These spiritual narratives have often been left out of the study of African American literature because some scholars have deemed them historical or sociological documents, despite their importance to understanding African American literature as a whole. 2469: 3237: 3370: 2524:, often calling themselves "doers of the word". The study of these women and their spiritual narratives are significant to the understanding of African American life in the Antebellum North because they offer both historical context and literary tropes. Women who wrote these narratives had a clear knowledge of literary genres and biblical narratives. This contributed to advancing their message about African American women's agency and countered the dominant racist and sexist discourse of early American society. 2131: 2022:, and more. African American literature presents experience from an African American point of view. In the early Republic, African American literature represented a way for free blacks to negotiate their identity in an individualized republic. They often tried to exercise their political and social autonomy in the face of resistance from the white public. Thus, an early theme of African American literature was, like other American writings, what it meant to be a citizen in post-Revolutionary America. 4204: 2454:. The narrative details Jacobs' struggle for freedom, not only for herself, but also for her two children. Jacobs' narrative occupies an important place in the history of African American literature as it discloses through her first hand account specific injustices that black women suffered under slavery, especially their sexual harassment and the threat or actual perpetration of rape as a tool of slavery. Harriet Beecher Stowe was asked to write a foreword for Jacob's book, but refused. 9126: 4218: 1737: 2579:. These two narratives were published in 1836 and 1849 respectively. Both works spoke about Lee's life as a preacher for the African Methodist Church. But her narratives were not endorsed by the Methodists because a woman preaching was contrary to their church doctrine. Some critics argue that Lee's contribution to African American literature lies in her disobedience to the patriarchal church system and her assertion of women's rights within the Methodist Church. 2657:. The essays on race were groundbreaking and drew from Du Bois's personal experiences to describe how African Americans lived in rural Georgia and in the larger American society. Du Bois wrote: "The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color-line", a statement since considered prescient. Du Bois believed that African Americans should, because of their common interests, work together to battle prejudice and inequity. He was a professor at 2885: 25: 2636: 3112: 2145:. She was enslaved in Deerfield at the time of the attack, when many residents were killed and more than 100, mostly women and children, were taken on a forced march overland to Montreal. Some were later ransomed and redeemed by their families or community; others were adopted by Mohawk families, and some girls joined a French religious order. The ballad was first published in 1854, with an additional couplet, in 2698:(1911). In contrast to Du Bois, who adopted a more confrontational attitude toward ending racial strife in America, Washington believed that Blacks should first lift themselves up and prove themselves the equal of whites before asking for an end to racism. While this viewpoint was popular among some Blacks (and many whites) at the time, Washington's political views would later fall out of fashion. 2597:. These publications were both spiritual narratives and travel narratives. Similar to Jarena Lee, Prince adhered to the standards of Christian religion by framing her unique travel narrative in a Christian perspective. Yet, her narrative poses a counter narrative to the 19th century's ideal of a demure woman who had no voice in society and little knowledge of the world. 2589:, and was of African and Native American descent. She turned to religion at the age of 16 in an attempt to find comfort from the trials of her life. She married Nero Prince and traveled extensively in the West Indies and Russia. She became a missionary and in 1841 she tried to raise funds for missionary work in the West Indies, publishing a pamphlet entitled 2762:. Brown wrote the first ten chapters of the narrative while studying in France, as a means of satisfying her classmates' curiosity about her father. After returning to America, she discovered that the narrative of her father's life, written by him, and published a few years before, was out of print and thus produced the rest of the chapters that constitute 2726:, was published in 1854 and sold more than 10,000 copies within three years. Harper was often characterized as "a noble Christian woman" and "one of the most scholarly and well-read women of her day", but she was also known as a strong advocate against slavery and the post-Civil War repressive measures against blacks. 2339:, in the early 1980s. He labeled the work fiction and argued that it may be the first novel published by an African American. Parallels between Wilson's narrative and her life have been discovered, leading some scholars to argue that the work should be considered autobiographical. Despite these disagreements, 2072:, said, "My desire has been to allow the black tradition to speak for itself about its nature and various functions, rather than to read it, or analyze it, in terms of literary theories borrowed whole from other traditions, appropriated from without." One trope common to African American literature is " 4077:

argues for the importance of authenticity when it comes to writing stories for young African-American audiences. Mikkelsen tracks the significance of having students exposed to diversity while also maintaining authentic narratives by incorporating stories that not only include characters of color but

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By refuting the claims of the dominant culture, African American writers were also attempting to subvert the literary and power traditions of the United States. Some scholars assert that writing has traditionally been seen as "something defined by the dominant culture as a white male activity." This

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However, for each of those literary works, there were dozens of novels, short stories and poems written by white authors that gained the same or even greater recognition. What is more, there were many literary pieces written by non-English speaking white authors that were translated into the English

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has said, all African American literary study "speaks to the deeper meaning of the African-American presence in this nation. This presence has always been a test case of the nation's claims to freedom, democracy, equality, the inclusiveness of all." African American literature explores the issues of

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Cashmore, Ellis (April 25, 1997). "Profit and oppression: Black culture was long denied recognition. The danger now is that it is being turned into another commodity" [Review of Gates, Henry Louis, Jr; McKay, Nellie Y (eds.), The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, W W Norton].

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argued for greater and more widespread attainment of higher education for African Americans, especially women. Her work attempts to cultivate a sense of educational rigor in African American female intellectuals and the black community in the US would benefit from as a whole. This is to counter the

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experience of Black people in the United States. Even though African Americans have long claimed an American identity, during most of United States history they were not accepted as full citizens and were actively discriminated against. As a result, they were part of America while also outside it.

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in 1846, while still living in England. Her narrative was meant to be an account of her spiritual experience. Yet some critics argue that her work was also meant to be a literary contribution. Elaw aligns herself in a literary tradition of respectable women of her time who were trying to combat the

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crystallized the canon of African American literature as black writers conscripted literature as a means to counter notions of inferiority. During this period, "whether African American writers acquiesced in or kicked against the label, they knew what was at stake in accepting or contesting their

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The Harlem Renaissance marked a turning point for African American literature. Prior to this time, books by African Americans were primarily read by other Black people. With the renaissance, though, African American literature—as well as black fine art and performance art—began to be absorbed into

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wrote accounts of their lives, with about 150 of these published as separate books or pamphlets. Slave narratives can be broadly categorized into three distinct forms: tales of religious redemption, tales to inspire the abolitionist struggle, and tales of progress. The tales written to inspire the

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In the article "Mechanisms of Disease: African-American Women Writers, Social Pathologies, and the Limits of Medicine" (1994), Ann Folwell Stanford argues that novels by African American women writers Toni Cade Bambara, Paule Marshall, and Gloria Naylor offer a feminist critique of the biomedical

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The general consensus view appears to be that American literature is not breaking apart because of new genres such as African-American literature. Instead, American literature is simply reflecting the increasing diversity of the United States and showing more signs of diversity than before in its

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Throughout American history, African Americans have been discriminated against and subject to racist attitudes. This experience inspired some Black writers, at least during the early years of African American literature, to prove they were the equals of European-American authors. As Henry Louis

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born in the North. Free blacks expressed their oppression in a different narrative form. Free blacks in the North often spoke out against enslavement and racial injustices by using the spiritual narrative. The spiritual addressed many of the same themes of enslaved people narratives but has been

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According to Joanne Gabbin, a professor, African American literature exists both inside and outside American literature. "Somehow African-American literature has been relegated to a different level, outside American literature, yet it is an integral part," she says. She bases her theory in the

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While African American literature is well accepted in the United States, there are numerous views on its significance, traditions, and theories. To the genre's supporters, African American literature arose out of the experience of Blacks in the United States, especially with regards to historic

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Similarly, African American literature is within the framework of a larger American literature, but it also is independent. As a result, new styles of storytelling and unique voices have been created in relative isolation. The benefit of this is that these new styles and voices can leave their

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illustrates a unique vampire mythology, tackling notions of racial superiority and gender roles. Authors like Brandon Massey strategically places some of his stories in Gothic southern settings that fuel the fear of his plots. Much like Morrison's haunted house, placing mystery and suspense in

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In broad terms, African American literature can be defined as writings by people of African descent living in the United States. It is highly varied. African American literature has generally focused on the role of African Americans within the larger American society and what it means to be an

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is literature created by American women of African descent. African American women like Phillis Wheatley Peters and Lucy Terry in the 18th century are often cited as the founders of the African American literary tradition. Social issues discussed in the works of African American women include

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on this topic, saying in 1921: "We want everything that is said about us to tell of the best and highest and noblest in us. We insist that our Art and Propaganda be one." He added in 1926, "All Art is propaganda and ever must be, despite the wailing of the purists." Du Bois and the editors of

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movements, African American literature began to be defined and analyzed. A number of scholars and writers are generally credited with helping to promote and define African American literature as a genre during this time period, including fiction writers Toni Morrison and Alice Walker and poet

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A genre of African American literature that developed in the middle of the 19th century is the slave narrative, accounts written by fugitive slaves about their lives in the South and, often, after escaping to freedom. They wanted to describe the cruelties of life under slavery, as well as the

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Beginning in the 1970s, African American literature reached the mainstream as books by Black writers continually achieved best-selling and award-winning status. This was also the time when the work of African American writers began to be accepted by academia as a legitimate genre of American

2061:, which make use of deliberate repetition, cadence, and alliteration. African American literature—especially written poetry, but also prose—has a strong tradition of incorporating all of these forms of oral poetry. These characteristics do not occur in all works by African American writers. 2263:" ("The Mulatto") in 1837. It is the first known work of fiction by an African American, but as it was written in French and published in a French journal, it had apparently no influence on later American literature. Séjour never returned to African American themes in his subsequent works. 3784:

language. These works are widely known across the United States now. It is proof that there is a considerable gap in the literature that is available for US readers. This issue contributes to the problem of racial discrimination fostering the ignorant awareness of the white community.

2736:, she lost her job and found herself reduced to doing odd jobs. Although she acknowledged the cruelties of her enslavement and her resentment towards it, Keckley chose to focus her narrative on the incidents that "moulded her character", and on how she proved herself "worth her salt". 3908:

People opposed to this group-based approach to writing say that it limits the ability of literature to explore the overall human condition. Critics also disagree with classifying writers on the basis of their race, as they believe this is limiting and artists can tackle any subject.

2494:, which was published in 1845. At the time some critics attacked the book, not believing that a black man could have written such an eloquent work. Despite this, the book was an immediate bestseller. Douglass later revised and expanded his autobiography, which was republished as 1856:

Like most writers, African American writers draw on their every day lived experiences for inspiration on material to write about, therefore African American literature was dominated by autobiographical spiritual narratives throughout much of the 19th century. The genre known as

3128:, which made a powerful impression on Black writers during the 1940s, '50s and '60s. Just as Black activists were pushing to end segregation and racism and create a new sense of Black nationalism, so too were Black authors attempting to address these issues with their writings. 4053:, 2014) suggests a different composition for the tradition and argues its contemporary vitality. Her thesis is that legally cognizable racial identities are sustained through constitutional or legislative act, and these nurture the "legal fiction" of African American identity. 3996:

criticized Walker's novel for its negative portrayal of African American men: "I leave it to readers to decide which book pushes harder at the boundaries of convention, and inhabits most confidently the space where fiction and philosophy meet." Walker responded in her essays

2704:(1825–1911) wrote four novels, several volumes of poetry, and numerous stories, poems, essays and letters. Born to free parents in Baltimore, Maryland, Harper received an uncommonly thorough education at her uncle, William Watkins' school. In 1853, publication of Harper's 2623:

After the end of slavery and the American Civil War, a number of African American authors wrote nonfiction works about the condition of African Americans in the United States. Many African American women wrote about the principles of behavior of life during the period.

2296:, who Jefferson owned. (In the late 20th century, DNA testing affirmed that Jefferson was the father of six children with Hemings; four survived to adulthood, and he gave all their freedom.) The novel was first published in England, where Brown lived for several years. 2485:–1895) first came to public attention in the North as an orator for abolition and as the author of a moving slave narrative. He eventually became the most prominent African American of his time and one of the most influential lecturers and authors in American history. 3839:

means that, in American society, literary acceptance has traditionally been intimately tied in with the very power dynamics which perpetrated such evils as racial discrimination. By borrowing from and incorporating the non-written oral traditions and folk life of the

4030:. In order to substantiate this claim, he cites both the societal pressures to create a distinctly black American literature for uplift and the lack of a well formulated essential notion of literary blackness. For this scholar, the late 19th and early 20th centuries 2038:, although scholars distinguish between the two, saying that "African American literature differs from most post-colonial literature in that it is written by members of a minority community who reside within a nation of vast wealth and economic power." 9901: 2425:

abolitionist struggle are the most famous because they tend to have a strong autobiographical motif. Many of them are now recognized as the most literary of all 19th-century writings by African Americans, with two of the best-known being

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wrote many poems throughout her career including, Forest Leaves (1845), Sketches of Southern Life (1891), and Lola Leroy or Shadows Uplifted (1892). Many of her poems were written about alcoholism and its effect on the black community.

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in the United States and other parts of the world. These critics reject bringing identity politics into literature because this would mean that "only women could write about women for women, and only Blacks about Blacks for Blacks."

4884:"William Wells Brown, 1814?-1884: Clotel; or, The President's Daughter: A Narrative of Slave Life in the United States. By William Wells Brown, A Fugitive Slave, Author of 'Three Years in Europe.' With a Sketch of the Author's Life" 3755:

As a matter of fact, the literature industry in the United States including publishing and translation has always been described as predominantly white. Definitely, there were some principal works written by black authors such as

1672: 1559: 2318:, that is, a mixed-race person deciding to identify as white rather than black. It also explored northern racism, in the context of a brutally realistic race riot closely resembling the Philadelphia race riots of 1834 and 1835. 2519:

African American women who wrote spiritual narratives had to negotiate the precarious positions of being black and women in early America. Women claimed their authority to preach and write spiritual narratives by citing the

6191: 3955:. Du Bois thought the novel's frank depictions of sexuality and the nightlife in Harlem appealed only to the "prurient demand" of white readers and publishers looking for portrayals of Black "licentiousness". Du Bois said, 3925:

Some of the criticism of African American literature over the years has come from within the community; some argue that black literature sometimes does not portray black people in a positive light and that it should.

2227:". Writing at the age of 76 after a lifetime of slavery, Hammon said: "If we should ever get to Heaven, we shall find nobody to reproach us for being black, or for being slaves." He also promoted the idea of gradual 3912:

Proponents counter that the exploration of group and ethnic dynamics through writing deepens human understanding and previously, entire groups of people were ignored or neglected by American literature. (Jay, 1997)

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has facilitated publication of African American literature. Founded in 1996 by Memphis Vaughn, TimBookTu has been a pioneer offering an online audience poetry, fiction, essays and other forms of the written word.

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Gates, Jr, has said, "it is fair to describe the subtext of the history of black letters as this urge to refute the claim that because blacks had no written traditions they were bearers of an inferior culture."

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argues that the social imagination of race is expressly constituted in law and is expressively represented through the imaginative composition of literary fictions. As long as US law specifies a black body as

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articulated this view in his essay "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain" (1926). He wrote that Black artists intended to express themselves freely no matter what the Black public or white public thought.

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Since African American literature is already popular with mainstream audiences, its ability to develop new styles and voices—or to remain "authentic," in the words of some critics—may be a thing of the past.

4744: 2970:(1950) is a collection of stories about centering on Simple published in book form. Until his death in 1967, Hughes published nine volumes of poetry, eight books of short stories, two novels and a number of 6792: 2784:(UNIA). He encouraged black nationalism and for people of African ancestry to look favorably upon their ancestral homeland. He wrote a number of essays published as editorials in the UNIA house organ, the 3123:

This migration produced a new sense of independence in the Black community and contributed to the vibrant Black urban culture seen during the Harlem Renaissance. The migration also empowered the growing

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an autobiography published in 1789 that became one of the first influential works about the transatlantic slave trade and the experiences of enslaved Africans. His work was published sixteen years after

8498: 8493: 2718:, brought her national attention. Harper was hired by the Maine Anti-Slavery Society and in the first six weeks, she managed to travel to twenty cities, giving at least thirty-one lectures. Her book 5149: 2732:(1818–1907) was a former slave who managed to establish a successful career as a dressmaker who catered to the Washington political elite after obtaining her freedom. However, soon after publishing 8505: 1544: 6677: 5970: 5903: 2488:

Born into slavery in Maryland, Douglass eventually escaped and worked for numerous abolitionist causes. He also edited a number of newspapers. Douglass's best-known work is his autobiography,

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in 1929. Addressing prejudice between lighter-skinned and darker-skinned Blacks, the novel infuriated many African Americans, who did not like the public airing of their "dirty laundry".

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It is also worth noting that a number of important essays and books about human rights were written by the leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. One of the leading examples of these is

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While Hurston and Hughes are the two most influential writers to come out of the Harlem Renaissance, a number of other writers also became well known during this period. They include

1815:'s work (c. 1753–1784). She was an enslaved African woman who became the first African American to publish a book of poetry, which was published in 1773. Her collection, was titled 1539: 3174:(1940), which tells the story of Bigger Thomas, a Black man struggling for acceptance in Chicago. Baldwin was so impressed by the novel that he titled a collection of his own essays 5183: 192: 3818:

racism and discrimination, and is an attempt to refute the dominant culture's literature and power. In addition, supporters see the literature existing both within and outside

9893: 8181: 4062:," it confers a cognizable legal status onto that body. US fictions use that legal identity to construct narratives — from neo-slave narratives to contemporary novels such as 2490: 838: 4008: 6986: 2446:

was written under the pseudonym "Linda Brent", the autobiography can be traced through a series of letters from Jacobs to various friends and advisors, most importantly to

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Writers' Retreat: Despite the proliferation of Black authors and titles in today's marketplace, many look to literary journals to carry on the torch for the written word"

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Alice Walker is known for her contribution to African American Literature. One of her more famous novels is The Color Purple (1982) which received criticism and praise.

3042:, who in his poems described everyday black life (such as a trip he made to Baltimore that was ruined by a racial insult). Cullen's books include the poetry collections 2828:(1906) provide revealing glimpses into the lives of rural African Americans of the day. Though Dunbar died young, he was a prolific poet, essayist, novelist (among them 1549: 1501: 3876:

being just two artistic examples that developed in isolation within the Black community before reaching a larger audience and eventually revitalizing American culture.

2881:, it was part of a larger flowering of social thought and culture. Numerous Black artists, musicians and others produced classic works in fields from jazz to theater. 1511: 1506: 3959:'Home to Harlem' ... for the most part nauseates me, and after the dirtier parts of its filth I feel distinctly like taking a bath." Others made similar criticism of 3826:

of American literature. In addition, there are some within the African American community who do not like how their own literature sometimes showcases Black people.

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power." In producing their own literature, African Americans were able to establish their own literary traditions devoid of the white intellectual filter. In 1922,

9869: 2370:' style.– Many critics are still attempting to decode its literary significance and establish its contributions to the study of early African American literature. 1802: 2399:" novels in response, purporting to truly describe life under slavery, as well as the more severe cruelties suffered by free labor in the North. Examples include 6037: 2104:." Signifying also refers to the way in which African American "authors read and critique other African-American texts in an act of rhetorical self-definition." 1491: 2442:

Jacobs (1813–1897) was born a slave in Edenton, North Carolina and was the first woman to author a slave narrative in the United States. Although her narrative

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Criticism regarding African American literature in the spaces of education have influenced which stories can and should be taught in schools. Nina Mikkelsen's

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detective novels featuring "Coffin" Ed Johnson and "Gravedigger" Jones, two New York City police detectives. Himes paved the way for the later crime novels of

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in 1988. This story describes a slave who found freedom but killed her infant daughter to save her from a life of slavery. Another important Morrison novel is

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and those who were immigrants from Jamaica and other Caribbean islands. African American writers have been recognized by the highest awards, including the

5141: 2212:. Hammon, considered the first published Black writer in America, published his poem "An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ with Penitential Cries" as a 1496: 173: 3279:

focuses on a poor Black family living in Chicago. The play won the 1959 New York Drama Critics' Circle Award. Another playwright who gained attention was

1486: 1481: 2288:(1853), considered to be the first novel written by an African American. It was based on the persistent (and later confirmed true) rumor that president 1861:

in the 19th century were accounts by people who had generally escaped from slavery, about their journeys to freedom and ways they claimed their lives.

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is the author of the oldest known piece of African American literature, "Bars Fight". Terry wrote the ballad in 1746 after a Native American attack on

4070:– that take constitutional fictions of race and their frames (contracts, property, and evidence) to compose the narratives that cohere the tradition. 3180:, in reference to Wright's novel. However, their friendship fell apart due to one of the book's essays, "Everybody's Protest Novel," which criticized 10850: 7994: 7129: 6674: 5967: 5900: 5713: 4320: 3067: 1927:

included accounts of life in enslavement and the path of justice and redemption to freedom. There was an early distinction between the literature of

1516: 1396: 6764: 5687: 4625: 8488: 6965: 6699: 6620: 2603:(1797–1883) was a leading advocate in both the abolitionist and feminist movements in the 19th century. Born Isabella to a wealthy Dutch master in 2530:

was born in 1790 in America to free parents. She was a preacher for five years in England without the support of a denomination. She published her

6739: 5989: 2553:. Maria Stewart was known for her public speeches in which she talked about the role of black women and race relations. Her works were praised by 10391: 9036: 8276: 5785: 3528: 2224: 2201:

was republished with "several introductory documents designed to authenticate Wheatley and her poetry and to substantiate her literary motives."

712: 2177:. Wheatley was not only the first African American to publish a book, but the first to achieve an international reputation as a writer. Born in 9105: 9080: 4578:

Henry Louis Gates Jr., "The Blackness of Blackness: A Critique of the Sign and the Signifying Monkey", in Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan (eds),

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at a time when neither of these identities was accepted by American culture. In all, Baldwin wrote nearly 20 books, including such classics as

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and her efforts to obtain her freedom. Keckley was also deeply committed to programs of racial improvement and protection and helped found the

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into the field of literature. According to these critics, literature is splitting into distinct and separate groupings because of the rise of

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that allude to the social injustices African Americans have faced in American history. Incorporating these themes with characteristics of the

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Early African American spiritual autobiographies were published in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Authors of such narratives include

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merchant. By the time she was 16, she had mastered her new language of English. Her poetry was praised by many of the leading figures of the

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The West Indies: Being a Description of the Islands, Progress of Christianity, Education, and Liberty Among the Colored Population Generally

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As African Americans' place in American society has changed over the centuries, so has the focus of African American literature. Before the

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wrote that "the great mission of the Negro to America and to the modern world" was to develop "Art and the appreciation of the Beautiful".

1706: 1686: 1446: 938: 923: 410: 42: 6061: 89: 8848: 8620: 1839: 1451: 1431: 5175: 3484:

The 1970s also saw African American books by and about African American life topping the bestseller lists. Among the first to do so was

3227:(1999), was pieced together from the 2,000-plus pages he had written over 40 years. A fuller version of the manuscript was published as 61: 9068: 8012: 8007: 6460:

Stanford, Ann Folwell (1994). "Mechanisms of Disease: African-American Women Writers, Social Pathologies, and the Limits of Medicine".

6169: 6147: 6125: 6098: 2500:(1855). In addition to serving in a number of political posts during his life, he also wrote numerous influential articles and essays. 2185:, Wheatley was captured and sold into slavery at around the age of seven. Kidnapped to Massachusetts, she was purchased and owned by a 1880:

in 1993. Among the themes and issues explored in this literature are the role of African Americans within the larger American society,

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freedom and equality long denied to Blacks in the United States, along with further themes such as African American culture, racism,

1381: 1258: 292: 5176:"The 100 best nonfiction books: No 68 – Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave by Frederick Douglass (1845)" 4751: 10386: 10160: 9075: 8705: 8226: 7448: 7280: 4793: 2395:(1852) by Harriet Beecher Stowe's representing the abolitionist view of the evils of slavery. Southern white writers produced the " 1837:

who was a former enslaved person who became a prominent abolitionist, orator, and writer famous for his autobiographies, including

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tells the story of Celie, a young woman who is sexually abused by her stepfather and then is forced to marry a man who physically

3402:. Morrison herself would later emerge as one of the most important African American writers of the 20th century. Her first novel, 2541:

published a collection of her religious writings with an autobiographical experience attached in 1879. The publication was called

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predates the emergence of the United States as an independent country, and African American literature has similarly deep roots.

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isolation and help revitalize the larger literary world (McKay, 2004). This artistic pattern has held true with many aspects of

10814: 10323: 10144: 10064: 9100: 9095: 9063: 8833: 8737: 8700: 8647: 8481: 6601: 5946: 3326:(1968), a collection of black writings released by a major publisher. This anthology, and Emanuel's work as an educator at the 1386: 1371: 1278: 5578: 2790:

newspaper. Some of his lecture material and other writings were compiled and published as nonfiction books by his second wife

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model of health that reveals the important role of the social (racist, classist, sexist) contexts in which bodies function.

3283:, who wrote controversial off-Broadway plays. In more recent years, Baraka became known for his poetry and music criticism. 10845: 10835: 10543: 9941: 9006: 8991: 8855: 8764: 8759: 8693: 7154: 6186: 2611:. Truth never learned to read or write but in 1850, she worked with Olive Gilbert, a sympathetic white woman, to write the 2532:

Memoirs of the Life, Religious Experience, Ministerial Travel and Labours of Mrs. Zilpha Elaw, an American Female of Colour

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of the 1920s was a great period of flowering in literature and the arts, influenced both by writers who came North in the

1825:

Other prominent writers of the 18th century that helped shape the tone and direction of African American literature were,

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poetry), heavily influenced the birth of the genre. Other influential African American anthologies of this time included

2809: 2672:(1856–1915), who in many ways represented opposite views from Du Bois. Washington was an educator and the founder of the 2282:. He was a prolific writer, beginning with an account of his escape to freedom and experience under slavery. Brown wrote 1328: 1308: 1153: 722: 568: 9301: 3184:

for lacking credible characters and psychological complexity. Among Wright's other books are the autobiographical novel

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The slave narratives were integral to African American literature. Some 6,000 former slaves from North America and the

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Nine Black Women: An Anthology of Nineteenth-Century Writers from the United States, Canada, Bermuda and the Caribbean

4015:

about jazz and music): "There is no such thing as Black literature. There's good literature and bad. And that's all."

3104:, Black people left the racism and lack of opportunities in the American South and settled in northern cities such as 2999:

to novel-length fiction, her writings fell into obscurity for decades. Her work was rediscovered in the 1970s through

2270:, lecturer, novelist, playwright, and historian. Born into slavery in Kentucky, he was working on riverboats based in 10840: 10638: 10573: 10381: 10341: 9118: 7508: 7159: 7008: 6948: 6896: 6714: 6616: 5884: 5863: 5753: 4871: 4499: 4477: 4432: 3795:. At times, she has brought African American writers a far broader audience than they otherwise might have received. 3721:

being just a few of the well-known authors. Many of these novelist take influence from writings like Toni Morrison's

3013:

and later retitled "Looking for Zora". Walker found in Hurston a role model for all female African American writers.

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from 1920 to 1940 was a flowering of African American literature and art. Based in the African American community of

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Powerful pages: Unprecedented Public Impact of W.W. Norton and Co's Norton Anthology of African American Literature"

2647:(1868–1963), who had a doctorate in philosophy from Harvard University, and was one of the original founders of the 10729: 10473: 10429: 10200: 9046: 9011: 8996: 8754: 8356: 7600: 7570: 7386: 7115: 5685:

Powerful pages—unprecedented public impact of W.W. Norton and Co's Norton Anthology of African American Literature"

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academics and intellectuals argue that African American literature exists as a separate topic only because of the

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James Emanuel took a major step toward defining African American literature when he edited (with Theodore Gross)

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was so influential that it secured his place in literary history. After Ellison's death in 1994, a second novel,

2839:

Other African American writers also rose to prominence in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Among these is

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Interracial Encounters: Reciprocal Representations in African American and Asian American literatures, 1896-1937

5875:

Quote from Marjorie Pryse in "The Other Ghost in Beloved: The Specter of the Scarlet Letter" by Jan Stryz, from

5601: 3390:, meanwhile, helped promote Black literature and authors in the 1960s and '70s when she worked as an editor for 10714: 10533: 10413: 8823: 8717: 8632: 8236: 5488: 4566: 4536: 4456: 4386: 4329: 3516: 3229: 1657: 1333: 1283: 46: 4011:, critiqued the idea of African American literature by saying (paraphrasing the comment by the black composer 10261: 10088: 9993: 9877: 9744: 9579: 9156: 8860: 8793: 8776: 8722: 8671: 8610: 8515: 8476: 8416: 8216: 7605: 7585: 7392: 7371: 7079: 5627: 4904:"'Faithfully Drawn from Real Life' Autobiographical Elements in Frank J. Webb's The Garies and Their Friends" 3738: 3572: 3080:(1929), which focused on interracial prejudice between lighter-skinned and darker-skinned African Americans. 3076: 2076:". Gates claims that signifying "is a trope in which are subsumed several other rhetorical tropes, including 1348: 1318: 1303: 1288: 1263: 1243: 865: 499: 366: 3970:

Many African American writers thought their literature should present the full truth about life and people.

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in 1897, a book of poetry on religious, spiritual, and occasionally feminist themes with an introduction by

2351:

is a counter-narrative to the forms of the sentimental novel and mother-centered novel of the 19th century.

10739: 10588: 10421: 10376: 10042: 9733: 9640: 9537: 8683: 8659: 8654: 8637: 8605: 8548: 7661: 7610: 7443: 4174: 4169: 4108: 3447: 2987: 2363: 1376: 1268: 1253: 1238: 1205: 504: 183: 9313: 5710: 4765:. Vol. 126, no. 4331. London, UK: Statesman and Nation Publishing Company, Ltd. pp. 52–53. 3944:

consistently stated that literature was a tool in the struggle for African American political liberation.

3822:

and as helping to revitalize the country's writing. To critics , African American literature is part of a

3168:, whom Baldwin called "the greatest Black writer in the world for me". Wright is best known for his novel 2651:

in 1910. At the turn of the century, Du Bois published a highly influential collection of essays entitled

10675: 10466: 10445: 10192: 9548: 8948: 8940: 8883: 8798: 8286: 8191: 8047: 8029: 7931: 7590: 7285: 7205: 7184: 6851: 5684: 4849:, by Jupiter Hammon, servant of John Lloyd, Jun, Esq; of the manor of Queen's Village, Long-Island. 1778. 4092: 3380: 3291: 3192: 2748:

in Washington, D.C., as a result. In addition to this, Keckley taught at Wilberforce University in Ohio.

2625: 1826: 1599: 1589: 1584: 1579: 1323: 795: 586: 556: 494: 371: 261: 82: 2245:(1817–1874) produced the earliest works of fiction by African American writers. Séjour was born free in 1923:, the literature primarily consisted of memoirs by people who had escaped from enslavement—the genre of 10633: 10608: 10598: 9957: 9738: 9183: 8966: 8903: 8893: 8443: 8201: 8161: 7518: 7212: 6847: 6650:

The Trials of Phillis Wheatley: America's First Black Poet and Her Encounters With the Founding Fathers

6221:"Insiders, Outsiders, and the Question of Authenticity: Who Shall Write for African American Children?" 5986: 4737: 4713:. Vol. 10, no. 45. London, UK: Statesman and Nation Publishing Company, Ltd. pp. 52–53. 3413: 2947: 2812:

of the day, was the first African American poet to gain national prominence. His first book of poetry,

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were a popular venue for essays, poetry and fiction as well as journalism, with newspaper writers like

2586: 1614: 1594: 1097: 1032: 805: 707: 674: 461: 346: 6010: 5777: 2950:" as a young teen. His single, most recognized character is Jesse B. Simple, a plainspoken, pragmatic 10734: 10618: 10583: 10508: 10254: 9917: 9885: 9650: 8875: 8688: 8520: 8081: 7580: 7418: 7225: 6796: 6631: 6415:"Intellectual Activism: The Praxis of Dr. Anna Julia Cooper as a Blueprint for Equity-Based Pedagogy" 4816: 4810: 4075:

Insiders, Outsiders, and the Question of Authenticity: Who Shall Write for African American Children?

3431: 2496: 2315: 2235:

until his death. In the 19th century, his speech was later reprinted by several abolitionist groups.

1569: 1313: 1273: 562: 9428: 6538: 10744: 10578: 9965: 9610: 9149: 8565: 8129: 8042: 7686: 7475: 7290: 7230: 7220: 7146: 5131:, vol. 53, no. 3, 1981, pp. 479–486. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2926234. Retrieved April 25, 2021. 4254: 4239: 3865: 3787:

Finally, African American literature has gained added attention through the work of talk-show host

3747: 3631: 3327: 2142: 2124: 2035: 1881: 1148: 928: 775: 659: 433: 314: 142: 9405: 5567:

The Tar Baby and the Tomahawk: Race and Ethnic Images in American Children's Literature, 1880-1939

3677:

African Americans are also represented in the genres of science fiction, fantasy and horror, with

3494:. A fictionalized account of Haley's family history—beginning with the kidnapping of his ancestor 2766:. Brown was a qualified teacher but she was also extremely active as an advocate against slavery. 2064:

Some scholars resist using Western literary theory to analyze African American literature. As the

10809: 10764: 9835: 9759: 9681: 9564: 9216: 8898: 8448: 8102: 8071: 7851: 7791: 7656: 7399: 6788: 4903: 4275: 4233: 3772: 3694: 3418: 3165: 3151: 3145:, wrote deeply personal stories and essays while examining what it was like to be both Black and 2653: 2615:. This narrative was a contribution to both the slave narrative and female spiritual narratives. 2604: 2401: 1952: 1662: 1604: 1067: 1027: 750: 649: 527: 341: 35: 10698: 10623: 10523: 10518: 10503: 10219: 10136: 9625: 9453: 9336: 9319: 9240: 8813: 8543: 7781: 7575: 7565: 7503: 7313: 7252: 6840: 6331: 6058: 5304: 5298: 4730: 4127: 3947:

Du Bois's belief in the propaganda value of art showed when he clashed in 1928 with the author

3843:, African American literature broke "the mystique of connection between literary authority and 3287: 3132: 2723: 2558: 2406: 2336: 2069: 361: 351: 331: 10799: 5273: 5267: 5212: 5206: 5046: 5039: 2565:

tradition and focus on the specific plight of African Americans in America during the period.

10693: 10168: 10104: 9717: 9691: 9589: 9353: 9288: 9210: 8888: 8401: 8266: 8221: 8037: 7756: 7721: 7540: 7523: 7330: 7247: 7085:

African American Literatures and Cultures Institute of The University of Texas at San Antonio

6832: 4722: 4050: 3663: 3209: 3176: 3125: 2902: 2709: 2414: 2307: 2279: 2174: 1948: 985: 975: 907: 870: 654: 644: 544: 225: 6916: 6663: 6438: 6414: 6164: 6142: 6120: 6095: 3258:. Along with Brooks, other female poets who became well known during the 1950s and '60s are 3026:, a famous collection of stories, poems, and sketches about rural and urban Black life, and 10794: 10724: 10538: 10366: 10356: 10018: 9909: 9802: 9604: 9130: 8538: 8301: 8112: 8064: 7936: 7826: 7731: 7498: 7488: 7460: 7325: 7179: 6073: 5532: 4223: 4059: 4042: 3792: 3762: 3627: 3347: 3055: 2913: 2852: 2805: 2714: 2701: 2669: 2391: 2344: 2343:

is a literary work which speaks to the difficult life of free blacks in the North who were

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Scott, Daniel M. III (Fall–Winter 2004). "Harlem Shadows: Re-evaluating Wallace Thurman's

8: 10719: 10685: 10670: 10603: 10560: 10528: 10361: 9973: 9764: 9671: 9553: 9512: 9507: 9400: 8913: 8271: 8186: 7666: 7455: 7345: 7275: 5721: 4761:

Cashmore, Ellis (April 25, 1997). "The Norton Anthology of African-American Literature".

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heritage and shaped it in many countries. It has been created within the larger realm of

1968: 1609: 1087: 1049: 466: 297: 8918: 6859: 3791:, who repeatedly has leveraged her fame to promote literature through the medium of her 1092: 10789: 10653: 10593: 10489: 10315: 9594: 9365: 9264: 8986: 8923: 8666: 8124: 7891: 7871: 7776: 7701: 7528: 7433: 7423: 7411: 7302: 7199: 7174: 6824: 6808: 6520: 6477: 6442: 6434: 6395: 6356: 6307: 6240: 5019: 4944: 4786: 4766: 4447:

Katherine Driscoll Coon, "A Rip in the Tent: Teaching African American Literature", in

4401:

Doers of the Word: African-American Women Speakers and Writers in the North (1830–1880)

4289: 4281: 3993: 3798: 3544: 3442: 3270: 3223: 3157: 3136: 2982: 2938:, and a collection of short stories. In 1926, Hughes published a collection of poetry, 2870: 2864: 2791: 2673: 2658: 2554: 2509: 2472: 2463: 2426: 2274:, when he escaped to Ohio. He began to work for abolitionist causes, making his way to 2010: 1960: 1920: 1865: 1834: 980: 765: 532: 509: 198: 9841: 9246: 6563: 6262: 4883: 3236: 10769: 10613: 10227: 9813: 9697: 9410: 8433: 8154: 7816: 7786: 7381: 7138: 7014: 7004: 6976: 6954: 6944: 6923: 6899: 6892: 6866: 6855: 6816: 6756:

Nishikawa, K. "Crime and Mystery Fiction". Hans Ostrom and J. David Macey, Jr (eds),

6612: 6512: 6469: 6446: 6399: 6348: 6311: 6199: 5880: 5859: 5820:, Vol. 35, No. 1, Transgressing the Borders of "America" (Spring 2010), pp. 184–186. 5749: 5484: 5308: 5277: 5216: 5108: 5050: 4967: 4867: 4820: 4782: 4774: 4714: 4685: 4662: 4562: 4532: 4495: 4473: 4452: 4428: 4404: 4382: 4209: 4157: 4151: 3901: 3742: 3682: 3639: 3576: 3395: 3369: 2874: 2821: 2741: 2729: 2662: 2447: 2275: 2194: 2042: 1964: 1897: 785: 626: 133: 6722:

Haiti and Black Transnationalism: Remapping the Migrant Geography of Home to Harlem"

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Sisters of the Spirit: Three Black Women's Autobiographies of the Nineteenth Century

5208:

Sisters of the Spirit: Three Black Women's Autobiographies of the Nineteenth Century

3587:

also have been praised for their innovative work. Notable black playwrights include

1165: 10804: 10665: 10657: 10643: 10026: 9781: 9472: 9307: 8589: 8560: 8555: 8453: 8421: 8394: 8119: 7736: 7706: 7696: 7691: 7258: 7099:

Guide to the Alfred Willis Collection of African-American Popular Fiction 1958-2016

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In the African-American Grain: Call and Response in Twentieth-Century Black Fiction

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Haiti and Black Transnationalism: Remapping the Migrant Geography of Home to Harlem

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argues that black American writing, as a literature, began with the institution of

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During this time, a number of playwrights also came to national attention, notably

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The Civil Rights time period also saw the rise of female Black poets, most notably

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to Phillis Wheatley, in which he discussed their shared humanity and common bonds.

2209: 2157: 2118: 2031: 1983: 1956: 1940: 1858: 1812: 1160: 1017: 845: 780: 760: 669: 5854:"The Other Ghost in Beloved: The Specter of the Scarlet Letter" by Jan Stryz from 4839: 2916:, this anthology featured the work of the period's most talented poets, including 2468: 2242: 10784: 10397: 10351: 10176: 10128: 10112: 10080: 9949: 9792: 9728: 9660: 9543: 9502: 9459: 9359: 9258: 9172: 8584: 8411: 8321: 8316: 8247:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

8097: 8052: 7906: 7896: 7876: 7861: 7761: 7636: 7626: 7265: 7089: 6998: 6938: 6681: 6430: 6195: 6173: 6151: 6129: 6102: 6083: 6065: 6041: 6017: 5993: 5974: 5950: 5927: 5907: 5825: 5717: 5691: 5667: 5660: 5652: 4910: 4890: 4859: 4846: 4605: 4377:

Jerry W. Ward, Jr., "To Shatter Innocence: Teaching African American Poetry", in

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Behind the Scenes; or, Thirty Years as a Slave and Four Years in the White House

2385:

persistent humanity of the slaves as persons. At the time, the controversy over

2321:

The first novel published in the United States by an African American woman was

2130: 1967:. Today, African American literature has become accepted as an integral part of 10779: 9807: 9787: 9774: 9712: 9676: 9599: 9517: 9434: 9371: 9234: 9228: 9021: 8426: 8389: 8379: 8139: 8134: 8076: 7911: 7841: 7771: 7766: 7270: 7194: 6882: 5920: 5735: 4309: 4122: 4012: 3730: 3718: 3698: 3690: 3588: 3564: 3507: 3452: 3373: 3259: 3249: 3039: 3009: 2971: 2922: 2777: 2436: 2322: 2205: 2057:. This oral poetry also appears in the African American tradition of Christian 2019: 1992: 1844: 1647: 1072: 1042: 800: 790: 621: 5807: 5745: 2389:

led to impassioned literature on both sides of the issue, with novels such as

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The Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States

6749:

Nishikawa, K. "African American Critical Theory". Emmanuel S. Nelson (ed.),

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Written By Herself: Literary Production by African American Women, 1746–1892

4107:. African American women's literature can be dated as far back as 1845 with 3217:

in 1953. Even though he did not complete another novel during his lifetime,

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Yellin, Jean Fagan. "Written by Herself: Harriet Jacobs' Slave Narrative."

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was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize in 1994. Cassells is a recipient of the

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back to the attention of the literary world. In 1982, Walker won both the

10010: 9754: 9702: 9522: 9465: 9270: 9222: 8311: 8296: 8144: 8107: 7946: 7901: 7886: 7651: 7646: 7493: 7069: 6987:"Seeds of Rebellion in Plantation Fiction: Victor Séjour's 'The Mulatto'" 6376:""In Service for the Common Good": Anna Julia Cooper and Adult Education" 5810:

Writing the Future of Black America: Literature of the Hip-Hop Generation

5105:

Expression of Self Emancipation: A Study of Black Women's Autobiographies

3844: 3706: 3643: 3495: 3423: 3363: 3355: 3339: 3311: 3254: 3093: 3035: 3017: 2786: 2527: 2354:

Another recently discovered work of early African American literature is

2254: 2246: 2232: 1896:. African-American writing has tended to incorporate oral forms, such as 1873: 1366: 1022: 875: 755: 539: 6360: 5985:, College of Education, Cal State San Bernardino; Stephanie Y. Mitchem, 5041:

In Search of Hannah Crafts: Critical Essays on The Bondwoman's Narrative

4626:"Brief History of African-American Literature. Part 1. Slave Narratives" 2331:(1859). It expressed the difficulties of lives of northern free Blacks. 10235: 10184: 10120: 9847: 9722: 9635: 9619: 9527: 9276: 7846: 7831: 7801: 7796: 7545: 7513: 7352: 7320: 6828: 6524: 6481: 6391: 6303: 6244: 5023: 4948: 4928: 4657: 4640: 4087: 3935: 3854: 3598: 3511: 3499: 3491: 3399: 3170: 3108:, where they found work in factories and other sectors of the economy. 2568: 2182: 2138: 2101: 2085: 2001:

by Toni Morrison achieving both best-selling and award-winning status.

1978: 1932: 1794: 471: 210: 8182:

Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)

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Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England

4559:

The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African American Literary Criticism

4492:

Beyond Douglass: New Perspectives on Early African-American Literature

3654:, to name a few. African American literature has also crossed over to 3594:

For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide When the Rainbow Is Enuf

2884: 2782:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League

1939:

At the turn of the 20th century, non-fiction works by authors such as

10458: 8460: 8306: 7811: 7595: 7533: 7428: 7102: 7094:

Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress

6891:"Negro Tales from Pine Bluff, Arkansas, and Calvin, Michigan", 1958. 6693:

Historical Research and Narrative of Chicago and the Great Migration"

6344: 5734:

Weinauer, Ellen (November 23, 2017). "Race and the American Gothic".

5711:

James A. Emanuel: A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress

4641:"Liberation Technology: Black Printed Protest in the Age of Franklin" 4244: 3647: 3556: 3430:, and brotherhood. Morrison is the first African American to win the 3186: 2776:(1887–1940), was a newspaper publisher, journalist, and activist for 2421: 2093: 1696: 1037: 770: 549: 376: 7107: 6804: 6508: 6236: 5015: 4940: 2796:

Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey Or, Africa for the Africans

24: 10002: 9686: 9644: 9141: 8933: 8928: 8438: 7093: 6733:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, Second Edition

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of literature over the last few decades, or as an extension of the

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as a way to end slavery. Hammon is thought to have been a slave on

2081: 2077: 2015: 1928: 1082: 1007: 1000: 8197:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

3745:'s have begun to gain literary honor and critique. Butler's work, 2635: 2030:

African American literature has both been influenced by the great

10072: 7550: 6539:"Frances Ellen Watkins Harper House (U.S. National Park Service)" 5146:

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

4927:

O'Meally, Robert; Wilson, Harriet E.; Gates, Henry Louis (1984).

4741: 4031: 3111: 3105: 2770: 2386: 2327: 2178: 2097: 2065: 2054: 1913: 1889: 1170: 476: 9958:

Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States

5659:, Houghton Mifflin Co. Retrieved July 6, 2005. James Grossman, " 2954:

whose comedic observations appeared in Hughes's columns for the

1947:

debated how to confront racism in the United States. During the

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has become popular recently in the African American community.

2951: 2561:. Stewart's works have been argued to be a refashioning of the 2284: 2253:) and moved to France at the age of 19. There he published his 2186: 2058: 1901: 1885: 1077: 9894:

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave

7074: 6888:"Negro Folktales in Michigan", Harvard University Press, 1956. 5002:

Stern, Julia (September 1995). "Excavating Genre in Our Nig".

4858:

Victor Séjour, Philip Barnard (translator). "The Mulatto." In

2491:

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave

1840:

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave

8196: 7084: 7037: 6751:

The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Multiethnic American Literature

6621:

Review of the Norton Anthology of African American Literature

5816: 4009:

Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress

3930: 2906:

in 1921. He first received attention in the 1922 publication

2648: 2089: 2050: 1909: 1797:

produced in the United States by writers of African descent.

850: 3609:, who won two Pulitzer Prizes for his plays. More recently, 8241: 4684:. New York: Oxford University Press. Kindle Location 1289. 4470:

Burnin' Down the House: Home in African American Literature

4425:

The Columbia Guide to Contemporary African American Fiction

3869: 2896:

Among the most renowned writers of the renaissance is poet

2843:, a well-known short story writer, novelist, and essayist. 2780:

who became well known in the United States. He founded the

2754:(born 1839), the youngest child of abolitionist and author 2618: 2545:. She also had two works published in 1831 and 1832 titled 2292:

had fathered a mixed-race daughter with the enslaved woman

2041:

African American oral culture is rich in poetry, including

880: 6937:

Graham, Maryemma; Ward, Jr., Jerry W., eds. (March 2011).

4529:

English Postcoloniality: Literatures from Around the World

1829:(1796–1830) An abolitionist and writer best known for his 7103:

University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center

6973:

The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Literature

6758:

The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Literature

6643:

Teaching African American Literature: Theory and Practice

4610: 3829: 3406:, was published in 1970. Among her most famous novels is 2991:(1937). Although Hurston wrote 14 books that ranged from 2217: 9870:

The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano

4427:, New York: Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 10-11, 3360:

We Speak As Liberators: Young Black Poets — An Anthology

2816:, was published in 1893. Much of Dunbar's work, such as 2595:

A Narrative of the Life and Travels of Mrs. Nancy Prince

2362:

between 1853 and 1860. Crafts was a fugitive slave from

2018:, enslavement, a sense of home, segregation, migration, 1804:

The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano

6288:"Black Feminist Studies: The Case of Anna Julia Cooper" 6188:

Legal Fictions: Constituting Race, Composing Literature

5573:, in conjunction with the Center for the Humanities at 5569:. Center for Digital Research in the Humanities at the 4926: 4047:

Legal Fictions: Constituting Race, Composing Literature

3883: 3547:. African American poets have also garnered attention. 2314:. It was the first African American fiction to portray 6760:. 5 vols. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005. 360–67. 5720:, prepared by T. Michael Womack, Manuscript Division, 4081: 3988:(1982). In his updated 1995 introduction to his novel 2981:

Another notable writer of the renaissance is novelist

6753:. 5 vols. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005. 36–41. 4703: 4701: 3752:

antebellum style houses is strategic to their craft.

3579:

won the 2007 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry with her book

2571:

published two religious autobiographical narratives:

6940:

The Cambridge History of African American Literature

6686:

Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism

5930:", James Madison University. Retrieved July 6, 2005. 5877:

The New Romanticism: a collection of critical essays

5856:

The New Romanticism: a collection of critical essays

5470:, University Press of Mississippi, January 1, 2007. 5107:. North Carolina: Lulu Publication. pp. 34–35. 4494:. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press. p. 69. 4199: 3855:

Existing both inside and outside American literature

3342:(now known as Amiri Baraka) and Larry Neal in 1968; 3330:(where he is credited with introducing the study of 3092:

A large migration of African Americans began during

3038:

Black family. Another popular renaissance writer is

2643:

Among the most prominent of post-slavery writers is

2112: 7032: 6918:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

6781:

MELUS: Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States

6641:Davis, M., M. Graham, and S. Pineault-Burke (eds). 6591:

The Oxford Companion to African American Literature

6035:

Black and Gay? A Painter Explores Historical Roots"

5979:

Johns Hopkins Guide Literary Theory & Criticism

5518:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

5503:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

5468:

Jennie Carter: A Black Journalist of the Early West

5436:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

4864:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

4812:

The Norton Anthology of African American Literature

3619:(2003), his novel about a black slaveholder in the 3248:, who became the first African American to win the 2577:

Religious Experience and Journal of Mrs. Jarena Lee

1936:largely ignored in current scholarly conversation. 1673:

Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers

49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 10438:Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery 7058:African American Women Writers of the 19th Century 6915: 6495:Christian, Barbara (1988). "The Race for Theory". 5038: 4840:An address to the Negroes in the state of New-York 4698: 4354:Timeline of African American children's literature 2306:, was also published in England, with prefaces by 16:Body of literature by Americans of African descent 7051:A Brief Chronology of African American Literature 6968:, Cambridge University Press - a 17 volume series 6872:Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2011. 5448: 5303:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 5272:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 5211:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 4638: 3502:through his life as a slave in the United States— 3336:Black Fire: An Anthology of Afro-American Writing 3252:when it was awarded for her 1949 book of poetry, 2760:Biography of an American Bondman, By His Daughter 2543:Meditations from the Pen of Mrs. Maria W. Stewart 10827: 8232:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 6611:, University of Illinois Press, reprinted 2001. 5724:, Washington, D.C., 2000. Retrieved May 6, 2006. 5454:Her Prologue: The Novels of Black American Women 4403:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 4. 3523:Other important writers in recent years include 2820:(1906), which includes photographs taken by the 2740:details Keckley's life in slavery, her work for 10392:List of last surviving American enslaved people 8277:Black players in professional American football 8227:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 6975:. 5 vols. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005. 6936: 6596:Brodhead, R. "An Anatomy of Multiculturalism". 6327:"Review: Daughters of Africa by Margaret Busby" 4163: 2722:, a collection of poems and essays prefaced by 2639:Portrait of W.E.B. DuBois, photographed in 1918 2573:The Life and Religious Experience of Jarena Lee 2225:Address to the Negroes of the State of New York 9982:Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo" 7044:American Slave Narratives: An Online Anthology 5740:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–98. 5628:"9 Fascinating Facts About Zora Neale Hurston" 5142:"The Slave Route: Who was Frederick Douglass?" 4915:Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 4531:, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1996, p. 135, 4160:discusses the issue of "minority disclosure". 3662:, who in the 1950s and '60s wrote a series of 3477:her. The novel was later made into a film by 2170:Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral 1831:Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World ( 1818:Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral 400:Education of freed people during the Civil War 10474: 9157: 7123: 6664:I hate that (The rise of identity journalism) 6115: 6113: 6111: 5895: 5893: 5850: 5848: 5698:, September 18, 1997. Retrieved July 6, 2005. 5593: 5102: 4472:, New York: Columbia University Press, 2005, 3982:of unfairly attacking black men in her novel 3920: 3310:, which was inspired by the Civil Rights and 2800:More Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey 2025: 1801:(c. 1745–1797) was an African man who wrote 1771: 7990:Historically black colleges and universities 6971:Ostrom, Hans and Macey, J. David, Jr. (eds) 6713:. Cornell University Press, 1997. Excerpted 6285: 5957:, no. 7 (Fall 1996). Retrieved July 6, 2005. 3999:The Same River Twice: Honoring the Difficult 3613:won the 2004 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for 3563:of the United States from 1993 to 1995, and 3394:, where she edited books by such authors as 3087: 2547:Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality 411:Historically black colleges and universities 6589:Andrews, W., F. Foster and T. Harris (eds). 5938: 5936: 5326: 5324: 4680:Adams, Catherine; Pleck, Elizabeth (2010). 3758:Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass 3626:Younger African American novelists include 3203:The other great novelist of this period is 3139:. Baldwin, who is best known for his novel 3077:Thinterracial heerry: A Novel of Negro Life 2668:Another prominent author of this period is 395:Education during the slave period in the US 10481: 10467: 9164: 9150: 7130: 7116: 6561: 6108: 5890: 5845: 5737:The Cambridge Companion to American Gothic 5657:The Reader's Companion to American History 4679: 4548:Ward, Jr., "To Shatter Innocence", p. 146. 4443: 4441: 4381:, ed. M. Graham, Routledge, 1998, p. 146, 3780:that were translated into many languages. 3324:Dark Symphony: Negro Literature in America 3135:, whose work addressed issues of race and 2680:in Alabama. Among his published works are 2632:(1830–1881) developing a large following. 2266:Brown, on the other hand, was a prominent 2204:Another early African American author was 1778: 1764: 718:National Black Caucus of State Legislators 10406:Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book 8207:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC) 6966:African American Literature in Transition 6494: 6286:Guy-Sheftall, Beverly (October 7, 2021). 6218: 4656: 4582:, 2nd edn, Wiley-Blackwell, 2004, p. 988. 4451:, ed. M. Graham, Routledge, 1998, p. 32, 3469:(a book written in the form of letters), 174:Slavery in the colonial history of the US 109:Learn how and when to remove this message 10851:American literature by ethnic background 10387:Treatment of slaves in the United States 10161:Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade 9475:(1766 Saint-Dominque – June 30, 1853 NY) 6711:American Literature and the Culture Wars 6459: 5933: 5733: 5706: 5704: 5674:3, no. 2 (1996). Retrieved July 6, 2005. 5321: 4986: 4961: 4896: 4760: 4707: 4591:Gates, "The Blackness of Blackness", in 4398: 3368: 3235: 3110: 2883: 2634: 2619:Reconstruction Era Literary Contributors 2467: 2129: 6373: 5901:"African-American Theory and Criticism" 5778:"Why Translating Black Writers Matters" 5265: 5204: 5186:from the original on September 22, 2018 4489: 4438: 4343:The Journal of African American History 4136: 2503: 2117:African American literature began with 10828: 10488: 10324:Frederick Douglass and the White Negro 10145:Queen: The Story of an American Family 10065:Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp 9106:Topics related to the African diaspora 8212:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) 6673:Groden, M., and M. Krieswirth (eds). " 6324: 5968:African-American Theory and Criticism" 5599: 5530: 5418: 5330: 5296: 5170: 4852: 3917:history (Andrews, 1997; McKay, 2004). 3830:Refuting the dominant literary culture 3131:One of the first writers to do so was 3070:, earned him critical acclaim. Author 10462: 10097:Roots: The Saga of an American Family 9926:Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 9362:(c. 1745 Nigeria – 31 March 1797 Eng) 9145: 9086:Landmark African-American legislation 7137: 7111: 7033:African American Literature Book Club 6913: 6870:What Was African American Literature? 6774: 6675:African-American Theory and Criticism 6256: 6254: 6214: 6212: 6166:What Was African American Literature? 6144:What Was African American Literature? 6122:What Was African American Literature? 5944:"On the Debate Over Multiculturalism" 5701: 5581:from the original on October 11, 2015 5515: 5500: 5433: 5152:from the original on November 8, 2018 5098: 5096: 5084: 5069: 5036: 5001: 4808: 4020:What Was African American Literature? 3727:Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 3487:Roots: The Saga of an American Family 3164:Baldwin's idol and friend was author 2858: 2746:Home for Destitute Women and Children 2708:, which was one of many responses to 2457: 2444:Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 2432:Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 1974:Roots: The Saga of an American Family 1850:Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 916:Athletic associations and conferences 405:History of African-American education 9942:Life and Times of Frederick Douglass 9437:(1783 England – 1821 United States) 9171: 8217:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) 6412: 6024:, Fall 2000. Retrieved July 6, 2005. 5775: 5600:Miller, Monica (December 17, 2012). 5531:Dunbar, Paul Laurence (2000-07-14). 5403: 5388: 5360: 5345: 5250: 5235: 5045:. New York: Basic Civitas. pp. 4966:. New York: Routledge. p. 118. 4449:Teaching African American Literature 4379:Teaching African American Literature 4145: 4117: 3978:More recently, some critics accused 3884:Balkanization of American literature 2900:, whose first work was published in 2335:was rediscovered and republished by 2285:Clotel; or, The President's Daughter 839:Association for the Study of African 47:adding citations to reliable sources 18: 8571:African-American Vernacular English 6996: 6735:. W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. 4082:African American women's literature 3559:won a Pulitzer Prize and served as 3074:also made an impact with his novel 2920:, who also published three novels, 2758:, wrote a biography of her father, 2373: 2216:in early 1761. In 1778 he wrote an 1653:Race and ethnicity in the US census 1154:African-American Vernacular English 723:National Conference of Black Mayors 13: 10281:The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom 10153:Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons 9431:(c. 1710 Portugal – 1734 Montreal) 9384:Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioacchino 8489:U.S. cities with large populations 8192:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 6876: 6251: 6209: 5788:from the original on June 26, 2020 5575:Washington University in St. Louis 5093: 4561:, New York: Oxford, 1988, p. xix, 3441:wrote a famous essay that brought 2208:(1711–1806?), a domestic slave in 856:National Black Chamber of Commerce 14: 10862: 10382:Songs of the Underground Railroad 10342:Abolitionism in the United States 9850:(c. 1795 Nigeria – ? Brazil) 9481:(c. 1819 – ???, Puerto Rico) 7362:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013 7358:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 7165:African American founding fathers 7026: 6908:"American Negro Folktales", 1967. 6562:Foundation, Poetry (2023-11-27). 6374:Johnson, Karen (9 October 2021). 6260: 5661:Chicago and the 'Great Migration' 4893:. Documenting the American South. 4815:. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 4527:Radhika Mohanram and Gita Rajan, 3569:Soul Make a Path through Shouting 3297: 2909:The Book of American Negro Poetry 2888:Langston Hughes, photographed by 2113:Early African American literature 1560:Places by plurality of population 226:Civil rights movement (1954–1968) 216:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 169:Abolitionism in the United States 10430:Slave Songs of the United States 9934:The Underground Railroad Records 9844:(? Puerto Rico – 1555 Venezuela) 9124: 8242:United Negro College Fund (UNCF) 7387:Nadir of American race relations 6769:Black Issues in Higher Education 6704:Black Issues in Higher Education 5696:Black Issues in Higher Education 4316:List of African American writers 4216: 4202: 3510:and became a popular television 3437:In the 1970s, novelist and poet 3115:Richard Wright, photographed by 3096:, hitting its high point during 2836:, 1901) and short story writer. 2808:, who often wrote in the rural, 2764:Biography of an American Bondman 2688:The Future of the American Negro 2593:. Later, in 1850, she published 2535:immoral literature of the time. 2151:History of Western Massachusetts 2149:and in 1855 in Josiah Holland's 1735: 257:Black Belt in the American South 23: 9810:(19th century Indian Territory) 9784:(1766 Saint-Dominque – 1853 NY) 7248:Civil rights movement 1954–1968 7238:Civil rights movement 1865–1896 7070:North American Slave Narratives 6731:McKay, N., and H. Gates (eds). 6555: 6531: 6488: 6453: 6406: 6367: 6318: 6279: 6198:, Duke University Press, 2014. 6179: 6157: 6135: 6132:Harvard University Press, 2011. 6089: 6051: 6027: 6003: 5987:"No longer nailed to the floor" 5960: 5913: 5869: 5831: 5800: 5769: 5727: 5677: 5638: 5620: 5555: 5543:from the original on 2018-12-02 5524: 5509: 5494: 5473: 5460: 5442: 5427: 5412: 5397: 5382: 5369: 5354: 5339: 5290: 5259: 5244: 5229: 5198: 5164: 5134: 5121: 5078: 5063: 5030: 4995: 4980: 4955: 4920: 4877: 4833: 4802: 4673: 4632: 4618: 4598: 4585: 4572: 4551: 4181: 4130:: By a Black Woman of the South 3005:In Search of Zora Neale Hurston 2769:Although not a US citizen, the 2720:Poems on Miscellaneous Subjects 861:National Council of Negro Women 34:needs additional citations for 10414:Slave-Trading in the Old South 9468:(c. 1788 Bermuda – after 1833) 8237:Thurgood Marshall College Fund 7243:Civil right movement 1896–1954 6943:. Cambridge University Press. 6740:No Longer Nailed to the Floor" 6263:"Frances Ellen Watkins Harper" 5776:Carr, Michael (10 June 2020). 5571:University of Nebraska–Lincoln 5297:Foster, Frances Smith (1993). 5103:Arvind Tupere, Bharat (2020). 4866:Second edition, Norton, 2004. 4542: 4521: 4508: 4483: 4462: 4417: 4392: 4371: 4330:Mythology of Benjamin Banneker 4109:Frances Ellen Watkins Harper's 3929:W. E. B. Du Bois wrote in the 3760:(1845) by Frederick Douglass, 3517:The Autobiography of Malcolm X 3230:Three Days Before the Shooting 2985:, author of the classic novel 2134:Phillis Wheatley (c.1753–1784) 1847:, an enslaved woman who wrote 1658:Racism against Black Americans 1: 10089:The Confessions of Nat Turner 10054: 10047: 9878:The Narrative of Robert Adams 9292: 8417:Cherokee freedmen controversy 7393:The Negro Motorist Green Book 7003:. New York University Press. 6583: 6325:Bruner, Charlotte H. (1994). 4729:(accession number 03258059); 4580:Literary Theory: An Anthology 4125:in her book from 1892 titled 4007:, the first African American 3583:. Lesser-known poets such as 3573:William Carlos Williams Award 3084:mainstream American culture. 2479: 2161: 866:National Pan-Hellenic Council 58:"African-American literature" 10422:Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon 10377:Slavery in the United States 9734:Greensbury Washington Offley 6439:10.5406/femteacher.23.3.0211 6431:10.5406/femteacher.23.3.0211 6261:Poets, Academy of American. 6105:. Retrieved August 25, 2005. 6070:Contemporary Black Biography 5483:Penguin Books, 1996, p. 10, 4175:Frances Ellen Watkins Harper 4170:Frances Ellen Watkins Harper 4164:Frances Ellen Watkins Harper 3951:over his best-selling novel 3868:over the last century, with 3812: 3658:. A pioneer in this area is 3448:Their Eyes Were Watching God 3052:The Ballad of the Brown Girl 2988:Their Eyes Were Watching God 2613:Narrative of Sojourner Truth 2364:Murfreesboro, North Carolina 2304:The Garies and Their Friends 2173:in 1773, three years before 1791:African American literature 1668:School segregation in the US 1206:Black American Sign Language 1180:Languages and other dialects 7: 10846:African-American mass media 10836:African-American literature 10446:The Hemingses of Monticello 10347:African-American literature 8287:Black players in ice hockey 8222:National Urban League (NUL) 8048:American Society of Muslims 7286:Selma to Montgomery marches 7206:Brown v. Board of Education 6914:Gates, Henry Louis (1997). 6657:African American Literature 6655:Gilyard, K., and A. Wardi. 6652:, Basic Civitas Books, 2003 6059:"Biography of Alice Walker" 5879:by Eberhard Alsen, p. 140, 5858:by Eberhard Alsen, p. 140, 5434:Gates, Henry Louis (1997). 5037:Gates, Henry Louis (2004). 4862:, Henry Louis Gates (eds), 4809:Gates, Henry Louis (1997). 4753:New Statesman & Society 4711:New Statesman & Society 4195: 4041:In an alternative reading, 4026:legislation and ended with 3381:West Point Military Academy 3292:Letter from Birmingham Jail 3207:, best known for his novel 2626:African-American newspapers 495:African-American businesses 10: 10867: 10815:Women's writing in English 10262:A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin 9368:(c. 1705 Bornu – 1775 Eng) 9184:Slave Narrative Collection 8444:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 8202:Nashville Student Movement 7213:Children of the plantation 7090:African American Pamphlets 7066:, Mr. Africa Poetry Lounge 6101:November 11, 2004, at the 6096:Biography of Robert Hayden 6072:1; Jen Crispin, review of 5992:September 6, 2004, at the 5926:February 22, 2005, at the 5666:September 3, 2006, at the 5602:"Archaeology of a Classic" 5087:In Search of Hannah Crafts 5072:In Search of Hannah Crafts 4845:November 28, 2009, at the 4639:Richard S. Newman (2009). 4185: 4167: 4149: 3921:African American criticism 3414:Pulitzer Prize for Fiction 3142:Go Tell It on the Mountain 2948:The Negro Speaks of Rivers 2862: 2678:historically black college 2587:Newburyport, Massachusetts 2461: 2377: 2223:In 1786, Hammon gave his " 2167:–1784) published her book 2147:The Springfield Republican 2107: 2026:Characteristics and themes 1033:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 708:Congressional Black Caucus 675:African Diaspora Religions 462:Martin Luther King Jr. Day 10757: 10707: 10684: 10652: 10559: 10552: 10496: 10334: 10307: 10272: 10255:To a Southern Slaveholder 10246: 10211: 10043:The Bondwoman's Narrative 9992: 9918:My Bondage and My Freedom 9902:The Life of Josiah Henson 9886:American Slavery as It Is 9861: 9828: 9488: 9444: 9419: 9393: 9346: 9329: 9314:Andreas Matthäus Wolfgang 9203: 9192: 9179: 9114: 9081:Index of related articles 8959: 8874: 8598: 8531: 8469: 8369: 8330: 8262: 8255: 8170: 8090: 8082:Doctrine of Father Divine 8028: 7970: 7619: 7474: 7466:Women's suffrage movement 7419:Reconstruction Amendments 7226:Voting Rights Act of 1965 7145: 6922:. New York: W.W. Norton. 6797:University of Connecticut 6402:– via Project Muse. 6314:– via Project Muse. 6086:. Retrieved July 6, 2005. 6082:February 7, 2005, at the 5966:Theodore O. Mason, Jr., " 5910:. Retrieved July 6, 2005. 5746:10.1017/9781316337998.007 5266:Andrews, William (1986). 5205:Andrews, William (1986). 4909:February 4, 2019, at the 4889:October 28, 2012, at the 4745:nsts000020011007dt4p000dd 4490:Drexler, Michael (2008). 4086:African American women's 3804:In the 21st century, the 3432:Nobel Prize in Literature 3088:Civil Rights Movement era 2497:My Bondage and My Freedom 2450:, the eventual editor of 2411:The Sword and the Distaff 2356:The Bondwoman's Narrative 2199:Poems on Various Subjects 1540:US states and territories 841:American Life and History 563:Lift Every Voice and Sing 272:Treatment of the enslaved 10841:African-American culture 10201:The Underground Railroad 9966:The Peculiar Institution 9611:Sarah Jane Woodson Early 9131:United States portal 8566:African-American English 7995:Inventors and scientists 7687:George Washington Carver 7291:Chicago Freedom Movement 7075:Black Writers Conference 7064:"Famous Writers Section" 6600:, April 1994. Excerpted 6219:Mikkelsen, Nina (1998). 6194:August 30, 2020, at the 5672:Illinois History Teacher 5481:The Souls of Black Folk, 4987:Ferguson, Moira (1998). 4962:Ferguson, Moira (1998). 4557:Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 4468:Valerie Sweeney Prince, 4399:Peterson, Carla (1995). 4365: 4255:African American history 4240:Black sermonic tradition 3866:African American culture 3632:Karen E. Quinones Miller 3328:City College of New York 3240:Ralph Ellison circa 1961 3034:examined the life of an 2936:Harlem: Negro Metropolis 2143:Deerfield, Massachusetts 2125:African American history 2036:post-colonial literature 1882:African American culture 1742:United States portal 1149:African-American English 660:African-American Muslims 221:Jim Crow era (1896–1954) 10810:Postcolonial literature 10765:Anglo-Norman literature 10372:Films featuring slavery 9836:Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua 9760:William Henry Singleton 9565:Ellen and William Craft 9054:African-American firsts 8103:Back-to-Africa movement 8072:Black Hebrew Israelites 7852:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 7400:Partus sequitur ventrem 7080:BlackAuthorsConnect.com 6789:Oxford University Press 6726:African American Review 6632:An Imaginary 'Scandal'" 6380:African American Review 6292:African American Review 6225:African American Review 6040:April 27, 2006, at the 6022:African American Review 5949:March 17, 2005, at the 5690:March 30, 2005, at the 4276:Baltimore Afro-American 4234:African American Review 3773:The Souls of Black Folk 3064:I am the American Negro 2942:, and in 1930 a novel, 2692:Tuskegee and Its People 2654:The Souls of Black Folk 2605:Ulster County, New York 2358:, which was written by 1663:Reparations for slavery 751:Back-to-Africa movement 650:Black Hebrew Israelites 528:African-American beauty 10574:American Sign Language 10220:Amos Fortune, Free Man 9454:Juan Francisco Manzano 9429:Marie-Joseph Angélique 9337:Brigitta Scherzenfeldt 9320:Johann Georg Wolffgang 9302:Guðríður Símonardóttir 9241:James Leander Cathcart 9022:Spingarn Medal winners 8511:States and territories 8282:Black NFL quarterbacks 7782:Martin Luther King Jr. 7314:Dred Scott v. Sandford 7253:Montgomery bus boycott 6997:Lee, Julia H. (2011). 6854:Record Number 95366). 6332:World Literature Today 6185:Karla F. C. Holloway, 6064:July 20, 2005, at the 6033:Frederick B. Hudson, " 6016:July 16, 2012, at the 5824:July 25, 2020, at the 5716:June 25, 2017, at the 5533:"Paul Laurence Dunbar" 4917:137.3 (2013): 261–300. 4645:Early American Studies 4128:A Voice from the South 4068:The Man in My Basement 3445:and her classic novel 3384: 3366:and published in 1970. 3306:As part of the larger 3288:Martin Luther King Jr. 3241: 3213:(1952), which won the 3120: 3058:'s poetry collections 2968:Simple Speaks His Mind 2893: 2724:William Lloyd Garrison 2640: 2559:William Lloyd Garrison 2475: 2407:Mary Henderson Eastman 2337:Henry Louis Gates, Jr. 2135: 2070:Henry Louis Gates, Jr. 1959:wrote about issues of 1931:and the literature of 1133:Dialects and languages 293:Second Great Migration 10169:Walk Through Darkness 10105:Underground to Canada 9718:Jermain Wesley Loguen 9663:(1848/1854 VA – 1957) 9590:Ayuba Suleiman Diallo 9406:Konstantin Mihailović 9354:Lovisa von Burghausen 8332:Athletic associations 8267:Negro league baseball 8038:African-American Jews 7757:Ketanji Brown Jackson 7722:Henry Highland Garnet 7581:Negro National Anthem 7331:George Floyd protests 7296:Post–civil rights era 6777:The Blacker the Berry 6771:, September 18, 1997. 6172:May 16, 2013, at the 6150:May 16, 2013, at the 6057:Michael E. Muellero, 6046:The Black World Today 5973:May 15, 2005, at the 5942:Richard H. Brodhead, 5906:May 15, 2005, at the 4423:Darryl Dickson-Carr, 4051:Duke University Press 3965:The Blacker the Berry 3741:genres, stories like 3372: 3239: 3177:Notes of a Native Son 3126:Civil Rights Movement 3114: 3066:(1937), published by 2887: 2710:Harriet Beecher Stowe 2638: 2585:was born in 1799, in 2471: 2429:'s autobiography and 2415:William Gilmore Simms 2308:Harriet Beecher Stowe 2280:Boston, Massachusetts 2175:American independence 2133: 1971:, with books such as 1949:Civil Rights Movement 1545:US metropolitan areas 1372:List of neighborhoods 986:Alabama Creole people 976:African-American Jews 908:Negro league baseball 871:National Urban League 823:Civic/economic groups 655:African-American Jews 545:African-American hair 407:, after the Civil War 236:Post–civil rights era 10795:Great American Novel 10514:Early English Jewish 10367:Caribbean literature 10357:Atlantic slave trade 9910:Twelve Years a Slave 9803:Booker T. Washington 9605:Jordan Winston Early 8539:Afro-Seminole Creole 8065:Azusa Street Revival 7937:Booker T. Washington 7461:Underground Railroad 7326:Free people of color 7180:Atlantic slave trade 6850:(Update Code 20041, 6598:Yale Alumni Magazine 5563:"The Brownies' Book" 5537:Paul Laurence Dunbar 4325:Best Selling Authors 4224:United States portal 4137:Ann Folwell Stanford 4060:discrete and insular 4043:Karla F. C. Holloway 3763:Twelve Years a Slave 3725:and Harriet Jacobs, 3628:David Anthony Durham 3527:writers Gayl Jones, 3056:Frank Marshall Davis 2944:Not Without Laughter 2914:James Weldon Johnson 2853:Booker T. Washington 2806:Paul Laurence Dunbar 2702:Frances E. W. Harper 2670:Booker T. Washington 2504:Spiritual narratives 2478:Frederick Douglass ( 2402:Aunt Phillis's Cabin 2312:Henry, Lord Brougham 2251:free person of color 2007:Princeton University 1945:Booker T. Washington 1702:Criminal stereotypes 1477:District of Columbia 1194:Afro-Seminole Creole 636:Non-Christian groups 231:Black power movement 195:during the Civil War 164:Atlantic slave trade 43:improve this article 10800:Jèrriais literature 10790:European literature 10362:Captivity narrative 10193:The Book of Negroes 9974:The Slave Community 9838:(1845–1847, Brazil) 9765:James Lindsay Smith 9672:John Andrew Jackson 9607:(1814 – after 1894) 9561:(1845 KY – 1938 OH) 9554:William Wells Brown 9513:Jared Maurice Arter 9508:William J. Anderson 9401:Johann Schiltberger 8934:Trinidad and Tobago 8549:Black American Sign 8376:By African descent 8370:Ethnic subdivisions 8357:Southwestern (SWAC) 8272:Baseball color line 8187:Black Panther Party 8091:Political movements 8008:in computer science 7667:Carol Moseley Braun 7456:Tulsa race massacre 7449:Treatment of slaves 7281:March on Washington 7276:Birmingham movement 7038:BlackLiterature.com 6706:, November 6, 2003. 6668:Jewish World Review 5983:American Literature 5921:Coup of the Century 5812:by Daniel Grassian" 5722:Library of Congress 5644:David M. Katzman, " 5129:American Literature 5004:American Literature 4296:Daughters of Africa 4270:American literature 3820:American literature 3703:Charles R. Saunders 3605:, and the prolific 3514:. Haley also wrote 3457:American Book Award 3308:Black Arts Movement 3276:A Raisin in the Sun 3215:National Book Award 2934:a nonfiction book, 2845:Mary Weston Fordham 2841:Charles W. Chesnutt 2756:William Wells Brown 2696:My Larger Education 2345:indentured servants 2272:St. Louis, Missouri 2239:William Wells Brown 2191:American Revolution 1969:American literature 1098:Sierra Leone Creole 1059:Specific ancestries 944:Southwestern (SWAC) 467:Black History Month 298:New Great Migration 252:Agriculture history 10490:English literature 10316:Unchained Memories 9821:(b. c. 1780 Congo) 9595:Frederick Douglass 9366:Ukawsaw Gronniosaw 9265:Maria ter Meetelen 9032:US representatives 9027:US cabinet members 8919:Dominican Republic 8506:Metropolitan areas 8347:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 8172:Civic and economic 8150:Self-determination 7971:Education, science 7892:Fred Shuttlesworth 7872:A. Philip Randolph 7777:Coretta Scott King 7702:Frederick Douglass 7529:Harlem Renaissance 7434:Separate but equal 7424:Reconstruction era 7412:Plessy v. Ferguson 7303:Cornerstone Speech 7217:Civil Rights Acts 7200:Black Lives Matter 7175:American Civil War 6993:. August 28, 2007. 6883:Dorson, Richard M. 6680:2005-05-15 at the 6645:. Routledge, 1998. 6392:10.1353/afa.0.0023 6304:10.1353/afa.0.0019 6128:2013-05-16 at the 5651:2002-11-17 at the 5634:. January 7, 2021. 5421:Written by Herself 5333:Written By Herself 4929:"Slavery's Shadow" 4759: • 4658:10.1353/eam.0.0033 4606:"Slave narratives" 4516:The Columbia Guide 4290:Chicano literature 3799:Hip-hop literature 3545:John Edgar Wideman 3443:Zora Neale Hurston 3385: 3271:Lorraine Hansberry 3242: 3198:White Man, Listen! 3158:The Fire Next Time 3121: 3032:The Living is Easy 2983:Zora Neale Hurston 2978:and translations. 2903:The Brownies' Book 2894: 2871:Harlem Renaissance 2865:Harlem Renaissance 2859:Harlem Renaissance 2818:When Malindy Sings 2792:Amy Jacques Garvey 2674:Tuskegee Institute 2659:Atlanta University 2641: 2555:Alexander Crummell 2476: 2473:Frederick Douglass 2464:Frederick Douglass 2458:Frederick Douglass 2427:Frederick Douglass 2136: 2011:Albert J. Raboteau 1961:racial segregation 1951:, authors such as 1921:American Civil War 1866:Harlem Renaissance 1835:Frederick Douglass 1107:Sexual orientation 981:Afro-Puerto Ricans 934:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 569:Self-determination 533:Black is beautiful 199:Reconstruction era 10823: 10822: 10770:Celtic literature 10753: 10752: 10544:Twentieth century 10456: 10455: 10228:I, Juan de Pareja 10212:Young adult books 10019:Uncle Tom's Cabin 9862:Non-fiction books 9857: 9856: 9814:Harriet E. Wilson 9698:Elizabeth Keckley 9544:Henry "Box" Brown 9462:(1860–1965, Cuba) 9456:(1797–1854, Cuba) 9411:George of Hungary 9386:(1792 – fl. 1828) 9139: 9138: 8967:African Americans 8839:Dallas–Fort Worth 8434:Black Southerners 8365: 8364: 7817:Thurgood Marshall 7787:Bernard Lafayette 7382:Million Man March 7139:African Americans 6904:978-0-527-24650-1 6636:The New Criterion 6627:, April 25, 1997. 6568:Poetry Foundation 6077:, by Alice Walker 6048:, April 25, 2005. 5955:On Common Ground 5608:. Barnard College 5606:News & Events 5450:Watson, Carole M. 5404:Ferguson, Moira. 5391:Doers of the Word 5389:Peterson, Carla. 5375:Ferguson, Moira, 5365:. pp. 66–67. 5363:Doers of the Word 5361:Peterson, Carla. 5348:Doers of the Word 5346:Peterson, Carla. 5253:Doers of the Word 5251:Peterson, Carla. 5238:Doers of the Word 5236:Peterson, Carla. 5114:978-1-79488-064-1 4691:978-0-19-538909-8 4410:978-0-8135-2514-3 4210:Literature portal 4158:Barbara Christian 4152:Barbara Christian 4146:Barbara Christian 4123:Anna Julia Cooper 4118:Anna Julia Cooper 4018:Kenneth Warren's 3902:identity politics 3793:Oprah's Book Club 3743:Octavia E. Butler 3683:Octavia E. Butler 3640:Kalisha Buckhanon 3577:Natasha Trethewey 3555:'s inauguration, 3396:Toni Cade Bambara 3344:The Negro Caravan 3060:Black Man's Verse 3003:'s 1975 article " 2822:Hampton Institute 2742:Mary Todd Lincoln 2738:Behind the Scenes 2730:Elizabeth Keckley 2715:Uncle Tom's Cabin 2663:Howard University 2448:Lydia Maria Child 2392:Uncle Tom's Cabin 2276:Buffalo, New York 2195:George Washington 2068:literary scholar 2032:African diasporic 1965:black nationalism 1788: 1787: 1725: 1724: 1623: 1622: 1397:Dallas-Fort Worth 1214: 1213: 1124: 1123: 1068:Americo-Liberians 951: 950: 889: 888: 814: 813: 683: 682: 627:Womanist theology 577: 576: 519:Symbols and ideas 305: 304: 184:Antebellum period 179:Revolutionary War 134:African Americans 119: 118: 111: 93: 10858: 10805:Literary fiction 10569:African American 10557: 10556: 10483: 10476: 10469: 10460: 10459: 10059: 10056: 10052: 10049: 10027:The Heroic Slave 9782:Pierre Toussaint 9777:(1793 VA – 1860) 9741:(1827 VA – 1900) 9473:Pierre Toussaint 9308:Antoine Qaurtier 9297: 9294: 9201: 9200: 9173:Slave narratives 9166: 9159: 9152: 9143: 9142: 9129: 9128: 9127: 9091:Lynching victims 8590:Louisiana Creole 8561:American English 8449:Louisiana Creole 8422:Choctaw freedmen 8260: 8259: 7797:Huddie Ledbetter 7737:Fannie Lou Hamer 7707:W. E. B. Du Bois 7697:Claudette Colvin 7692:Shirley Chisholm 7509:Family structure 7377:Military history 7259:Browder v. Gayle 7132: 7125: 7118: 7109: 7108: 7022: 6985:Piacentino, Ed. 6962: 6933: 6921: 6863: 6670:, June 15, 2005. 6659:. Penguin, 2004. 6619:* Cashmore, E. " 6578: 6577: 6575: 6574: 6559: 6553: 6552: 6550: 6549: 6535: 6529: 6528: 6497:Feminist Studies 6492: 6486: 6485: 6457: 6451: 6450: 6419:Feminist Teacher 6410: 6404: 6403: 6371: 6365: 6364: 6345:10.2307/40150048 6322: 6316: 6315: 6283: 6277: 6276: 6274: 6273: 6258: 6249: 6248: 6216: 6207: 6183: 6177: 6161: 6155: 6139: 6133: 6119:Kenneth Warren. 6117: 6106: 6093: 6087: 6075:The Color Purple 6055: 6049: 6031: 6025: 6007: 6001: 5964: 5958: 5940: 5931: 5917: 5911: 5897: 5888: 5873: 5867: 5852: 5843: 5842: 5835: 5829: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5795: 5793: 5782:thewordpoint.com 5773: 5767: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5731: 5725: 5708: 5699: 5681: 5675: 5642: 5636: 5635: 5624: 5618: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5597: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5586: 5559: 5553: 5552: 5550: 5548: 5528: 5522: 5521: 5513: 5507: 5506: 5498: 5492: 5479:Du Bois, W.E.B. 5477: 5471: 5464: 5458: 5457: 5446: 5440: 5439: 5431: 5425: 5424: 5416: 5410: 5409: 5406:Nine Black Women 5401: 5395: 5394: 5386: 5380: 5377:Nine Black Women 5373: 5367: 5366: 5358: 5352: 5351: 5343: 5337: 5336: 5328: 5319: 5318: 5294: 5288: 5287: 5263: 5257: 5256: 5248: 5242: 5241: 5233: 5227: 5226: 5202: 5196: 5195: 5193: 5191: 5174:(May 22, 2017). 5168: 5162: 5161: 5159: 5157: 5138: 5132: 5125: 5119: 5118: 5100: 5091: 5090: 5082: 5076: 5075: 5067: 5061: 5060: 5044: 5034: 5028: 5027: 4999: 4993: 4992: 4989:Nine Black Women 4984: 4978: 4977: 4959: 4953: 4952: 4924: 4918: 4900: 4894: 4881: 4875: 4856: 4850: 4837: 4831: 4830: 4806: 4800: 4799: 4757: 4705: 4696: 4695: 4677: 4671: 4670: 4660: 4636: 4630: 4629: 4622: 4616: 4615: 4602: 4596: 4589: 4583: 4576: 4570: 4555: 4549: 4546: 4540: 4525: 4519: 4512: 4506: 4505: 4487: 4481: 4466: 4460: 4445: 4436: 4421: 4415: 4414: 4396: 4390: 4375: 4250:African American 4226: 4221: 4220: 4219: 4212: 4207: 4206: 4205: 3985:The Color Purple 3958: 3849:W. E. B. Du Bois 3841:African diaspora 3778:W. E. B. Du Bois 3768:Solomon Northrup 3711:John M. Faucette 3679:Samuel R. Delany 3652:Colson Whitehead 3603:Suzan-Lori Parks 3525:literary fiction 3479:Steven Spielberg 3471:The Color Purple 3467:epistolary novel 3462:The Color Purple 3412:, which won the 3332:African-American 3246:Gwendolyn Brooks 3117:Carl Van Vechten 3007:", published in 2976:children's books 2957:Chicago Defender 2890:Carl Van Vechten 2824:Camera Club and 2645:W. E. B. Du Bois 2539:Maria W. Stewart 2522:Epistle of James 2510:James Gronniosaw 2484: 2481: 2374:Slave narratives 2290:Thomas Jefferson 2241:(1814–1884) and 2210:Queens, New York 2166: 2163: 2158:Phillis Wheatley 2119:slave narratives 1991:, which won the 1984:The Color Purple 1957:Gwendolyn Brooks 1941:W. E. B. Du Bois 1925:slave narratives 1859:slave narratives 1813:Phillis Wheatley 1780: 1773: 1766: 1740: 1739: 1738: 1687:media depictions 1636: 1635: 1531:Population count 1227: 1226: 1161:Liberian English 1140:English dialects 1137: 1136: 1093:Samaná Americans 1018:Creoles of color 964: 963: 902: 901: 846:Black conductors 827: 826: 696: 695: 670:Louisiana Voodoo 592: 591: 337:Family structure 320: 319: 267:Military history 262:Business history 193:military history 148: 147: 121: 120: 114: 107: 103: 100: 94: 92: 51: 27: 19: 10866: 10865: 10861: 10860: 10859: 10857: 10856: 10855: 10826: 10825: 10824: 10819: 10785:English studies 10749: 10703: 10680: 10648: 10634:Native American 10609:Jewish American 10599:Franco American 10553:Regional/ethnic 10548: 10492: 10487: 10457: 10452: 10398:Book of Negroes 10352:Anti-Tom novels 10330: 10303: 10268: 10242: 10207: 10177:The Known World 10057: 10050: 9988: 9950:Up from Slavery 9853: 9842:Miguel de Buría 9824: 9793:Wallace Turnage 9729:Solomon Northup 9661:Fountain Hughes 9503:Jordan Anderson 9490: 9484: 9460:Esteban Montejo 9446: 9440: 9421: 9415: 9389: 9360:Olaudah Equiano 9342: 9325: 9295: 9259:Elizabeth Marsh 9247:Ólafur Egilsson 9235:Felice Caronni 9196: 9194: 9188: 9175: 9170: 9140: 9135: 9125: 9123: 9110: 9076:Historic places 9069:US state firsts 8955: 8870: 8594: 8527: 8499:2010 majorities 8494:2000 majorities 8465: 8412:Black Seminoles 8361: 8352:Southern (SIAC) 8335: 8334:and conferences 8333: 8326: 8322:Serena Williams 8317:Jackie Robinson 8251: 8175: 8173: 8166: 8086: 8053:Nation of Islam 8024: 7972: 7966: 7907:Sojourner Truth 7897:Clarence Thomas 7862:Gabriel Prosser 7762:Michael Jackson 7637:Crispus Attucks 7627:Ralph Abernathy 7615: 7571:Musical theater 7470: 7336:Great Migration 7308:COVID-19 impact 7266:Sit-in movement 7141: 7136: 7029: 7011: 6991:Southern Spaces 6951: 6930: 6879: 6877:Further reading 6805:10.2307/4141858 6682:Wayback Machine 6662:Greenberg, P. " 6630:Dalrymple, T. " 6607:John Callahan, 6593:. Oxford, 1997. 6586: 6581: 6572: 6570: 6560: 6556: 6547: 6545: 6537: 6536: 6532: 6509:10.2307/3177999 6493: 6489: 6458: 6454: 6411: 6407: 6372: 6368: 6323: 6319: 6284: 6280: 6271: 6269: 6259: 6252: 6237:10.2307/3042266 6217: 6210: 6196:Wayback Machine 6184: 6180: 6174:Wayback Machine 6163:Warren (2011), 6162: 6158: 6152:Wayback Machine 6141:Warren (2011), 6140: 6136: 6130:Wayback Machine 6118: 6109: 6103:Wayback Machine 6094: 6090: 6084:Wayback Machine 6066:Wayback Machine 6056: 6052: 6042:Wayback Machine 6032: 6028: 6018:Wayback Machine 6008: 6004: 6000:, Spring 2003;. 5994:Wayback Machine 5975:Wayback Machine 5965: 5961: 5951:Wayback Machine 5941: 5934: 5928:Wayback Machine 5918: 5914: 5908:Wayback Machine 5898: 5891: 5874: 5870: 5853: 5846: 5837: 5836: 5832: 5826:Wayback Machine 5806:Bragg, Beauty, 5805: 5801: 5791: 5789: 5774: 5770: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5732: 5728: 5718:Wayback Machine 5709: 5702: 5692:Wayback Machine 5683:Ronald Roach, " 5682: 5678: 5668:Wayback Machine 5653:Wayback Machine 5646:Black Migration 5643: 5639: 5626: 5625: 5621: 5611: 5609: 5598: 5594: 5584: 5582: 5561: 5560: 5556: 5546: 5544: 5529: 5525: 5514: 5510: 5499: 5495: 5478: 5474: 5465: 5461: 5447: 5443: 5432: 5428: 5419:Foster (1993). 5417: 5413: 5402: 5398: 5387: 5383: 5374: 5370: 5359: 5355: 5344: 5340: 5331:Foster (1993). 5329: 5322: 5315: 5295: 5291: 5284: 5264: 5260: 5249: 5245: 5234: 5230: 5223: 5203: 5199: 5189: 5187: 5169: 5165: 5155: 5153: 5140: 5139: 5135: 5126: 5122: 5115: 5101: 5094: 5089:. pp. 6–7. 5083: 5079: 5068: 5064: 5057: 5035: 5031: 5016:10.2307/2927939 5000: 4996: 4985: 4981: 4974: 4960: 4956: 4941:10.2307/2930697 4935:(20): 157–158. 4925: 4921: 4911:Wayback Machine 4902:Mary Maillard. 4901: 4897: 4891:Wayback Machine 4882: 4878: 4860:Nellie Y. McKay 4857: 4853: 4847:Wayback Machine 4838: 4834: 4827: 4807: 4803: 4758: 4706: 4699: 4692: 4678: 4674: 4637: 4633: 4624: 4623: 4619: 4604: 4603: 4599: 4595:(2004), p. 992. 4593:Literary Theory 4590: 4586: 4577: 4573: 4556: 4552: 4547: 4543: 4526: 4522: 4513: 4509: 4502: 4488: 4484: 4467: 4463: 4446: 4439: 4422: 4418: 4411: 4397: 4393: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4363: 4349:Southern Gothic 4260:Africanfuturism 4222: 4217: 4215: 4208: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4190: 4184: 4172: 4166: 4154: 4148: 4139: 4120: 4105:social equality 4084: 3994:Charles Johnson 3972:Langston Hughes 3961:Wallace Thurman 3956: 3923: 3886: 3857: 3832: 3815: 3735:science fiction 3616:The Known World 3611:Edward P. Jones 3551:read a poem at 3537:Jamaica Kincaid 3428:unrequited love 3422:, a tale about 3419:Song of Solomon 3352:Arthur P. Davis 3346:, co-edited by 3300: 3152:Another Country 3102:Great Migration 3090: 3072:Wallace Thurman 3068:Black Cat Press 2940:The Weary Blues 2898:Langston Hughes 2867: 2861: 2849:Magnolia Leaves 2752:Josephine Brown 2683:Up From Slavery 2621: 2609:Abraham Lincoln 2601:Sojourner Truth 2506: 2482: 2466: 2460: 2382: 2380:Slave narrative 2376: 2368:Charles Dickens 2302:'s 1857 novel, 2164: 2115: 2110: 2028: 1894:social equality 1870:Great Migration 1824: 1799:Olaudah Equiano 1793:is the body of 1784: 1736: 1734: 1727: 1726: 1721: 1677: 1633: 1625: 1624: 1619: 1564: 1526: 1502:Omaha, Nebraska 1467:Historic places 1461: 1353: 1224: 1216: 1215: 1210: 1175: 1134: 1126: 1125: 1120: 1102: 1054: 996:Black Seminoles 961: 960:Sub-communities 953: 952: 939:Southern (SIAC) 899: 891: 890: 885: 840: 824: 816: 815: 810: 727: 693: 685: 684: 679: 665:Nation of Islam 631: 608: 589: 579: 578: 573: 514: 481: 448: 420: 381: 357:Musical theater 317: 307: 306: 288:Great Migration 145: 115: 104: 98: 95: 52: 50: 40: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10864: 10854: 10853: 10848: 10843: 10838: 10821: 10820: 10818: 10817: 10812: 10807: 10802: 10797: 10792: 10787: 10782: 10780:English poetry 10777: 10772: 10767: 10761: 10759: 10758:Related topics 10755: 10754: 10751: 10750: 10748: 10747: 10742: 10737: 10732: 10727: 10722: 10717: 10711: 10709: 10705: 10704: 10702: 10701: 10696: 10690: 10688: 10682: 10681: 10679: 10678: 10673: 10668: 10662: 10660: 10650: 10649: 10647: 10646: 10641: 10636: 10631: 10626: 10621: 10616: 10611: 10606: 10601: 10596: 10591: 10586: 10584:Asian American 10581: 10576: 10571: 10565: 10563: 10554: 10550: 10549: 10547: 10546: 10541: 10536: 10531: 10526: 10521: 10516: 10511: 10509:Middle English 10506: 10500: 10498: 10494: 10493: 10486: 10485: 10478: 10471: 10463: 10454: 10453: 10451: 10450: 10442: 10434: 10426: 10418: 10410: 10402: 10394: 10389: 10384: 10379: 10374: 10369: 10364: 10359: 10354: 10349: 10344: 10338: 10336: 10332: 10331: 10329: 10328: 10320: 10311: 10309: 10305: 10304: 10302: 10301: 10293: 10285: 10276: 10274: 10270: 10269: 10267: 10266: 10258: 10250: 10248: 10244: 10243: 10241: 10240: 10232: 10224: 10215: 10213: 10209: 10208: 10206: 10205: 10197: 10189: 10181: 10173: 10165: 10157: 10149: 10141: 10137:Middle Passage 10133: 10125: 10117: 10109: 10101: 10093: 10085: 10077: 10069: 10061: 10039: 10031: 10023: 10015: 10007: 9998: 9996: 9994:Fiction/novels 9990: 9989: 9987: 9986: 9978: 9970: 9962: 9954: 9946: 9938: 9930: 9922: 9914: 9906: 9898: 9890: 9882: 9874: 9865: 9863: 9859: 9858: 9855: 9854: 9852: 9851: 9845: 9839: 9832: 9830: 9826: 9825: 9823: 9822: 9816: 9811: 9808:Wallace Willis 9805: 9800: 9795: 9790: 9788:Harriet Tubman 9785: 9778: 9775:Austin Steward 9772: 9767: 9762: 9757: 9752: 9747: 9745:William Parker 9742: 9736: 9731: 9726: 9720: 9715: 9713:J. Vance Lewis 9710: 9705: 9700: 9695: 9689: 9684: 9679: 9677:Harriet Jacobs 9674: 9669: 9664: 9658: 9653: 9651:William Grimes 9648: 9643:(19th century 9638: 9633: 9628: 9623: 9613: 9608: 9602: 9600:Kate Drumgoold 9597: 9592: 9587: 9582: 9577: 9572: 9567: 9562: 9556: 9551: 9546: 9541: 9535: 9530: 9525: 9520: 9518:Solomon Bayley 9515: 9510: 9505: 9500: 9494: 9492: 9489:North America: 9486: 9485: 9483: 9482: 9476: 9469: 9463: 9457: 9450: 9448: 9445:North America: 9442: 9441: 9439: 9438: 9435:John R. Jewitt 9432: 9425: 9423: 9420:North America: 9417: 9416: 9414: 9413: 9408: 9403: 9397: 9395: 9394:Ottoman Empire 9391: 9390: 9388: 9387: 9381: 9375: 9372:Jean Marteilhe 9369: 9363: 9357: 9350: 9348: 9344: 9343: 9341: 9340: 9333: 9331: 9327: 9326: 9324: 9323: 9317: 9311: 9305: 9299: 9286: 9280: 9274: 9268: 9262: 9256: 9255:(late 19th c.) 9250: 9244: 9238: 9232: 9229:Isaac Brassard 9226: 9220: 9214: 9207: 9205: 9198: 9197:of enslavement 9190: 9189: 9187: 9186: 9180: 9177: 9176: 9169: 9168: 9161: 9154: 9146: 9137: 9136: 9134: 9133: 9121: 9115: 9112: 9111: 9109: 9108: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9088: 9083: 9078: 9073: 9072: 9071: 9066: 9061: 9051: 9050: 9049: 9044: 9042:Visual artists 9039: 9034: 9029: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9009: 9004: 9002:Mathematicians 8999: 8994: 8989: 8984: 8979: 8974: 8963: 8961: 8957: 8956: 8954: 8953: 8952: 8951: 8943: 8938: 8937: 8936: 8931: 8926: 8921: 8916: 8908: 8907: 8906: 8901: 8896: 8891: 8880: 8878: 8872: 8871: 8869: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8853: 8852: 8851: 8846: 8841: 8836: 8826: 8821: 8819:South Carolina 8816: 8811: 8810: 8809: 8801: 8796: 8791: 8789:North Carolina 8786: 8785: 8784: 8774: 8769: 8768: 8767: 8757: 8752: 8751: 8750: 8742: 8741: 8740: 8734:Massachusetts 8732: 8731: 8730: 8720: 8715: 8714: 8713: 8703: 8698: 8697: 8696: 8686: 8681: 8680: 8679: 8669: 8664: 8663: 8662: 8652: 8651: 8650: 8645: 8635: 8630: 8629: 8628: 8623: 8613: 8608: 8602: 8600: 8596: 8595: 8593: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8581: 8580: 8579: 8578: 8576:social context 8573: 8563: 8553: 8552: 8551: 8541: 8535: 8533: 8529: 8528: 8526: 8525: 8524: 8523: 8518: 8508: 8503: 8502: 8501: 8496: 8486: 8485: 8484: 8473: 8471: 8467: 8466: 8464: 8463: 8458: 8457: 8456: 8446: 8441: 8436: 8431: 8430: 8429: 8427:Creek Freedmen 8424: 8419: 8414: 8404: 8402:Alabama Creole 8399: 8398: 8397: 8392: 8387: 8382: 8373: 8371: 8367: 8366: 8363: 8362: 8360: 8359: 8354: 8349: 8344: 8342:Central (CIAA) 8338: 8336: 8331: 8328: 8327: 8325: 8324: 8319: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8263: 8257: 8253: 8252: 8250: 8249: 8244: 8239: 8234: 8229: 8224: 8219: 8214: 8209: 8204: 8199: 8194: 8189: 8184: 8178: 8176: 8171: 8168: 8167: 8165: 8164: 8159: 8158: 8157: 8147: 8142: 8137: 8135:Pan-Africanism 8132: 8127: 8122: 8117: 8116: 8115: 8105: 8100: 8094: 8092: 8088: 8087: 8085: 8084: 8079: 8077:Black theology 8074: 8069: 8068: 8067: 8057: 8056: 8055: 8050: 8040: 8034: 8032: 8026: 8025: 8023: 8022: 8021: 8020: 8018:in STEM fields 8015: 8010: 8002: 7997: 7992: 7987: 7982: 7976: 7974: 7973:and technology 7968: 7967: 7965: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7912:Harriet Tubman 7909: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7879: 7874: 7869: 7864: 7859: 7854: 7849: 7844: 7842:Michelle Obama 7839: 7834: 7829: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7772:Barbara Jordan 7769: 7767:Harriet Jacobs 7764: 7759: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7657:Amelia Boynton 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7623: 7621: 7620:Notable people 7617: 7616: 7614: 7613: 7608: 7603: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7583: 7578: 7573: 7568: 7563: 7558: 7556:LGBT community 7553: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7537: 7536: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7480: 7478: 7472: 7471: 7469: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7408: 7403: 7396: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7355: 7350: 7349: 7348: 7343: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7310: 7305: 7300: 7299: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7271:Freedom Riders 7268: 7263: 7255: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7234: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7215: 7210: 7202: 7197: 7195:Black genocide 7192: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7151: 7149: 7143: 7142: 7135: 7134: 7127: 7120: 7112: 7106: 7105: 7096: 7087: 7082: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7061: 7054: 7047: 7040: 7035: 7028: 7027:External links 7025: 7024: 7023: 7009: 6994: 6983: 6981:978-0313329722 6969: 6963: 6949: 6934: 6929:978-0393959086 6928: 6911: 6910: 6909: 6906: 6889: 6878: 6875: 6874: 6873: 6864: 6772: 6761: 6754: 6747: 6746:, Spring 2003. 6744:Cross Currents 6736: 6729: 6718: 6707: 6698:Hamilton, K. 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" 6689: 6671: 6660: 6653: 6646: 6639: 6628: 6605: 6594: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6579: 6564:"Alice Walker" 6554: 6530: 6487: 6452: 6425:(3): 211–229. 6405: 6366: 6317: 6278: 6250: 6208: 6204:978-0822355953 6178: 6156: 6134: 6107: 6088: 6050: 6026: 6009:John Lowney, " 6002: 5998:Cross Currents 5959: 5932: 5912: 5889: 5868: 5844: 5830: 5799: 5768: 5754: 5726: 5700: 5676: 5637: 5619: 5592: 5554: 5523: 5520:. p. 365. 5516:Gates (1997). 5508: 5505:. p. 491. 5501:Gates (1997). 5493: 5472: 5466:Eric Gardner, 5459: 5441: 5438:. p. 245. 5426: 5411: 5408:. p. 172. 5396: 5381: 5368: 5353: 5338: 5320: 5314:978-0253324092 5313: 5289: 5283:978-0253352606 5282: 5258: 5243: 5228: 5222:978-0253352606 5221: 5197: 5172:McCrum, Robert 5163: 5133: 5120: 5113: 5092: 5085:Gates (2004). 5077: 5070:Gates (2004). 5062: 5056:978-0465027149 5055: 5029: 5010:(3): 439–466. 4994: 4991:. p. 119. 4979: 4973:978-0415919043 4972: 4954: 4919: 4895: 4876: 4851: 4832: 4826:978-0393959086 4825: 4801: 4697: 4690: 4672: 4651:(1): 173–198. 4631: 4617: 4597: 4584: 4571: 4550: 4541: 4520: 4507: 4500: 4482: 4461: 4437: 4416: 4409: 4391: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4339: 4332: 4327: 4323:New York Times 4321:List of Black 4318: 4313: 4306: 4299: 4292: 4287: 4279: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4229: 4228: 4227: 4213: 4197: 4194: 4186:Main article: 4183: 4180: 4168:Main article: 4165: 4162: 4150:Main article: 4147: 4144: 4138: 4135: 4119: 4116: 4113:Forest Leaves. 4083: 4080: 4055:Legal Fictions 4013:Duke Ellington 3990:Oxherding Tale 3953:Home to Harlem 3922: 3919: 3885: 3882: 3856: 3853: 3831: 3828: 3814: 3811: 3719:Nalo Hopkinson 3699:Brandon Massey 3695:Robert Fleming 3691:Tananarive Due 3589:Ntozake Shange 3565:Cyrus Cassells 3508:Pulitzer Prize 3459:for her novel 3453:Pulitzer Prize 3404:The Bluest Eye 3374:Nobel Laureate 3348:Sterling Brown 3299: 3298:Recent history 3296: 3260:Nikki Giovanni 3250:Pulitzer Prize 3166:Richard Wright 3100:. During this 3089: 3086: 3040:Countee Cullen 3030:, whose novel 2932:Banana Bottom, 2923:Home to Harlem 2863:Main article: 2860: 2857: 2826:Joggin' Erlong 2778:Pan Africanism 2620: 2617: 2505: 2502: 2462:Main article: 2459: 2456: 2437:Harriet Jacobs 2378:Main article: 2375: 2372: 2323:Harriet Wilson 2206:Jupiter Hammon 2114: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2027: 2024: 1993:Pulitzer Prize 1953:Richard Wright 1845:Harriet Jacobs 1786: 1785: 1783: 1782: 1775: 1768: 1760: 1757: 1756: 1755: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1729: 1728: 1723: 1722: 1720: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1704: 1699: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1679: 1678: 1676: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1648:Black genocide 1644: 1641: 1640: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1627: 1626: 1621: 1620: 1618: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1582: 1576: 1573: 1572: 1566: 1565: 1563: 1562: 1557: 1555:US communities 1552: 1547: 1542: 1536: 1533: 1532: 1528: 1527: 1525: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1512:South Carolina 1509: 1507:North Carolina 1504: 1499: 1494: 1489: 1484: 1479: 1473: 1470: 1469: 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911: 910: 900: 897: 896: 893: 892: 887: 886: 884: 883: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 835: 832: 831: 825: 822: 821: 818: 817: 812: 811: 809: 808: 803: 798: 793: 791:Pan-Africanism 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 737: 734: 733: 729: 728: 726: 725: 720: 715: 710: 704: 701: 700: 694: 691: 690: 687: 686: 681: 680: 678: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 652: 647: 641: 638: 637: 633: 632: 630: 629: 624: 622:Black theology 618: 615: 614: 610: 609: 607: 606: 600: 597: 596: 590: 585: 584: 581: 580: 575: 574: 572: 571: 566: 559: 554: 553: 552: 542: 537: 536: 535: 524: 521: 520: 516: 515: 513: 512: 507: 502: 497: 491: 488: 487: 486:Economic class 483: 482: 480: 479: 474: 469: 464: 458: 455: 454: 450: 449: 447: 446: 441: 436: 430: 427: 426: 425:Academic study 422: 421: 419: 418: 413: 408: 402: 397: 391: 388: 387: 383: 382: 380: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 328: 325: 324: 318: 313: 312: 309: 308: 303: 302: 301: 300: 295: 290: 282: 281: 277: 276: 275: 274: 269: 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9748: 9746: 9743: 9740: 9737: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9724: 9721: 9719: 9716: 9714: 9711: 9709: 9708:Lunsford Lane 9706: 9704: 9701: 9699: 9696: 9693: 9692:Paul Jennings 9690: 9688: 9685: 9683: 9680: 9678: 9675: 9673: 9670: 9668: 9667:Omar ibn Said 9665: 9662: 9659: 9657: 9656:Josiah Henson 9654: 9652: 9649: 9646: 9642: 9641:William Green 9639: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9629: 9627: 9624: 9621: 9617: 9616:Peter Fossett 9614: 9612: 9609: 9606: 9603: 9601: 9598: 9596: 9593: 9591: 9588: 9586: 9583: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9575:Lucinda Davis 9573: 9571: 9570:Hannah Crafts 9568: 9566: 9563: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9552: 9550: 9547: 9545: 9542: 9539: 9538:James Bradley 9536: 9534: 9533:Leonard Black 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9501: 9499: 9496: 9495: 9493: 9491:United States 9487: 9480: 9479:Marcos Xiorro 9477: 9474: 9470: 9467: 9464: 9461: 9458: 9455: 9452: 9451: 9449: 9443: 9436: 9433: 9430: 9427: 9426: 9424: 9418: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9398: 9396: 9392: 9385: 9382: 9379: 9376: 9373: 9370: 9367: 9364: 9361: 9358: 9355: 9352: 9351: 9349: 9345: 9338: 9335: 9334: 9332: 9328: 9321: 9318: 9315: 9312: 9309: 9306: 9303: 9300: 9290: 9287: 9284: 9283:Thomas Pellow 9281: 9278: 9275: 9272: 9269: 9266: 9263: 9260: 9257: 9254: 9253:Petro Kilekwa 9251: 9248: 9245: 9242: 9239: 9236: 9233: 9230: 9227: 9224: 9221: 9218: 9215: 9212: 9209: 9208: 9206: 9202: 9199: 9191: 9185: 9182: 9181: 9178: 9174: 9167: 9162: 9160: 9155: 9153: 9148: 9147: 9144: 9132: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9116: 9113: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9101:Neighborhoods 9099: 9097: 9094: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9064:Sports firsts 9062: 9060: 9057: 9056: 9055: 9052: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9030: 9028: 9025: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9003: 9000: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8983: 8980: 8978: 8975: 8973: 8970: 8969: 8968: 8965: 8964: 8962: 8958: 8950: 8947: 8946: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8915: 8912: 8911: 8909: 8905: 8902: 8900: 8897: 8895: 8892: 8890: 8887: 8886: 8885: 8882: 8881: 8879: 8877: 8873: 8867: 8866:West Virginia 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8831: 8830: 8827: 8825: 8822: 8820: 8817: 8815: 8812: 8808: 8805: 8804: 8803:Pennsylvania 8802: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8783: 8782:New York City 8780: 8779: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8766: 8763: 8762: 8761: 8758: 8756: 8753: 8749: 8746: 8745: 8743: 8739: 8736: 8735: 8733: 8729: 8726: 8725: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8712: 8709: 8708: 8707: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8695: 8692: 8691: 8690: 8687: 8685: 8682: 8678: 8675: 8674: 8673: 8670: 8668: 8665: 8661: 8658: 8657: 8656: 8653: 8649: 8646: 8644: 8641: 8640: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8627: 8626:San Francisco 8624: 8622: 8619: 8618: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8603: 8601: 8599:By state/city 8597: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8569: 8568: 8567: 8564: 8562: 8559: 8558: 8557: 8554: 8550: 8547: 8546: 8545: 8544:American Sign 8542: 8540: 8537: 8536: 8534: 8530: 8522: 8519: 8517: 8514: 8513: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8491: 8490: 8487: 8483: 8480: 8479: 8478: 8477:Neighborhoods 8475: 8474: 8472: 8468: 8462: 8459: 8455: 8452: 8451: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8442: 8440: 8437: 8435: 8432: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8409: 8408: 8407:Black Indians 8405: 8403: 8400: 8396: 8393: 8391: 8388: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8377: 8375: 8374: 8372: 8368: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8339: 8337: 8329: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8264: 8261: 8258: 8254: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8238: 8235: 8233: 8230: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8213: 8210: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8179: 8177: 8169: 8163: 8160: 8156: 8153: 8152: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8123: 8121: 8118: 8114: 8111: 8110: 8109: 8106: 8104: 8101: 8099: 8096: 8095: 8093: 8089: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8066: 8063: 8062: 8061: 8058: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8045: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8035: 8033: 8031: 8027: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8005: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7993: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7985:Black schools 7983: 7981: 7980:Black studies 7978: 7977: 7975: 7969: 7963: 7962:Whitney Young 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7952:Oprah Winfrey 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7922:Denmark Vesey 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7867:Joseph Rainey 7865: 7863: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7843: 7840: 7838: 7835: 7833: 7830: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7822:Toni Morrison 7820: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7807:Joseph Lowery 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7752:Jesse Jackson 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7742:Kamala Harris 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7727:Marcus Garvey 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7677:Blanche Bruce 7675: 7673: 7672:Edward Brooke 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7662:James Bradley 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7642:James Baldwin 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7624: 7622: 7618: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7586:Neighborhoods 7584: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7572: 7569: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7535: 7532: 7531: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7481: 7479: 7477: 7473: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7450: 7447: 7446: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7439:Silent Parade 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7414: 7413: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7401: 7397: 7395: 7394: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7367:Jim Crow laws 7365: 7363: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7338: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7316: 7315: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7301: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7261: 7260: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7250: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7218: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7208: 7207: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7190:Black cowboys 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7152: 7150: 7148: 7144: 7140: 7133: 7128: 7126: 7121: 7119: 7114: 7113: 7110: 7104: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7065: 7062: 7059: 7055: 7052: 7048: 7045: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7030: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7010:9780814752579 7006: 7002: 7001: 6995: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6967: 6964: 6960: 6956: 6952: 6950:9780521872171 6946: 6942: 6941: 6935: 6931: 6925: 6920: 6919: 6912: 6907: 6905: 6901: 6898: 6897:0-527-24650-6 6894: 6890: 6887: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6880: 6871: 6868: 6867:Warren, K. W. 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6844: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6791:on behalf of 6790: 6786: 6782: 6778: 6773: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6759: 6755: 6752: 6748: 6745: 6741: 6738:Mitchem, S. " 6737: 6734: 6730: 6728:, Fall, 2000. 6727: 6723: 6719: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6694: 6690: 6687: 6683: 6679: 6676: 6672: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6658: 6654: 6651: 6647: 6644: 6640: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6626: 6625:New Statesman 6622: 6618: 6617:0-252-06982-X 6614: 6610: 6606: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6592: 6588: 6587: 6569: 6565: 6558: 6544: 6540: 6534: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6491: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6456: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6413:Sule (2013). 6409: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6370: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6333: 6328: 6321: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6282: 6268: 6264: 6257: 6255: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6215: 6213: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6190: 6189: 6182: 6175: 6171: 6168: 6167: 6160: 6153: 6149: 6146: 6145: 6138: 6131: 6127: 6124: 6123: 6116: 6114: 6112: 6104: 6100: 6097: 6092: 6085: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6060: 6054: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6036: 6030: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6012: 6006: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5969: 5963: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5945: 5939: 5937: 5929: 5925: 5922: 5916: 5909: 5905: 5902: 5896: 5894: 5886: 5885:0-8153-3547-4 5882: 5878: 5872: 5865: 5864:0-8153-3547-4 5861: 5857: 5851: 5849: 5840: 5834: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5818: 5813: 5811: 5803: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5772: 5757: 5755:9781316337998 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5738: 5730: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5712: 5707: 5705: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5686: 5680: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5647: 5641: 5633: 5629: 5623: 5607: 5603: 5596: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5558: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5527: 5519: 5512: 5504: 5497: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5476: 5469: 5463: 5455: 5451: 5445: 5437: 5430: 5423:. p. 86. 5422: 5415: 5407: 5400: 5393:. p. 74. 5392: 5385: 5378: 5372: 5364: 5357: 5350:. p. 57. 5349: 5342: 5335:. p. 85. 5334: 5327: 5325: 5316: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5301: 5293: 5285: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5270: 5262: 5254: 5247: 5239: 5232: 5224: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5209: 5201: 5190:September 21, 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5167: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5137: 5130: 5124: 5116: 5110: 5106: 5099: 5097: 5088: 5081: 5074:. p. xi. 5073: 5066: 5058: 5052: 5048: 5043: 5042: 5033: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 4998: 4990: 4983: 4975: 4969: 4965: 4958: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4923: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4905: 4899: 4892: 4888: 4885: 4880: 4873: 4872:0-393-97778-1 4869: 4865: 4861: 4855: 4848: 4844: 4841: 4836: 4828: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4813: 4805: 4797: 4796: 4795:New Statesman 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4763:New Statesman 4755: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4734: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4704: 4702: 4693: 4687: 4683: 4676: 4668: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4635: 4627: 4621: 4613: 4612: 4607: 4601: 4594: 4588: 4581: 4575: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4554: 4545: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4524: 4517: 4514:Dickson-Carr, 4511: 4503: 4501:9780838757116 4497: 4493: 4486: 4479: 4478:0-231-13440-1 4475: 4471: 4465: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4444: 4442: 4434: 4433:0-231-12472-4 4430: 4426: 4420: 4412: 4406: 4402: 4395: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4374: 4370: 4360: 4359:Urban fiction 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4344: 4340: 4338: 4337: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4305: 4304: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4284: 4280: 4278: 4277: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4235: 4231: 4230: 4225: 4214: 4211: 4200: 4193: 4189: 4179: 4176: 4171: 4161: 4159: 4153: 4143: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4124: 4115: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4089: 4079: 4076: 4071: 4069: 4065: 4064:Walter Mosley 4061: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4039: 4036: 4033: 4029: 4028:desegregation 4025: 4021: 4016: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4005:Robert Hayden 4002: 4000: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3973: 3968: 3966: 3962: 3954: 3950: 3945: 3943: 3938: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3894:balkanization 3891: 3881: 3877: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3861: 3852: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3836: 3827: 3825: 3824:Balkanization 3821: 3810: 3807: 3802: 3800: 3796: 3794: 3790: 3789:Oprah Winfrey 3785: 3781: 3779: 3775: 3774: 3769: 3765: 3764: 3759: 3753: 3750: 3749: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3715:Sheree Thomas 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3687:Steven Barnes 3684: 3680: 3675: 3673: 3669: 3668:Walter Mosley 3665: 3661: 3660:Chester Himes 3657: 3656:genre fiction 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3624: 3622: 3618: 3617: 3612: 3608: 3607:August Wilson 3604: 3600: 3596: 3595: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3561:Poet Laureate 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3541:Randall Kenan 3538: 3534: 3530: 3529:Rasheed Clark 3526: 3521: 3519: 3518: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3488: 3482: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3463: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3449: 3444: 3440: 3435: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3420: 3415: 3411: 3410: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3388:Toni Morrison 3383:in March 2013 3382: 3378: 3377:Toni Morrison 3375: 3371: 3367: 3365: 3361: 3358:in 1969; and 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3318: 3317:James Emanuel 3313: 3309: 3304: 3295: 3293: 3289: 3284: 3282: 3278: 3277: 3273:, whose play 3272: 3267: 3265: 3264:Sonia Sanchez 3261: 3257: 3256: 3251: 3247: 3238: 3234: 3232: 3231: 3226: 3225: 3220: 3219:Invisible Man 3216: 3212: 3211: 3210:Invisible Man 3206: 3205:Ralph Ellison 3201: 3199: 3195: 3194: 3189: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3178: 3173: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3160: 3159: 3154: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3143: 3138: 3134: 3133:James Baldwin 3129: 3127: 3118: 3113: 3109: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3085: 3081: 3079: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3024: 3019: 3014: 3012: 3011: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2997:short stories 2994: 2990: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2964: 2963:New York Post 2959: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2910: 2905: 2904: 2899: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2880: 2879:New York City 2876: 2872: 2866: 2856: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2837: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2810:black dialect 2807: 2803: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2788: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2774:Marcus Garvey 2772: 2767: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2716: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2684: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2666: 2664: 2661:and later at 2660: 2656: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2637: 2633: 2631: 2630:Jennie Carter 2627: 2616: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2523: 2517: 2515: 2511: 2501: 2499: 2498: 2493: 2492: 2486: 2474: 2470: 2465: 2455: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2438: 2434: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2403: 2398: 2394: 2393: 2388: 2381: 2371: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2360:Hannah Crafts 2357: 2352: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2300:Frank 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Webb 2297: 2295: 2294:Sally Hemings 2291: 2287: 2286: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2264: 2262: 2261: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2243:Victor Séjour 2240: 2236: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2171: 2159: 2154: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2126: 2122: 2120: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2023: 2021: 2017: 2012: 2008: 2005:American. 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Wells 7932:David Walker 7927:C. T. Vivian 7882:Paul Robeson 7877:Hiram Revels 7857:Colin Powell 7837:Barack Obama 7792:James Lawson 7747:Jimi Hendrix 7717:James Farmer 7712:Medgar Evers 7682:Ralph Bunche 7632:Maya Angelou 7606:Middle class 7560: 7484:Afrofuturism 7410: 7398: 7391: 7312: 7257: 7204: 7170:Afrocentrism 7160:Abolitionism 6999: 6990: 6972: 6939: 6917: 6869: 6842: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6768: 6757: 6750: 6743: 6732: 6725: 6720:Lowney, J. " 6710: 6703: 6685: 6667: 6656: 6649: 6642: 6635: 6624: 6608: 6597: 6590: 6571:. Retrieved 6567: 6557: 6546:. Retrieved 6542: 6533: 6503:(1): 67–79. 6500: 6496: 6490: 6468:(1): 28–47. 6465: 6462:NWSA Journal 6461: 6455: 6422: 6418: 6408: 6383: 6379: 6369: 6336: 6330: 6320: 6295: 6291: 6281: 6270:. Retrieved 6266: 6231:(1): 33–49. 6228: 6224: 6187: 6181: 6165: 6159: 6143: 6137: 6121: 6091: 6074: 6069: 6053: 6045: 6029: 6021: 6005: 5997: 5978: 5962: 5954: 5915: 5876: 5871: 5855: 5833: 5815: 5809: 5802: 5790:. 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He wrote " 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2921: 2918:Claude McKay 2912:. 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From the 6799:: 323–339. 6763:Roach, R. 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2074:signifying 2043:spirituals 2009:professor 1987:(1982) by 1979:Alex Haley 1898:spirituals 1795:literature 1249:California 1223:Population 796:Patriotism 781:Liberalism 761:Capitalism 732:Ideologies 613:Theologies 472:Juneteenth 444:Literature 372:Newspapers 280:Migrations 211:Juneteenth 99:April 2021 69:newspapers 10740:Pakistani 10725:Caribbean 10539:Victorian 9961:(1936–38) 9447:Caribbean 9273:(b. 1982) 9225:(b. 1979) 9096:Monuments 8972:Activists 8824:Tennessee 8744:Michigan 8728:Baltimore 8718:Louisiana 8711:Lexington 8694:Davenport 8633:Cleveland 8532:Languages 8461:Melungeon 8439:Blaxicans 8307:Joe Louis 8162:Socialism 8098:Anarchism 7827:Bob Moses 7812:Malcolm X 7732:Fred Gray 7596:Soul food 7534:New Negro 7519:Folktales 7429:Redlining 7019:756645955 6959:527702733 6885:, editor 6837:203668407 6821:0163-755X 6813:1946-3170 6517:0046-3663 6474:1040-0656 6447:145683841 6400:142854036 6386:: 45–56. 6353:0196-3570 6312:161293124 6298:: 11–15. 6267:Poets.org 5379:, p. 148. 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