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peaceful protests demanding the continuation of the CNS. The end of foreign support further reduced the FAZ's ability to function. The 31st
Zairian Parachute Brigade, having garnered the reputation of usually siding with protesters—resulting in the nickname "People's Army"—earned Mobutu's disfavor. He ordered paratrooper training to be discontinued, officially due to lack of equipment, but mostly out of fear that the 31st Brigade might attempt an airborne attack on the presidential palace to overthrow him. However, Mobutu refrained of prosecuting or disciplining any soldiers involved in the mutinies and looting of 1991. General Mahele's reputation emerged strengthened as a result of the unrest. Zairian civilians were impressed with his conduct and ability to bring many mutineers back under control; even the soldiers did not resent that he had been responsible for killing some mutineers. As a result, Mobutu made Mahele FAZ chief of staff, but removed him from the post when the general called for the military to remain apolitical and for the soldiers' living conditions to be improved.
401:
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Mobutu was motivated by
Belgium and France threatening to withdraw their soldiers from Zaire. The United States also exerted diplomatic pressure on the Zairian government. However, the President did not concede any real power. Following his appointment, Tshisekedi asked France and Belgium on the President's behalf to not withdraw their troops from the country. At this point, the main phase of rioting had ended, and became subsequently known as the "pillage". The cities affected by the unrest suffered substantial damage, with much of Zaire's productive sector destroyed. Around 30 to 40% of all companies were plundered, and around 70% of the retail businesses were destroyed. Much infrastructure was badly damaged. At least 200 people were killed, including one French paratrooper. After the looting, the military bases across the country became
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although such contests were not scheduled. The international community continued to pressure Mobutu to implement political reforms and introduce multiparty politics. The political crisis continued, reforms stalled, while the security and economic situation deteriorated across the country. The unrest of 1991 had further worsened the country's economic crisis. Rebels began to launch attacks in border areas, and the 41st
Commando Brigade again revolted in 1992. Another major FAZ mutiny broke out in 1993, with the soldiers again demanding to be paid their back pay after Mobutu attempted to introduce a 5-million
302:
179:
910:. This time, the violence was worse than during the 1991 unrest. The President was only able to bring the situation under control by deploying the DSP and other loyal troops against the mutineers, resulting in up to 2,000 deaths including around 1,000 soldiers. The renewed unrest caused most of the businesses which had remained in Kinshasa up to this point to leave the country. Being no longer paid, civil servants went repeatedly on strike. At this point, Zaire's political system had effectively collapsed, while the economy had plunged into chaos. In 1996, the
746:. The United States provided logistical support and transport planes. Overall, France and Belgium sent 1,000 and 1,100 soldiers respectively to Zaire. Although denying that they would "prop up" the Zairian government, French and Belgian units proved crucial in restoring order. Mahele also moved against the mutineers who refused to stop pillaging, and even ordered his loyalist forces to open fire on paratroopers who had previously served under him, killing several. On 24 September, Kinshasa Radio claimed that the mutineers had been evicted from the capital.
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684:. These troops also began to riot and loot. Mobutu did little to stop the chaos. He moved to his yacht in the Zaire River, and requested support from the French and Belgian governments. The two countries agreed to send aid, officially to help evacuation efforts and to protect embassies. The two countries were also motivated by their wish to maintain some influence in Zaire. The Zairian opposition protested against a foreign intervention, instead proposing a "public salvation government" with Étienne Tshisekedi as
618:
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490:, corruption, and Mobutu's own desire to prevent potential rivals from gaining power. Pay remained so unreliable and poor that most soldiers had to rely on "licensed brigandage" to make a living, and Mobutu accordingly called his own army "The Seventh Scourge". When his initial attempts at military reforms failed, the President just stopped trying and left the situation be for the rest of the 1980s. In addition to these internal developments, Zaire was also one of many
236:
699:, SARM). Mahele had been a paratrooper commander until 1990, when Mobutu had transferred him to command of a DSP unit out of fear that he was becoming too popular among his troops. Mahele knew the rioting soldiers, and they still respected him. Accordingly, when Mahele called the mutineers to stop their looting, many heeded his calls. The French ambassador assisted in negotiating with the mutineers. Meanwhile, foreigners fled the country
315:
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588:(CNS) on 7 August 1991. This conference was supposed to discuss and prepare for political reforms. However, Mobutu continued to undermine the democratization. Most importantly, he invited so many political parties to the conference as to make it unmanageable. Overall, the CNS included 2,800 delegates from across the country. Just before the conference started, a government official handed out money in front of the
779:, and Kinsangani. On the same day, Portugal sent 25 soldiers to assist in the evacuation efforts of foreigners. On 26 September, FAZ loyalists opened fire on civilian demonstrators in Kinshasa who demanded an end of Mobutu's rule. By the next day, the French soldiers had moved into Kolwezi and Kinsangani, securing them after encountering some light resistance. The Belgians used their paratroopers to secure
546:, mass unemployment, and generally low income; many people in the cities could only buy one meal a day; in many parts of the country, 50% of the population was malnourished. Realizing the need to do something, Mobutu announced the start of political reforms on 24 April 1990. He proclaimed a "Third Republic" with a free press, the end of
862:
Shintwa, later accused the
President of opportunism in regards to the September riots. Shintwa told Van Reybrouck that Mobutu deliberately destroyed Zaire due to him not wanting to leave anything to the opposition, as he knew that his regime would not survive the democratization. He claimed that Mobutu completely settled in
514:, the DSP was generally favored and provided with the best equipment. In 1989, the President ordered all heavy weaponry to be handed over to the DSP. Despite his misgovernment, Mobutu remained firmly in power in the 1980s due to support by the Western world. Accordingly, Zaire only began to unravel with the collapse of the
462:, spent large sums on idiosyncratic projects and for his lavish lifestyle, while developing a country-wide system of patronage which encouraged extreme corruption and graft. The Zairian security forces violently suppressed any opposition. From 1974, the Zairian economy began to noticeably struggle due to changes in the
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finally pressured him to implement actual change. To appease the demonstrators, the government almost trebled the wages of civil servants in
October 1990, even though it could not sustain this move due to the struggling economy. Mobutu also legalized the establishment of new parties in December 1990,
498:
reduced their financial support for
African countries during this decade. This caused dissatisfaction to rise in several African militaries, with many soldiers experiencing delays and reduction in pay as well as worsening living standards. Ultimately this would lead to a greater willingness to mutiny
485:
By the 1980s, Zaire suffered from growing internal strife and economic decline. Many
Zairians had become resentful of Mobutu's repressive and corrupt dictatorship, while the FAZ suffered from chronic mismanagement and failures to properly pay the troops. In the early 1980s, the President attempted to
819:
Sporadic unrest and violence continued. Tshisekedi was sworn in as Prime
Minister on 16 October, but was fired by Mobutu six days later due to a dispute over the allotting of ministerial portfolios. Overall, his tenure counted just three weeks, the shortest of any Zairian Prime Minister between 1990
660:
plant near the airport, the soldiers stole hundreds of cars, followed by civilian looters taking the machines, walls, floor, roof, and cables in the ground, eventually leaving only a "skeleton of steel girders". The 31st
Parachute Brigade also started to clash with the unpopular DSP, but the latter
914:
erupted, resulting in Mobutu's violent overthrow. Much of the FAZ proved extremely unreliable during this conflict. Resentful FAZ soldiers argued that Mobutu's favorite unit, the DSP, "should do the fighting" alone. Many troops and even entire units deserted or outright defected to anti-government
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once the CNS began, and did nothing to halt the unrest, as he saw the looting as the just punishment for the people rejecting him in favor of the opposition. Florentin
Mokonda Bonza, who worked in Mobutu's office at the time, also accused the President of directly organizing the unrest to showcase
641:
The mutineers then moved into the capital's center using military vehicles, storming shops, gas stations, department stores, and private homes. They took all moveable items of value, including television sets, refrigerators, and photocopiers. The paratroopers first concentrated on the main street,
944:
Mobutu had always tried to justify limiting the number of legal parties in Zaire by claiming that the country's high diversity would result in political splintering and factionalism. After allowing the foundation of new parties in 1990, the country indeed experienced an explosion in party numbers
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The economic damage of the 1991 unrest extended into the 2010s, by which point Kinshasa's industrial sector had still not recovered. Many civilians in the capital recognized the long-term destructive effect of the looting sprees of 1991 and 1993, and consequently refrained from looting during the
655:
such as government offices, but also foreigner-owned houses and companies. Civilians also plundered the supermarkets, and began dismantling entire establishments, taking kitchen sinks, toilets, fabric of buildings, steels girders, and other material, even if they could not realistically use it or
599:
as the CSM's chairman; Mutambayi was elderly, half-deaf, and a government loyalist. Mobutu's plan worked, and the CNS disintegrated. As the conference broke up without having set a date for the promised elections or implementing any actual changes, however, public frustration escalated in Zaire's
836:
On 27 October, Mobutu announced that he would remain President regardless of domestic and international calls for his resignation; parts of the opposition —known as the "Sacred Coalition"— responded by attempting to set up an alternative government. France and Belgium officially terminated their
824:
as the new Prime Minister. More civil unrest followed, with protesters burning one of the presidential villas and pillaging Mungul Diaka's house. Demonstrations occurred in front of the French, Belgian, and U.S. American embassies, demanding a foreign intervention to depose the President. Civil
806:
On 29 September Mobutu and the political opposition reached an agreement, whereby Étienne Tshisekedi was to be appointed Prime Minister, his cabinet would contain five Mobutu supporters and six opposition leaders, and the CNS would be reconvened. Western diplomats argued that this concession by
905:
The CNS reconvened in November 1991, but it remained unable to properly operate. The Zairean government suspended it the following January. Mobutu's constitutional mandate as President of Zaire officially expired on 4 December 1991, but he refused to leave office until elections had been held,
901:
After the unrest, France, Belgium, Israel, and China decided to completely withdraw their training teams which had previously supported the FAZ. France also terminated all economic assistance. All foreign troops left the country in February 1992, when Mobutu used the DSP to "brutally" suppress
861:
Opposition leaders accused Mobutu of engineering the initial mutiny to provoke a military intervention by his Western allies. According to journalist Hugh Dellios, some analysts theorized that Mobutu had intended to use the riots as part of a "scare tactic". Even one of his loyalists, Kibambi
374:
units mutinied and rioted, soon joined by civilian protesters and looters. While the revolting soldiers primarily demanded more reliable and higher wages and it remained unclear whether they had any political motives, many civilians demanded the end of President
542:, in December 1989. Mobutu decided to tour Zaire in January and February 1990. As he had previously surrounded himself with "sycophants", the tour "rude" exposed him to the considerable level of popular discontent in the country. The country suffered under
383:, and quickly spread to other cities. Large-scale looting caused massive property and economic damage, but the unrest resulted in no clear political changes. Zaire remained locked in a political crisis until 1996–1997, when Mobutu was overthrown during the
629:
at Kinshasa's outskirts. They had not been paid for months, and initially demanded their back pay as well as higher wages. It remained unclear whether the mutinying soldiers had any political motives. The paratroopers marched from their base and occupied
457:
and spent much money on economic as well as food subsidies, earning substantial goodwill by the population. However, his rule ultimately proved to be "one of the most catastrophic examples of dictatorship" in African history. He embezzled billions of
945:
with around 300 by 1991. Some parties consisted of a single individual. However, Mobutu ended up supporting this process by paying citizens to found their own parties, hoping to exploit the factionalism even before the CSM's start.
665:
characterized the extensive looting as reaction to the corruption of the Zairian government; the common people saw themselves as finally able to do what the ruling elite had done in their eyes for decades: steal everything.
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to all delegates who were willing to found a new party on the spot and promise to support Mobutu. The opposition accordingly accused the President of filling the conference with his own followers. Mobutu also appointed
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estimated that 1,250 to 1,750 people had been injured in Kinshasa alone. At this point, looting and rioting had mostly ceased in Kinshasa, with loyalist soldiers having secured the capital. However, riots continued in
650:
neighborhoods. Many rioting troops got drunk. Other FAZ soldiers in Kinshasa as well as civilians from the city's southern slums soon joined the "orgy of pillaging", specifically targeting anything representing
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markets for stolen goods, while at least half the companies which had previously operated in Kinshasa left the city permanently. Many workers in the capital lost their jobs as a result of the riots.
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and ferrying them across the Zaire River to Kinshasa. Together with the DSP and SARM, the French and Belgians secured the capital, whereupon Belgium brought in more troops as part of Operation
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1712:
560:, scaring Mobutu, who had intended to remain in control despite the changes. He ordered a violent crackdown on protests, and when the DSP was sent to suppress unrest at the
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Africa's World War : Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe
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while continuing to crack down on ongoing demonstrations. As the chaotic political and security situation made elections difficult to organize, the President organized the
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sell it. The so-called "Industrial Limete", an area along the Zaire River dominated by factories, was largely destroyed as rioters stole most of the machinery there. At a
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2001:
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or were evacuated. Even though the rioting soldiers plundered the houses of many expatriates, they generally refrained from physically harming foreign civilians.
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servants went on strike. In Lubumbashi, discontented soldiers went on a looting spree, soon joined by civilians. The looters took everything moveable, including
2080:
2573:
2044:
783:. Having taken control of all major important airports in Zaire, the French and Belgian forces assisted in evacuating foreigners using planes of the French,
1891:
531:
1083:
466:, misgovernment, and corruption; however, Mobutu was able to keep his government afloat thanks to extensive loans by his international supporters like the
1763:
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was released from house arrest. However, the announcement of reforms caused immediate political agitation of excited Zairians. The opposition organized
400:
552:, the introduction of multiparty politics, and the handover of power to a democratically elected government within a year. Long-time opposition leader
1800:
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described Mobutu as being "delighted" at the riots, as he saw them as proof that the Zairians needed him as their leader to prevent total anarchy.
1957:
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434:, renaming the country to "Zaire" in 1972 and running it as his "poorly managed private estate" for 32 years. The Congolese National Army (
1384:
2558:
1704:
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1846:
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On 22 September or 23 September 1991, about 3,000 paratroopers of the 31st Zairian Parachute Brigade mutinied at their base in
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countries which were forced to reduce military spending in the 1980s, as the Cold War blocs headed by the United States and
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to Kinshasa, landing at N'djili Airport after it had been secured by SARM troops commanded by Mahele. A detachment of the
2432:
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Mobutu realized that the political situation was changing due to the Cold War's end, an impression furthered by the
367:
510:; DSP) were reportedly the "only operational troops" of the FAZ. Mostly recruited from Mobutu's ethnic group, the
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to restore order, using a contingent of soldiers belonging to the DSP and Zairian Military Intelligence Bureau (
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The unrest quickly spread to other FAZ units in other parts of the country such as the 41st Commando Brigade in
833:, Kolwezi, and Likasi. Belgian troops evacuated 300 more foreigners from the country in response to the riots.
408:
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890:
762:
719:
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539:
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791:. The French and Belgian troops successfully evacuated 2,000 to 10,000 foreign citizens. Many foreigners in
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The action caused international outrage, and even Mobutu's long-time allies such as the United States and
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1949:
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and initially presided over a period of economic growth. His government portrayed its policies as
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improve the training, equipment, and logistics of the FAZ. These initiatives were undermined by
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from the houses, while about 700 foreigners took refuge in a school. Other riots took place at
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and 1997. With the opposition refusing to offer a new candidate, Mobutu appointed
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379:'s repressive and corrupt dictatorship. The unrest started in Zaire's capital
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1084:"Forty years on from the Rumble in the Jungle, Kinshasa is a city of chaos"
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419:
1551:"Unrest in Zaire Prompts Evacuation of Israelis, Other Foreign Nationals"
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also began to loot the city instead of suppressing the mutiny. Historian
830:
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854:
803:. Overall, 20,000 foreigners fled Zaire during the September unrest.
681:
674:
487:
446:, FAZ) were one of his main pillars of support. Mobutu established a
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Inflation grew from 56% in 1989 to 256% in 1990 and 4,000% in 1991.
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1820:
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Substantial damage to property, infrastructure, and Zaire's economy
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sent a first detachment of soldiers who had been stationed in the
1592:"Thousands of Troops on Rampage Of Looting and Violence in Zaire"
1377:"Death Toll Rises Above 30 in Zaire; U.S. Aids Airlift of Troops"
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Riots and civil disorder in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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Soldiers of the 31st Zairian Parachute Brigade (pictured 1985)
564:, the operation resulted in the deaths of dozens of students.
518:, as this removed Mobutu's justification of his dictatorship.
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A Continent for the Taking: The Tragedy and Hope of Africa
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intervention on 31 October and 4 November respectively.
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Labor disputes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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370:) experienced substantial violent unrest, as several
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Massamba, Arm; Massamba, Bernard (26 October 1991).
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571:A newly founded opposition alliance meets in 1991.
1598:. Associated Press. 24 September 1991. p. 6.
634:where they seized a supply depot and disabled the
2288:Great Lakes Holocaust: First Congo War, 1996–1997
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2237:. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund.
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613:September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
2584:Protests in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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2042:
2564:Looting in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
1756:"Zairians fear looting, riots in Mobutu's wake"
726:followed suit. The Belgians launched Operation
2425:Meditz, Sandra W.; Merrill, Tim, eds. (1993).
840:
697:Service d'Action et de Renseignement Militaire
2574:Arson in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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2424:
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1987:
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499:in the militaries across Sub-Saharan Africa.
2203:. Oxford; New York City: Osprey Publishing.
2200:Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002
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867:the importance of his firm rule. Journalist
673:Zairian commandos (pictured 1985) rioted in
2321:Soldiers in Revolt. Army mutinies in Africa
1793:"Riots, Anarchy in Zaire Bring Devastation"
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706:On 23 September, France launched Operation
688:to bring the situation back under control.
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1705:"Soldiers join civilians in Zaire looting"
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893:holds a speech in 1991 or 1993, imploring
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1847:"IRIN Briefing Part III: Zaire Who's Who"
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474:regarded him as a reliable and strategic
2270:. Berlin: University of Michigan Press.
1999:
1950:"1,000 Reported Dead in Zaire Rebellion"
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2073:"New riots in Zaire; 300 are evacuated"
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1375:Massamba, Bernard (25 September 1991).
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414:on a visit to the United States in 1989
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2395:Dictatorland. The men who stole Africa
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2012:from the original on 25 September 2022
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1315:Press, Robert M. (26 September 1991).
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897:soldiers to stop rioting and looting.
250:Civilian protesters, including looters
2506:] (in German). Berlin: Suhrkamp.
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2002:"Mobutu: A rich man in poor standing"
2000:Richburg, Keith B. (3 October 1991).
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79:Failure to implement promised reforms
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1803:from the original on 22 January 2022
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2469:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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1715:from the original on 20 August 2021
1602:from the original on 16 August 2021
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1387:from the original on 2 October 2022
522:Announcement of reforms and the CNS
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97:Improvement in pay for FAZ soldiers
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2330:10.1093/oso/9780190876074.001.0001
2291:. Solihull: Helion & Company.
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2232:"ZaĂŻre's Hyperinflation, 1990-96"
1703:Husband, Mark (22 October 1991).
1082:Yocum, Thomas (15 October 2014).
814:
147:Paratrooper training discontinued
66:Unreliable and poor pay for most
1652:from the original on 8 June 2021
1642:"Zaire: An African Horror Story"
508:Division Spéciale Présidentielle
368:Democratic Republic of the Congo
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206:
194:
177:
2559:1991 labor disputes and strikes
2324:. London: Hurst & Company.
2036:
1993:
1543:
938:
929:
586:Conférence Nationale Souveraine
362:In September and October 1991,
16:Violent unrest in Zaire in 1991
2189:
1640:Berkeley, Bill (August 1993).
1317:"Zaire Army Riots Test Regime"
407:, pictured with U.S. American
1:
2496:Van Reybrouck, David (2013).
2102:Brecher & Wilkenfeld 1997
2045:"Chaos said to grow in Zaire"
1829:Brecher & Wilkenfeld 1997
1754:Dellios, Hugh (12 May 1997).
952:
891:Donatien Mahele Lieko Bokungu
720:2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment
693:Donatien Mahele Lieko Bokungu
504:Special Presidential Division
390:
273:Donatien Mahele Lieko Bokungu
158:, but fired after three weeks
2230:Beaugrand, Philippe (1997).
2079:. Reuters. 23 October 1991.
874:
756:in the 1980s or early 1990s
722:which had been stationed in
691:Mobutu also ordered General
7:
841:Mobutu's role in the unrest
10:
2610:
2359:French, Howard W. (2005).
1892:"Zaire Rioting diminishes"
878:
436:Armée Nationale Congolaise
2129:Meditz & Merrill 1993
1988:Meditz & Merrill 1993
607:
438:) and its successor, the
353:
348:
293:
288:
280:No centralized leadership
264:
259:
169:
164:
138:
112:
85:
57:
44:
36:
28:
23:
2398:. London: Head of Zeus.
922:
763:Médecins Sans Frontières
716:Central African Republic
562:University of Lubumbashi
29:Part of the collapse of
2365:. First Vintage Books.
686:Prime Minister of Zaire
502:By the late 1980s, the
444:Forces Armées Zaïroises
432:newly independent Congo
156:Prime Minister of Zaire
2499:Kongo: Eine Geschichte
2428:Zaire: A Country Study
2318:Dwyer, Maggie (2017).
2197:Abbott, Peter (2014).
898:
858:
822:Bernardin Mungul Diaka
757:
742:, this time using the
732:Para Commando Regiment
677:
622:
576:
415:
49:Several cities across
40:September–October 1991
2392:Kenyon, Paul (2018).
1799:. 27 September 1991.
1557:. 27 September 1991.
1217:, pp. 23–24, 33.
1127:, pp. 37–39, 42.
888:
879:Further information:
848:
795:fled on their own to
752:
672:
620:
570:
451:military dictatorship
403:
349:Casualties and losses
63:Government corruption
2285:Cooper, Tom (2013).
2262:Wilkenfeld, Jonathan
1853:. 27 February 1997.
789:Portuguese Air Force
440:Zairian Armed Forces
430:seized power in the
372:Zairian Armed Forces
73:Political repression
2433:Library of Congress
1956:. 2 February 1993.
1898:. 25 September 1991
663:David Van Reybrouck
418:As a result of the
306: ? (including
183:Zairian government
2033:, p. 474–475.
2031:Van Reybrouck 2013
1684:Van Reybrouck 2013
1501:Van Reybrouck 2013
1484:Van Reybrouck 2013
1302:, pp. iii, 2.
1205:, pp. 77, 83.
1151:, pp. 46, 49.
1115:, pp. 50, 52.
899:
859:
758:
678:
623:
577:
573:Étienne Tshisekedi
554:Étienne Tshisekedi
416:
152:Étienne Tshisekedi
150:Opposition leader
2513:978-3-518-46445-8
2476:978-0-19-970583-2
2339:978-0-19-087607-4
2298:978-1-909384-65-1
2267:A Study of Crisis
2210:978-1-78200-076-1
2170:, pp. 33–35.
2146:, pp. 78–79.
1954:Los Angeles Times
1797:Los Angeles Times
1434:, pp. 77–78.
1348:, pp. 54–55.
1260:, pp. 60–62.
1166:, pp. 46–50.
1139:, pp. 42–45.
919:First Congo War.
760:By 25 September,
736:Congo-Brazzaville
644:June 30 Boulevard
597:Kalonji Mutambayi
536:Nicolae Ceaușescu
412:George H. W. Bush
360:
359:
344:
343:
255:
254:
2601:
2589:Mobutu Sese Seko
2529:
2527:
2525:
2504:Congo: A history
2492:
2490:
2488:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2421:
2419:
2417:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2281:
2258:Brecher, Michael
2253:
2251:
2249:
2243:
2236:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2183:
2177:
2171:
2165:
2159:
2153:
2147:
2141:
2132:
2126:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2069:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2040:
2034:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2017:
1997:
1991:
1985:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1946:
1933:
1927:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1888:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1843:
1832:
1826:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1789:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1751:
1740:
1734:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1700:
1687:
1681:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1637:
1612:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1588:
1571:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1547:
1541:
1535:
1504:
1498:
1487:
1481:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1435:
1429:
1418:
1412:
1397:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1381:Associated Press
1372:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1312:
1303:
1297:
1288:
1282:
1273:
1267:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1243:
1230:
1224:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1188:
1167:
1161:
1152:
1146:
1140:
1134:
1128:
1122:
1116:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1079:
1058:
1052:
1043:
1037:
1031:
1025:
1019:
1013:
996:
990:
981:
975:
969:
963:
946:
942:
936:
933:
827:corrugated metal
712:French Air Force
591:Palais du Peuple
428:Mobutu Sese Seko
405:Mobutu Sese Seko
396:Decline of Zaire
377:Mobutu Sese Seko
356:Injuries: 1,250+
327:
326:
318:
317:
305:
304:
295:
294:
269:Mobutu Sese Seko
240:
238:
237:
228:
226:
225:
212:
210:
209:
200:
198:
197:
182:
181:
171:
170:
105:Mobutu Sese Seko
21:
20:
2609:
2608:
2604:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2523:
2521:
2514:
2486:
2484:
2477:
2461:Prunier, GĂ©rard
2450:
2448:
2415:
2413:
2406:
2382:
2380:
2373:
2349:
2347:
2340:
2308:
2306:
2299:
2278:
2247:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2220:
2218:
2211:
2192:
2187:
2186:
2178:
2174:
2166:
2162:
2154:
2150:
2142:
2135:
2127:
2120:
2112:
2108:
2100:
2096:
2086:
2084:
2071:
2070:
2063:
2053:
2051:
2049:Washington Post
2041:
2037:
2029:
2025:
2015:
2013:
2006:Washington Post
1998:
1994:
1986:
1973:
1963:
1961:
1948:
1947:
1936:
1928:
1911:
1901:
1899:
1896:Washington Post
1890:
1889:
1882:
1874:
1870:
1860:
1858:
1845:
1844:
1835:
1827:
1816:
1806:
1804:
1791:
1790:
1779:
1769:
1767:
1760:Chicago Tribune
1752:
1743:
1735:
1728:
1718:
1716:
1701:
1690:
1682:
1665:
1655:
1653:
1638:
1615:
1605:
1603:
1590:
1589:
1574:
1564:
1562:
1549:
1548:
1544:
1536:
1507:
1499:
1490:
1482:
1473:
1469:, pp. 2–3.
1465:
1461:
1453:
1438:
1430:
1421:
1413:
1400:
1390:
1388:
1373:
1352:
1344:
1340:
1330:
1328:
1313:
1306:
1298:
1291:
1283:
1276:
1268:
1264:
1256:
1252:
1244:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1213:
1209:
1201:
1197:
1189:
1170:
1162:
1155:
1147:
1143:
1135:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1111:
1107:
1097:
1095:
1080:
1061:
1053:
1046:
1038:
1034:
1026:
1022:
1014:
999:
991:
984:
976:
972:
968:, pp. 6–7.
964:
960:
955:
950:
949:
943:
939:
934:
930:
925:
912:First Congo War
883:
881:First Congo War
877:
843:
817:
632:N'djili Airport
615:
610:
524:
398:
393:
385:First Congo War
355:
340:
338:
329:
321:
320:
312:
311:
299:
284:
283:
276:
271:
251:
249:
244:
235:
233:
232:
223:
221:
220:
216:
207:
205:
204:
195:
193:
176:
76:Economic crisis
53:
24:Unrest in Zaire
17:
12:
11:
5:
2607:
2597:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2531:
2530:
2512:
2493:
2475:
2457:
2422:
2404:
2389:
2372:978-1400030279
2371:
2356:
2338:
2315:
2297:
2282:
2276:
2254:
2227:
2209:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2172:
2160:
2148:
2133:
2131:, p. 216.
2118:
2106:
2104:, p. 490.
2094:
2077:New York Times
2061:
2035:
2023:
1992:
1990:, p. 215.
1971:
1934:
1930:Beaugrand 1997
1909:
1880:
1878:, p. 206.
1868:
1833:
1831:, p. 489.
1814:
1777:
1741:
1726:
1688:
1686:, p. 473.
1663:
1613:
1596:New York Times
1572:
1542:
1505:
1503:, p. 472.
1488:
1486:, p. 471.
1471:
1467:Beaugrand 1997
1459:
1436:
1419:
1415:Beaugrand 1997
1398:
1350:
1338:
1304:
1300:Beaugrand 1997
1289:
1287:, p. iii.
1285:Beaugrand 1997
1274:
1262:
1250:
1231:
1229:, p. 128.
1219:
1207:
1195:
1168:
1153:
1141:
1129:
1117:
1105:
1059:
1044:
1032:
1020:
997:
982:
970:
957:
956:
954:
951:
948:
947:
937:
927:
926:
924:
921:
876:
873:
842:
839:
816:
815:October unrest
813:
793:Shaba Province
744:N'Dolo Airport
658:General Motors
614:
611:
609:
606:
558:demonstrations
544:hyperinflation
538:, dictator of
534:of his friend
523:
520:
476:anti-Communist
422:of 1960–1965,
397:
394:
392:
389:
358:
357:
351:
350:
346:
345:
342:
341:
339:Many civilians
332:
330:
298:
291:
290:
286:
285:
277:
266:
265:
262:
261:
257:
256:
253:
252:
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192:
191:
188:
174:
167:
166:
162:
161:
160:
159:
148:
145:
140:
136:
135:
121:demonstrations
114:
110:
109:
108:
107:
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98:
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87:
83:
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71:
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55:
54:
48:
46:
42:
41:
38:
34:
33:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2606:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2549:1991 protests
2547:
2545:
2544:1991 in Zaire
2542:
2541:
2539:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2500:
2494:
2482:
2478:
2472:
2468:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2429:
2423:
2411:
2407:
2405:9781784972141
2401:
2397:
2396:
2390:
2378:
2374:
2368:
2364:
2363:
2357:
2345:
2341:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2322:
2316:
2304:
2300:
2294:
2290:
2289:
2283:
2279:
2277:0-472-10806-9
2273:
2269:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2240:
2233:
2228:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2202:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2182:, p. 35.
2181:
2176:
2169:
2164:
2157:
2152:
2145:
2140:
2138:
2130:
2125:
2123:
2116:, p. 58.
2115:
2110:
2103:
2098:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2068:
2066:
2050:
2046:
2039:
2032:
2027:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1996:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1931:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1897:
1893:
1887:
1885:
1877:
1872:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1830:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1739:, p. 57.
1738:
1733:
1731:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1546:
1539:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1520:
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1514:
1512:
1510:
1502:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1485:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1468:
1463:
1457:, p. 78.
1456:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1416:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1347:
1342:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1311:
1309:
1301:
1296:
1294:
1286:
1281:
1279:
1272:, p. 23.
1271:
1266:
1259:
1254:
1248:, p. 24.
1247:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1228:
1223:
1216:
1211:
1204:
1199:
1193:, p. 33.
1192:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1165:
1160:
1158:
1150:
1145:
1138:
1133:
1126:
1121:
1114:
1109:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1057:, p. 37.
1056:
1051:
1049:
1042:, p. 35.
1041:
1036:
1030:, p. 22.
1029:
1024:
1018:, p. 77.
1017:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1002:
995:, p. 21.
994:
989:
987:
980:, p. 76.
979:
974:
967:
962:
958:
941:
932:
928:
920:
916:
913:
909:
903:
896:
892:
887:
882:
872:
870:
865:
856:
853:'s palace in
852:
849:The ruins of
847:
838:
834:
832:
828:
823:
812:
810:
804:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
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765:
764:
755:
751:
747:
745:
741:
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733:
729:
725:
721:
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713:
709:
704:
702:
698:
694:
689:
687:
683:
676:
671:
667:
664:
659:
654:
649:
645:
639:
637:
636:control tower
633:
628:
619:
605:
603:
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582:
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569:
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563:
559:
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541:
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517:
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489:
483:
481:
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473:
472:Western world
469:
468:United States
465:
464:world economy
461:
456:
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429:
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316:
309:
303:
297:
296:
292:
287:
282:
281:
275:
274:
270:
263:
258:
248:FAZ mutineers
246:
243:
231:
230:United States
219:
218:Supported by:
215:
203:
189:
187:FAZ loyalists
186:
185:
184:
180:
173:
172:
168:
163:
157:
154:appointed as
153:
149:
146:
143:
142:
141:
137:
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130:
126:
122:
118:
115:
111:
106:
103:Overthrow of
102:
99:
96:
94:
90:
89:
88:
84:
78:
75:
72:
69:
65:
62:
61:
60:
56:
52:
47:
43:
39:
35:
32:
27:
22:
19:
2522:. Retrieved
2503:
2498:
2485:. Retrieved
2465:
2449:. Retrieved
2427:
2414:. Retrieved
2394:
2381:. Retrieved
2361:
2348:. Retrieved
2320:
2307:. Retrieved
2287:
2266:
2246:. Retrieved
2219:. Retrieved
2199:
2175:
2163:
2158:, p. 9.
2151:
2144:Prunier 2009
2109:
2097:
2085:. Retrieved
2076:
2052:. Retrieved
2048:
2038:
2026:
2014:. Retrieved
2005:
1995:
1962:. Retrieved
1953:
1932:, p. 4.
1900:. Retrieved
1895:
1871:
1859:. Retrieved
1850:
1805:. Retrieved
1796:
1768:. Retrieved
1759:
1717:. Retrieved
1708:
1654:. Retrieved
1646:The Atlantic
1645:
1604:. Retrieved
1595:
1563:. Retrieved
1554:
1545:
1540:, p. 8.
1462:
1455:Prunier 2009
1432:Prunier 2009
1417:, p. 3.
1389:. Retrieved
1380:
1341:
1329:. Retrieved
1320:
1265:
1253:
1227:Prunier 2009
1222:
1210:
1203:Prunier 2009
1198:
1144:
1132:
1120:
1108:
1096:. Retrieved
1088:The Guardian
1087:
1035:
1023:
1016:Prunier 2009
978:Prunier 2009
973:
961:
940:
931:
917:
904:
900:
860:
835:
818:
808:
805:
801:South Africa
761:
759:
739:
727:
707:
705:
700:
696:
690:
679:
640:
624:
589:
585:
578:
549:Authenticité
547:
525:
516:Eastern Bloc
507:
501:
496:Soviet Union
484:
478:ally in the
448:totalitarian
443:
435:
420:Congo Crisis
417:
366:(modern-day
361:
354:Deaths: 200+
337:of mutineers
279:
278:
267:
260:Lead figures
217:
175:
18:
2190:Works cited
2180:Abbott 2014
2168:Abbott 2014
2156:Cooper 2013
2114:Kenyon 2018
1876:French 2005
1737:Kenyon 2018
1538:Cooper 2013
1346:Kenyon 2018
1270:Abbott 2014
1246:Abbott 2014
1215:Abbott 2014
1191:Abbott 2014
1164:Kenyon 2018
1149:Kenyon 2018
1137:Kenyon 2018
1125:Kenyon 2018
1113:Kenyon 2018
1055:Kenyon 2018
1040:Kenyon 2018
1028:Kenyon 2018
993:Abbott 2014
966:Abbott 2014
869:Paul Kenyon
492:Sub-Saharan
139:Resulted in
2554:1991 riots
2538:Categories
1321:CS Monitor
1258:Dwyer 2017
953:References
908:Zaire note
831:Mbuji-Mayi
781:Lubumbashi
426:commander
391:Background
1902:20 August
1770:20 August
1606:16 August
1098:20 August
875:Aftermath
864:Gbadolite
855:Gbadolite
728:Blue Beam
682:Kisangani
675:Kisangani
528:overthrow
488:tribalism
409:President
58:Caused by
2579:Mutinies
2524:3 August
2518:Archived
2487:1 August
2481:Archived
2463:(2009).
2451:3 August
2445:Archived
2441:44238003
2410:Archived
2383:6 August
2377:Archived
2344:Archived
2309:1 August
2303:Archived
2264:(1997).
2248:6 August
2239:Archived
2221:1 August
2215:Archived
2087:1 August
2081:Archived
2054:1 August
2016:1 August
2010:Archived
1964:3 August
1958:Archived
1861:6 August
1855:Archived
1807:1 August
1801:Archived
1764:Archived
1719:1 August
1713:Archived
1656:1 August
1650:Archived
1600:Archived
1565:1 August
1559:Archived
1385:Archived
1331:3 August
1325:Archived
1092:Archived
915:rebels.
889:General
857:in 2011
797:Zimbabwe
754:Kinshasa
701:en masse
653:Mobutism
602:Kinshasa
600:capital
480:Cold War
455:populist
381:Kinshasa
335:brigades
333:Several
242:Portugal
93:Mobutism
70:soldiers
45:Location
2416:2 March
2350:2 March
1391:31 July
785:Belgian
777:Kolwezi
708:Baumier
581:Belgium
540:Romania
512:Ngbandi
310:, SARM)
214:Belgium
165:Parties
133:rioting
129:looting
113:Methods
100:Plunder
91:End of
2510:
2473:
2439:
2402:
2369:
2336:
2295:
2274:
2207:
851:Mobutu
809:ad hoc
787:, and
773:Kamina
769:Likasi
710:. The
627:Ndjili
608:Crisis
470:. The
289:Number
239:
227:
211:
202:France
199:
125:mutiny
2502:[
2242:(PDF)
2235:(PDF)
923:Notes
648:Gombe
532:death
364:Zaire
328:1,100
319:1,000
117:Arson
86:Goals
51:Zaire
31:Zaire
2526:2021
2508:ISBN
2489:2021
2471:ISBN
2453:2021
2437:OCLC
2418:2023
2400:ISBN
2385:2021
2367:ISBN
2352:2023
2334:ISBN
2311:2021
2293:ISBN
2272:ISBN
2250:2021
2223:2021
2205:ISBN
2089:2021
2056:2021
2018:2021
1966:2021
1904:2021
1863:2021
1851:IRIN
1809:2021
1772:2021
1721:2021
1658:2021
1608:2021
1567:2021
1393:2021
1333:2021
1100:2021
799:and
724:Chad
530:and
460:US$
424:army
190:SARM
37:Date
2326:doi
1709:UPI
1555:JTA
895:FAZ
740:Kir
734:in
308:DSP
68:FAZ
2540::
2516:.
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