Visual memory - Knowledge

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Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day. Reactivation in sleep was only observed after extensive training of rodents on familiar tasks. It rapidly dissipates; it also makes up a small proportion of total recorded activity in sleep. It has also been found that there are gender differences between males and females in regards to visual memory and sleep. In a study done testing sleep and memory for pictures it was found that daytime sleep contributed to retention of source memory rather than item memory in females, females did not have recollection or familiarity influenced by daytime sleep, whereas males undergoing daytime sleep had a trend towards increased familiarity. The reasons for this may be linked to different memory traces resulting from different encoding strategies, as well as with different electrophysiological changes during daytime sleep.

803:, most commonly in the non-dominant parietal lobe. Focal hyperactivity causes persistent activation of a visual cortex-hippocampal neuronal circuit which encodes an object or scene that is already in visual memory. "All of the hallucinatory palinopsia symptoms occur concomitantly in a patient with one lesion, which supports current evidence that objects, features, and scenes are all units of visual memory, perhaps at different levels of processing. This alludes to neuroanatomical integration in visual memory creation and storage." Studying the excitability alterations associated with palinopsia in migraineurs could provide insight on mechanisms of encoding visual memory. 744:, in terms of short-term visual memory, viewing time and task complexity affect performance. When there is a delay or when the task is complex recall declines. In a study conducted to measure whether visual memory in older adults with age-related visual decline was caused by memory performance or visual functioning, the following were examined: relationships among age, visual activity, and visual and verbal memory in 89 community dwelling volunteers aged 60–87 years. The findings were that the effect of vision was not specific to visual memory. Therefore, vision was found to be correlated with general memory function in older adults and is not modality specific. 390: 149: 97: 467:

all visual stimuli removed by means of a dark room or blindfolding to avoid interfering activation of other visual areas in the brain. Subjects are asked to recall each image clearly in their mind's eye. While recalling the images researchers are able view the areas activated by the visual memory task. Comparing the control 'baseline' state to the activated areas during the visual memory task allows researchers to view which areas are used during visual memory.

2232: 353:. During testing participants are presented with 10 cards for 10 seconds with unique designs on each. After the time has passed participants are asked to immediately reproduce the designs from each card using their visual memory. In the second stage participants are asked to copy each of the 10 card designs while the cards are in view. The participants results from each task are then assessed and placed into six categories; omissions, 20: 732:

it must be due to the incorrect interpretation of previously encountered information as being novel. In experiments testing rats' object recognition memory it was found that memory impairment can be the opposite, that there was a tendency to treat novel experiences as familiar. A possible solution for this impairment could be the use of a visual-restriction procedure that reduces interference.

3973: 3961: 302: 288:. The retrieval of long term visual memories is associated with activation of both anterior and posterior temporal cortices. Posterior temporal cortical regions are more associated with retrieval of category-specific aspects of visual memory, whereas anterior regions of the temporal cortex are more associated with category-independent visual memory. 180:. The left hemisphere visual cortex receives signals mainly from the right visual field and the right visual cortex mainly from the left visual field, although each cortex receives a considerable amount of information from the ipsilateral visual field as well. The visual cortex also receives information from subcortical regions, such as the 226:(which regulates emotions), and the dorsal stream pathway (which is involved in the visual-spatial locations and motions of objects). Therefore, the ventral stream pathway not only deals with the recognition of objects in the external world, but also the emotional judgement and analysis of these objects. 776:

during a challenging visual memory task. The results were that young people who report having needed more alcohol to feel the effects showed higher levels of brain response during visual working memory, this suggests that the individual's capacity to adjust to cognitive processing decreases, they are

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During encoding, participants are typically exposed to 1–10 visual patterns while connected to a brain imaging device. As the subject encodes the visual patterns researchers are able to directly view the activation of areas involved in visual memory encoding. During recall subjects again need to have

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designed to measure timing or activation within the brain. The data collected from neuroimaging studies gives researchers the ability to visualize which brain regions are activated in specific cognitive visual memory tasks. With the use of brain imaging devices researchers able to further investigate

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varies from the averages provided in the Benton Visual Retention Test manual the worse the participant is assessed to be on visual memory ability. The Benton Visual Retention Test has proved to be a generalizable test with the ability to be accurately administered to participants aged 8-adult, and no

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receive and process visual information. The occipital lobes also process colors and shapes. Whereas the right occipital lobe interprets images from the left visual space, the left occipital lobe interprets images from the right visual space. Damage to the occipital lobes can permanently damage visual

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is another factor that has been found to have an effect on visual memory. Memory impairment affects both novel and familiar experiences. Poor memory after damage to the brain is usually considered to result from information being lost or rendered inaccessible. With such impairment it is assumed that

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and Gary Wells. In one study by Wells, individuals were exposed to misleading information after witnessing an event; they were then tested on their ability to remember details from this event. Their findings included: when given misinformation that contradicts the witnessed event they were less able

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and her ability to draw from memory was severely diminished, whilst her spatial memory remained normal. Other patients represent the opposite, where memory for colors and shapes is unaffected but spatial memory for previously known places is greatly impaired. These case studies show that these two

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environment, entails work with pictures, symbols, numbers, letters, and especially words. Students must be able to look at a word, form an image of that word in their minds and be able to recall the appearance of the word later. When teachers introduce a new vocabulary word, generally they write it

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As we age performance in regards to spatial configurations deteriorates. In a task to store and combine two different spatial configurations to form a novel one young people out-performed the elderly. Vision also has an effect on performance. Sighted participants outperformed the visually impaired

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The dorsal stream pathway is mainly involved in the visual-spatial location of objects in the external world, and it is also known colloquially as the 'where' pathway. The dorsal stream pathway is also involved in the guidance of movements (e.g., reaching for an object in space), and is therefore

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Findings surrounding sleep and visual memory have been mixed. Studies have reported performance increases after a bout of sleep compared with the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace.

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Visual short term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of visual information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time (usually no more than 30 seconds). Although visual short term memory is essential for the execution of a wide array of perceptual and

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We can only hold in mind a minute fraction of the visual scene. These mental representations are stored in visual short-term memory. Activity in the posterior parietal cortex is tightly correlated with the limited amount of scene information that can be stored in visual short-term memory. These

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and process the correct order of letters within the word. This means that the child perceives the word just as anyone else would, however their brains do not appear to hold onto the visual characteristics of the word. Although initially it was found that children with reading disabilities had

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of the resulting neural representations. Visual memory occurs over a broad time range spanning from eye movements to years in order to visually navigate to a previously visited location. Visual memory is a form of memory which preserves some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual

458:. These instructions are intended to minimize the activation of brain regions involved in visual memory to form a true resting brain state. After the scan is complete a control has been formed which can be compared with activated regions of the brain while performing visual memory tasks. 206:

The dorsal stream pathway begins with purely visual information in the occipital lobe, and then this information is transferred to the parietal lobe for spatial awareness functions. Specifically, the posterior parietal cortex is essential for "the perception and interpretation of spatial

699:, have the children spell it, read it and then use it in a sentence. The word is then erased from the chalkboard. Students with good visual memory will recognize that same word later in their readers or other texts and will be able to recall the appearance of the word to spell it. 1653:

Soininen, H. S.; Partanen, K.; Pitkanen, A.; Vainio, P.; Hanninen, T.; Hallikainen, M.; Koivisto, K.; Riekkinen, P. J. (1994). "Volumetric MRI analysis of the amygdala and the hippocampus in subjects with age-associated memory impairment: Correlation to visual and verbal memory".

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The popular culture concept of photographic memory—where, for example, someone can briefly look at a page of text and then recite it perfectly from memory—is not the same as seeing eidetic images, and photographic memory has never been demonstrated to exist.

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who have not developed their visual memory skills cannot readily reproduce a sequence of visual stimuli. They frequently experience difficulty in remembering the overall visual appearance of words or the letter sequence of words for reading and spelling.

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The subject's resting brain activation level is first determined in order to form a control or 'baseline' to measure from. Subjects are blindfolded and instructed to lay motionless while simultaneously eliminating any visual imagery present in their

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is a person's knowledge of the space around them, and their whereabouts in it. It also encompasses all memories of areas and places, and how to get to and from them. Spatial memory is distinct from object memory and involves different parts of the

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through which we can retrieve from our memory a mental image of original objects, places, animals or people. Visual memory is one of several cognitive systems, which are all interconnected parts that combine to form the human memory. Types of

184:, located in the thalamus. However, ample evidence indicates that object identity and location are preferentially processed in ventral (occipito-temporal) and dorsal (occipito-parietal) cortical visual streams, respectively. Comparison of 517:

its sensory details. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is responsible for holding onto the visual and spatial qualities of a vivid image in your working memory, and the degree of vividness is directly affected by the limits of the sketchpad.

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how a real object would look if it were changed in some way (rotated, flipped, moved, change of colour, etc.). It is also responsible for representing how vivid an image is. A vivid image is one which you have a high potential for

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The ventral stream pathway is mainly involved in object recognition, and is known colloquially as the 'what' pathway. It has connections to the medial temporal lobe (which is involved in the storage of long-term memories), the

842:. This has been tested by having children with and without reading disabilities perform on tasks related to the transient systems, where the children with reading disabilities did very poorly. It has also been found in 532:

Eidetic memory is an ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory with high precision for a few minutes without using mnemonics. It occurs in a small number of children and generally is not found in adults.

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Belcastro, V; Cupini, LM; Corbelli, I; Pieroni, A; D'Amore, C; Caproni, S; Gorgone, G; Ferlazzo, E; Di Palma, F; Sarchielli, P; Calabresi, P (Jul 2011). "Palinopsia in patients with migraine: a case-control study".

764:, the intermittent consumption of large amounts of alcohol. The findings revealed that there may be binge-drinking related functional alteration in recognition working memory processes. This suggests that impaired 771:

Another study conducted in 2004 examined the level of response to alcohol and brain response during visual working memory. This study looked at the neural correlated of the low level of response to alcohol using

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Cadaveira, F.; Corral, M.; Crego, A.; Mota, N.; Parada, M.; Rodriguez-Holguin, S. (2010). "Reduced anterior prefrontal cortex activation in young binge drinkers during a visual working memory task".

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Cattaneo, Zaira; Bhatt, Ela; Merabet, Lotfi B.; Pece, Alfredo; Vecchi, Tomaso (2008). "The Influence of Reduced Visual Acuity on Age-Related Decline in Spatial Working Memory: An Investigation".

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experience. We are able to place in memory visual information which resembles objects, places, animals or people in a mental image. The experience of visual memory is also referred to as the

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Roland, P. E.; Gulyás, Balazs (1995). "Visual Memory, Visual Imagery, and Visual Recognition of Large Field Patterns by the Human Brain: Functional Anatomy by Positron Emission Tomography".

687:"We do not store and retrieve words based on visual memory." "Our phonological filing system is the basis for word memory/word recognition." -Dr. Kilpatrick (Equipped for Reading Success). 88:. However, these two streams hypothesis, although useful, are a simplification of the visual system because the two streams maintain intercommunication along their entire rostral course. 1826:

Tapert, Susan F; Pulido, Carmen; Paulus, Martin P; Schuckit, Marc A; Burke, Christina (November 2004). "Level of response to alcohol and brain response during visual working memory".

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Visual short-term memory storage is mediated by distinctive posterior brain mechanisms, such that capacity is determined both by a fixed number of objects and by object complexity.

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to recall those details; and whether misinformation was given before or after the witnessed event did not seem to matter. Furthermore, visual memory can be subjected to various

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The ventral stream pathway begins with purely visual information in the primary visual cortex (occipital lobe), and then this information is transferred to the temporal lobe.

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and attention. We therefore have to establish a clear separation of visual memory and attention from processes related to the planning of goal-directed motor behaviors.

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and connections in the areas representing the transient visual systems. However, there is debate over whether this is the only reason for reading disabilities,

598:. However, both types of memory are often used together, such as when trying to remember where you put a lost object. A classic test of spatial memory is the 250:

Damage to the occipital lobe is characterized by loss of visual capability and the inability to identify colors both important processes in visual memory.

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Bradfield, A. L.; Wells, G. L. (1998). "Good, You Identified the Suspect": Feedback to Eyewitness Distorts Their Reports of the Witnessing Experience".

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comparable visual memory to those without difficulty, a more specific part of the visual memory system has been found to cause reading disabilities.

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is called their Corsi span. Spatial memory is always being used whenever a person is moving any part of their body; therefore it is generally more

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Verhaeghen, P.; Marcoen, A.; Goossens, L. (1993). "Facts and Fiction About Memory Aging: A Quantitative Integration of Research Findings".

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might act as a capacity-limited store for the representation of the visual scene, the frontal/prefrontal cortex might be necessary for the

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on visual memory. In a recent study visual working memory and its neutral correlates was assessed in university students who partake in

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results suggest that the posterior parietal cortex is a key neural locus of our impoverished mental representation of the visual world.

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types of visual memory are located in different parts of the brain and are somewhat unrelated in terms of functioning in daily life.

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Della Sala, S.; Gray, C.; Baddeley, A.; Allamano, N.; Wilson, L. (1999). "Pattern span: a means of unwelding visuo-spatial memory".

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Seo, E. H.; Lee, D. Y.; Choo, I. H.; Youn, J. C.; Kim, K. W.; Jhoo, J. H.; Suh, K. W.; Paek, Y. S.; Jun, Y. H.; Woo, J. I. (2007).

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is presented at the top, after a delay participants are asked to recall the correct target stimulus from the list of design cards.

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Todd, J, & Marois, R. (2004). Capacity limit of visual short term memory in human posterior parietal cortex. Retrieved from

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indicating that an age-associated decline in visual memory performance may be more prominent for those individuals with a lower

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systems. The sustained system is responsible for fine detail such as word and letter recognition and is very important in

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cognitive functions, and is supported by an extensive network of brain regions, its storage capacity is severely limited.

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Visual memory is not always accurate and can be misled by outside conditions. This can be seen in studies carried out by

325:. More than 50 years of proven clinical use is the staple of the Benton Visual Retention Test. This test has proven its 3635: 2483: 643: 748:

regardless of testing modality. This suggests that vision tends to shape the general supramodal mechanisms of memory.

650:. A few studies have shown that on average most people can recall up to four items each with a set of four different 1989: 1189:

Vogel, E; Machizawa, M (2004). "Neural activity predicts individual differences in visual working memory capacity".

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of a written word in the right order. However, studies show it is more likely that it is caused by a failure to

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relationships, accurate body image, and the learning of tasks involving coordination of the body in space."

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http://www.pearsonassessments.com/HAIWEB/Cultures/en-us/Productdetail.htm?Pid=015-8027-507&Mode=summary

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during performance of the two tasks again revealed differences between the ventral and dorsal pathways.

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Gersztenkorn, D; Lee, AG (Jul 2, 2014). "Palinopsia revamped: A systematic review of the literature".

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memory performance above and beyond standard tests based on exact response times, and activation.

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Wilson, B. A.; Baddeley, A. D.; Young, A. W. (1999). "LE, A person who lost her 'mind's eye'".

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implicated in the analysis of the movement of objects in addition to their spatial locations.

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Magnussen, S. (2009). Cognition and Neurosciences: Implicit visual working memory, 50, 532-542

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A majority of experiments highlights a role of human posterior parietal cortex in visual

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words in their correct order. The transient system is responsible for controlling

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and/or maintenance of this store, especially during extended retention intervals.

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The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences

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Hallucinatory palinopsia, which is a dysfunction of visual memory, is caused by

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One common group of people that have visual memory problems are children with

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Alan Baddeley; Michael W. Eysenck; Michael C. Anderson (7 November 2014).

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Berryhill, M. (2008, May 09). Visual memory and the brain. Retrieved from

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them. The number of blocks they can tap before performance breaks down on

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very quickly, but contains a very vivid image of the surrounding stimuli.

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Recall of the patterns from long term visual memory is associated with

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Benton visual retention test,® fifth edition. (n.d.). Retrieved from

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describes the relationship between perceptual processing and the

1262:"The role of spatial working memory in visual search efficiency" 777:

less able to adjust cognitive processing to contextual demands.

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http://www.ioi.knaw.nl/viscog/temp/Todd%20(2004)%20Nature.pdf

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Cai, D.J.; Jiang, Y.V.; Makovski, T.; Mednick, S.C. (2009).

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using methods designed to activate brain areas involved in

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An example of the Benton Visual Retention Test. The target

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and spatial information, which is currently being used or

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of people with reading disabilities that they have fewer

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gender effect. Some studies have suggested a significant

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function may occur at an early age in binge drinkers.

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has been removed, is a dysfunction of visual memory.

521: 103:(light green) is shown at the posterior area of the 1944: 1392: 602:, where an instructor taps a series of blocks in a 1987:CPS Testing Library – Benton Visual Retention Test 992: 709: 1872:Cephalalgia: An International Journal of Headache 899:http://www.visionsciences.org/symposia2008_4.html 16:Ability to process visual and spatial information 3990: 861:Deficits in visual memory can also be caused by 928: 780: 296: 1423: 1188: 1098: 924: 922: 176:of the brain, much of which is located in the 3014: 2014: 1924:. Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. pp. 102–106. 1299: 1297: 869:. These can lead to the patient losing their 682: 1920:Catts, Hugh William; Kamhi, Alan G. (2005). 1153: 822:These parts are the sustained and transient 488:. It is responsible for temporarily storing 91: 3145:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two 1594:Bussey, T.J.; Cowell, R.A.; McTighe, S.M.; 919: 475: 253: 3021: 3007: 2021: 2007: 1919: 1294: 1255: 1253: 1247:. Elsevier Science Publishers. Pg. 105-113 634:features of an object or material such as 496:. It is thought of as a three-dimensional 271: 1799: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1565: 1513: 1462:. Learning Disabilities. pp. 26–39. 1277: 1239:Logie, R.H., & Marchetti, C. (1991). 1119: 1069: 1067: 1065: 1063: 1043: 210: 1915: 1913: 1911: 1909: 1821: 1819: 1730: 1728: 1546:Journal of Zhejiang University Science B 1453: 1403:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 33–34. 654:qualities. It is a separate system from 388: 300: 191: 147: 95: 18: 1771: 1449: 1447: 1349: 1250: 480:The visuo-spatial sketchpad is part of 461: 3991: 1582: 1539: 1483: 1481: 1479: 1460:Learning Disabilities: there is a Cure 1233: 1149: 1147: 1145: 1143: 1141: 1139: 1094: 1092: 1090: 1088: 1086: 1084: 1082: 1060: 1025: 237:Located at the back of the brain, the 3002: 2002: 1906: 1816: 1737:Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 1725: 1535: 1533: 1259: 774:functional magnetic resonance imaging 384: 84:have a more superior location in the 76:have a more inferior location in the 1982:Benton Visual Retention Test (BRVRT) 1978:– Measuring Visual Memory on the Web 1444: 1303: 1182: 990: 974: 972: 970: 968: 966: 964: 962: 960: 893: 891: 756:Studies have shown that there is an 570:, because it works very quickly and 448: 280:increases in different areas of the 27:, the main organ of visual sensation 1938: 1476: 1136: 1079: 470: 291: 246:Occipital lobe injury complications 13: 1530: 1013: 232: 14: 4015: 3426:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm 1969: 1922:Language and Reading Disabilities 1332:"Does Photographic Memory Exist?" 1266:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 995:Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain 957: 943:10.1016/j.survophthal.2014.06.003 888: 581: 522:Eidetic and photographic memories 409:while performing a visual memory 68:In humans, areas specialized for 3971: 3959: 3028: 2230: 1792:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.11.020 642:. It is processed mainly in the 625: 606:and the participant attempts to 540: 504:on. It is used in tasks such as 143: 1862: 1690: 1646: 1417: 1324: 723: 710:Factors affecting visual memory 335:nonverbal learning disabilities 63: 3636:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model 3509:Memory and social interactions 2028: 1019: 984: 910: 1: 2326:Industrial and organizational 1828:Journal of Studies on Alcohol 1426:Journal of Applied Psychology 1370:10.1016/s0028-3932(98)00159-6 881: 856:scotopic sensitivity syndrome 740:Studies have shown that with 3345:Retrieval-induced forgetting 2567:Human factors and ergonomics 1506:10.1016/j.visres.2009.04.011 1045:10.1016/j.neures.2018.06.005 781:Dysfunction of visual memory 679:which will affect accuracy. 508:manipulation where a person 315:Benton Visual Retention Test 297:Benton visual retention test 7: 1780:Drug and Alcohol Dependence 1304:Foer, Joshua (2006-04-27). 1260:Oh, S. H.; Kim, M. (2004). 1026:Takeda, Masaki (May 2019). 665: 10: 4020: 3683:Levels of Processing model 3608:World Memory Championships 3441:Lost in the mall technique 3288:dissociative (psychogenic) 1456:"Visual Memory and Beyond" 1438:10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.360 784: 751: 683:Visual memory in education 544: 525: 482:Baddeley and Hitch's model 343:attention-deficit disorder 257: 214: 195: 3954: 3909: 3878: 3737: 3730: 3623: 3595: 3527: 3484: 3456: 3416: 3358: 3253: 3159: 3134: 3086: 3079: 3036: 2953: 2890: 2597: 2507: 2419: 2256:Applied behavior analysis 2239: 2228: 2064: 2036: 1749:10.1080/13825580802036951 1540:Fu, X.; Wang, B. (2009). 286:anterior cingulate cortex 112:posterior parietal cortex 101:Posterior parietal cortex 92:Posterior parietal cortex 70:visual object recognition 3721:The Seven Sins of Memory 3666:Intermediate-term memory 3471:Indirect tests of memory 3448:Recovered-memory therapy 3398:Misattribution of memory 1884:10.1177/0333102411410083 1840:10.15288/jsa.2004.65.692 1711:10.1093/geronj/48.4.p157 1598:; Winters, B.D. (2010). 1454:Cusimano, Addie (2001). 1121:10.1093/geronb/62.3.p191 797:posterior visual pathway 791:Hallucinatory palinopsia 714: 600:Corsi block-tapping task 476:Visuo-spatial sketch pad 442:brain imaging techniques 397:pattern a subject would 393:An example of a colored 260:Visual short-term memory 254:Short term visual memory 3408:Source-monitoring error 2532:Behavioral neuroscience 2096:Behavioral neuroscience 1624:10.1126/science.1194780 931:Survey of Ophthalmology 844:postmortem examinations 658:and is not affected by 630:Object memory involves 622:than object memory is. 272:Long term visual memory 182:lateral geniculate body 3815:George Armitage Miller 3775:Patricia Goldman-Rakic 2582:Psychology of religion 2522:Behavioral engineering 2459:Human subject research 2115:Cognitive neuroscience 2081:Affective neuroscience 1959:10.1093/neucas/5.2.119 1699:Journal of Gerontology 735: 414: 339:traumatic brain injury 310: 211:Ventral stream pathway 165: 107: 28: 3978:Philosophy portal 3966:Psychology portal 3830:Henry L. Roediger III 3431:False memory syndrome 3403:Misinformation effect 3383:Imagination inflation 2958:Wiktionary definition 2494:Self-report inventory 2489:Quantitative research 1668:10.1212/wnl.44.9.1660 1558:10.1631/jzus.B0820384 1168:10.1093/cercor/5.1.79 1032:Neuroscience Research 799:cortical lesions and 690:Visual memory, in an 420:studies focus on the 392: 349:, and other forms of 304: 192:Dorsal stream pathway 151: 99: 22: 3335:Motivated forgetting 2484:Qualitative research 2439:Behavior epigenetics 840:reading disabilities 808:reading disabilities 662:from spatial tasks. 558:part of the sensory 462:Activation condition 331:reading disabilities 321:, and visual memory 317:is an assessment of 114:is a portion of the 3845:Arthur P. Shimamura 3745:Richard C. Atkinson 3562:Effects of exercise 3436:Memory implantation 3320:Interference theory 3236:Selective retention 3216:Meaningful learning 2963:Wiktionary category 2527:Behavioral genetics 2499:Statistical surveys 2356:Occupational health 2091:Behavioral genetics 1616:2010Sci...330.1408M 1610:(6009): 1408–1410. 1336:Scientific American 1211:10.1038/nature02447 1203:2004Natur.428..748V 991:Bear, Mark (2007). 867:trauma to the brain 638:, color, size, and 566:is responsible for 424:involved in visual 3942:Andriy Slyusarchuk 3765:Hermann Ebbinghaus 3671:Involuntary memory 3572:Memory improvement 3557:Effects of alcohol 3519:Transactive memory 3497:Politics of memory 3466:Exceptional memory 2935:Schools of thought 2838:Richard E. Nisbett 2718:Donald T. Campbell 2396:Sport and exercise 1992:2010-08-25 at the 1976:Visual Memory Test 1279:10.3758/bf03196570 904:2011-07-28 at the 415: 385:Neuroimaging tests 311: 166: 108: 29: 3986: 3985: 3950: 3949: 3937:Cosmos Rossellius 3785:Marcia K. Johnson 3656:Exosomatic memory 3641:Context-dependent 3631:Absent-mindedness 3514:Memory conformity 3492:Collective memory 3393:Memory conformity 3330:Memory inhibition 3249: 3248: 3241:Tip of the tongue 2996: 2995: 2973:Wikimedia Commons 2900:Counseling topics 2863:Ronald C. Kessler 2853:Shelley E. Taylor 2778:Lawrence Kohlberg 2753:Stanley Schachter 2552:Consumer behavior 2434:Archival research 2202:Psycholinguistics 2086:Affective science 1931:978-0-205-44417-5 1500:(21): 2557–2565. 1469:978-0-615-12053-9 1410:978-1-84872-184-5 1364:(10): 1189–1199. 1306:"Kaavya Syndrome" 1197:(6984): 748–751. 1006:978-0-7817-6003-4 824:visual processing 766:prefrontal cortex 758:effect of alcohol 449:Control condition 357:, preservations, 319:visual perception 282:prefrontal cortex 4011: 3976: 3975: 3974: 3964: 3963: 3962: 3917:Jonathan Hancock 3870:Robert Stickgold 3840:Richard Shiffrin 3795:Elizabeth Loftus 3735: 3734: 3651:Childhood memory 3458:Research methods 3340:Repressed memory 3315:Forgetting curve 3303:transient global 3174:Autobiographical 3084: 3083: 3023: 3016: 3009: 3000: 2999: 2930:Research methods 2873:Richard Davidson 2868:Joseph E. LeDoux 2743:George A. Miller 2733:David McClelland 2728:Herbert A. Simon 2628:Edward Thorndike 2449:Content analysis 2234: 2207:Psychophysiology 2023: 2016: 2009: 2000: 1999: 1963: 1962: 1942: 1936: 1935: 1917: 1904: 1903: 1866: 1860: 1859: 1823: 1814: 1813: 1803: 1775: 1769: 1768: 1732: 1723: 1722: 1705:(4): P157–P171. 1694: 1688: 1687: 1662:(9): 1660–1668. 1650: 1644: 1643: 1591: 1580: 1579: 1569: 1537: 1528: 1527: 1517: 1485: 1474: 1473: 1451: 1442: 1441: 1421: 1415: 1414: 1396: 1390: 1389: 1358:Neuropsychologia 1353: 1347: 1346: 1344: 1343: 1328: 1322: 1321: 1319: 1318: 1301: 1292: 1291: 1281: 1257: 1248: 1237: 1231: 1230: 1186: 1180: 1179: 1151: 1134: 1133: 1123: 1114:(3): P191–P193. 1105: 1096: 1077: 1071: 1058: 1057: 1047: 1023: 1017: 1011: 1010: 998: 988: 982: 976: 955: 954: 926: 917: 914: 908: 895: 672:Elizabeth Loftus 574:. Iconic memory 471:Current theories 292:Methods of study 134:posterior cortex 23:Close up of the 4019: 4018: 4014: 4013: 4012: 4010: 4009: 4008: 3989: 3988: 3987: 3982: 3972: 3970: 3960: 3958: 3946: 3927:Dominic O'Brien 3905: 3874: 3855:Susumu Tonegawa 3835:Daniel Schacter 3810:Eleanor Maguire 3800:Geoffrey Loftus 3755:Stephen J. Ceci 3750:Robert A. Bjork 3726: 3645:state-dependent 3619: 3591: 3523: 3504:Cultural memory 3480: 3476:Memory disorder 3452: 3412: 3354: 3245: 3155: 3130: 3075: 3032: 3027: 2997: 2992: 2949: 2925:Psychotherapies 2886: 2843:Martin Seligman 2808:Daniel Kahneman 2748:Richard Lazarus 2698:Raymond Cattell 2602: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2503: 2415: 2242: 2235: 2226: 2187:Neuropsychology 2067: 2060: 2032: 2027: 1994:Wayback Machine 1972: 1967: 1966: 1943: 1939: 1932: 1918: 1907: 1878:(9): 999–1004. 1867: 1863: 1824: 1817: 1776: 1772: 1733: 1726: 1695: 1691: 1651: 1647: 1592: 1583: 1538: 1531: 1494:Vision Research 1486: 1477: 1470: 1452: 1445: 1422: 1418: 1411: 1397: 1393: 1354: 1350: 1341: 1339: 1330: 1329: 1325: 1316: 1314: 1302: 1295: 1258: 1251: 1238: 1234: 1187: 1183: 1156:Cerebral Cortex 1152: 1137: 1103: 1097: 1080: 1072: 1061: 1024: 1020: 1014: 1007: 989: 985: 977: 958: 927: 920: 915: 911: 906:Wayback Machine 896: 889: 884: 838:this can cause 836:synchronization 793: 783: 754: 738: 726: 717: 712: 685: 668: 644:ventral regions 628: 584: 549: 543: 530: 524: 478: 473: 464: 451: 422:neural networks 387: 299: 294: 274: 262: 256: 248: 239:occipital lobes 235: 233:Occipital lobes 219: 213: 200: 194: 146: 94: 86:parietal cortex 78:temporal cortex 66: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4017: 4007: 4006: 4001: 3984: 3983: 3981: 3980: 3968: 3955: 3952: 3951: 3948: 3947: 3945: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3922:Paul R. McHugh 3919: 3913: 3911: 3907: 3906: 3904: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3882: 3880: 3876: 3875: 3873: 3872: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3780:Ivan Izquierdo 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3741: 3739: 3732: 3728: 3727: 3725: 3724: 3717: 3707: 3706: 3705: 3695: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3679: 3678: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3648: 3638: 3633: 3627: 3625: 3621: 3620: 3618: 3617: 3612: 3611: 3610: 3599: 3597: 3593: 3592: 3590: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3553: 3552: 3547: 3537: 3531: 3529: 3525: 3524: 3522: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3501: 3500: 3499: 3488: 3486: 3482: 3481: 3479: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3462: 3460: 3454: 3453: 3451: 3450: 3445: 3444: 3443: 3433: 3428: 3422: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3411: 3410: 3405: 3400: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3378:Hindsight bias 3375: 3370: 3364: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3353: 3352: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3327: 3325:Memory erasure 3322: 3317: 3312: 3307: 3306: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3283:post-traumatic 3280: 3275: 3270: 3259: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3247: 3246: 3244: 3243: 3238: 3233: 3228: 3223: 3221:Personal-event 3218: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3197: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3176: 3171: 3165: 3163: 3157: 3156: 3154: 3153: 3151:Working memory 3148: 3140: 3138: 3132: 3131: 3129: 3128: 3123: 3121:Motor learning 3118: 3113: 3108: 3103: 3098: 3092: 3090: 3081: 3077: 3076: 3074: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3057: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3040: 3038: 3037:Basic concepts 3034: 3033: 3026: 3025: 3018: 3011: 3003: 2994: 2993: 2991: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2922: 2917: 2912: 2907: 2902: 2896: 2894: 2888: 2887: 2885: 2883:Roy Baumeister 2880: 2875: 2870: 2865: 2860: 2855: 2850: 2845: 2840: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2820: 2818:Michael Posner 2815: 2810: 2805: 2803:Elliot Aronson 2800: 2798:Walter Mischel 2795: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2763:Albert Bandura 2760: 2755: 2750: 2745: 2740: 2738:Leon Festinger 2735: 2730: 2725: 2720: 2715: 2710: 2708:Neal E. Miller 2705: 2703:Abraham Maslow 2700: 2695: 2690: 2688:Ernest Hilgard 2685: 2683:Donald O. Hebb 2680: 2675: 2670: 2665: 2663:J. P. Guilford 2660: 2658:Gordon Allport 2655: 2650: 2645: 2640: 2638:John B. Watson 2635: 2630: 2625: 2620: 2615: 2610: 2605: 2603: 2598: 2595: 2594: 2590: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2529: 2524: 2519: 2513: 2512: 2511: 2509: 2505: 2504: 2502: 2501: 2496: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2431: 2429:Animal testing 2425: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2414: 2413: 2408: 2403: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2333: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2288: 2283: 2278: 2273: 2268: 2263: 2258: 2253: 2247: 2245: 2237: 2236: 2229: 2227: 2225: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2144: 2139: 2134: 2132:Cross-cultural 2129: 2124: 2123: 2122: 2112: 2103: 2098: 2093: 2088: 2083: 2078: 2072: 2070: 2062: 2061: 2059: 2058: 2053: 2048: 2043: 2037: 2034: 2033: 2026: 2025: 2018: 2011: 2003: 1997: 1996: 1984: 1979: 1971: 1970:External links 1968: 1965: 1964: 1953:(2): 119–127. 1937: 1930: 1905: 1861: 1834:(6): 692–700. 1815: 1786:(1–3): 45–56. 1770: 1743:(6): 687–702. 1724: 1689: 1645: 1581: 1529: 1475: 1468: 1443: 1432:(3): 360–372. 1416: 1409: 1391: 1348: 1323: 1293: 1272:(2): 275–281. 1249: 1232: 1181: 1135: 1078: 1059: 1018: 1012: 1005: 983: 956: 918: 909: 886: 885: 883: 880: 871:spatial memory 782: 779: 762:binge drinking 753: 750: 737: 734: 725: 722: 716: 713: 711: 708: 684: 681: 667: 664: 656:spatial memory 627: 624: 587:Spatial memory 583: 582:Spatial memory 580: 568:visual priming 545:Main article: 542: 539: 528:Eidetic memory 526:Main article: 523: 520: 486:working memory 477: 474: 472: 469: 463: 460: 450: 447: 386: 383: 298: 295: 293: 290: 273: 270: 258:Main article: 255: 252: 247: 244: 234: 231: 217:Ventral stream 215:Main article: 212: 209: 196:Main article: 193: 190: 178:Occipital lobe 158:ventral stream 145: 142: 123:working memory 93: 90: 74:ventral stream 65: 62: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4016: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3996: 3994: 3979: 3969: 3967: 3957: 3956: 3953: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3915: 3914: 3912: 3908: 3902: 3901:Clive Wearing 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3883: 3881: 3877: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3865:Endel Tulving 3863: 3861: 3860:Anne Treisman 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3820:Brenda Milner 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3805:James McGaugh 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3770:Sigmund Freud 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3742: 3740: 3736: 3733: 3729: 3723: 3722: 3718: 3715: 3714:retrospective 3711: 3708: 3704: 3701: 3700: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3693:Muscle memory 3691: 3689: 3686: 3684: 3681: 3677: 3674: 3673: 3672: 3669: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3654: 3652: 3649: 3646: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3628: 3626: 3622: 3616: 3613: 3609: 3606: 3605: 3604: 3601: 3600: 3598: 3594: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 3542: 3541: 3540:Art of memory 3538: 3536: 3533: 3532: 3530: 3526: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3507: 3505: 3502: 3498: 3495: 3494: 3493: 3490: 3489: 3487: 3483: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3464: 3463: 3461: 3459: 3455: 3449: 3446: 3442: 3439: 3438: 3437: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3424: 3423: 3421: 3419: 3415: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3388:Memory biases 3386: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3368:Confabulation 3366: 3365: 3363: 3361: 3360:Memory errors 3357: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3343: 3341: 3338: 3336: 3333: 3331: 3328: 3326: 3323: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3313: 3311: 3308: 3304: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3281: 3279: 3278:post-hypnotic 3276: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3266: 3265: 3264: 3261: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3252: 3242: 3239: 3237: 3234: 3232: 3231:Rote learning 3229: 3227: 3224: 3222: 3219: 3217: 3214: 3212: 3209: 3207: 3206:Hyperthymesia 3204: 3202: 3199: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3182: 3181: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3170: 3169:Active recall 3167: 3166: 3164: 3162: 3158: 3152: 3149: 3146: 3142: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3133: 3127: 3124: 3122: 3119: 3117: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3107: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3097: 3094: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3085: 3082: 3078: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3066:Consolidation 3064: 3062: 3059: 3058: 3055: 3052: 3050: 3047: 3045: 3042: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3024: 3019: 3017: 3012: 3010: 3005: 3004: 3001: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2956: 2955: 2952: 2946: 2943: 2941: 2938: 2936: 2933: 2931: 2928: 2926: 2923: 2921: 2920:Psychologists 2918: 2916: 2913: 2911: 2910:Organizations 2908: 2906: 2903: 2901: 2898: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2889: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2871: 2869: 2866: 2864: 2861: 2859: 2858:John Anderson 2856: 2854: 2851: 2849: 2846: 2844: 2841: 2839: 2836: 2834: 2831: 2829: 2826: 2824: 2821: 2819: 2816: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2791: 2789: 2788:Ulric Neisser 2786: 2784: 2781: 2779: 2776: 2774: 2773:Endel Tulving 2771: 2769: 2766: 2764: 2761: 2759: 2758:Robert Zajonc 2756: 2754: 2751: 2749: 2746: 2744: 2741: 2739: 2736: 2734: 2731: 2729: 2726: 2724: 2721: 2719: 2716: 2714: 2713:Jerome Bruner 2711: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2699: 2696: 2694: 2691: 2689: 2686: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2678:B. F. Skinner 2676: 2674: 2671: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2644: 2643:Clark L. Hull 2641: 2639: 2636: 2634: 2631: 2629: 2626: 2624: 2623:Sigmund Freud 2621: 2619: 2616: 2614: 2613:William James 2611: 2609: 2608:Wilhelm Wundt 2606: 2604: 2601: 2600:Psychologists 2596: 2588: 2587:Psychometrics 2585: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2547:Consciousness 2545: 2543: 2540: 2538: 2535: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2525: 2523: 2520: 2518: 2515: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2500: 2497: 2495: 2492: 2490: 2487: 2485: 2482: 2480: 2479:Psychophysics 2477: 2475: 2472: 2470: 2467: 2465: 2462: 2460: 2457: 2455: 2452: 2450: 2447: 2445: 2442: 2440: 2437: 2435: 2432: 2430: 2427: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2421:Methodologies 2418: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2402: 2399: 2397: 2394: 2392: 2389: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2381:Psychotherapy 2379: 2377: 2376:Psychometrics 2374: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2297: 2294: 2292: 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