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281:. Although his initial laboratory measurements of closure phase had been done at optical wavelengths, he foresaw greater potential for his technique in radio interferometry. In 1958 he demonstrated its effectiveness with a radio interferometer, but it only became widely used for long-baseline radio interferometry in 1974. At least three antennas are required. This method was used for the first VLBI measurements, and a modified form of this approach ("Self-Calibration") is still used today.
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93:, is collected at multiple radio telescopes on Earth or in space. The distance between the radio telescopes is then calculated using the time difference between the arrivals of the radio signal at different telescopes. This allows observations of an object that are made simultaneously by many radio telescopes to be combined, emulating a telescope with a size equal to the maximum separation between the telescopes.
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271:. The symmetric component of the brightness distribution only contributes to the real part of the complex visibility, while the anti-symmetric component only contributes to the imaginary part. As the phase of each complex visibility measurement cannot be determined with a very-long-baseline interferometer the symmetry of the corresponding contribution to the source brightness distributions is not known.
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172:) that is additionally locked onto a GPS time standard. Alongside the astronomical data samples, the output of this clock is recorded. The recorded media are then transported to a central location. More recent experiments have been conducted with "electronic" VLBI (e-VLBI) where the data are sent by fibre-optics (e.g., 10 Gbit/s fiber-optic paths in the European
201:
clocks as time references, as shown in the drawing on the right. If the position of the antennas is not known to sufficient accuracy or atmospheric effects are significant, fine adjustments to the delays must be made until interference fringes are detected. If the signal from antenna A is taken as the reference, inaccuracies in the delay will lead to errors
679:, was launched in July 2011 and made observations until January 2019. It was placed into a highly elliptical orbit, ranging from a perigee of 10,652 km to an apogee of 338,541 km, making RadioAstron, the SVLBI program incorporating the satellite and ground arrays, the biggest radio interferometer to date. The resolution of the system reached 8
104:. At a later time, the data are correlated with data from other antennas that recorded the same radio signal, to produce the resulting image. The resolution achievable using interferometry is proportional to the observing frequency. The VLBI technique enables the distance between telescopes to be much greater than that possible with conventional
259:
Temperature variations at VLBI sites can deform the structure of the antennas and affect the baseline measurements. Neglecting atmospheric pressure and hydrological loading corrections at the observation level can also contaminate the VLBI measurements by introducing annual and seasonal signals, like
180:
At the location of the correlator, the data is played back. The timing of the playback is adjusted according to the atomic clock signals, and the estimated times of arrival of the radio signal at each of the telescopes. A range of playback timings over a range of nanoseconds are usually tested until
176:
research network) and not recorded at the telescopes, speeding up and simplifying the observing process significantly. Even though the data rates are very high, the data can be sent over normal
Internet connections taking advantage of the fact that many of the international high speed networks have
167:
In VLBI, the digitized antenna data are usually recorded at each of the telescopes (in the past this was done on large magnetic tapes, but nowadays it is usually done on large arrays of computer disk drives). The antenna signal is sampled with an extremely precise and stable atomic clock (usually a
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uses its larger antennas (normally used for spacecraft communication) for VLBI, in order to construct radio reference frames for the purpose of spacecraft navigation. The inclusion of the ESA station at
Malargue, Argentina, adds baselines that allow much better coverage of the southern hemisphere.
200:
the delays incurred by the extra distance to one antenna must be added artificially to the signals received at each of the other antennas. The approximate delay required can be calculated from the geometry of the problem. The tape playback is synchronized using the recorded signals from the atomic
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In the quest for even greater angular resolution, dedicated VLBI satellites have been placed in Earth orbit to provide greatly extended baselines. Experiments incorporating such space-borne array elements are termed Space Very Long
Baseline Interferometry (SVLBI). The first SVLBI experiment was
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609:. The shell of gas was ejected from a supergiant star (10 times the mass of the Sun) at the centre of the emission about 900 years ago. The corresponding EVN e-VLBI image (right) shows the much finer structure of the masers made visible with the higher resolution of the VLBI array.
621:, and shipping those to the correlation center for replay. In 2004 it became possible to connect VLBI radio telescopes in close to real-time, while still employing the local time references of the VLBI technique, in a technique known as e-VLBI. In Europe, six
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255:
in the phases of the signals from tapes B and C respectively (see drawing on right). As a result of these errors the phase of the complex visibility cannot be measured with a very-long-baseline interferometer.
139:. However, since the VLBI technique measures the time differences between the arrival of radio waves at separate antennas, it can also be used "in reverse" to perform Earth rotation studies, map movements of
1389:
Express
Production Real-time e-VLBI Service: a three-year project (est. March 2006) funded by the European Commission to develop an intercontinental e-VLBI instrument available to the scientific community
672:, which was launched in February 1997 and made observations until October 2003. Due to the small size of the dish, only very strong radio sources could be observed with SVLBI arrays incorporating it.
351:
511:(EVN). This is a part-time array that brings together the largest European radiotelescopes and some others outside of Europe for typically weeklong sessions, with the data being processed at the
163:
Recording data at each of the telescopes in a VLBI array. Extremely accurate high-frequency clocks are recorded alongside the astronomical data in order to help get the synchronization correct
2370:
539:. VLBI generally benefits from the longer baselines afforded by international collaboration, with a notable early example in 1976, when radio telescopes in the United States, USSR and
519:(VLBA), which uses ten dedicated, 25-meter telescopes spanning 5351 miles across the United States, is the largest VLBI array that operates all year round as both an astronomical and
972:
Charlot, P.; Jacobs, C. S.; Gordon, D.; Lambert, S.; et al. (2020), "The third realization of the
International Celestial Reference Frame by very long baseline interferometry",
1231:
2768:
253:
226:
268:
1049:
2028:
1920:
1144:; Johnson, Michael D.; Zoran, Daniel; Fish, Vincent L.; Doeleman, Sheperd S.; Freeman, William T. (2016). "Computational Imaging for VLBI Image Reconstruction".
636:
The image to the right shows the first science produced by the
European VLBI Network using e-VLBI. The data from each of the telescopes were routed through the
188:
Playing back the data from each of the telescopes in a VLBI array. Great care must be taken to synchronize the play back of the data from different telescopes.
263:
The phase of the complex visibility depends on the symmetry of the source brightness distribution. Any brightness distribution can be written as the sum of a
264:
3244:
2726:
1232:
Garcia-Mir, C and
Sotuela, I and Jacobs, CS and Clark, JE and Naudet, CJ and White, LA and Madde, R and Mercolino, M and Pazos, D and Bourda, G. (2014).
312:
791:"A Phase Sensitive Interferometer Technique for the Measurement of the Fourier Transforms of Spatial Brightness Distributions of Small Angular Extent"
795:
17:
1249:
1802:
2018:
524:
699:) is an international collaboration whose purpose is to use the observation of astronomical radio sources using VLBI to precisely determine
277:
developed a novel technique for obtaining information about visibility phases when delay errors are present, using an observable called the
2008:
882:"Least-squares wavelet and cross-wavelet analyses of VLBI baseline length and temperature time series: Fortaleza-Hartrao-Westford-Wettzell"
535:, the resolution obtained is higher than any other astronomical instrument, capable of imaging the sky with a level of detail measured in
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1943:
1709:
1408:
2648:
2399:
2122:
1959:
1435:
1102:
834:
Wresnik, J.; Haas, R.; Boehm, J.; Schuh, H. (2007). "Modeling thermal deformation of VLBI antennas with a new temperature model".
2985:
2719:
378:
1289:
Nothnagel, A.; Artz, T.; Behrend, D.; Malkin, Z. (8 September 2016). "International VLBI Service for
Geodesy and Astrometry".
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2360:
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1033:
2336:
2230:
708:
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703:(EOP) and celestial reference frames (CRF) and terrestrial reference frames (TRF). IVS is a service operating under the
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were connected with
Gigabit per second links via their National Research Networks and the Pan-European research network
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147:. Using VLBI in this manner requires large numbers of time difference measurements from distant sources (such as
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1988:
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35:
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VLBI is best known for imaging distant cosmic radio sources, spacecraft tracking, and for applications in
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374:) – similar techniques have also been used to make infrared and optical images of stellar surfaces.
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Each antenna will be a different distance from the radio source, and as with the short baseline radio
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601:. The lower resolution image on the left was taken with the UK's MERLIN array and shows the shell of
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Schuh, H.; Behrend, D. (October 2012). "VLBI: A fascinating technique for geodesy and astrometry".
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63:
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2190:
786:
633:, and the first astronomical experiments using this new technique were successfully conducted.
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emission produced by an expanding shell of gas with a diameter about 200 times that of the
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orbital station with KRT-10, a 10-meter radio telescope, which was launched in July 1978.
8:
3406:
3074:
2919:
2757:
2750:
2638:
2449:
2444:
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2200:
2072:
735:"First M87 Event Horizon Telescope Results. I. The Shadow of the Supermassive Black Hole"
548:
419:
47:
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1302:
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847:
809:
762:
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527:. When one or both of these arrays are combined with space-based VLBI antennas such as
124:. The greater telescope separations are possible in VLBI due to the development of the
58:
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1238:. 12th European VLBI Network Symposium and Users Meeting (EVN 2014). Vol. 3.
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82:
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Data received at each antenna in the array include arrival times from a local
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3029:
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2504:
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1574:
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613:
VLBI has traditionally operated by recording the signal at each telescope on
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Distance to
Malargue station from the other stations of the NASA VLBI network
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444:
278:
125:
117:
109:
2704:
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1141:
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to be the processed in real time at the European Data Processing centre at
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in the 1950s, allowing VLBI to produce images with superior resolution.
1620:
1516:
564:
319: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
184:
136:
62:
VLBI was used to create the first image of a black hole, imaged by the
1266:
Diamond, Philip; van Langevelde, Huib; Conway, John (5 October 2004).
1146:
2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)
2900:
2893:
2821:
2658:
1886:
1610:
1506:
1028:. Mill Valley, California: University Science Books. pp. 176–7.
540:
500:
389:
113:
1380:
1050:"Radio astronomers confirm Huygens entry in the atmosphere of Titan"
637:
370:
Imaging the surfaces of nearby stars at radio wavelengths (see also
294:
151:) observed with a global network of antennas over a period of time.
3101:
2784:
2763:
2519:
2371:
Special Astrophysical Observatory of the Russian Academy of Science
2261:
1233:
1212:
1154:
986:
753:
676:
658:
532:
504:
1687:
192:
signals recorded with the data help in getting the timing correct.
3223:
3000:
2790:
2112:
1630:
1615:
1444:
641:
593:
520:
144:
143:
very precisely (within millimetres), and perform other types of
3118:
2132:
1737:
1399:
The International VLBI Service for Geodesy and Astrometry (IVS)
1026:
Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, 3rd Edition
630:
496:
480:
468:
464:
173:
148:
90:
1398:
1077:"For the first time, you can see what a black hole looks like"
359:
Geodesist Chopo Ma explains some of the geodetic uses of VLBI.
2959:
2251:
665:
602:
528:
492:
484:
476:
169:
1383:
fibre-linked radio telescope array used in VLBI observations
1235:
The X/Ka Celestial Reference Frame: towards a GAIA frame tie
733:
The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration (April 10, 2019).
523:
instrument. The combination of the EVN and VLBA is known as
3283:
2995:
1733:
1594:
1403:
1386:
1265:
578:
427:
3365:
1413:
1404:
IVSOPAR: the VLBI analysis center at the Paris Observatory
1288:
971:
363:
Some of the scientific results derived from VLBI include:
423:
2029:
Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy
108:, which requires antennas to be physically connected by
886:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
551:
sources. This technique is currently being used by the
260:
in the Global Navigation Satellite System time series.
1140:
367:
High resolution radio imaging of cosmic radio sources.
3342:
1392:
1268:"Astronomers Demonstrate a Global Internet Telescope"
1024:
Urban, Sean E.; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth, eds. (2013).
833:
693:
International VLBI Service for Geodesy and Astrometry
687:
International VLBI Service for Geodesy and Astrometry
234:
207:
1131:
First Global Radio Telescope, Sov. Astron., Oct 1976
675:
Another SVLBI satellite, a 10-meter radio telescope
507:. The most sensitive VLBI array in the world is the
398:
Regional deformation and local uplift or subsidence.
247:
220:
2133:Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network
1134:
948:"International Celestial Reference System (ICRS)"
796:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
430:on the Earth and the deep structure of the Earth.
3414:
451:atmosphere, allowing wind velocity measurements.
1023:
728:
726:
724:
27:Comparing widely separated telescope wavefronts
2019:Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment
785:
46:The eight radio telescopes of the Smithsonian
2734:
2720:
1703:
1429:
1282:
2009:Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder
1331:
1248:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
721:
1803:500 meter Aperture Spherical Telescope
1261:
1259:
454:First imaging of a supermassive black hole.
2727:
2713:
1710:
1696:
1436:
1422:
879:
1361:
1325:
1270:(Press release). Joint Institute for VLBI
1153:
985:
897:
875:
873:
818:
808:
770:
752:
463:There are several VLBI arrays located in
335:Learn how and when to remove this message
2123:Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope
1960:Warkworth Radio Astronomical Observatory
1256:
664:The first dedicated SVLBI satellite was
592:
569:
346:
183:
158:
57:
41:
29:
779:
384:Measurement of the acceleration of the
177:significant spare capacity at present.
14:
3415:
870:
395:Motion of the Earth's tectonic plates.
2865:Multi-angle imaging spectroradiometer
2708:
2624:Cosmic microwave background radiation
2361:Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory
2083:Large Latin American Millimeter Array
1691:
1417:
1074:
284:
2689:
2337:National Radio Astronomy Observatory
2231:Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope
1670:
1205:"Event horizon snapshot due in 2017"
1202:
1107:National Radio Astronomy Observatory
709:International Association of Geodesy
317:adding citations to reliable sources
288:
2329:Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory
1717:
24:
2877:Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer
2163:Northern Extended Millimeter Array
1395:Joint Institute for VLBI in Europe
513:Joint Institute for VLBI in Europe
433:Improvement of atmospheric models.
25:
3449:
3267:Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher
3214:Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope
1999:Australia Telescope Compact Array
1821:Caltech Submillimeter Observatory
1764:Very Long Baseline Interferometry
1374:
1203:Webb, Jonathan (8 January 2016).
1103:"Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA)"
740:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
406:fluctuations in the length of day
71:Very-long-baseline interferometry
18:Very long baseline interferometry
3400:
3388:
3376:
3364:
3352:
3332:Space Flight Operations Facility
3124:Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
2688:
2679:
2678:
1669:
1658:
1657:
1645:
1075:Clery, Daniel (April 10, 2019).
705:International Astronomical Union
293:
3181:Wide Field and Planetary Camera
2053:Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope
1921:UTR-2 decameter radio telescope
1225:
1196:
1125:
1095:
1068:
952:United States Naval Observatory
555:, whose goal is to observe the
436:Measurement of the fundamental
304:needs additional citations for
2153:Northern Cross Radio Telescope
1989:Atacama Large Millimeter Array
1042:
1017:
965:
940:
914:
827:
458:
402:Earth's orientation parameters
36:Atacama Large Millimeter Array
13:
1:
3261:Astrobiology Field Laboratory
714:
651:
248:{\displaystyle \epsilon _{C}}
221:{\displaystyle \epsilon _{B}}
181:the correct timing is found.
3327:Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking
3187:Wide Field Infrared Explorer
2871:Soil Moisture Active Passive
2774:Atmospheric infrared sounder
2603:Gravitational-wave astronomy
2181:Primeval Structure Telescope
701:earth orientation parameters
66:and published in April 2019.
7:
2846:Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
2515:Christiaan Alexander Muller
2381:Vermilion River Observatory
2289:Algonquin Radio Observatory
1754:Astronomical interferometer
1590:Precession of the equinoxes
1443:
1004:10.1051/0004-6361/202038368
627:European VLBI Network (EVN)
413:terrestrial reference frame
85:. In VLBI a signal from an
79:astronomical interferometry
10:
3454:
3304:Table Mountain Observatory
1855:Large Millimeter Telescope
974:Astronomy and Astrophysics
3317:
3276:
3253:
3232:
3219:Near-Earth Asteroid Scout
3201:
3130:Solar Mesosphere Explorer
2912:
2809:Large Binocular Telescope
2742:
2736:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
2674:
2611:
2573:
2427:
2392:
2279:
2244:
2143:Murchison Widefield Array
2063:Green Bank Interferometer
1971:
1887:RATAN-600 Radio Telescope
1793:
1778:
1770:Astronomical radio source
1725:
1639:
1603:
1545:
1472:
1451:
1354:10.1016/j.jog.2012.07.007
1311:10.1007/s00190-016-0950-5
856:10.1007/s00190-006-0120-2
588:
379:celestial reference frame
154:
87:astronomical radio source
3309:Solar System Ambassadors
3136:Spaceborne Imaging Radar
2353:Onsala Space Observatory
2345:Nançay Radio Observatory
2321:Jodrell Bank Observatory
2221:Very Long Baseline Array
1897:Sardinia Radio Telescope
899:10.1088/1538-3873/abcc4e
772:10.3847/2041-8213/ab0ec7
557:supermassive black holes
517:Very Long Baseline Array
269:anti-symmetric component
3294:NASA Deep Space Network
3142:Spitzer Space Telescope
3062:Mars Exploration Rovers
2853:Mars Science Laboratory
2780:Deep Space Atomic Clock
2583:Submillimetre astronomy
2195:Australia, South Africa
2047:Event Horizon Telescope
996:2020A&A...644A.159C
880:Ghaderpour, E. (2020).
820:10.1093/mnras/118.3.276
640:network and on through
553:Event Horizon Telescope
543:were linked to observe
64:Event Horizon Telescope
2859:Microwave limb sounder
2305:Green Bank Observatory
2191:Square Kilometre Array
1409:"VLBI – Canada's Role"
1334:Journal of Geodynamics
610:
575:
559:at the centers of the
360:
275:Roger Clifton Jennison
249:
222:
193:
164:
67:
55:
39:
3277:Related organizations
2598:High-energy astronomy
2485:Sebastian von Hoerner
2093:Long Wavelength Array
2039:European VLBI Network
1979:Allen Telescope Array
1879:Qitai Radio Telescope
1570:Earth's gravity field
1565:Earth's energy budget
1164:10.1109/CVPR.2016.105
1054:European Space Agency
596:
573:
509:European VLBI Network
447:as it passed through
388:toward the center of
358:
250:
223:
187:
162:
128:imaging technique by
61:
52:Mauna Kea Observatory
45:
33:
3423:Astronomical imaging
3322:JPL Science Division
3056:Mars Global Surveyor
3024:Mars Climate Orbiter
2666:Solar radio emission
2455:Jocelyn Bell Burnell
2313:Haystack Observatory
1847:Green Bank Telescope
1831:Effelsberg Telescope
1485:Computer cartography
1148:. pp. 913–922.
1142:Bouman, Katherine L.
597:Image of the source
443:The tracking of the
420:gravitational forces
313:improve this article
232:
205:
2639:Pulsar timing array
2445:Edward George Bowen
2435:Elizabeth Alexander
2297:Arecibo Observatory
2201:Submillimeter Array
2103:Low-Frequency Array
2073:Korean VLBI Network
1939:Southern Hemisphere
1850:(West Virginia, US)
1604:Related disciplines
1346:2012JGeo...61...68S
1303:2017JGeod..91..711N
928:. Paris Observatory
848:2007JGeod..81..423W
810:1958MNRAS.118..276J
763:2019ApJ...875L...1E
411:Maintenance of the
265:symmetric component
120:, or other type of
48:Submillimeter Array
2619:Aperture synthesis
2588:Infrared astronomy
2525:Joseph Lade Pawsey
2495:Kenneth Kellermann
2465:Nan Dieter-Conklin
2173:One-Mile Telescope
1952:Parkes Observatory
1652:Geodesy portal
1502:Geodetic astronomy
1291:Journal of Geodesy
1056:. January 14, 2005
836:Journal of Geodesy
611:
582:Deep Space Network
576:
377:Definition of the
361:
285:Scientific results
245:
218:
194:
165:
68:
56:
40:
3340:
3339:
3299:Goldstone Complex
3254:Canceled missions
3233:Proposed missions
3050:Mars Polar Lander
2702:
2701:
2644:Radio propagation
2593:Optical astronomy
2490:Karl Guthe Jansky
2300:(Puerto Rico, US)
2275:
2274:
2067:West Virginia, US
1816:(Puerto Rico, US)
1813:Arecibo Telescope
1685:
1684:
1181:978-1-4673-8851-1
1035:978-1-891389-85-6
356:
345:
344:
337:
122:transmission line
50:, located at the
38:radio telescopes.
16:(Redirected from
3445:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3393:
3392:
3391:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3369:
3368:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3348:
3202:Planned missions
3193:Lunar Flashlight
2804:Keck observatory
2743:Current missions
2729:
2722:
2715:
2706:
2705:
2692:
2691:
2682:
2681:
2659:HD 164595 signal
2634:Odd radio circle
2612:Related articles
2530:Ruby Payne-Scott
2460:Arthur Covington
2450:Ronald Bracewell
2420:
2412:
2404:
2385:
2376:
2366:
2357:
2349:
2341:
2333:
2325:
2317:
2309:
2301:
2293:
2267:
2257:
2236:
2226:
2216:
2211:Very Large Array
2206:
2196:
2186:
2177:
2168:
2158:
2148:
2138:
2128:
2118:
2108:
2098:
2088:
2087:Argentina/Brazil
2078:
2068:
2058:
2043:
2034:
2024:
2014:
2004:
1994:
1984:
1964:
1956:
1948:
1940:
1933:
1929:Yevpatoria RT-70
1925:
1917:
1909:
1901:
1892:
1883:
1875:
1867:
1863:Lovell Telescope
1859:
1851:
1843:
1835:
1826:
1817:
1808:
1791:
1790:
1780:Radio telescopes
1712:
1705:
1698:
1689:
1688:
1673:
1672:
1661:
1660:
1650:
1649:
1648:
1580:Gravity of Earth
1512:Gravity of Earth
1438:
1431:
1424:
1415:
1414:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1363:2060/20140005985
1329:
1323:
1322:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1263:
1254:
1253:
1247:
1239:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1157:
1138:
1132:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1113:on June 11, 2012
1109:. Archived from
1099:
1093:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1021:
1015:
1014:
989:
969:
963:
962:
960:
958:
944:
938:
937:
935:
933:
926:IERS ICRS Center
918:
912:
911:
901:
877:
868:
867:
842:(6–8): 423–431.
831:
825:
824:
822:
812:
783:
777:
776:
774:
756:
730:
623:radio telescopes
561:Milky Way Galaxy
438:speed of gravity
357:
340:
333:
329:
326:
320:
297:
289:
254:
252:
251:
246:
244:
243:
227:
225:
224:
219:
217:
216:
21:
3453:
3452:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3443:
3442:
3433:Radio astronomy
3413:
3412:
3411:
3401:
3399:
3389:
3387:
3377:
3375:
3363:
3353:
3351:
3343:
3341:
3336:
3313:
3272:
3249:
3228:
3197:
3044:Mars Pathfinder
2921:Cassini-Huygens
2908:
2888:Voyager program
2738:
2733:
2703:
2698:
2670:
2607:
2575:
2569:
2555:Gart Westerhout
2423:
2418:
2410:
2402:
2388:
2383:
2374:
2364:
2363:(PRAO ASC LPI,
2355:
2347:
2339:
2331:
2323:
2315:
2307:
2299:
2291:
2271:
2265:
2255:
2240:
2234:
2224:
2214:
2204:
2194:
2184:
2175:
2166:
2156:
2146:
2136:
2126:
2116:
2106:
2096:
2086:
2076:
2066:
2056:
2041:
2032:
2022:
2012:
2002:
1992:
1982:
1972:Interferometers
1967:
1962:
1954:
1946:
1938:
1931:
1923:
1915:
1913:Usuda Telescope
1907:
1899:
1890:
1881:
1873:
1865:
1857:
1849:
1841:
1833:
1824:
1815:
1806:
1795:
1782:
1774:
1744:Radio telescope
1721:
1719:Radio astronomy
1716:
1686:
1681:
1646:
1644:
1635:
1599:
1585:Plate tectonics
1560:Coriolis effect
1555:Chandler wobble
1547:
1541:
1468:
1447:
1442:
1377:
1372:
1371:
1330:
1326:
1287:
1283:
1273:
1271:
1264:
1257:
1244:cite conference
1241:
1240:
1230:
1226:
1217:
1215:
1201:
1197:
1182:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1126:
1116:
1114:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1086:
1084:
1073:
1069:
1059:
1057:
1048:
1047:
1043:
1036:
1022:
1018:
970:
966:
956:
954:
946:
945:
941:
931:
929:
920:
919:
915:
878:
871:
832:
828:
784:
780:
731:
722:
717:
689:
681:microarcseconds
670:radio telescope
657:carried out on
654:
591:
537:microarcseconds
461:
418:Measurement of
347:
341:
330:
324:
321:
310:
298:
287:
239:
235:
233:
230:
229:
212:
208:
206:
203:
202:
157:
141:tectonic plates
83:radio astronomy
77:) is a type of
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3451:
3441:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3428:Interferometry
3425:
3410:
3409:
3397:
3385:
3373:
3361:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3280:
3278:
3274:
3273:
3271:
3270:
3264:
3257:
3255:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3236:
3234:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3209:Europa Clipper
3205:
3203:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3195:
3190:
3184:
3178:
3173:
3166:
3164:TOPEX/Poseidon
3161:
3156:
3151:
3144:
3139:
3133:
3127:
3121:
3116:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3087:
3082:
3081:
3080:
3072:
3059:
3052:
3047:
3040:
3033:
3027:
3020:
3015:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2945:
2938:
2931:
2924:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2897:
2885:
2880:
2874:
2868:
2862:
2856:
2850:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2832:
2819:
2812:
2806:
2801:
2794:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2754:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2739:
2732:
2731:
2724:
2717:
2709:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2686:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2662:
2661:
2656:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2629:Interferometry
2626:
2621:
2615:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2579:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2510:Bernard Lovell
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2440:John G. Bolton
2437:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2413:
2408:ESA New Norcia
2405:
2396:
2394:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2378:
2368:
2358:
2350:
2342:
2334:
2326:
2318:
2310:
2302:
2294:
2285:
2283:
2277:
2276:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2269:
2259:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2228:
2218:
2215:New Mexico, US
2208:
2198:
2188:
2178:
2170:
2160:
2150:
2140:
2130:
2120:
2110:
2100:
2097:New Mexico, US
2090:
2080:
2070:
2060:
2050:
2044:
2036:
2033:California, US
2026:
2016:
2006:
1996:
1986:
1983:California, US
1975:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1957:
1949:
1947:(South Africa)
1941:
1935:
1934:
1926:
1918:
1910:
1902:
1894:
1884:
1876:
1871:Ooty Telescope
1868:
1860:
1852:
1844:
1836:
1828:
1818:
1810:
1799:
1797:
1788:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1772:
1767:
1761:
1751:
1741:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1722:
1715:
1714:
1707:
1700:
1692:
1683:
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1667:
1655:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1634:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1607:
1605:
1601:
1600:
1598:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1551:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1532:Geopositioning
1529:
1527:Remote Sensing
1524:
1522:Photogrammetry
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1493:
1492:
1487:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1455:
1453:
1449:
1448:
1441:
1440:
1433:
1426:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1376:
1375:External links
1373:
1370:
1369:
1324:
1297:(7): 711–721.
1281:
1255:
1224:
1195:
1180:
1133:
1124:
1094:
1067:
1041:
1034:
1016:
964:
939:
913:
869:
826:
803:(3): 276–284.
787:R. C. Jennison
778:
719:
718:
716:
713:
707:(IAU) and the
688:
685:
653:
650:
615:magnetic tapes
590:
587:
460:
457:
456:
455:
452:
441:
434:
431:
416:
409:
399:
396:
393:
382:
375:
372:interferometry
368:
343:
342:
301:
299:
292:
286:
283:
242:
238:
215:
211:
198:interferometer
156:
153:
130:Roger Jennison
106:interferometry
102:hydrogen maser
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3450:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3408:
3398:
3396:
3386:
3384:
3374:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3360:
3350:
3349:
3346:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3316:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3275:
3268:
3265:
3262:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3240:Europa Lander
3238:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3171:
3167:
3165:
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3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3149:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3114:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3092:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3079:
3077:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3065:
3064:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3057:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3037:Mars Observer
3034:
3031:
3030:Mars Cube One
3028:
3026:
3025:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3013:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2968:
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2963:
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2956:
2953:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2944:
2943:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2932:
2930:
2929:
2925:
2923:
2922:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2913:Past missions
2911:
2903:
2902:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2891:
2890:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2878:
2875:
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2863:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2847:
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2833:
2831:
2829:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2817:
2813:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2799:
2795:
2793:
2792:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2759:
2755:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2730:
2725:
2723:
2718:
2716:
2711:
2710:
2707:
2695:
2687:
2685:
2677:
2676:
2673:
2667:
2664:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2572:
2566:
2565:Robert Wilson
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2550:Govind Swarup
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2505:John D. Kraus
2503:
2501:
2500:Frank J. Kerr
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2480:Antony Hewish
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
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2417:
2414:
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2330:
2327:
2322:
2319:
2314:
2311:
2306:
2303:
2298:
2295:
2290:
2287:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2281:Observatories
2278:
2263:
2260:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2232:
2229:
2222:
2219:
2212:
2209:
2202:
2199:
2192:
2189:
2182:
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2114:
2111:
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2101:
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2074:
2071:
2064:
2061:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2040:
2037:
2030:
2027:
2020:
2017:
2010:
2007:
2000:
1997:
1990:
1987:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1961:
1958:
1953:
1950:
1945:
1942:
1937:
1936:
1930:
1927:
1922:
1919:
1914:
1911:
1906:
1903:
1898:
1895:
1888:
1885:
1880:
1877:
1872:
1869:
1864:
1861:
1856:
1853:
1848:
1845:
1840:
1839:Galenki RT-70
1837:
1832:
1829:
1822:
1819:
1814:
1811:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1792:
1789:
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1602:
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1581:
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1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
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1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1537:Virtual globe
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
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2574:Astronomy by
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1908:(Uzbekistan)
1763:
1748:Radio window
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362:
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322:
311:Please help
306:verification
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273:
262:
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190:Atomic clock
179:
166:
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100:, such as a
98:atomic clock
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74:
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3395:Outer space
3383:Spaceflight
3076:Opportunity
2935:Deep Impact
2654:Wow! signal
2545:Martin Ryle
2540:Grote Reber
2470:Frank Drake
2411:(Australia)
2245:Space-based
2235:Netherlands
2107:Netherlands
2077:South Korea
1955:(Australia)
1905:Suffa RT-70
1626:Mathematics
1490:Web mapping
1480:Cartography
957:6 September
932:25 December
525:Global VLBI
489:South Korea
459:VLBI arrays
54:in Hawai'i.
3417:Categories
2972:spacecraft
2838:helicopter
2576:EM methods
1796:telescopes
1794:Individual
1621:Geophysics
1517:Navigation
1464:Geodesists
1274:9 December
1218:2017-10-22
1155:1512.01413
987:2010.13625
922:"The ICRF"
754:1906.11238
715:References
652:Space VLBI
599:IRC +10420
565:Messier 87
325:March 2019
137:astrometry
3359:Astronomy
2955:Explorers
2901:Voyager 2
2894:Voyager 1
2836:Ingenuity
2822:Mars 2020
2560:Paul Wild
2393:Multi-use
2373:(SAORAS,
2147:Australia
2135:(MERLIN,
2127:Australia
2013:Australia
2003:Australia
1932:(Ukraine)
1924:(Ukraine)
1834:(Germany)
1611:Astronomy
1575:Geodynamo
1548:phenomena
1546:Physical
1507:Geomatics
1473:Subfields
1340:: 68–80.
1319:123256580
1087:April 10,
1060:March 22,
1012:225068756
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864:120880995
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501:Australia
237:ϵ
210:ϵ
168:hydrogen
114:waveguide
3154:Surveyor
3148:Stardust
3102:QuikSCAT
3012:Magellan
2991:Herschel
2785:GRACE-FO
2764:ACRIMSAT
2684:Category
2520:Jan Oort
2419:(Canada)
2403:(Canada)
2356:(Sweden)
2348:(France)
2292:(Canada)
2262:Spektr-R
2105:(LOFAR,
2085:(LLAMA,
2042:(Europe)
2031:(CARMA,
2021:(CHIME,
2011:(ASKAP,
1858:(Mexico)
1842:(Russia)
1726:Concepts
1664:Category
1452:Overview
1381:E-MERLIN
1213:BBC News
980:: A159,
892:: 1019.
789:(1958).
677:Spektr-R
659:Salyut-6
545:hydroxyl
533:Spektr-R
505:Thailand
81:used in
3438:Geodesy
3345:Portals
3289:Caltech
3269:(MAX-C)
3245:FINESSE
3224:SPHEREx
3170:Ulysses
3113:Rosetta
3097:Pioneer
3091:Phoenix
3032:(MarCO)
3018:Mariner
3001:Jason-1
2980:Genesis
2966:Galileo
2791:InSight
2694:Commons
2233:(WSRT,
2223:(VLBA,
2183:(PaST,
2125:(MOST,
2113:MeerKAT
2055:(GMRT,
2001:(ATCA,
1991:(ALMA,
1944:HartRAO
1916:(Japan)
1900:(Italy)
1882:(China)
1874:(India)
1805:(FAST,
1758:History
1732:Units (
1676:Commons
1631:Physics
1616:Geology
1459:History
1445:Geodesy
1342:Bibcode
1299:Bibcode
1209:bbc.com
1190:9085016
1117:May 30,
1081:Science
992:Bibcode
844:Bibcode
805:Bibcode
759:Bibcode
711:(IAG).
642:SURFnet
625:of the
521:geodesy
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422:of the
267:and an
149:quasars
145:geodesy
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3183:(WFPC)
3176:Viking
3126:(SRTM)
3119:Seasat
3107:Ranger
3068:Spirit
3006:Kepler
2873:(SMAP)
2867:(MISR)
2776:(AIRS)
2758:Psyche
2751:Euclid
2428:People
2375:Russia
2365:Russia
2266:Russia
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2193:(SKA,
2167:France
2145:(MWA,
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2065:(GBI,
2023:Canada
1981:(ATA,
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638:GÉANT2
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469:Canada
465:Europe
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155:Method
91:quasar
3371:Stars
3263:(AFL)
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3138:(SIR)
3132:(SME)
3085:NSCAT
3078:rover
3070:rover
2986:GRACE
2960:GALEX
2879:(TES)
2861:(MLS)
2855:(MSL)
2849:(MRO)
2830:rover
2811:(LBT)
2769:ASTER
2256:Japan
2252:HALCA
2185:China
2157:Italy
2057:India
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1993:Chile
1807:China
1315:S2CID
1186:S2CID
1150:arXiv
1008:S2CID
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2649:SETI
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2400:DRAO
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2340:(US)
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1785:List
1736:and
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