64-bit computing - Knowledge

2295:, which cannot call 32-bit Win32 subsystem code (often devices whose actual hardware function is emulated in user mode software, like Winprinters). Because 64-bit drivers for most devices were unavailable until early 2007 (Vista x64), using a 64-bit version of Windows was considered a challenge. However, the trend has since moved toward 64-bit computing, more so as memory prices dropped and the use of more than 4 GB of RAM increased. Most manufacturers started to provide both 32-bit and 64-bit drivers for new devices, so unavailability of 64-bit drivers ceased to be a problem. 64-bit drivers were not provided for many older devices, which could consequently not be used in 64-bit systems. 418: 2802: 1763: 618: 22: 2067:(PAE), which gives a 64 GB physical address range, of which up to 62 GB may be used by main memory; operating systems that support PAE may not be limited to 4 GB of physical memory, even on IA-32 processors. However, drivers and other kernel mode software, more so older versions, may be incompatible with PAE; this has been cited as the reason for 32-bit versions of 1640:, "Lion", which runs the 64-bit kernel by default on supported machines. Older machines that are unable to run the 64-bit kernel run the 32-bit kernel, but, as with earlier releases, can still run 64-bit applications; Lion does not support machines with 32-bit processors. Nearly all applications bundled with Mac OS X 10.7 are now also 64-bit, including iTunes. 2104:, support more general-purpose registers than their 32-bit counterparts (although this is not due specifically to the word length). This leads to a significant speed increase for tight loops since the processor does not have to fetch data from the cache or main memory if the data can fit in the available registers. 2775:. Drivers make up the majority of the operating system code in most modern operating systems (although many may not be loaded when the operating system is running). Many drivers use pointers heavily to manipulate data, and in some cases have to load pointers of a certain size into the hardware they support for 839:

in the cost of memory led to installations with amounts of RAM approaching 4 GB, and the use of virtual memory spaces exceeding the 4 GB ceiling became desirable for handling certain types of problems. In response, MIPS and DEC developed 64-bit microprocessor architectures, initially for high-end

1945:(TIMI); TIMI code is then translated to native machine code by low-level software before being executed. The translation software is all that must be rewritten to move the full OS and all software to a new platform, as when IBM transitioned the native instruction set for AS/400 from the older 32/48-bit 838:

development began culminating in a 1989 release; the i860 had 32-bit integer registers and 32-bit addressing, so it was not a fully 64-bit processor, although its graphics unit supported 64-bit integer arithmetic. However, 32 bits remained the norm until the early 1990s, when the continual reductions

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This code first creates 5 values: a, b, c, d and e; and then puts them in a loop. During the loop, this code changes the value of b to the value of a, the value of c to the value of b, the value of d to the value of c and the value of e to the value of d. This has the same effect as changing all the

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late 2006 due to poor yield issue (most of good yield wafers were targeted at server and mainframe while mainstream still remain 130 nm 32-bit processor line until 2006) and soon became low end after Core 2 debuted. AMD released their first 64-bit mobile processor and manufactured in 90 nm.

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registers. In most processors, only integer or address-registers can be used to address data in memory; the other types of registers cannot. The size of these registers therefore normally limits the amount of directly addressable memory, even if there are registers, such as floating-point registers,

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of memory (due to the physical size of the memory chips), but AMD envisioned large servers, shared memory clusters, and other uses of physical address space that might approach this in the foreseeable future. Thus the 52-bit physical address provides ample room for expansion while not incurring the

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releases only have a 64-bit kernel. On systems with 64-bit processors, both the 32- and 64-bit macOS kernels can run 32-bit user-mode code, and all versions of macOS up to macOS Mojave (10.14) include 32-bit versions of libraries that 32-bit applications would use, so 32-bit user-mode software for

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If a processor can keep only two or three values or variables in registers, it would need to move some values between memory and registers to be able to process variables d and e also; this is a process that takes many CPU cycles. A processor that can hold all values and variables in registers can

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as the first mainstream x86-64 processor for its mobile, desktop, and workstation line. Prior 64-bit extension processor lines were not widely available in the consumer retail market (most of 64-bit Pentium 4/D were OEM), 64-bit Pentium 4, Pentium D, and Celeron were not into mass production until

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operating system takes this approach, requiring program code to reside in 31-bit address spaces (the high order bit is not used in address calculation on the underlying hardware platform) while data objects can optionally reside in 64-bit regions. Not all such applications require a large address

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for OS use, effectively reducing the total address space available for mapping memory for user programs. For instance, 32-bit Windows reserves 1 or 2 GB (depending on the settings) of the total address space for the kernel, which leaves only 3 or 2 GB (respectively) of the address space

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integers; 64-bit and 128-bit floating point; 32-bit, 64-bit, and 128-bit packed decimal and a 128-bit accumulator register. The architecture has survived through a succession of ICL and Fujitsu machines. The latest is the Fujitsu Supernova, which emulates the original environment on 64-bit Intel

2328:"Snow Leopard" had both 32- and 64-bit kernels, and, on most Macs, used the 32-bit kernel even on 64-bit processors. This allowed those Macs to support 64-bit processes while still supporting 32-bit device drivers; although not 64-bit drivers and performance advantages that can come with them. 2257:

The main disadvantage of 64-bit architectures is that, relative to 32-bit architectures, the same data occupies more space in memory (due to longer pointers and possibly other types, and alignment padding). This increases the memory requirements of a given process and can have implications for

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are becoming more difficult to implement in 32-bit architectures as files of over 4 GB become more common; such large files cannot be memory-mapped easily to 32-bit architectures, as only part of the file can be mapped into the address space at a time, and to access such a file by memory

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data model, with the addition of 64-bit long long integers; this is also used on many platforms with 32-bit processors. This model reduces code size and the size of data structures containing pointers, at the cost of a much smaller address space, a good choice for some embedded systems. For

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to use the new abilities; older 32-bit software may be supported either by virtue of the 64-bit instruction set being a superset of the 32-bit instruction set, so that processors that support the 64-bit instruction set can also run code for the 32-bit instruction set, or through software

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instruction sets such as x86 and ARM in which the 64-bit version of the instruction set has more registers than does the 32-bit version, it provides access to the additional registers without the space penalty. It is common in 64-bit RISC machines, explored in x86 as

2366:, written in C and C++, so that if they are 64-bit-safe, they can be compiled into 64-bit versions. This source-based distribution model, with an emphasis on frequent releases, makes availability of application software for those operating systems less of an issue. 871:

from IBM, which then used 32-bit data and 31-bit address sizes; the IBM mainframes did not include 64-bit processors until 2000. During the 1990s, several low-cost 64-bit microprocessors were used in consumer electronics and embedded applications. Notably, the

1580:"Tiger" which provides limited support for 64-bit command-line applications on machines with PowerPC 970 processors; later versions for Intel-based Macs supported 64-bit command-line applications on Macs with EM64T processors. On April 30, Microsoft releases 2783:

barrier, because the pointers for those addresses would not fit into the DMA registers of the device. This problem is solved by having the OS take the memory restrictions of the device into account when generating requests to drivers for DMA, or by using an

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Versions of the VR4300 processor are widely used in consumer and office automation applications, including the popular Nintendo 64TM video game and advanced laser printers such as the recently announced, award-winning Hewlett-Packard LaserJet 4000 printer

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architecture has instructions able to load and store 64-bit (and 32-bit) floating-point values in memory, the internal floating-point data and register format is 80 bits wide, while the general-purpose registers are 32 bits wide. In contrast, the 64-bit

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Some 64-bit programs, such as encoders, decoders and encryption software, can benefit greatly from 64-bit registers, while the performance of other programs, such as 3D graphics-oriented ones, remains unaffected when switching from a 32-bit to a 64-bit

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Driver compatibility was less of a problem with open-source drivers, as 32-bit ones could be modified for 64-bit use. Support for hardware made before early 2007, was problematic for open-source platforms, due to the relatively small number of users.

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On January 4, Microsoft discontinues Windows XP 64-Bit Edition, as no PCs with IA-64 processors had been available since the previous September, and announces that it is developing x86-64 versions of Windows to replace it. On January 31, Sun releases

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for example, support only 48 bits of virtual address, with the remaining 16 bits of the virtual address required to be all zeros (000...) or all ones (111...), and several 64-bit instruction sets support fewer than 64 bits of physical memory address.

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integers are also 64 bits wide. However, in most cases the modifications required are relatively minor and straightforward, and many well-written programs can simply be recompiled for the new environment with no changes. Another alternative is the

1598:, including a 64-bit version for AMD64/EM64T processors that retains 32-bit compatibility. In the 64-bit version, all Windows applications and components are 64-bit, although many also have their 32-bit versions included for compatibility with 1630:, "Snow Leopard", which ships with a 64-bit kernel for AMD64/Intel64 processors, although only certain recent models of Apple computers will run the 64-bit kernel by default. Most applications bundled with Mac OS X 10.6 are now also 64-bit. 3649: 2779:(DMA). As an example, a driver for a 32-bit PCI device asking the device to DMA data into upper areas of a 64-bit machine's memory could not satisfy requests from the operating system to load data from the device to memory above the 4 2748:

will "work" in LP64. In the LLP64 model, the reverse is true. These are not problems which affect fully standard-compliant code, but code is often written with implicit assumptions about the widths of data types. C code should prefer

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specification requires minimum of 43 bits of virtual memory address space (8 TB) to be supported, and hardware need to check and trap if the remaining unsupported bits are zero (to support compatibility on future processors).

2004:, and the types that can be used as array indices, are specified by the standard and are not dependent on the underlying architecture. Java programs that run on a 64-bit Java virtual machine have access to a larger address space. 907:

processor. Physical memory eventually caught up with 32 bit limits. In 2023, laptop computers were commonly equipped with 16GB and servers up to 64 GB of memory, greatly exceeding the 4 GB address capacity of 32 bits.

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architecture (AMD64), most 32-bit operating systems and applications can run with no compatibility issues. While the larger address space of 64-bit architectures makes working with large data sets in applications such as

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for addressing. 4.29 billion addresses were considered an appropriate size to work with for another important reason: 4.29 billion integers are enough to assign unique references to most entities in applications like

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Intel, reacting to the market success of AMD, admits it has been developing a clone of the AMD64 extensions named IA-32e (later renamed EM64T, then yet again renamed to Intel 64). Intel ships updated versions of its

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Most architectures of 64 bits that are derived from the same architecture of 32 bits can execute code written for the 32-bit versions natively, with no performance penalty. This kind of support is commonly called

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mapping, the parts mapped must be swapped into and out of the address space as needed. This is a problem, as memory mapping, if properly implemented by the OS, is one of the most efficient disk-to-memory methods.

1124:. IBM releases the A10 and A30 microprocessors, the first 64-bit PowerPC AS processors. IBM also releases a 64-bit AS/400 system upgrade, which can convert the operating system, database and applications. 2253:

loop through them with no need to move data between registers and memory for each iteration. This behavior can easily be compared with virtual memory, although any effects are contingent on the compiler.

3794: 2027:, allowing it to run 32-bit application software for the 32-bit version of its instruction set, and may also support running 32-bit operating systems for the 32-bit version of its instruction set. 2011:(HPC) – may be more suited to a 64-bit architecture when deployed appropriately. For this reason, 64-bit clusters have been widely deployed in large organizations, such as IBM, HP, and Microsoft. 3645: 814:(RAM), could be referenced. When these architectures were devised, 4 GB of memory was so far beyond the typical amounts (4 MiB) in installations, that this was considered to be enough 1858:

allows 64 bits for an effective address, mapped to a segmented address with between 65 and 78 bits allowed, for virtual memory, and, for any given processor, up to 60 bits for physical memory.

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had 64-bit microprocessors before their introduction in personal computers. High-end printers, network equipment, and industrial computers, also used 64-bit microprocessors, such as the

1622:, which, like Windows Vista, includes a full 64-bit version for AMD64/Intel 64 processors; most new computers are loaded by default with a 64-bit version. Microsoft also releases 3768: 1913:

must be extensively modified to take advantage of the new architecture, because that software has to manage the actual memory addressing hardware. Other software must also be

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A programming model is a choice made to suit a given compiler, and several can coexist on the same OS. However, the programming model chosen as the primary model for the OS

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cost of implementing full 64-bit physical addresses. Similarly, the 48-bit virtual address space was designed to provide 65,536 (2) times the 32-bit limit of 4 GB (

997:(RISC) processor. Marketed as a "64-Bit Microprocessor", it had essentially a 32-bit architecture, enhanced with a 3D graphics unit capable of 64-bit integer operations. 764:

of the 1960s was an early 32-bit computer; it had 32-bit integer registers, although it only used the low order 24 bits of a word for addresses, resulting in a 16

404: 1819:) of memory. However, not all instruction sets, and not all processors implementing those instruction sets, support a full 64-bit virtual or physical address space. 518:

size that defines certain classes of computer architecture, buses, memory, and CPUs and, by extension, the software that runs on them. 64-bit CPUs have been used in

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and data types such as integers generally have the same length. This is not necessarily true on 64-bit machines. Mixing data types in programming languages such as

1957:. The IMPI instruction set was quite different from even 32-bit PowerPC, so this transition was even bigger than moving a given instruction set from 32 to 64 bits. 1892:

supported user-configurable 43 or 48 bits of virtual memory address space (8 TB or 256 TB) and 44 bits of physical memory address space (16 TB).

1692:, supporting only machines with AArch64 processors. It has a 64-bit kernel that only supports 64-bit applications. 32-bit applications are no longer compatible. 5448: 2007:

Speed is not the only factor to consider in comparing 32-bit and 64-bit processors. Applications such as multi-tasking, stress testing, and clustering – for

1826:(as of 2016) allows 48 bits for virtual memory and, for any given processor, up to 52 bits for physical memory. These limits allow memory sizes of 256 3603: 3546: 1980:

A compiled Java program can run on a 32- or 64-bit Java virtual machine with no modification. The lengths and precision of all the built-in types, such as

1922:, or by the actual implementation of a 32-bit processor core within the 64-bit processor, as with some Itanium processors from Intel, which included an 2258:

efficient processor cache use. Maintaining a partial 32-bit model is one way to handle this, and is in general reasonably effective. For example, the

4239: 4420: 4268: 3295: 4346: 4307: 3627: 834:, used registers up to 64 bits wide, and supported 64-bit integer arithmetic, although they did not support 64-bit addressing. In the mid-1980s, 4021: 5559: 4742: 3668: 724:(MIPS) CPUs) have integrated floating point hardware, which is often, but not always, based on 64-bit units of data. For example, although the 397: 3746: 3722:

Status: The kernel, compiler, tool chain work. The kernel boots and work on simulator and is used for porting of userland and running programs

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used. With the two most common representations, the range is 0 through 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 (equal to 2 − 1) for representation as an (

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A common misconception is that 64-bit architectures are no better than 32-bit architectures unless the computer has more than 4 GB of

4168: 3954: 1736:, the first watchOS version to run exclusively on the Apple Watch models with 64-bit processors (including Apple Watch Series 4 or newer, 5418: 4984: 4801: 3571: 5772: 3198: 1305:

ARM Holdings announced their Cortex-A53 and Cortex-A57 cores, their first cores based on their 64-bit architecture, on 30 October 2012.

4764: 4353: 3772: 390: 337: 5413: 3221: 5485: 2785: 343: 558: 5767: 5238: 326: 315: 86: 3979: 3795:"Microsoft Raises the Speed Limit with the Availability of 64-Bit Editions of Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP Professional" 1865:

Architecture 2015 allows 64 bits for virtual memory and, for any given processor, between 40 and 56 bits for physical memory.

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applications. The operating systems for those 64-bit architectures generally support both 32-bit and 64-bit applications.

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video game console, built around a low-cost variant of the MIPS R4000. HP releases the first implementation of its 64-bit

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supported 43 bits of virtual memory address space (8 TB) and 34 bits of physical memory address space (16 GB).

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supercomputer, which is based on a 64-bit word architecture and will form the basis for later Cray vector supercomputers.

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macOS will run on those systems. The 32-bit versions of libraries have been removed by Apple in macOS Catalina (10.15).

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supported 43 bits of virtual memory address space (8 TB) and 40 bits of physical memory address space (1 TB).

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that are 64 bits wide, allowing direct support for 64-bit data types and addresses. However, a CPU might have external

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variables are still 32 bits wide, but long integers and pointers are 64 bits wide. These are described as having an

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vector supercomputer, which uses a 64-bit word architecture (prior CDC systems were based on a 60-bit architecture).

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had developed 64-bit architectures for their workstation and server systems. A notable exception to this trend were

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for them, have supported 64-bit processors for many years. Many applications and libraries for those platforms are

994: 527: 377: 4289: 887:. 64-bit computing started to trickle down to the personal computer desktop from 2003 onward, when some models in 72: 6290: 6187: 5588: 5495: 5296: 4517: 4406: 2924: 943: 372: 367: 4001:"A description of the differences between 32-bit versions of Windows Vista and 64-bit versions of Windows Vista" 3903: 5316: 5035: 4470: 2827: 2375: 1784: 1282: 643: 43: 4097: 757:. Therefore, the total number of addresses to memory is often determined by the width of these registers. The 5490: 5338: 5311: 5172: 4786: 4747: 4604: 1063: 777: 54: 5927: 5689: 5165: 5126: 4781: 4776: 4710: 4522: 2047:

Some operating systems and certain hardware configurations limit the physical memory space to 3 GB on

1938: 515: 429: 357: 294: 136: 3851:"Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual Volume 3A: System Programming Guide, Part 1" 1053:

deliver their first KSR1 supercomputer, based on a proprietary 64-bit RISC processor architecture running

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being limited to 4 GB of physical RAM (although the validity of this explanation has been disputed).

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allows 48 bits for virtual memory and, for any given processor, from 32 to 48 bits for physical memory.

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that is written for 32-bit architectures. The most severe problem in Microsoft Windows is incompatible

2064: 2008: 1679: 1573: 1479: 448: 3867: 569:, and −9,223,372,036,854,775,808 (−2) through 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (2 − 1) for representation as 276: 271: 6351: 6295: 6258: 6248: 4636: 3174: 1851:), allowing room for later expansion and incurring no overhead of translating full 64-bit addresses. 1612:"Leopard", which fully supports 64-bit applications on machines with PowerPC 970 or EM64T processors. 1525: 291: 4393: 3738: 1668:, which, on machines with AArch64 processors, has a 64-bit kernel that supports 64-bit applications. 1242:

CPU produced by IBM. Intel maintains that its Itanium chips would remain its only 64-bit processors.

417: 6310: 5717: 5653: 5630: 5480: 5442: 5278: 5228: 5223: 4700: 4594: 4502: 3975: 3950: 3519:

F. P. O'Connell; S. W. White (November 2000). "POWER3: The next generation of PowerPC processors".

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Technology for IA-64 and AMD64. The 64-bit Windows Native Mode driver environment runs atop 64-bit

2110: 933: 696:, and often special registers for address arithmetic which may have various uses and names such as 628: 4329: 2862:

As of August 2023, 64-bit architectures for which processors are being manufactured include:

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of a 16- or 32-bit operating system to run 16-bit applications or use one of the alternatives for

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for obsolete hardware. Most 32-bit application software can run on a 64-bit operating system in a

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Most high performance 32-bit and 64-bit processors (some notable exceptions are older or embedded

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addresses. However, not all 64-bit instruction sets support full 64-bit virtual memory addresses;

6263: 6046: 5940: 5904: 5821: 5805: 5647: 5436: 5395: 5383: 5246: 5160: 5081: 4846: 4507: 4450: 4071: 2816: 2324:"Leopard" had only a 32-bit kernel, but they can run 64-bit user-mode code on 64-bit processors. 2263:

space or manipulate 64-bit data items, so these applications do not benefit from these features.

1773: 1296: 1050: 632: 464: 32: 4042: 6069: 6041: 5951: 5916: 5665: 5659: 5641: 5375: 5369: 5273: 5177: 5068: 5007: 4869: 4512: 2867: 2055:; 64-bit architectures can address far more than 4 GB. However, IA-32 processors from the 2024: 1623: 1156: 900: 881: 514:

also describes a generation of computers in which 64-bit processors are the norm. 64 bits is a

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Intel ships its IA-64 processor line, after repeated delays in getting to market. Now branded

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family uses a 64-bit floating-point data and register format, and 64-bit integer registers.

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systems, due to much of the 3–4 GB region being reserved for hardware addressing; see

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launches workstations based on a 64-bit CPU, HAL's independently designed first-generation

1117: 848: 811: 256: 708:. However, in modern designs, these functions are often performed by more general purpose 8: 6320: 6305: 6125: 5976: 5958: 5922: 5910: 5564: 5511: 5288: 5204: 5086: 4941: 4836: 4695: 3113: 2306:. However, most 32-bit applications will work well. 64-bit users are forced to install a 2075: 1599: 1585: 951: 570: 425: 6356: 6177: 6169: 6021: 5996: 5800: 5675: 5199: 5140: 5020: 4752: 4480: 3889: 3271: 3030: 2912: 2333: 2280: 2085: 1974: 1554: 1533: 1505: 1452: 1191: 1010: 868: 844: 589: 535: 472: 332: 321: 3252:"The Intel i860 64-Bit Processor: A General-Purpose CPU with 3D Graphics Capabilities" 1546:"Panther" operating system which adds support for native 64-bit integer arithmetic on 6130: 6097: 6013: 5945: 5846: 5836: 5826: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5670: 5599: 5505: 5465: 5098: 5048: 4998: 4974: 4856: 4796: 4791: 4673: 4589: 3604:"ARM Launches Cortex-A50 Series, the World's Most Energy-Efficient 64-bit Processors" 3473:

Bishop, J. W.; et al. (July 1996). "PowerPC AS A10 64-bit RISC microprocessor".

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on October 5, which only supports 64-bit systems, dropping support for IA-32 systems.

1038: 978: 773: 721: 539: 241: 236: 231: 4133: 3275: 6300: 6233: 6219: 6074: 5981: 5935: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5712: 5582: 5549: 5460: 5455: 5364: 5216: 5211: 5194: 5182: 5121: 4685: 4663: 4549: 4527: 4445: 4147: 4000: 3930: 3528: 3482: 3263: 2988: 2393:

In many programming environments for C and C-derived languages on 64-bit machines,

2321: 1910: 1906: 1675: 1609: 1543: 1469: 1462: 1438: 1431: 1274: 1260: 1101: 1042: 921: 860: 852: 803: 717: 456: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 3353: 3040: 2303: 573:. Hence, a processor with 64-bit memory addresses can directly access 2 bytes (16 6214: 6199: 6147: 6051: 6026: 5863: 5856: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5636: 5544: 5534: 5256: 5091: 5043: 4806: 4690: 4658: 4559: 4554: 4475: 4242:. August 1998. Table 9-1. Cray Research systems data type mapping. Archived from 3712: 3154: 3130: 2437:

type, which is at least 64 bits on all platforms, including 32-bit environments.

2307: 1376: 1166: 1088: 947: 864: 746: 593: 578: 480: 266: 156: 151: 146: 3885: 3628:"ARM Keynote: ARM Cortex-A53 and ARM Cortex-A57 64bit ARMv8 processors launched" 3378: 6325: 6159: 6142: 6135: 6031: 5888: 5625: 5539: 5470: 5053: 5015: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4668: 4492: 3060: 3049: 2317: 2082:

available for user mode. This limit is much higher on 64-bit operating systems.

1709: 1577: 1188: 754: 750: 495: 452: 4368: 3400: 3324: 981:. The Elxsi architecture has 64-bit data registers but a 32-bit address space. 538:

since the early 1990s. In 2003, 64-bit CPUs were introduced to the mainstream

6345: 6120: 6036: 5076: 5058: 4851: 4544: 4050: 3833: 3500:

Gwennap, Linley (14 November 1994). "PA-8000 Combines Complexity and Speed".

3228: 2772: 2329: 2276: 2078: 1966: 1637: 1595: 1410: 1278: 1054: 961: 924: 877: 827: 566: 519: 4979: 4113:"Exploring 64-bit development on POWER5: How portable is your code, really?" 3935: 3918: 3693: 3454:

Gwennap, Linley (3 October 1994). "UltraSparc Unleashes SPARC Performance".

1315:, with the world's first 64-bit processor in a smartphone, which uses their 6330: 6268: 6084: 6061: 5873: 5594: 4532: 4361: 3904:"ARM Architecture Reference Manual ARMv8, for ARMv8-A architecture profile" 3607: 3090: 2568: 2390:

may thus work on 32-bit implementations but not on 64-bit implementations.

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easier, there has been considerable debate on whether they or their 32-bit

1292: 1007: 937: 491: 6115: 6079: 5790: 5762: 5620: 5475: 4398: 2673: 2387: 2056: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1655: 1626:, which is the first 64-bit only server operating system. Apple releases 1576:

with support for AMD64 and EM64T processors. On April 29, Apple releases

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operating system (later renamed Tru64 UNIX) for its systems based on the

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architecture which is the first x86-based 64-bit processor architecture.

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data model in which all three data types are 64 bits wide, and even the

2404:, which is an abbreviation of "Long, Pointer, 64". Other models are the 6001: 5991: 5986: 5968: 5868: 5841: 5103: 4936: 4906: 4626: 2983:(Knights Corner) coprocessors, binary incompatible with x86-64 programs 2954: 2950: 2401: 1934: 1787: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1719: 1483: 1264: 1235: 1203: 1109: 991: 888: 835: 761: 562: 191: 122: 2421:

model, which maintains compatibility with 32-bit code by leaving both

1977:

will be faster than comparably priced 32-bit systems for other tasks.

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7.0, the first full 64-bit version of OpenVMS for Alpha. First 64-bit

783:, became common in the 1970s, and 32-bit microprocessors, such as the 6092: 6089: 5831: 4901: 4879: 3267: 3200:

Pentium Processor User's Manual Volume 1: Pentium Processor Data Book

3106: 3005: 2920: 2916: 2908: 2896: 2608: 2359: 2348: 1876: 1647: 1619: 1417: 1413: 1312: 1254: 1227: 1071: 1067: 734: 310: 121:"64-bit" redirects here. For 64-bit images in computer graphics, see 2801: 1762: 1337:

tablet, the first Android device to run on the 64-bit Tegra K1 chip.

617: 21: 6107: 4926: 3405: 2992: 2980: 2946: 2780: 2284: 2272: 1970: 1919: 1843: 1835: 1827: 1366: 1352: 1348: 1320: 1316: 1130: 927:, which uses 64-bit data words and 32- or 64-bit instruction words. 820: 807: 765: 574: 484: 421: 3325:"NEC Offers Two High Cost Performance 64-bit RISC Microprocessors" 2979:

with no CMOV, MMX, and SSE instructions, used in first-generation

1732:, which drops support for non-64-bit applications. Apple releases 4916: 4874: 3094: 3072: 3053: 3036: 3012: 3001: 2962: 2958: 2904: 2900: 2628: 2446: 2101: 1914: 1733: 1729: 1699: 1562: 1529: 1501: 1448: 1375:

Synopsis announce the ARCv3 ISA, the first 64-bit version of the

1334: 1223: 1213: 1199: 1195: 1177:

publicly discloses its set of 64-bit extensions to IA-32, called

1142: 1138: 1113: 1013:, which includes some 64-bit wide data paths in its architecture. 601: 600:

with different sizes from the registers, even larger (the 32-bit

554: 503: 490:

From the software perspective, 64-bit computing means the use of

3250:

Grimes, Jack; Kohn, Les; Bharadhwaj, Rajeev (July–August 1989).

1518:(on a simulator, as no x86-64 processors had been released yet). 1216:

and targeting high-end servers, sales fail to meet expectations.

4931: 4896: 4861: 3125: 3016: 2928: 2876: 2711: 2632: 2097: 1961: 1823: 1689: 1515: 1396: 1231: 1178: 1152: 965: 904: 831: 678:

Processor registers are typically divided into several groups:

523: 499: 3547:"VIA Unveils Details of Next-Generation Isaiah Processor Core" 3518: 2732:, Linux, macOS, BSD, and IBM z/OS). Microsoft Windows uses an 1909:

to a 64-bit architecture is a fundamental alteration, as most

1815:

In principle, a 64-bit microprocessor can address 16 EB (

1281:, servers, workstations, and other appliances. Intel released 5389: 4921: 4891: 3302: 3207: 3057: 3024: 2972: 2942: 2932: 2892: 2729: 2624: 2616: 2572: 2383: 2356: 2344: 2337: 2311: 2288: 2048: 1923: 1862: 1665: 1558: 1551: 1427: 1257:

processor families supporting the new 64-bit instruction set.

1170: 1105: 1092: 1084: 1080: 1030: 1003: 987: 974: 884: 788: 749:

are designed so that a single integer register can store the

4354:"A Collection of Examples of 64-bit Errors in Real Programs" 2736:

model. The disadvantage of the LP64 model is that storing a

1461:

Support for the R4x00 processors in 64-bit mode is added by

6253: 5401: 5321: 4911: 3688: 2966: 2936: 2636: 2604: 2259: 1712:"Catalina", dropping support for 32-bit Intel applications. 1651: 1493: 1466: 1435: 1400: 1392: 1355:

which is the world's first 64-bit processor in an Apple TV.

1250: 795:, appeared in the mid-1980s, making 32 bits something of a 4841: 4831: 4117: 3871: 3328: 2871: 2725: 2620: 1927: 1497: 1327:

which are the world's first 64-bit processor in a tablet.

1174: 856: 780: 758: 729: 725: 460: 3834:"AMD64 Programmer's Manual Volume 2: System Programming" 2874:

architecture (later licensed by Intel); commonly termed

2744:

truncates. On the other hand, converting a pointer to a

2030:

A 32-bit processor is incompatible with 64-bit software.

1702:, the first watchOS version to bring the 64-bit support. 2440:

There are also systems with 64-bit processors using an

2271:

x86-based 64-bit systems sometimes lack equivalents of

1198:

z900. z/Architecture is a 64-bit version of the 32-bit

3976:"Frequently Asked Questions About the Java HotSpot VM" 2020:

A 64-bit processor performs best with 64-bit software.

1842:), respectively. A PC cannot currently contain 4 1273:

Sony, IBM, and Toshiba begin manufacturing the 64-bit

3839:. Advanced Micro Devices. December 2016. p. 120. 3739:"Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard: the Ars Technica review" 3296:"i860 Processor Family Programmer's Reference Manual" 1748:

as the final Apple Watch model with 32-bit processor.

3249: 1682:

operating system with support for 64-bit processors.

1365:, the first Apple Watch to use the 64-bit processor 1095:

processors. A 1998 to 1999 launch date was targeted.

557:

values that can be stored in 64 bits depends on the

4384:

Lessons on development of 64-bit C/C++ applications

3596: 3435:Richard L. Sites (1992). "Alpha AXP Architecture". 1514:Linux becomes the first OS kernel to fully support 1383: 1347:, the first iPod Touch to use the 64-bit processor 1295:announces ARMv8-A, the first 64-bit version of the 46:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3222:"Cray-1 Computer System Hardware Reference Manual" 2332:"Lion" ran with a 64-bit kernel on more Macs, and 830:architectures of the 1970s and 1980s, such as the 487:that uses such a processor is a 64-bit computer. 4034: 3646:"Synopsys Introduces New 64-bit ARC Processor IP" 2771:Another consideration is the data model used for 6343: 4169:"ILP32 and LP64 data models and data type sizes" 4022:"Pushing the Limits of Windows: Physical Memory" 4019: 3434: 3355:MIPS R5000 Microprocessor Technical Backgrounder 1937:, software for which is compiled into a virtual 1817:16 × 1024 = 2 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 bytes 542:market in the form of x86-64 processors and the 4332:. woachk, security researcher. October 6, 2018. 4095: 3371: 2791: 4347:64-bit Transition Guide, Mac Developer Library 4269:"Cray C and C++ Reference Manual (8.7) S-2179" 4212:"Using the ILP64 Interface vs. LP64 Interface" 1870:ARM AArch64 Virtual Memory System Architecture 1029:produces the first 64-bit microprocessor, the 753:to any location in the computer's physical or 4414: 4290:"Abstract Data Models - Windows applications" 4110: 3886:"Oracle SPARC Architecture 2015 Draft D1.0.9" 3736: 3732: 3730: 3620: 1351:ARMv8-A-based system-on-a-chip alongside the 1319:ARMv8-A-based system-on-a-chip alongside the 607: 549:A 64-bit register can hold any of 2 (over 18 398: 3760: 3419: 2761:when casting pointers into integer objects. 5419:Computer performance by orders of magnitude 4263: 4261: 4186: 4184: 4182: 4013: 3766: 2830:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2074:Some operating systems reserve portions of 1588:x64 Edition for AMD64 and EM64T processors. 1508:follows the CPU release almost immediately. 1496:, a 64-bit operating system descended from 646:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4428: 4421: 4407: 3797:(Press release). Microsoft. April 25, 2005 3727: 1017: 553:or 1.8×10) different values. The range of 405: 391: 4234: 4232: 4131: 4043:"Licensed Memory in 32-Bit Windows Vista" 3934: 2850:Learn how and when to remove this message 1933:One significant exception to this is the 1803:Learn how and when to remove this message 1399:, the first 64-bit implementation of the 1202:architecture, a descendant of the 32-bit 799:consensus as a convenient register size. 666:Learn how and when to remove this message 106:Learn how and when to remove this message 4258: 4179: 4134:"The Ten Commandments for C Programmers" 4040: 3769:"Microsoft nixes Windows XP for Itanium" 3662: 2266: 1943:Technology Independent Machine Interface 1045:graphics workstations starting with the 1037:architecture, the third revision of its 416: 281: 3549:. VIA Technologies, Inc. Archived from 3521:IBM Journal of Research and Development 3499: 3475:IBM Journal of Research and Development 3453: 3424:(2nd ed.). MIPS Technologies, Inc. 3422:MIPS R4000 Microprocessor User's Manual 3256:IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications 1752: 1455:for the Alpha architecture is released. 911: 6344: 4310:from the original on December 30, 2018 4229: 3916: 3710: 3472: 2302:64-bit versions of Windows cannot run 1895: 604:had a 64-bit data bus, for instance). 4402: 4074:. Technet.microsoft.com. 2006-11-01. 3671:from the original on 26 November 2010 2537:ABIs on Linux systems; MIPS N32 ABI. 2369: 1087:architecture (jointly developed with 1070:architecture which was born from the 588:generally has integer and addressing 432:can be expressed as a sequence of 16 5390:Floating-point operations per second 4389:64-Bit Programming Models: Why LP64? 4322: 4078:from the original on 23 October 2010 3015:processor and predecessors, and the 2828:adding citations to reliable sources 2795: 2720:Many 64-bit platforms today use an 2449:, and has recently been used in the 1785:adding citations to reliable sources 1756: 1532:'s IA-64 architecture; it could run 644:adding citations to reliable sources 611: 44:adding citations to reliable sources 15: 4360: 4096:Lincoln Spector (August 12, 2013). 3749:from the original on 9 October 2009 3652:from the original on 31 March 2022. 3443:(4). Digital Equipment Corporation. 2975:'s K1OM architecture, a variant of 2786:input–output memory management unit 2096:Some 64-bit architectures, such as 1900: 1582:Windows XP Professional x64 Edition 13: 4365:"Is your X code ready for 64-bit?" 4351: 3817:"UEFI_on_Dell BizClient_Platforms" 3577:. October 31, 2011. Archived from 1969:, scientific computing, and large 1740:or newer and the newly introduced 806:meant that 2 addresses, or 4 471:(ALU) are those that are based on 14: 6368: 4340: 3957:from the original on 5 April 2009 3874:. November 30, 2015. p. 983. 2991:' 64-bit extensions, used in the 2766:application programming interface 2567:(x86-64, IA-64, and ARM64) using 1066:(DEC) introduces the pure 64-bit 977:launches the Elxsi 6400 parallel 950:with 32-bit, 64-bit, and 128-bit 689:single instruction, multiple data 584:With no further qualification, a 528:reduced instruction set computers 424:of the section table in a 64-bit 6316:Semiconductor device fabrication 4098:"Run an old program on a new PC" 3982:from the original on 10 May 2007 3906:. pp. D4-1723, D4-1724, D4-1731. 3856:. Intel. September 2016. p. 4-2. 3737:John Siracusa (September 2009). 2866:The 64-bit extension created by 2800: 2034: 1761: 1565:releases with support for AMD64. 1384:64-bit operating system timeline 995:reduced instruction set computer 903:(AMD) released its first 64-bit 789:32-bit members of the x86 family 616: 131:Computer architecture bit widths 20: 6291:History of general-purpose CPUs 4518:Nondeterministic Turing machine 4296: 4282: 4204: 4173:z/OS XL C/C++ Programming Guide 4161: 4148:"The Story of Thud and Blunder" 4140: 4125: 4104: 4089: 4064: 4020:Mark Russinovich (2008-07-21). 3993: 3968: 3943: 3910: 3896: 3878: 3860: 3843: 3826: 3809: 3787: 3771:. Computerworld. Archived from 3720:. Ottawa Linux Symposium 2001. 3704: 3682: 3656: 3638: 3564: 3539: 3527:(6). IBM Corporation: 873–884. 3512: 3493: 3481:(4). IBM Corporation: 495–505. 3466: 3447: 3428: 3413: 1772:needs additional citations for 1738:Apple Watch SE (1st generation) 1369:ARMv8-A-based system-on-a-chip. 1091:) as a successor to its 32-bit 1083:announces plans for the 64-bit 944:International Computers Limited 891:'s Macintosh lines switched to 118:Computer architecture bit width 31:needs additional citations for 4471:Deterministic finite automaton 4304:"ILP32 for AArch64 Whitepaper" 4041:Chappell, Geoff (2009-01-27). 3951:"Windows 7: 64 bit vs 32 bit?" 3767:Joris Evers (5 January 2005). 3393: 3346: 3317: 3288: 3243: 3214: 3191: 3167: 1230:processor lines, based on its 1: 5262:Simultaneous and heterogenous 4306:. ARM Limited. June 9, 2015. 4240:"Cray C/C++ Reference Manual" 3917:Mashey, John (October 2006). 3184: 2043:. This is not entirely true: 1926:processor core to run 32-bit 1650:which supports UEFI Class 3 ( 1064:Digital Equipment Corporation 5946:Integrated memory controller 5928:Translation lookaside buffer 5127:Memory dependence prediction 4570:Random-access stored program 4523:Probabilistic Turing machine 4072:"Inside Native Applications" 3667:. www.operating-system.org. 3508:(15). MicroDesign Resources. 3462:(13). MicroDesign Resources. 3379:"i860 64-Bit Microprocessor" 3056:architecture, used in IBM's 2792:Current 64-bit architectures 2382:and its descendants such as 2063:memory address space, using 2023:A 64-bit processor may have 1939:instruction set architecture 1155:line of full-64-bit PowerPC/ 847:machines. By the mid-1990s, 586:64-bit computer architecture 459:units are those that are 64 7: 5402:Synaptic updates per second 4192:"64-Bit Programming Models" 3694:"My Life and Free Software" 3148: 2768:(API) typically dominates. 2351:operating systems, and the 1678:, the first version of the 1536:through an execution layer. 1345:iPod Touch (6th generation) 1238:also ships the 64-bit "G5" 1187:IBM ships its first 64-bit 10: 6373: 5806:Heterogeneous architecture 4728:Orthogonal instruction set 4498:Alternating Turing machine 4486:Quantum cellular automaton 4394:AMD64 (EM64T) architecture 3919:"The Long Road to 64 Bits" 3572:"ARMv8 Technology Preview" 3069:processor and predecessors 3052:, a 64-bit version of the 2724:model (including Solaris, 2336:"Mountain Lion" and later 2065:Physical Address Extension 2009:high-performance computing 1504:64-bit mainframes; 64-bit 740: 608:Architectural implications 120: 6296:Microprocessor chronology 6283: 6259:Dynamic frequency scaling 6232: 6168: 6106: 6060: 6012: 5967: 5887: 5814: 5783: 5688: 5609: 5573: 5527: 5427: 5414:Cache performance metrics 5353: 5287: 5237: 5148: 5139: 5112: 5067: 5034: 5006: 4997: 4817: 4720: 4709: 4580: 4436: 3978:. Sun Microsystems, Inc. 3665:"Unicos Operating System" 3437:Digital Technical Journal 2714:(versus UNICOS/mp, etc.) 2504:Sample operating systems 1557:release with support for 1526:Windows XP 64-Bit Edition 1353:Apple TV (4th generation) 6311:Hardware security module 5654:Digital signal processor 5631:Graphics processing unit 5443:Graphics processing unit 3361:, MIPS Technologies, Inc 3160: 2116: 1960:On 64-bit hardware with 1744:), dropping support for 1409:DEC releases the 64-bit 934:Control Data Corporation 772:) address space. 32-bit 465:central processing units 6264:Dynamic voltage scaling 6047:Memory address register 5941:Branch target predictor 5905:Address generation unit 5648:Physics processing unit 5437:Central processing unit 5396:Transactions per second 5384:Instructions per second 5307:Array processing (SIMT) 4451:Stored-program computer 4330:"Apple devices in 2018" 3936:10.1145/1165754.1165766 3868:"Power ISA Version 3.0" 3714:Porting Linux to x86-64 3033:'s M8 and S7 processors 2672:port of Solaris to the 1297:ARM architecture family 1051:Kendall Square Research 1033:, which implements the 1018:64-bit address timeline 6070:Hardwired control unit 5952:Memory management unit 5917:Memory management unit 5666:Secure cryptoprocessor 5660:Tensor Processing Unit 5642:Vision processing unit 5376:Cycles per instruction 5370:Instructions per cycle 5317:Associative processing 5008:Instruction pipelining 4430:Processor technologies 4111:Peter Seebach (2006). 3401:"Atari Jaguar History" 2868:Advanced Micro Devices 2287:mode, e.g., Microsoft 2059:onward allow a 36-bit 2025:backward compatibility 1624:Windows Server 2008 R2 1430:processor is added by 1181:(later branded AMD64). 901:Advanced Micro Devices 882:Quantum Effect Devices 559:integer representation 469:arithmetic logic units 437: 355:Decimal floating-point 6153:Sum-addressed decoder 5899:Arithmetic logic unit 5026:Classic RISC pipeline 4980:Epiphany architecture 4827:Motorola 68000 series 4150:. Datacenterworks.com 3502:Microprocessor Report 3456:Microprocessor Report 3420:Joe Heinrich (1994). 2267:Software availability 1333:Google announces the 1041:. The CPU is used in 1027:MIPS Computer Systems 785:Motorola 68000 family 442:computer architecture 420: 292:Binary floating-point 6274:Performance per watt 5852:replacement policies 5518:Package on a package 5408:Performance per watt 5312:Pipelined processing 5082:Tomasulo's algorithm 4887:Clipper architecture 4743:Application-specific 4456:Finite-state machine 3584:on November 11, 2011 2953:2/i3/i5/i7/i9, some 2949:extensions, used in 2895:extensions (used in 2824:improve this section 2777:direct memory access 2670:HAL Computer Systems 2451:Apple Watch Series 4 2374:In 32-bit programs, 2364:open-source software 2041:random-access memory 1949:to the newer 64-bit 1781:improve this article 1753:Limits of processors 1746:Apple Watch Series 3 1728:Google releases the 1550:processors. Several 1482:7, with full 64-bit 1363:Apple Watch Series 4 1361:Apple announces the 1343:Apple announces the 1311:Apple announces the 1118:HAL Computer Systems 912:64-bit data timeline 849:HAL Computer Systems 812:random-access memory 640:improve this section 40:improve this article 6306:Digital electronics 5959:Instruction decoder 5911:Floating-point unit 5565:Soft microprocessor 5512:System in a package 5087:Reservation station 4617:Transport-triggered 4246:on October 16, 2013 3533:10.1147/rd.446.0873 3487:10.1147/rd.404.0495 3114:NEC SX architecture 3039:'s SPARC64 XII and 2458: 2457:64-bit data models 2086:Memory-mapped files 1975:compatibility modes 1896:64-bit applications 1824:x86-64 architecture 1718:Microsoft releases 1646:Microsoft releases 1618:Microsoft releases 1594:Microsoft releases 1586:Windows Server 2003 1542:Apple releases its 1534:32-bit applications 1524:Microsoft releases 1222:AMD introduces its 1165:Intel releases the 964:delivers the first 895:processors (termed 473:processor registers 463:wide. Also, 64-bit 426:Portable Executable 6178:Integrated circuit 6022:Processor register 5676:Baseband processor 5021:Operand forwarding 4481:Cellular automaton 3143:multi-arch support 3141:or more generally 2456: 2370:64-bit data models 2281:compatibility mode 1506:Linux on z Systems 1453:Linux distribution 1141:architecture, the 1104:launches a 64-bit 1011:video game console 791:starting with the 774:superminicomputers 438: 55:"64-bit computing" 6339: 6338: 6228: 6227: 5847:Instruction cache 5837:Scratchpad memory 5684: 5683: 5671:Network processor 5600:Network on a chip 5555:Ultra-low-voltage 5506:Multi-chip module 5349: 5348: 5135: 5134: 5122:Branch prediction 5099:Register renaming 4993: 4992: 4975:VISC architecture 4797:Quantum computing 4792:VISC architecture 4674:Secondary storage 4590:Microarchitecture 4550:Register machines 4047:geoffchappell.com 3690:Jon "maddog" Hall 3606:(Press release). 3327:(Press release). 3119:SX-Aurora TSUBASA 3081:MIPS Technologies 3027:V9 architecture: 2870:(AMD) to Intel's 2860: 2859: 2852: 2718: 2717: 2565:Microsoft Windows 2435:long long integer 2283:, also termed an 2069:Microsoft Windows 1911:operating systems 1813: 1812: 1805: 1742:Apple Watch Ultra 1654:without CSM) and 1403:operating system. 1267:64-bit processor. 1151:IBM releases the 1039:MIPS architecture 979:minisupercomputer 920:IBM delivers the 722:MIPS architecture 720:(ARM) and 32-bit 676: 675: 668: 522:since the 1970s ( 415: 414: 116: 115: 108: 90: 6364: 6352:64-bit computers 6301:Processor design 6193:Power management 6075:Instruction unit 5936:Branch predictor 5885: 5884: 5583:System on a chip 5525: 5524: 5365:Transistor count 5289:Flynn's taxonomy 5146: 5145: 5004: 5003: 4807:Addressing modes 4718: 4717: 4664:Memory hierarchy 4528:Hypercomputation 4446:Abstract machine 4423: 4416: 4409: 4400: 4399: 4380: 4378: 4376: 4367:. Archived from 4362:Kilgard, Mark J. 4357: 4352:Karpov, Andrey. 4334: 4333: 4326: 4320: 4319: 4317: 4315: 4300: 4294: 4293: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4265: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4251: 4236: 4227: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4208: 4202: 4201: 4199: 4198: 4188: 4177: 4176: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4156: 4155: 4144: 4138: 4137: 4129: 4123: 4122: 4108: 4102: 4101: 4093: 4087: 4086: 4084: 4083: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4038: 4032: 4031: 4029: 4028: 4017: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4007: 3997: 3991: 3990: 3988: 3987: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3963: 3962: 3947: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3900: 3894: 3893: 3882: 3876: 3875: 3864: 3858: 3857: 3855: 3847: 3841: 3840: 3838: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3813: 3807: 3806: 3804: 3802: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3764: 3758: 3757: 3755: 3754: 3734: 3725: 3724: 3719: 3708: 3702: 3701: 3686: 3680: 3679: 3677: 3676: 3660: 3654: 3653: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3624: 3618: 3617: 3615: 3614: 3600: 3594: 3593: 3591: 3589: 3583: 3576: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3559: 3558: 3543: 3537: 3536: 3516: 3510: 3509: 3497: 3491: 3490: 3470: 3464: 3463: 3451: 3445: 3444: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3417: 3411: 3410: 3397: 3391: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3367: 3366: 3360: 3350: 3344: 3343: 3337: 3336: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3300: 3292: 3286: 3285: 3283: 3282: 3268:10.1109/38.31467 3247: 3241: 3240: 3238: 3236: 3226: 3218: 3212: 3211: 3205: 3195: 3178: 3171: 2989:VIA Technologies 2855: 2848: 2844: 2841: 2835: 2804: 2796: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2536: 2501: 2494: 2487: 2483: 2478: 2473: 2469: 2459: 2455: 2428: 2424: 2396: 2294: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2213: 2210: 2207: 2204: 2201: 2198: 2195: 2192: 2189: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1905:A change from a 1901:32-bit vs 64-bit 1850: 1841: 1833: 1832:256 × 1024 bytes 1818: 1808: 1801: 1797: 1794: 1788: 1765: 1757: 1676:Android Lollipop 1674:Google releases 1470:operating system 1463:Silicon Graphics 1439:operating system 1432:Silicon Graphics 1426:Support for the 1261:VIA Technologies 952:two's complement 922:IBM 7030 Stretch 861:Silicon Graphics 853:Sun Microsystems 804:address register 771: 747:instruction sets 718:ARM architecture 713:that are wider. 671: 664: 660: 657: 651: 620: 612: 579:byte-addressable 571:two's complement 483:of that size. A 453:memory addresses 407: 400: 393: 128: 127: 111: 104: 100: 97: 91: 89: 48: 24: 16: 6372: 6371: 6367: 6366: 6365: 6363: 6362: 6361: 6342: 6341: 6340: 6335: 6321:Tick–tock model 6279: 6235: 6224: 6164: 6148:Address decoder 6102: 6056: 6052:Program counter 6027:Status register 6008: 5963: 5923:Load–store unit 5890: 5883: 5810: 5779: 5680: 5637:Image processor 5612: 5605: 5575: 5569: 5545:Microcontroller 5535:Embedded system 5523: 5423: 5356: 5345: 5283: 5233: 5131: 5108: 5092:Re-order buffer 5063: 5044:Data dependency 5030: 4989: 4819: 4813: 4712: 4711:Instruction set 4705: 4691:Multiprocessing 4659:Cache hierarchy 4652:Register/memory 4576: 4476:Queue automaton 4432: 4427: 4374: 4372: 4371:on June 3, 2001 4343: 4338: 4337: 4328: 4327: 4323: 4313: 4311: 4302: 4301: 4297: 4292:. May 30, 2018. 4288: 4287: 4283: 4273: 4271: 4267: 4266: 4259: 4249: 4247: 4238: 4237: 4230: 4220: 4218: 4210: 4209: 4205: 4196: 4194: 4190: 4189: 4180: 4167: 4166: 4162: 4153: 4151: 4146: 4145: 4141: 4132:Henry Spencer. 4130: 4126: 4109: 4105: 4094: 4090: 4081: 4079: 4070: 4069: 4065: 4055: 4053: 4039: 4035: 4026: 4024: 4018: 4014: 4005: 4003: 3999: 3998: 3994: 3985: 3983: 3974: 3973: 3969: 3960: 3958: 3949: 3948: 3944: 3915: 3911: 3902: 3901: 3897: 3884: 3883: 3879: 3866: 3865: 3861: 3853: 3849: 3848: 3844: 3836: 3832: 3831: 3827: 3819: 3815: 3814: 3810: 3800: 3798: 3793: 3792: 3788: 3778: 3776: 3775:on 18 June 2013 3765: 3761: 3752: 3750: 3735: 3728: 3717: 3709: 3705: 3692:(Jun 1, 2000). 3687: 3683: 3674: 3672: 3661: 3657: 3644: 3643: 3639: 3626: 3625: 3621: 3612: 3610: 3602: 3601: 3597: 3587: 3585: 3581: 3574: 3570: 3569: 3565: 3556: 3554: 3545: 3544: 3540: 3517: 3513: 3498: 3494: 3471: 3467: 3452: 3448: 3433: 3429: 3418: 3414: 3399: 3398: 3394: 3384: 3382: 3377: 3376: 3372: 3364: 3362: 3358: 3352: 3351: 3347: 3334: 3332: 3323: 3322: 3318: 3308: 3306: 3298: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3280: 3278: 3248: 3244: 3234: 3232: 3224: 3220: 3219: 3215: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3192: 3187: 3182: 3181: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3155:Computer memory 3151: 3139:bi-arch support 2856: 2845: 2839: 2836: 2821: 2805: 2794: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2611:systems, e.g., 2534: 2499: 2498: 2492: 2490: 2485: 2484: 2481: 2476: 2471: 2470: 2467: 2463: 2426: 2422: 2394: 2372: 2347:and most other 2308:virtual machine 2304:16-bit software 2292: 2269: 2245: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2223: 2220: 2217: 2214: 2211: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2187: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2127: 2124: 2121: 2118: 2037: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1903: 1898: 1848: 1839: 1831: 1816: 1809: 1798: 1792: 1789: 1778: 1766: 1755: 1708:Apple releases 1698:Apple releases 1688:Apple releases 1664:Apple releases 1636:Apple releases 1608:Apple releases 1472:in release 6.2. 1441:in release 6.0. 1386: 1277:for use in the 1167:instruction set 1133:introduces the 1108:processor, the 1089:Hewlett-Packard 1020: 1006:introduces the 990:introduces the 948:ICL 2900 Series 914: 899:by Apple), and 865:Hewlett-Packard 770:16 × 1024 bytes 769: 743: 672: 661: 655: 652: 637: 621: 610: 526:, 1975) and in 428:File. A 64-bit 411: 382: 349: 286: 251: 126: 119: 112: 101: 95: 92: 49: 47: 37: 25: 12: 11: 5: 6370: 6360: 6359: 6354: 6337: 6336: 6334: 6333: 6328: 6326:Pin grid array 6323: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6287: 6285: 6281: 6280: 6278: 6277: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6240: 6238: 6230: 6229: 6226: 6225: 6223: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6196: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6174: 6172: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6162: 6160:Barrel shifter 6157: 6156: 6155: 6150: 6143:Binary decoder 6140: 6139: 6138: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6112: 6110: 6104: 6103: 6101: 6100: 6095: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6066: 6064: 6058: 6057: 6055: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6032:Stack register 6029: 6024: 6018: 6016: 6010: 6009: 6007: 6006: 6005: 6004: 5999: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5973: 5971: 5965: 5964: 5962: 5961: 5956: 5955: 5954: 5943: 5938: 5933: 5932: 5931: 5925: 5914: 5908: 5902: 5895: 5893: 5882: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5860: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5824: 5818: 5816: 5812: 5811: 5809: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5787: 5785: 5781: 5780: 5778: 5777: 5776: 5775: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5694: 5692: 5686: 5685: 5682: 5681: 5679: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5657: 5651: 5645: 5639: 5634: 5628: 5626:AI accelerator 5623: 5617: 5615: 5607: 5606: 5604: 5603: 5597: 5592: 5589:Multiprocessor 5586: 5579: 5577: 5571: 5570: 5568: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5540:Microprocessor 5537: 5531: 5529: 5528:By application 5522: 5521: 5515: 5509: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5471:Tile processor 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5452: 5451: 5440: 5433: 5431: 5425: 5424: 5422: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5405: 5399: 5393: 5387: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5367: 5361: 5359: 5351: 5350: 5347: 5346: 5344: 5343: 5342: 5341: 5331: 5326: 5325: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5299: 5293: 5291: 5285: 5284: 5282: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5265: 5264: 5259: 5257:Hyperthreading 5249: 5243: 5241: 5239:Multithreading 5235: 5234: 5232: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5220: 5219: 5209: 5208: 5207: 5202: 5192: 5191: 5190: 5185: 5175: 5170: 5169: 5168: 5163: 5152: 5150: 5143: 5137: 5136: 5133: 5132: 5130: 5129: 5124: 5118: 5116: 5110: 5109: 5107: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5095: 5094: 5089: 5079: 5073: 5071: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5040: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5016:Pipeline stall 5012: 5010: 5001: 4995: 4994: 4991: 4990: 4988: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4967: 4965:z/Architecture 4962: 4957: 4952: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4883: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4823: 4821: 4815: 4814: 4812: 4811: 4810: 4809: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4768: 4767: 4757: 4756: 4755: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4724: 4722: 4715: 4707: 4706: 4704: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4671: 4669:Virtual memory 4661: 4656: 4655: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4608: 4607: 4597: 4592: 4586: 4584: 4578: 4577: 4575: 4574: 4573: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4536: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4493:Turing machine 4490: 4489: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4453: 4448: 4442: 4440: 4434: 4433: 4426: 4425: 4418: 4411: 4403: 4397: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4358: 4349: 4342: 4341:External links 4339: 4336: 4335: 4321: 4295: 4281: 4257: 4228: 4203: 4178: 4160: 4139: 4124: 4103: 4088: 4063: 4033: 4012: 3992: 3967: 3942: 3909: 3895: 3892:. p. 475. 3877: 3859: 3842: 3825: 3808: 3786: 3759: 3726: 3703: 3681: 3663:Stefan Berka. 3655: 3637: 3632:ARMdevices.net 3619: 3595: 3563: 3538: 3511: 3492: 3465: 3446: 3427: 3412: 3392: 3370: 3345: 3316: 3287: 3242: 3213: 3189: 3188: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3179: 3175:floating-point 3165: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3158: 3157: 3150: 3147: 3134: 3133: 3128: 3123: 3122: 3121: 3111: 3110: 3109: 3103:architecture: 3098: 3088: 3078: 3077: 3076: 3070: 3050:z/Architecture 3046: 3045: 3044: 3034: 3022: 3021: 3020: 2998: 2997: 2996: 2986: 2985: 2984: 2940: 2858: 2857: 2808: 2806: 2799: 2793: 2790: 2773:device drivers 2716: 2715: 2706: 2701: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2677: 2676: 2667: 2662: 2657: 2652: 2647: 2644: 2640: 2639: 2601: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2583: 2580: 2576: 2575: 2562: 2557: 2552: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2539: 2538: 2531: 2526: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2510: 2506: 2505: 2502: 2495: 2488: 2479: 2474: 2465: 2433:refers to the 2371: 2368: 2277:device drivers 2268: 2265: 2255: 2254: 2250: 2117: 2115: 2114: 2106: 2105: 2094: 2090: 2083: 2072: 2036: 2033: 2032: 2031: 2028: 2021: 1902: 1899: 1897: 1894: 1856:Power ISA v3.0 1849:4 × 1024 bytes 1840:4 × 1024 bytes 1811: 1810: 1769: 1767: 1760: 1754: 1751: 1750: 1749: 1726: 1723: 1716: 1713: 1706: 1703: 1696: 1693: 1686: 1683: 1672: 1669: 1662: 1659: 1644: 1641: 1634: 1631: 1616: 1613: 1606: 1603: 1592: 1589: 1569: 1566: 1540: 1537: 1522: 1519: 1512: 1509: 1500:, for the new 1490: 1487: 1476: 1473: 1459: 1456: 1445: 1442: 1424: 1421: 1407: 1404: 1390: 1385: 1382: 1381: 1380: 1373: 1370: 1359: 1356: 1341: 1338: 1331: 1328: 1309: 1306: 1303: 1300: 1290: 1287: 1275:Cell processor 1271: 1268: 1263:announces the 1258: 1246: 1243: 1220: 1217: 1210: 1207: 1189:z/Architecture 1185: 1182: 1173:architecture. 1163: 1160: 1149: 1146: 1128: 1125: 1099: 1096: 1078: 1075: 1061: 1058: 1024: 1019: 1016: 1015: 1014: 1001: 998: 985: 982: 972: 969: 959: 956: 941: 931: 928: 918: 913: 910: 776:, such as the 755:virtual memory 751:memory address 745:Many computer 742: 739: 706:base registers 684:floating-point 674: 673: 624: 622: 615: 609: 606: 520:supercomputers 496:virtual memory 413: 412: 410: 409: 402: 395: 387: 384: 383: 381: 380: 375: 370: 364: 361: 360: 351: 350: 348: 347: 341: 335: 330: 324: 319: 313: 308: 301: 298: 297: 288: 287: 285: 284: 279: 274: 269: 263: 260: 259: 253: 252: 250: 249: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 143: 140: 139: 133: 132: 117: 114: 113: 28: 26: 19: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6369: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6347: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6288: 6286: 6282: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6241: 6239: 6237: 6231: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6180: 6179: 6176: 6175: 6173: 6171: 6167: 6161: 6158: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6145: 6144: 6141: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6121:Demultiplexer 6119: 6117: 6114: 6113: 6111: 6109: 6105: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6067: 6065: 6063: 6059: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6042:Memory buffer 6040: 6038: 6037:Register file 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6019: 6017: 6015: 6011: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5994: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5977:Combinational 5975: 5974: 5972: 5970: 5966: 5960: 5957: 5953: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5912: 5909: 5906: 5903: 5900: 5897: 5896: 5894: 5892: 5886: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5829: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5819: 5817: 5813: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5788: 5786: 5782: 5774: 5771: 5770: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5695: 5693: 5691: 5687: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5661: 5658: 5655: 5652: 5649: 5646: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5608: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5590: 5587: 5584: 5581: 5580: 5578: 5572: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5532: 5530: 5526: 5519: 5516: 5513: 5510: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5450: 5447: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5438: 5435: 5434: 5432: 5430: 5426: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5409: 5406: 5403: 5400: 5397: 5394: 5391: 5388: 5385: 5382: 5377: 5374: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5362: 5360: 5358: 5352: 5340: 5337: 5336: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5304: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5292: 5290: 5286: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5254: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5244: 5242: 5240: 5236: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5218: 5215: 5214: 5213: 5210: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5197: 5196: 5193: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5158: 5157: 5154: 5153: 5151: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5138: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5119: 5117: 5115: 5111: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5084: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5077:Scoreboarding 5075: 5074: 5072: 5070: 5066: 5060: 5059:False sharing 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5041: 5039: 5037: 5033: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5013: 5011: 5009: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4996: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4970: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4867: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4852:Stanford MIPS 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4824: 4822: 4816: 4808: 4805: 4804: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4766: 4763: 4762: 4761: 4758: 4754: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4723: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4713:architectures 4708: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4681:Heterogeneous 4679: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4666: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4634: 4633: 4632:Memory access 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4579: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4565:Random-access 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4552: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4545:Stack machine 4543: 4541: 4538: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4495: 4494: 4491: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4461:with datapath 4459: 4458: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4443: 4441: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4424: 4419: 4417: 4412: 4410: 4405: 4404: 4401: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4375:September 26, 4370: 4366: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4344: 4331: 4325: 4309: 4305: 4299: 4291: 4285: 4270: 4264: 4262: 4245: 4241: 4235: 4233: 4217: 4213: 4207: 4193: 4187: 4185: 4183: 4174: 4170: 4164: 4149: 4143: 4135: 4128: 4120: 4119: 4114: 4107: 4099: 4092: 4077: 4073: 4067: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4037: 4023: 4016: 4002: 3996: 3981: 3977: 3971: 3956: 3953:. W7 Forums. 3952: 3946: 3937: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3913: 3905: 3899: 3891: 3887: 3881: 3873: 3869: 3863: 3852: 3846: 3835: 3829: 3818: 3812: 3801:September 10, 3796: 3790: 3774: 3770: 3763: 3748: 3745:. p. 5. 3744: 3740: 3733: 3731: 3723: 3716: 3715: 3707: 3699: 3698:Linux Journal 3695: 3691: 3685: 3670: 3666: 3659: 3651: 3647: 3641: 3634:. 2012-10-31. 3633: 3629: 3623: 3609: 3605: 3599: 3580: 3573: 3567: 3553:on 2007-10-11 3552: 3548: 3542: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3515: 3507: 3503: 3496: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3469: 3461: 3457: 3450: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3423: 3416: 3408: 3407: 3402: 3396: 3381:. Intel. 1989 3380: 3374: 3357: 3356: 3349: 3342: 3330: 3326: 3320: 3309:September 12, 3304: 3297: 3291: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3246: 3230: 3229:Cray Research 3223: 3217: 3209: 3202: 3201: 3194: 3190: 3176: 3170: 3166: 3156: 3153: 3152: 3146: 3144: 3140: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3120: 3117: 3116: 3115: 3112: 3108: 3105: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3096: 3092: 3089: 3086: 3082: 3079: 3074: 3071: 3068: 3065: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3035: 3032: 3029: 3028: 3026: 3023: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3009: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2971: 2970: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2941: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2889: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2878: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2864: 2863: 2854: 2851: 2843: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2809:This section 2807: 2803: 2798: 2797: 2789: 2787: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2769: 2767: 2762: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2713: 2710: 2707: 2705: 2702: 2700: 2697: 2695: 2692: 2690: 2687: 2685: 2682: 2679: 2678: 2675: 2671: 2668: 2666: 2663: 2661: 2658: 2656: 2653: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2642: 2641: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2600: 2597: 2595: 2592: 2590: 2587: 2584: 2581: 2578: 2577: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2563: 2561: 2558: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2541: 2540: 2532: 2530: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2514: 2511: 2508: 2507: 2503: 2496: 2489: 2480: 2475: 2466: 2461: 2460: 2454: 2452: 2448: 2443: 2438: 2436: 2432: 2420: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2400: 2391: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2367: 2365: 2361: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2330:Mac OS X 10.7 2327: 2326:Mac OS X 10.6 2323: 2322:Mac OS X 10.5 2319: 2318:Mac OS X 10.4 2315: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2264: 2261: 2251: 2247: 2246: 2112: 2108: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2084: 2080: 2079:address space 2077: 2073: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2045: 2044: 2042: 2035:Pros and cons 2029: 2026: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2017: 2016: 2012: 2010: 2005: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1967:digital video 1963: 1958: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1941:(ISA) called 1940: 1936: 1931: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1878: 1873: 1871: 1866: 1864: 1859: 1857: 1852: 1845: 1837: 1834:) and 4 1829: 1825: 1820: 1807: 1804: 1796: 1786: 1782: 1776: 1775: 1770:This section 1768: 1764: 1759: 1758: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1724: 1721: 1717: 1714: 1711: 1707: 1704: 1701: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1687: 1684: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1670: 1667: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1638:Mac OS X 10.7 1635: 1632: 1629: 1628:Mac OS X 10.6 1625: 1621: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1610:Mac OS X 10.5 1607: 1604: 1601: 1597: 1596:Windows Vista 1593: 1590: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1578:Mac OS X 10.4 1575: 1570: 1567: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1555:distributions 1553: 1549: 1545: 1544:Mac OS X 10.3 1541: 1538: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1513: 1510: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1492:IBM releases 1491: 1488: 1485: 1481: 1478:Sun releases 1477: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1450: 1447:DEC releases 1446: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1422: 1420:architecture. 1419: 1415: 1412: 1411:DEC OSF/1 AXP 1408: 1405: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1391: 1388: 1387: 1378: 1374: 1371: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1339: 1336: 1332: 1329: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1301: 1298: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1279:PlayStation 3 1276: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1252: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1218: 1215: 1211: 1208: 1206:architecture. 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1190: 1186: 1183: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1161: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1147: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1079: 1076: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1025: 1022: 1021: 1012: 1009: 1005: 1002: 999: 996: 993: 989: 986: 983: 980: 976: 973: 970: 967: 963: 962:Cray Research 960: 957: 953: 949: 946:launches the 945: 942: 939: 936:launches the 935: 932: 929: 926: 925:supercomputer 923: 919: 916: 915: 909: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 883: 879: 878:PlayStation 2 875: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 837: 833: 829: 828:supercomputer 824: 822: 817: 813: 809: 805: 800: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 779: 775: 767: 763: 760: 756: 752: 748: 738: 736: 731: 727: 723: 719: 714: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 690: 685: 681: 670: 667: 659: 649: 645: 641: 635: 634: 630: 625:This section 623: 619: 614: 613: 605: 603: 599: 598:address buses 595: 591: 587: 582: 580: 576: 572: 568: 567:binary number 564: 560: 556: 552: 547: 545: 541: 537: 533: 530:(RISC) based 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 508: 505: 501: 497: 493: 488: 486: 482: 478: 477:address buses 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 447: 443: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 408: 403: 401: 396: 394: 389: 388: 386: 385: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 365: 363: 362: 359: 356: 353: 352: 345: 342: 339: 336: 334: 331: 328: 325: 323: 320: 317: 314: 312: 309: 306: 303: 302: 300: 299: 296: 293: 290: 289: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 264: 262: 261: 258: 255: 254: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 144: 142: 141: 138: 135: 134: 130: 129: 124: 110: 107: 99: 88: 85: 81: 78: 74: 71: 67: 64: 60: 57: – 56: 52: 51:Find sources: 45: 41: 35: 34: 29:This article 27: 23: 18: 17: 6331:Chip carrier 6269:Clock gating 6188:Mixed-signal 6085:Write buffer 6062:Control unit 5874:Clock signal 5742: 5613:accelerators 5595:Cypress PSoC 5252:Simultaneous 5069:Out-of-order 4701:Neuromorphic 4582:Architecture 4540:Belt machine 4533:Zeno machine 4466:Hierarchical 4373:. Retrieved 4369:the original 4324: 4312:. Retrieved 4298: 4284: 4272:. Retrieved 4248:. Retrieved 4244:the original 4219:. Retrieved 4215: 4206: 4195:. Retrieved 4172: 4163: 4152:. Retrieved 4142: 4127: 4116: 4106: 4091: 4080:. Retrieved 4066: 4054:. Retrieved 4046: 4036: 4025:. Retrieved 4015: 4004:. Retrieved 3995: 3984:. Retrieved 3970: 3959:. Retrieved 3945: 3929:(8): 85–94. 3926: 3922: 3912: 3898: 3880: 3862: 3845: 3828: 3811: 3799:. Retrieved 3789: 3777:. Retrieved 3773:the original 3762: 3751:. Retrieved 3743:Ars Technica 3742: 3721: 3713: 3711:Andi Kleen. 3706: 3697: 3684: 3673:. Retrieved 3658: 3640: 3631: 3622: 3611:. Retrieved 3608:ARM Holdings 3598: 3588:November 15, 3586:. Retrieved 3579:the original 3566: 3555:. Retrieved 3551:the original 3541: 3524: 3520: 3514: 3505: 3501: 3495: 3478: 3474: 3468: 3459: 3455: 3449: 3440: 3436: 3430: 3421: 3415: 3404: 3395: 3383:. Retrieved 3373: 3363:, retrieved 3354: 3348: 3339: 3333:. Retrieved 3331:. 1998-01-20 3319: 3307:. Retrieved 3290: 3279:. Retrieved 3262:(4): 85–94. 3259: 3255: 3245: 3233:. Retrieved 3216: 3199: 3193: 3169: 3142: 3138: 3135: 3097:architecture 3091:ARM Holdings 3087:architecture 3041:SPARC64 XIfx 2976: 2957:, and newer 2885: 2881: 2875: 2861: 2846: 2837: 2822:Please help 2810: 2770: 2763: 2733: 2721: 2719: 2708: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2559: 2554: 2528: 2520: 2515: 2441: 2439: 2434: 2430: 2418: 2413: 2412:model where 2409: 2405: 2398: 2392: 2373: 2343: 2320:"Tiger" and 2316: 2301: 2297: 2270: 2256: 2249:values to a. 2093:environment. 2060: 2053:3 GB barrier 2038: 2014: 2013: 2006: 1979: 1959: 1954: 1953:, codenamed 1950: 1946: 1942: 1932: 1904: 1874: 1867: 1860: 1853: 1821: 1814: 1799: 1793:January 2010 1790: 1779:Please help 1774:verification 1771: 1293:ARM Holdings 1047:IRIS Crimson 1008:Atari Jaguar 938:CDC Star-100 896: 825: 815: 801: 796: 744: 715: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 687: 683: 679: 677: 662: 653: 638:Please help 626: 585: 583: 548: 532:workstations 511: 509: 494:with 64-bit 492:machine code 489: 445: 439: 226: 102: 93: 83: 76: 69: 62: 50: 38:Please help 33:verification 30: 6116:Multiplexer 6080:Data buffer 5791:Single-core 5763:bit slicing 5621:Coprocessor 5476:Coprocessor 5357:performance 5279:Cooperative 5269:Speculative 5229:Distributed 5188:Superscalar 5173:Instruction 5141:Parallelism 5114:Speculative 4946:System/3x0 4818:Instruction 4595:Von Neumann 4508:Post–Turing 4250:October 15, 3385:30 November 2969:processors 2939:processors) 2757:instead of 2631:when using 2429:as 32-bit. 2388:Objective-C 2109:Example in 2057:Pentium Pro 1890:Alpha 21264 1886:Alpha 21164 1882:Alpha 21064 1861:The Oracle 1710:macOS 10.15 1656:Secure Boot 1548:PowerPC 970 1325:iPad Mini 2 1240:PowerPC 970 1159:processors. 1139:PA-RISC 2.0 1135:Nintendo 64 955:processors. 893:PowerPC 970 874:Nintendo 64 841:workstation 793:Intel 80386 551:quintillion 455:, or other 434:hexadecimal 257:Application 247:bit slicing 6346:Categories 6236:management 6131:Multiplier 5992:Logic gate 5982:Sequential 5889:Functional 5869:Clock rate 5842:Data cache 5815:Components 5796:Multi-core 5784:Core count 5274:Preemptive 5178:Pipelining 5161:Bit-serial 5104:Wide-issue 5049:Structural 4971:Tilera ISA 4937:MicroBlaze 4907:ETRAX CRIS 4802:Comparison 4647:Load–store 4627:Endianness 4314:October 9, 4197:2020-06-05 4154:2010-11-19 4082:2010-11-19 4027:2017-03-09 4006:2011-10-14 3986:2007-05-03 3961:2009-04-05 3779:17 October 3753:2009-09-06 3675:2010-11-19 3613:2012-10-31 3557:2007-07-18 3365:2024-08-19 3335:2011-01-09 3281:2010-11-19 3235:October 8, 3185:References 3061:mainframes 3043:processors 3019:processors 2995:processors 2951:Intel Core 2840:April 2023 2569:Visual C++ 2535:arm64ilp32 2402:data model 2360:toolchains 1951:PowerPC-AS 1935:IBM AS/400 1720:Windows 11 1574:Solaris 10 1484:UltraSPARC 1283:Core 2 Duo 1204:System/360 1110:UltraSPARC 992:Intel i860 869:mainframes 836:Intel i860 762:System/360 656:April 2023 594:data buses 577:or EB) of 544:PowerPC G5 481:data buses 467:(CPU) and 123:Deep color 96:April 2023 66:newspapers 6357:Data unit 6170:Circuitry 6090:Microcode 6014:Registers 5857:coherence 5832:CPU cache 5690:Word size 5355:Processor 4999:Execution 4902:DEC Alpha 4880:Power ISA 4696:Cognitive 4503:Universal 3923:ACM Queue 3107:Elbrus-8S 3067:IBM Telum 3006:Power ISA 2921:Phenom II 2917:Athlon II 2909:Turion 64 2897:Athlon 64 2811:does not 2788:(IOMMU). 2609:Unix-like 2349:Unix-like 2334:OS X 10.8 2293:NTDLL.DLL 2285:emulation 1971:databases 1920:emulation 1877:DEC Alpha 1844:petabytes 1734:watchOS 9 1700:watchOS 5 1648:Windows 8 1620:Windows 7 1414:Unix-like 1395:releases 1313:iPhone 5S 1255:Pentium 4 1228:Athlon 64 1192:mainframe 821:databases 802:A 32-bit 627:does not 590:registers 510:The term 358:precision 295:precision 6108:Datapath 5801:Manycore 5773:variable 5611:Hardware 5247:Temporal 4927:OpenRISC 4622:Cellular 4612:Dataflow 4605:modified 4308:Archived 4076:Archived 3980:Archived 3955:Archived 3747:Archived 3669:Archived 3650:Archived 3406:AtariAge 3276:38831149 3177:numbers. 3173:such as 3149:See also 2993:VIA Nano 2981:Xeon Phi 2977:Intel 64 2947:Intel 64 2781:gigabyte 2755:intptr_t 2740:into an 2533:x32 and 2497:Pointer, 2376:pointers 2273:software 2061:physical 2015:Summary: 1600:plug-ins 1528:for the 1486:support. 1321:iPad Air 1169:for the 1131:Nintendo 1074:project. 1035:MIPS III 876:and the 816:headroom 797:de facto 787:and the 692:(SIMD), 581:memory. 575:exabytes 563:unsigned 485:computer 449:integers 422:Hex dump 6284:Related 6215:Quantum 6205:Digital 6200:Boolean 6098:Counter 5997:Quantum 5758:512-bit 5753:256-bit 5748:128-bit 5591:(MPSoC) 5576:on chip 5574:Systems 5392:(FLOPS) 5205:Process 5054:Control 5036:Hazards 4922:Itanium 4917:Unicore 4875:PowerPC 4600:Harvard 4560:Pointer 4555:Counter 4513:Quantum 4274:Jun 24, 4221:Jun 24, 4056:9 March 3341:family. 3210:. 1993. 3095:AArch64 3075:AP8000E 3073:Hitachi 3054:ESA/390 3037:Fujitsu 3013:Power10 3002:PowerPC 2963:Pentium 2959:Celeron 2905:Sempron 2901:Opteron 2832:removed 2817:sources 2709:Classic 2680:SILP64 2674:SPARC64 2629:Windows 2613:Solaris 2453:and 5. 2447:x32 ABI 2102:AArch64 2076:process 1730:Pixel 7 1680:Android 1563:FreeBSD 1530:Itanium 1502:zSeries 1480:Solaris 1465:to the 1449:OpenVMS 1434:to the 1377:ARC ISA 1335:Nexus 9 1224:Opteron 1214:Itanium 1200:ESA/390 1196:zSeries 1143:PA-8000 1122:SPARC64 1116:-owned 1114:Fujitsu 741:History 710:integer 698:address 694:control 680:integer 648:removed 633:sources 602:Pentium 555:integer 536:servers 504:AArch64 436:digits. 80:scholar 6220:Switch 6210:Analog 5948:(IMC) 5919:(MMU) 5768:others 5743:64-bit 5738:48-bit 5733:32-bit 5728:24-bit 5723:16-bit 5718:15-bit 5713:12-bit 5550:Mobile 5466:Stream 5461:Barrel 5456:Vector 5445:(GPU) 5404:(SUPS) 5372:(IPC) 5224:Memory 5217:Vector 5200:Thread 5183:Scalar 4985:Others 4932:RISC-V 4897:SuperH 4866:Power 4862:MIPS-X 4837:PDP-11 4686:Fabric 4438:Models 4051:WP:SPS 3890:Oracle 3305:. 1991 3274: 3231:. 1977 3126:RISC-V 3101:Elbrus 3085:MIPS64 3048:IBM's 3031:Oracle 3017:IBM A2 3011:IBM's 3000:IBM's 2965:, and 2935:, and 2913:Phenom 2891:AMD's 2877:x86-64 2712:UNICOS 2643:ILP64 2633:Cygwin 2571:; and 2542:LLP64 2509:ILP32 2500:size_t 2464:model 2410:SILP64 2098:x86-64 2002:double 2000:, and 1962:x86-64 1955:Amazon 1915:ported 1907:32-bit 1690:iOS 11 1516:x86-64 1397:UNICOS 1265:Isaiah 1194:, the 1179:x86-64 1153:POWER3 966:Cray-1 905:x86-64 863:, and 845:server 832:Cray-1 524:Cray-1 512:64-bit 500:x86-64 446:64-bit 82: 75: 68: 61: 53: 6276:(PPW) 6234:Power 6126:Adder 6002:Array 5969:Logic 5930:(TLB) 5913:(FPU) 5907:(AGU) 5901:(ALU) 5891:units 5827:Cache 5708:8-bit 5703:4-bit 5698:1-bit 5662:(TPU) 5656:(DSP) 5650:(PPU) 5644:(VPU) 5633:(GPU) 5602:(NoC) 5585:(SoC) 5520:(PoP) 5514:(SiP) 5508:(MCM) 5449:GPGPU 5439:(CPU) 5429:Types 5410:(PPW) 5398:(TPS) 5386:(IPS) 5378:(CPI) 5149:Level 4960:S/390 4955:S/370 4950:S/360 4892:SPARC 4870:POWER 4753:TRIPS 4721:Types 4216:Intel 3854:(PDF) 3837:(PDF) 3820:(PDF) 3718:(PDF) 3582:(PDF) 3575:(PDF) 3359:(PDF) 3303:Intel 3299:(PDF) 3272:S2CID 3225:(PDF) 3208:Intel 3204:(PDF) 3161:Notes 3058:IBM Z 3025:SPARC 2973:Intel 2943:Intel 2933:Ryzen 2893:AMD64 2884:, or 2882:AMD64 2734:LLP64 2730:HP-UX 2625:macOS 2617:Linux 2603:Most 2579:LP64 2573:MinGW 2468:short 2442:ILP32 2419:LLP64 2414:short 2406:ILP64 2345:Linux 2338:macOS 2312:NTVDM 2289:WoW64 2049:IA-32 1998:float 1986:short 1924:IA-32 1863:SPARC 1666:iOS 7 1559:AMD64 1552:Linux 1428:R8000 1418:Alpha 1236:Apple 1232:AMD64 1171:IA-64 1157:POWER 1106:SPARC 1093:IA-32 1085:IA-64 1081:Intel 1072:PRISM 1068:Alpha 1055:OSF/1 1031:R4000 1004:Atari 988:Intel 975:Elxsi 889:Apple 885:R5000 826:Some 735:Alpha 704:, or 702:index 479:, or 87:JSTOR 73:books 6254:ACPI 5987:Glue 5879:FIFO 5822:Core 5560:ASIP 5501:CPLD 5496:FPOA 5491:FPGA 5486:ASIC 5339:SPMD 5334:MIMD 5329:MISD 5322:SWAR 5302:SIMD 5297:SISD 5212:Data 5195:Task 5166:Word 4912:M32R 4857:MIPS 4820:sets 4787:ZISC 4782:NISC 4777:OISC 4772:MISC 4765:EPIC 4760:VLIW 4748:EDGE 4738:RISC 4733:CISC 4642:HUMA 4637:NUMA 4377:2012 4316:2018 4276:2020 4252:2013 4223:2020 4058:2017 3803:2015 3781:2017 3590:2012 3387:2010 3311:2019 3237:2013 2967:Xeon 2955:Atom 2937:Epyc 2815:any 2813:cite 2759:long 2746:long 2738:long 2722:LP64 2637:z/OS 2607:and 2605:Unix 2493:long 2491:long 2482:long 2462:Data 2427:long 2425:and 2399:LP64 2386:and 2355:and 2260:z/OS 2173:< 2100:and 1994:long 1982:char 1947:IMPI 1875:The 1868:The 1854:The 1822:The 1725:2022 1715:2021 1705:2019 1695:2018 1685:2017 1671:2014 1661:2013 1652:UEFI 1643:2012 1633:2011 1615:2009 1605:2007 1591:2006 1584:and 1568:2005 1539:2003 1521:2001 1511:2001 1494:z/OS 1489:2000 1475:1998 1467:IRIX 1458:1996 1444:1995 1436:IRIX 1423:1994 1406:1993 1401:Unix 1393:Cray 1389:1985 1372:2020 1358:2018 1340:2015 1330:2014 1323:and 1308:2013 1302:2012 1289:2011 1270:2006 1253:and 1251:Xeon 1245:2004 1226:and 1219:2003 1209:2001 1184:2000 1162:1999 1148:1998 1127:1996 1098:1995 1077:1994 1060:1992 1023:1991 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