Age of Enlightenment

8203:, the man in charge of the French censor. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers. The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice. In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority"), demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon and are largely forgotten today as a result. 8669:

critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France. More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated—and won—the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49—perhaps a small number by modern standards but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.

8653:, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens." Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13%). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people." For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of 8891:

cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right." Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.

7150: 5680:, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge, in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. Some societies created or retained links to universities, but contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state to provide technical expertise. 8620: 8499:

learning. The new literate population was precipitated by a high rise in the availability of food; this enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people." As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Newton's celebrated

6773: 7855:, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern," and that argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is 8318: 6540: 8722:

and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If the different classes joined together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of the numbers of their members might be able to successfully revolt. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially matters of foreign affairs. Rulers thought political affairs were their business only, a result of their divine right to rule.

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performers' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers began to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.

7897:: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century." Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas." 7200: 24399: 8123: 7541:, its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future." Thomas adds that its detractors accuse it of shallow rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism, and moral darkness. From the start, conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the 8299:, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market—such as Danish, Spanish, and Portuguese—found journal success more difficult, and a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the 5395: 7927: 5985:, liberty, and property. However, when one citizen breaks the law of nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts. In contrast, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with 7461: 8726:

Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, many were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including the educated wealthy and bourgeois as well as the lower classes. Patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, represented almost all classes, so the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who wanted to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse said that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to

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ideals of fraternity, which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs, but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden, and Russia. One example was the

8000: 8353:. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the latter half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution. Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions. 6317:

far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle observed that, in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of ," and he believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions."

8607:: the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination, and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance. 8277: 6138: 7608: 8686:

is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act" and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants." Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area and a witness's "moral constitution." In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.

5578: 8045: 6361: 4927: 6477:, the 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy characterised by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and the commercialisation of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling. In the high culture important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of publishing. All the trends were discussed in depth at the newly established 33: 6606:

accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states. The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural, and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.

6884: 6681:, new works and experimental productions, and the concept of a national theatre. Herder argued that every group of people had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny. 3417: 6703:, Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom, and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought—and indeed all of European philosophy—well into the 20th century. German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats, and the middle classes, and it permanently reshaped the culture. However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far. 6610: 21429: 8854:, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. Norman Davies said Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded during the Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists, and political activists. 8839: 3405: 23126: 22142: 15998: 8639: 6089: 10568:"Recognized in Europe as the author of the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson quickly became a focal point or lightning rod for revolutionaries in Europe and the Americas. As United States minister to France when revolutionary fervor was rising toward the storming of the Bastille in 1789, Jefferson became an ardent supporter of the French Revolution, even allowing his residence to be used as a meeting place for the rebels led by Lafayette." 1799: 8409: 8611:

ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and later the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical school also led the way in chemistry, anatomy, and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.

8214:, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law. However, many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany, and North America indicate that more than 70% of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1% of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity. 82: 7863: 6505:, the principles of sociability, equality, and utility were disseminated in schools and universities, many of which used sophisticated teaching methods which blended philosophy with daily life. Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as schools, universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums, and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal 8178: 24411: 1723: 3481: 8223: 6216: 5744: 1735: 8268:) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of the upper class. In this way, natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works. 7275: 7828: 4939: 4910: 6235:. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the 23136: 5907: 8507: 8309:

objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments, and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian Enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.

6485: 96: 12098:... arises out of the claim of man to a ... self-supported, unshakeable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty. Why and how does this claim acquire its decisive authority? The claim originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself. 7819:

rational, and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.

8337:. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology. 6182:." In this view, the revolutions were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully and therefore violent revolution was the result. A governance philosophy where the king was never wrong would be in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government. 8527:(1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's 6557:

the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of

6509:, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment." In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization." The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of 6838:(1766) was a controversial attempt to mediate between the history of moral philosophy on the one hand and the specific problems encountered by 18th-century commercial society on the other. It contained the greater part of Genovesi's political, philosophical, and economic thought, which became a guidebook for Neapolitan economic and social development. 8037:

written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public," then society could be said to be enlightened. The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's

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journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes." Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the

6000:, wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn." Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the U.S. Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's 6707:

so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.

11838: 6964:; and established public education starting with primary school through university as well as freedom of expression. The constitution was in effect from 1812 until 1814, when Napoleon was defeated and Ferdinand was restored to the throne of Spain. Upon his return, Ferdinand repudiated the constitution and reestablished absolutist rule. 8138:. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total. 20898: 5462:, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith, and, second, the Radical Enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority. The moderate variety tended to be 8894:

The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Catholic Church so in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even

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Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections, and representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative

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One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific

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The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power. It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation." Kant considered

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In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion" that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity or the Bible. The goal was to avoid theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but

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were all quite conservative and supportive of the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded such that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration, positions which intellectuals on the

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from Outram, 19. See Rolf Engelsing, "Die Perioden der Lesergeschichte in der Neuzeit. Das statische Ausmass und die soziokulturelle Bedeutung der Lektüre," Archiv für Geschichte des Buchwesens, 10 (1969), cols. 944–1002 and Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500–1800 (Stuttgart,

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and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. However, by roughly 1725 this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and

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The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's

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Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation, and instead promoted the Enlightened ideals of toleration and intellectual

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France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology, and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology.

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represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would

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The salon was the principal social institution of the republic and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of potentially unruly discourse" that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of

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and natural sciences makes it hard to circumscribe a Scientific Revolution. Storm defends his categorization of the Enlightenment as "myth" by noting the regulative role ideas of a period of Enlightenment and disenchantment play in modern Western culture, such that belief in magic, spiritualism, and

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In recent years, scholars have expanded the time span and global perspective of the Enlightenment by examining: (1) how European intellectuals did not work alone and other people helped spread and adapt Enlightenment ideas, (2) how Enlightenment ideas were "a response to cross-border interaction and

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forms the pinnacle. In 1783, Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason. Kant called Enlightenment "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage," tutelage being "man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another."

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Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during

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Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at

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In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the

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Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members and the administration of the society. In the 18th century, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over 70 official scientific

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The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities," offering a locus of learning that was less formal than at structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life,

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around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate" and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This

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Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England's John Locke and Switzerland's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the

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The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge." The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's

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In the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic ... there exists a certain realm which holds sway only over the mind ... that we honor with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence, and

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As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur

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In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European

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and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th-century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Although many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues that by the 18th century the

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argues that the reasons for this neglect were the assumptions that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and that it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order. Porter admits that after the 1720s England could claim thinkers to equal

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and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined; that is, since atheists gave themselves to no supreme authority and no law and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were

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It does not require great art or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we

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proposed the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power." This

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The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice—in

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on the basis that enslaving oneself goes against the law of nature because a person cannot surrender their own rights: freedom is absolute, and no one can take it away. Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying

8887:"initiate the unenlightened." This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe. 8865:

and spread to England and then across the Continent in the 18th century. They fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability—"liberty, fraternity, and equality." Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent

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were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class

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Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala, and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose

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The target audience of natural history was French upper class, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to upper class desire for erudition: many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was

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two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained,

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the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude." Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.

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have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian,

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which destroyed a large part of Lisbon, the Marquis of Pombal implemented important economic policies to regulate commercial activity (in particular with Brazil and England), and to standardise quality throughout the country (for example by introducing the first integrated industries in Portugal).

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The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of

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when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, as well as the

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became the center of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. After the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, the relationship between church and the absolutist government was very strong. The early enlightenment emerged in protest to these circumstances, gaining

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German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges." Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and

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As an Encyclopédie, it is to set forth as well as possible the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art, liberal or mechanical, and the

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It is difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries and also ignores censored works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this

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The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers, and

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constitutes a myth. Storm points out that there are vastly different and mutually contradictory periodizations of the Enlightenment depending on nation, field of study, and school of thought; that the term and category of "Enlightenment" referring to the Scientific Revolution was actually applied

6372:

The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries and influenced nations globally, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism, while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes, where it expressed a

6335:

The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that is often credited to Locke. According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people

10891:

containing the history of the most illustrious persons of all ages and nations particularly those of Great Britain and Ireland, distinguished by their rank, actions, learning and other accomplishments. With reflections on such passages of Bayle, as seem to favor scepticism and the Manichee system

8820:

issues, debated primarily to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority." After Enlightenment, everything that previously had been rooted in tradition was questioned, and often replaced by new concepts. After the second half of the 17th

8145:

Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read "extensively," finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them alone. This is supported by increasing literacy

7809:

In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary, and Russia.

5624:

Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought.

8725:

Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, from philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery.

7922:

Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts. Emphasis on learning, art, and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject

11975:

Outram, 1. The past tense is used deliberately as whether man would educate himself or be educated by certain exemplary figures was a common issue at the time. D'Alembert's introduction to l'Encyclopédie, for example, along with Immanuel Kant's essay response (the "independent thinkers"), both

8264:

often a political affair. As Emma Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social." The idea of taste (

8154:

a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the

7684:

historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that

7164:

In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in

6920:

in which regions could trade with companies sailing from any other Spanish port, rather than the restrictive mercantile system. The crown sent out scientific expeditions to assert Spanish sovereignty over territories it claimed but did not control, but also importantly to discover the economic

6038:

argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject that the subject tacitly consents, and Hume says that the subjects would "never

8886:

exiles. Furthermore, freemasons across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to

8882:

model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English

8857:

During the Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain, France, and other places. Freemasonry as a

8576:

was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular

7663:

saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development which began in antiquity and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic

6605:

Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became

8829:

From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside,

8753:

who conducted their research on some of the premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far

7046:), methodically organized to facilitate commerce and exchange (for example by assigning to each street a different product or service), can be seen as a direct application of the Enlightenment ideas to governance and urbanism. His urbanistic ideas, also being the first large-scale example of 10890:

A general dictionary: historical and critical: in which a new and accurate translation of that of the celebrated Mr. Bayle, with the corrections and observations printed in the late edition at Paris, is included; and interspersed with several thousand lives never before published. The whole

8808:

In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more "genteel" rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability. The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution." The debating societies were

6381:

A common theme among most countries which derived Enlightenment ideas from Europe was the intentional non-inclusion of Enlightenment philosophies pertaining to slavery. Originally during the French Revolution, a revolution deeply inspired by Enlightenment philosophy, "France's revolutionary

7300:

Eighteenth-century China experienced "a trend towards seeing fewer dragons and miracles, not unlike the disenchantment that began to spread across the Europe of the Enlightenment." Furthermore, "some of the developments that we associate with Europe's Enlightenment resemble events in China

6247:, published his "Essay concerning the Use of Reason in Propositions the Evidence whereof depends on Human Testimony" (1707), in which he rejects the distinction between "above reason" and "contrary to reason," and demands that revelation should conform to man's natural ideas of God. In the 6308:, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note: "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of 7238:, but was unable to defend itself against powerful neighbors Russia, Prussia, and Austria as they repeatedly sliced off regions until nothing was left of independent Poland. The Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–40s and especially in theatre and the arts peaked in the reign of King 8149:

The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the

7956:(published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was 8761:

was established in Paris in 1686, and by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the

6193:

from the political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power."

6343:

and the drafting of the United States Constitution. In a letter to the Danbury Baptist Association in Connecticut, Thomas Jefferson calls for a "wall of separation between church and state" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the

13532:

Yale University Press, 1985 p. 437–440. Pope, a Catholic, was a Freemason in 1730, eight years before membership was prohibited by the Catholic Church (1738). Pope's name is on the membership list of the Goat Tavern Lodge (p. 439). Pope's name appears on a 1723 list and a 1730

13287:(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 5, 56, 57. This same desire for multiple witnesses led to attempts at replication in other locations and a complex iconography and literary technology developed to provide visual and written proof of experimentation. See pp. 59–65. 8824:

In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. However, the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government; the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the

7886:, as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions, and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the 7900:

The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity—the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people:

6382:

government had denounced slavery, but the property-holding 'revolutionaries' then remembered their bank accounts." Slavery frequently showed the limitations of the Enlightenment ideology as it pertained to European colonialism, since many colonies of Europe operated on a

7002:

The revolution combined Enlightenment ideas with the experiences of the slaves in Haiti, two-thirds of whom had been born in Africa and could "draw on specific notions of kingdom and just government from West and Central Africa, and to employ religious practices such as

8083:, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors." These men came to London to become authors only to discover that the literary market could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling 20192: 9146: 6377:

fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government, for the most part, ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.

22278: 7529:, who had indicted the Islamic religion, with his own version of the Enlightenment, which "was not a poor copy of French debates in the eighteenth century, but an original position responding to the exigencies of Ottoman society in the late nineteenth century." 7553:

portrays it as a grand intellectual and political program, offering a "science" of society modeled on the powerful physical laws of Newton. "Social science" was seen as the instrument of human improvement. It would expose truth and expand human happiness.

7890:. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the king's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings. 10524:"Enlightenment ideals of rationalism and intellectual and religious freedom pervaded the American colonial religious landscape, and these values were instrumental in the American Revolution and the creation of a nation without an established religion." 21633: 6647:(The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science, and literature. Christian Wolff was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language. 20238: 8195:

reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits. Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. For example, the

7140:

forced the return of the royal family to Portugal. The terms by which the restored king was to rule was a constitutional monarchy under the Constitution of Portugal. Brazil declared its independence of Portugal in 1822 and became a monarchy.

20226: 6804:

were active under the tolerant King Charles of Bourbon. However, the Neapolitan Enlightenment, like Vico's philosophy, remained almost always in the theoretical field. Only later, many Enlighteners animated the unfortunate experience of the

8109:

was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. According to Darnton, more importantly the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the

5948:

in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual, the natural equality of all men, the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between

5149:. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and religious officials and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism, 6150:

his palace. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."

8821:

century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in" and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity."

6117:

and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors, and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers

7685:

eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition, and authority."

7964:(1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, 6665:) was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath 8676:

of London played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The society played a large role in spreading

7771:

Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster

7548:

Romantic philosophers argued that the Enlightenment's excessive dependence on reason was a mistake that it perpetuated, disregarding the bonds of history, myth, faith, and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.

7165:

fostering the arts, sciences and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and in residence world class scientists such as

20623: 5857:

to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by scholars and has been reinforced by the large-scale studies by

7652:

called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self-confidence and self-consciousness." According to historian

5593:

and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to shape German thought and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century.

8664:(roughly translated as "academic contests") they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the 8489:

in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.

7478:

further encouraged "social transformations that harkened back to debates about inner-Islamic reform, but now were also legitimized by referring to the authority of the Enlightenment." A major intellectual influence on

5711:. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science. The century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological 20865: 8344:

has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment." For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and

8068:

the Old Regime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.

7878:. The modern nation state in its consolidation of public power created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's 5722:

The influence of science began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics.

8899:

were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.

8332:

Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century

7245:

Warsaw was a main centre after 1750, with an expansion of schools and educational institutions and the arts patronage held at the Royal Castle. Leaders promoted tolerance and more education. They included King

21628: 6336:

could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.

7371:

In Japan and much of East Asia, Confucian ideas were not replaced but "ideas associated with the Enlightenment were instead fused with the existing cosmology—which in turn was refashioned under conditions of

6976:

began in 1791 and ended in 1804 and shows how Enlightenment ideas "were part of complex transcultural flows." Radical ideas in Paris during and after the French Revolution were mobilized in Haiti, such as by

6057:, which are not a result of law or custom but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from Locke's 8453:

rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well-known of these works is Diderot and d'Alembert's

20214: 7936:

As musicians depended more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience.

5640:

Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of

6577:. There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles, and biblical theology. Leading deists included Thomas Paine in 22347: 7173:. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of 8260:

As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.

6039:

imagine that their consent made him sovereign," rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767

645: 6281:

advised affording no political weight to any organized religion but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. They believed a good religion based in instinctive

5172:

and the power of religious authorities. The Enlightenment was marked by an increasing awareness of the relationship between the mind and the everyday media of the world, and by an emphasis on the

21784: 21424: 20893: 6285:

and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.

5804:

often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century. It was immediately preceded and influenced by

5673:. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally: Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. 8090:

The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the

8239:

A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include

6470:

continent had to fight against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment.

7412:

who popularized the term Enlightenment throughout Korea. The use of Enlightenment ideas was a "response to a specific situation in Korea in the 1890s, and not a belated answer to Voltaire."

21824: 20011: 21000: 5996:

Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty, and Property," and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke,

22842: 22217: 5989:

is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the

2983: 6643:

Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural, and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the

22229: 5566:(the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by Hutcheson's protégés in 6731:

facing opposition. Joseph II carried out numerous reforms in the spirit of the Enlightenment, which affected, for example, the school system, monasteries and the legal system. Emperor

20209: 6446:, a term describing those who stood in opposition to the institution of the Church, and the literal belief in the Bible, can be said to have begun in England no later than 1713, when 3690: 22273: 8503:

was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.

7693:

There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, though several historians and philosophers argue that it was marked by Descartes' 1637 philosophy of

8340:

Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. Commenting on alphabetization, the historian

21942: 20995: 20628: 20187: 13747:

Jacob, 139. See also Janet M. Burke, "Freemasonry, Friendship and Noblewomen: The Role of the Secret Society in Bringing Enlightenment Thought to Pre-Revolutionary Women Elites,"

20910: 7941:, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of 6373:

spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the

24187: 22427: 22403: 22371: 22261: 7360:

singled out as the driving force behind Western capitalism." Japanese Confucian and Enlightenment ideas were brought together, for example, in the work of the Japanese reformer

7185:

which combined religious piety, erudition, and commitment to the spread of learning. However, it lacked the skeptical and critical spirit of the Western European Enlightenment.

5518:

The philosophical movement was led by Voltaire and Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on

22415: 22310: 10027: 8473:

desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the

8385: 21014: 20611: 15682: 7026: 6119: 6093: 9255: 22474: 19979: 8812:

The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional"—that is, Catholic,

21743: 20320: 7870:

showed his disgust for slavery and often criticized the colonial policies—he always acted out of a deeply humanistic conviction, borne by the ideas of the Enlightenment.

7631:

Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took.

7562:

The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the latter part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term

8517:

The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was

22656: 20175: 6929:

free rein to travel in Spanish America, usually closed to foreigners, and more importantly, access to crown officials to aid the success of his scientific expedition.

5106:(1687) as the culmination of the Scientific Revolution and the beginning of the Enlightenment. European historians traditionally dated its beginning with the death of 5536:

of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the

24076: 22702: 22469: 21887: 19509: 8206:

A healthy, legal publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. For example, the

8305:

of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.

6402:, broke out. European nations and the United States, despite the strong support for Enlightenment ideals, refused to " to Saint-Domingue's anti-colonial struggle." 23173: 20635: 20525: 20233: 20025: 13694: 8450: 8634:

in 1671: "It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century, introducing a new understanding of the natural world"—Peter Barrett

8556:

published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Writing for a growing female audience,

7474:

Eighteenth-century Egypt had "a form of 'cultural revival' in the making—specifically Islamic origins of modernization long before Napoleon's Egyptian campaign."

22684: 21407: 18677: 8943: 7648:"For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance." The German scholar 6273:

and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g., disregarding

5810: 5317: 8600:

late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American Revolution and the French Revolution.

7388:

exchange." By the 1880s, the slogan "Civilization and Enlightenment" became potent throughout Japan, China, and Korea and was employed to address challenges of

24383: 24378: 22479: 20592: 20443: 20426: 10606: 6352:. Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of Locke, Bacon, and Newton, whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived. 9527: 22976: 21542: 7007:

for the formation of revolutionary communities." The revolution also affected France and "forced the French National Convention to abolish slavery in 1794."

5090:

in 1637, with his method of systematically disbelieving everything unless there was a well-founded reason for accepting it, and featuring his famous dictum,

21769: 7078: 20687: 19900: 18667: 9880: 7996:

spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new.

7604:(German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late 19th century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment." 7525:, drew on major Enlightenment thinkers and "a variety of intellectual resources in his quest for social and political reform." In 1893, Kemal responded to 6166:

of 1789—both had some intellectual influence from Thomas Jefferson. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "

5957:" and based on the consent of the people, and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid. 5604:

philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work

5498:

Bayle only partially accepted the philosophy and principles of rationality. He did draw a strict boundary between morality and religion. The rigor of his

22454: 21981: 21592: 21468: 19670: 16339: 8713: 6823:(famous philosophers and writers, as well as their brother Giovanni), who also gave life to the Accademia dei Pugni, founded in 1761. Minor centers were 6478: 6330: 6001: 2747: 21033: 6735:, who was an early opponent of capital punishment, had a brief and contentious rule that was mostly marked by relations with France. Similarly, Emperor 23727: 23207: 20978: 18542: 6339:

These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the

21050: 8745:

a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, to both entertain and provoke discussion on serious philosophical matters.

8160:

offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals, and sometimes even popular novels to their customers.

6853:

states he was "the most important pre-Smithian authority on Cheapness-and-Plenty." The most influential scholar on the Italian Enlightenment has been

6450:

wrote his "Discourse of Free-thinking," which gained substantial popularity. This essay attacked the clergy of all churches and was a plea for deism.

5973:

respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the

24102: 22970: 21258: 21038: 14612:

Navarro i Soriano, Ferran (2019). Harca, harca, harca! Músiques per a la recreació històrica de la Guerra de Successió (1794–1715). Editorial DENES.

10967:

to translate the demand for liberty of conscience into a systematic argument for distinguishing the realm of government from the realm of religion.")

5778:, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of 5466:

whereas the radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a conservative

9096: 8200: 7082: 5890:

visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia;

24177: 22982: 22459: 22352: 22315: 22116: 20905: 8924:. This can especially be seen in early American art and architecture, which featured arches, goddesses, and other classical architectural designs. 8809:

commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators per night.

8436:

and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry and

8101:"slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself." 7588:=to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like 5562:

principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers." Much of what is incorporated in the

6916:. The monarchy curtailed the power of the Catholic Church, and established a standing military in Spanish America. Freer trade was promoted under 6034:

Although much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, Hume and Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay

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in 1789. Many historians now date the end of the Enlightenment as the start of the 19th century, with the latest proposed year being the death of

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De Vos, Paula S. "Research, Development, and Empire: State Support of Science in Spain and Spanish America, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries,"

8908:

The art produced during the Enlightenment focused on a search for morality that was absent from the art in previous eras. At the same time, the

7980:(1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment." 7874:

The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of

22509: 22093: 22005: 20313: 18682: 16560: 15062: 14800: 11853: 5997: 4738: 1333: 15173: 7705: 7657:, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance, is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture. 7572:

in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question:

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Beccaria, a jurist, criminologist, philosopher, and politician and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece

2772: 2742: 144: 9847: 7254:, Josef Niemcewicz, and Jósef Pawlinkowski, as well as Baudouin de Cortenay, a Polonized dramatist. Opponents included Florian Jaroszewicz, 7054:, and were implemented throughout the kingdom during his stay in office. His governance was as enlightened as ruthless, see for example the 23166: 21669: 20274: 18052: 10906: 7725:

until the French Revolution. Most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution or the beginning of the

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was promulgated, which included representation from Spain's overseas components, but most Spaniards rejected the whole Napoleonic project.

3447: 2824: 1765: 582: 10212: 7737:," and (3) how the Enlightenment "continued throughout the nineteenth century and beyond." The Enlightenment "was not merely a history of 23760: 23253: 22591: 22197: 21866: 21568: 21019: 20493: 16963: 16550: 5315:

helped in spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other publications of the Enlightenment included Berkeley's

4969: 12191: 8870:, founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement. The name itself translates to " 5439:(1690) and Hume's writings in the 1740s. His dualism was challenged by Spinoza's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his 24142: 23441: 22776: 22444: 22398: 22037: 21334: 20586: 20037: 9924: 9092: 7133: 5866:, and, most recently, by Jonathan Israel. Enlightenment thought was deeply influential in the political realm. European rulers such as 5853:

The Enlightenment has long been seen as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment brought

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were reunited and discussed old, actual, or new ideas. This led to salons being the birthplace of intellectual and enlightened ideas.

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centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life. A powerful element was

7114: 6952:(parliament) was convened to rule Spain in the absence of the legitimate monarch, Ferdinand. It created a new governing document, the 22393: 22388: 22083: 20753: 18622: 9056: 5895: 2777: 1897: 22285: 20016: 11554:

Michael J. Sauter, "The Enlightenment on trial: state service and social discipline in eighteenth-century Germany's public sphere."

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to promote the values of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.

8367:

Harris' book avoids theological and biographical entries and instead concentrates on science and technology. Published in 1704, the

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provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge—of which the

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Clubs of fifty or more men who, at the beginning of the 18th century, met in pubs to discuss religious issues and affairs of state.

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Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a

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Freemasonry on both sides of the Atlantic: essays concerning the craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico

13221:

Jeremy L. Caradonna, "Prendre part au siècle des Lumières: Le concours académique et la culture intellectuelle au XVIIIe siècle,"

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society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment.

7448:

was a reformer who "fused different traditions in his project of social reform that made him a proponent of a 'religion of reason.

5821:(1764), later translated into 22 languages, which condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of 23159: 22847: 22322: 21829: 21664: 21478: 21402: 20990: 20091: 17536: 16659: 16112: 14835: 11370: 8975: 8850:

was a main factor in the Enlightenment. Leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire,

6792:: in both cities the intellectuals took public office and collaborated with the Bourbon and Habsburg administrations. In Naples, 6239:. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. 5435: 3636: 2757: 21844: 20860: 9154: 6304:

with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his

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to be considered influenced by the Enlightenment in some areas, was marked by a mix of enlightenment and conservatism. Her son

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Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the

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Schmidt, James (2003). "Inventing the Enlightenment: Anti-Jacobins, British Hegelians, and the 'Oxford English Dictionary'".

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and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral, and religious authority in France.

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Richard Butterwick, "What is Enlightenment (oświecenie)? Some Polish Answers, 1765–1820." Central Europe 3.1 (2005): 19–37.

9158: 6809:. In Milan, however, the movement strove to find concrete solutions to problems. The center of discussions was the magazine 5458:, these laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: first, the moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke, and 24461: 23399: 23295: 22927: 22771: 22539: 22078: 22047: 21517: 21448: 21164: 21100: 21078: 20759: 20002: 19282: 14773: 14243: 8481:

and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the

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matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.

6023:, and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the 5606: 3117: 2978: 2926: 2921: 761: 20030: 6956:, which laid out three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial; put limits on the king by creating a 24261: 24159: 24046: 22057: 21835: 21713: 21703: 21493: 21339: 21174: 20376: 20106: 20056: 18798: 17478: 16909: 14998: 14764: 14743: 8830:

spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.

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and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.

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illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion," born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the

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Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a

7741:" and "was the work of historical actors around the world... who invoked the term... for their own specific purposes." 7475: 7227: 6570: 5522:, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a 3157: 3055: 3003: 2941: 2936: 2874: 21412: 13306:

Klein, Lawrence E. (1 January 1996). "Coffeehouse Civility, 1660–1714: An Aspect of Post-Courtly Culture in England".

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However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the Age of Enlightenment were

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The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian

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From Naples, Genovesi influenced a generation of southern Italian intellectuals and university students. His textbook

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was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial

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In literature, the first Enlightenment ideas in Portugal can be traced back to the diplomat, philosopher, and writer

5782:. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement, and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced 5527: 3780: 3162: 2787: 2542: 1260: 21576: 20559: 9060: 5417:

philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. Descartes' attempt to construct the sciences on a secure

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Jeremy Black, "Ancien Regime and Enlightenment. Some Recent Writing on Seventeenth-and Eighteenth-Century Europe,"

9531: 8730:, receiving all types of animals, clean and unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism, when 8424:

In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The

7952:

The desire to explore, record, and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Rousseau's

5845:(Considerations on the Criminal Trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law. 4874: 4731: 3440: 3197: 1758: 713: 575: 549: 52: 21698: 21644: 21505: 20064: 19905: 9112: 7094: 23697: 23621: 23241: 23219: 23139: 22561: 21604: 21586: 21419: 21110: 20079: 19932: 19462: 19080: 18657: 18592: 17637: 17488: 17091: 16956: 16899: 16185: 15893: 15218: 9134: 8518: 7408:. Korea was influenced by China and Japan but also found its own Enlightenment path with the Korean intellectual 6566: 6134:

among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.

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as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the

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had consequences for the Portuguese monarchy. With the aid of the British navy, the Portuguese royal family was

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penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton," which mourned the loss of Newton and praised his science and legacy.

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emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as

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argues that any idea of the Age of Enlightenment as a clearly defined period that is separate from the earlier

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Colum Leckey, "What is Prosveshchenie? Nikolai Novikov's Historical Dictionary of Russian Writers Revisited."

11597:

On the caoncept of 'felicitas publica' in Eighteenth-Century political economy, in History of economic thought

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more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25,000 copies of the

7893:

The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the

7105:. The ideas of the Enlightenment influenced various economists and anti-colonial intellectuals throughout the 4994:) was the intellectual and philosophical movement that occurred in Europe in the 17th and the 18th centuries. 24446: 24436: 24231: 23810: 23785: 23394: 22837: 22805: 22728: 22534: 21561: 21453: 21327: 20448: 20371: 20325: 19020: 18001: 17483: 17392: 16873: 16835: 16711: 16699: 16501: 16465: 16001: 15430: 15077: 14786: 10234: 9281: 9100: 9020: 8603:

The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries, was

8126: 7832: 7262:(1795) – a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing – and ended in 1822, replaced by 7136:, its most important colony. Even though Napoleon had been defeated, the royal court remained in Brazil. The 6724: 6447: 6365: 6254:

Thomas Jefferson went further and dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels, and the

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William Clark, Jan Golinski, and Steven Schaffer, eds. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 281–82.

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The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment. Their origins include:

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potential of its far-flung empire. Botanical expeditions sought plants that could be of use to the empire.

6887: 6849:

made break-through discoveries in electricity. Pietro Verri was a leading economist in Lombardy. Historian

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were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.

8079:) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, 7464: 4688: 24236: 23606: 23379: 23099: 22932: 22798: 22690: 22668: 21871: 21839: 21789: 21597: 21547: 21438: 21179: 20941: 20817: 20811: 20792: 19997: 19826: 19709: 19256: 18018: 17529: 17442: 17437: 17053: 16486: 16417: 16361: 15395: 15243: 11543:

The Problem of Being Modern, or the German Pursuit of Enlightenment from Leibniz to the French Revolution

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Bullock, Steven C. (1996). "Initiating the Enlightenment?: Recent Scholarship on European Freemasonry".

13372:

Darnton, Robert (2000). "An Early Information Society: News and the Media in Eighteenth-Century Paris".

11651:

Anna Maria Rao, "Enlightenment and reform: an overview of culture and politics in Enlightenment Italy."

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which is the Confucian idea of "order and harmony on human society" also came to represent "the idea of

5894:

closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the

4997:

The Enlightenment featured a range of social ideas centered on the value of knowledge learned by way of

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The Scottish enlightenment and the challenges for Europe in the 21st century; climate change and energy

9733:

The Roots of Enlightenment: A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF THE AGE OF REASON IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY EUROPE

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in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and

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basis from external authority to internal certainty. In France, many cited the publication of Newton's

7632: 7203: 7137: 7122: 7004: 6961: 6666: 6637: 6539: 6142: 6131: 6127: 6123: 5805: 5759: 5335: 5308: 4955: 4743: 4628: 4170: 3147: 2812: 2597: 2279: 2124: 1579: 1095: 482: 21976: 20924: 20855: 20745: 15278: 15228: 11183: 9865: 9170: 9008: 8442: 7906: 7118: 24506: 24304: 24006: 23317: 23044: 22954: 22300: 20652: 20133: 19675: 19504: 19156: 18537: 18497: 17938: 17468: 17222: 17183: 16868: 16823: 16617: 15385: 15092: 15013: 8783: 8346: 7623:, in the top center, is surrounded by light and unveiled by the figures to the right, Philosophy and 7259: 7199: 6596: 5771: 5359: 5243: 5026: 4836: 4508: 3651: 3631: 3258: 3152: 2762: 2552: 2232: 2218: 1353: 1040: 296: 42: 21043: 11850: 9198: 9016: 7611:

If there is something you know, communicate it. If there is something you don't know, search for it.

7085:

in 1790 until 1794) surfaced in the academic medium, in particular involving former students of the

5490:

the philosophical movement of the Enlightenment had already started by the early 18th century, when

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The Society of the Enlightenment: The Rise of the Middle Class and Enlightenment Culture in Germany

9068: 8851: 8428:(1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. 8092: 8059:

Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment because of the role they played as

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Movements, Currents, Trends: Aspects of European Thought in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

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Margaret C. Jacob, "Polite worlds of Enlightenment," in Martin Fitzpatrick and Peter Jones, eds.

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tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as

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A Revolution of the Mind: Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy

13822: 11826: 6857:. Italy also produced some of the Enlightenment's greatest legal theorists, including Beccaria, 2429: 24226: 24112: 23825: 22863: 22815: 22810: 21779: 21733: 21582: 21088: 20542: 20515: 20485: 20349: 20296: 20113: 19989: 19884: 19724: 19719: 19577: 19543: 19531: 19526: 19489: 19439: 19297: 19277: 18963: 18908: 18587: 18577: 18166: 18097: 18082: 17563: 17522: 17297: 17126: 16649: 16565: 16373: 16180: 15938: 15840: 15797: 15656: 15537: 14944: 14889: 12170: 11740: 9467:

Bristow, William (29 August 2017). "Enlightenment". In Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.).

8970: 8954: 8801: 8122: 7938: 7930: 7867: 7798: 7047: 7034: 6933: 6926: 6874: 6862: 6534: 6502: 6395: 6114: 6083: 5898:; and Madison incorporated these ideals into the U.S. Constitution during its framing in 1787. 5879: 5834: 5755: 5551: 5394: 5323: 5180:, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy—an attitude captured by Kant's essay 4781: 4125: 3887: 3723: 3621: 3611: 3263: 3239: 3207: 3177: 3142: 3137: 3112: 2973: 2891: 2767: 2737: 1962: 1672: 1549: 1343: 1202: 1133: 1020: 978: 725: 539: 492: 457: 205: 185: 121: 22342: 20597: 14660:(1969) excerpt and text search Collaborative Translation Project of the University of Michigan 14651:

Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind

14570:

Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind

13133:

The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800

12814:

The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800

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Casini, Paolo (January 1988). "Newton's Principia and the Philosophers of the Enlightenment".

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the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:

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Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in

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Burrows, Simon. (2013) "In Search of Enlightenment: From Mapping Books to Cultural History."

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of Greece and Rome became interesting to people again, since archaeological teams discovered

8531:(1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie [ 8511: 8162: 7926: 7894: 7789: 7777: 7404:" but became awakened to Enlightenment ideas by the 1890s such as with the activities of the 7353: 7301:

remarkably." During this time, ideals of Chinese society were reflected in "the reign of the

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Maciej Janowski, "Warsaw and Its Intelligentsia: Urban Space and Social Change, 1750–1831."

11228:

Reading the Scottish Enlightenment Books and Their Readers in Provincial Scotland, 1750–1820

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Philosophers and scientists of the period widely circulated their ideas through meetings at

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Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, "Thoughts on the Enlightenment and Enlightenment in Russia,"

10343:"John Locke > The Influence of John Locke's Works (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)" 9166: 9130: 9126: 9032: 8933: 8740: 8440:

were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the

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In the 18th Century, the Spanish continued to expand their empire in the Americas with the

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belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism." Some followed

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Ritchie Robertson, "The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790." (2020) ch. 1.

11877:

State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu,

11707:

The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867

8389:(1728), which included five editions and is a substantially larger work than Harris'. The 5814:(1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator. 5629:

were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the

2329: 1798: 8: 24403: 24127: 24117: 24066: 23924: 23910: 23770: 23512: 23275: 22868: 21614: 21028: 20735: 20431: 19643: 19555: 19314: 18948: 18913: 18816: 18717: 18582: 18452: 18242: 18171: 17928: 17901: 17884: 17872: 17694: 17650: 17397: 17327: 17270: 17187: 17013: 16840: 16761: 16612: 16605: 16585: 16533: 16491: 16470: 16334: 16277: 16133: 16087: 16082: 16044: 15731: 15415: 15183: 15152: 14103: 13669: 13480:(2014). "Freemasonry and the Enlightenment". In Bodgan, Henrik; Snoek, Jan A. M. (eds.). 13415:

Andrew, 406. Andrew gives the name as "William Henley," which must be a lapse of writing.

11692:

Visible Empire: Botanical Expeditions & Visual Culture in the Hispanic Enlightenment.

10637:. Vol. "Preface" The Reasonableness of Christianity, as delivered in the Scriptures. 10572: 10342: 10142:

Swingewood, Alan (1970). "Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment".

8557: 8016: 7887: 7665: 7569: 7441: 7255: 7153: 6922: 6901:, initiating a period of French Enlightenment influence in Spain and the Spanish Empire. 6894: 6224: 6159: 6096:, as the head of the government of Portugal, implemented sweeping socio-economic reforms. 5883: 5875: 5867: 5597: 5511:

By the mid-18th century the French Enlightenment had found a focus in the project of the

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Niccolò Guasti, "Antonio Genovesi's Diceosina: Source of the Neapolitan Enlightenment."

10569: 10498:

John Stanley, "Towards A New Nation: The Enlightenment and National Revival in Poland,"

9084: 8871: 7721:("Century of Enlightenments") between 1715 and 1789: from the beginning of the reign of 7508: 7364:

in the 1870s, who said, "Whenever we open our mouths...it is to speak of 'enlightenment.

7251: 6960:; defined citizens as those in the Spanish Empire without African ancestry; established 6443: 5118:

in 1804. In reality, historical periods do not have clearly defined start or end dates.

4663: 24496: 24415: 24192: 23961: 23885: 23853: 23672: 23641: 23478: 23466: 23327: 23265: 23094: 23089: 23024: 22907: 22820: 22651: 22327: 21659: 21443: 20508: 20463: 19822: 19778: 19733: 19356: 19302: 19223: 18794: 18437: 18353: 18343: 18176: 18139: 18069: 18008: 17991: 17945: 17855: 17769: 17583: 17503: 17407: 17191: 17143: 17138: 17041: 17031: 16988: 16980: 16570: 16356: 16270: 16238: 16148: 16143: 16138: 15741: 15603: 15593: 15578: 15568: 15522: 15410: 15233: 14954: 14526: 14445: 13815: 13385: 13323: 13097: 11950: 11165: 10529: 10401:

The Life, Unpublished Letters and Philosophical Regimen of Anthony, Earl of Shaftesbury

10294: 10159: 9509: 9351: 9206: 9004: 8660:

The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the

8420:

organised knowledge into – it had three main branches: memory, reason, and imagination.

7999: 7385: 7334: 7170: 6973: 6801: 6797: 6670: 6625: 6387: 6383: 6270: 5923: 5712: 5642: 4879: 4821: 4653: 4578: 4350: 4330: 4315: 4165: 4070: 3927: 3907: 3892: 3842: 3822: 3800: 3641: 3576: 3464: 3090: 2993: 2906: 2702: 2637: 2537: 2092: 2072: 1909: 1662: 1622: 1499: 1348: 1313: 1100: 1060: 1015: 935: 890: 870: 657: 472: 378: 338: 333: 318: 308: 301: 252: 247: 225: 163: 23981: 20364: 15713: 14882: 9064: 8564:

which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by

8032:

because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of talent and of thought.

7949:

styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.

7815: 7729:(1804) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment. 6949: 5938:

theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. English philosopher

5506: 4440: 2354: 24491: 24476: 24441: 24361: 24266: 24041: 24027: 24001: 23986: 23890: 23875: 23805: 23795: 23664: 23596: 23497: 23461: 23357: 22912: 22766: 22514: 21811: 20822: 20661: 20086: 19845: 19784: 19743: 19560: 19445: 19381: 19292: 19269: 19213: 19121: 18854: 18567: 18469: 18457: 18442: 18422: 18333: 18280: 18252: 18234: 18037: 17913: 17906: 17719: 17667: 17645: 17573: 17382: 17357: 17337: 17317: 17307: 17197: 17179: 17148: 17081: 16998: 16972: 16932: 16813: 16808: 16766: 16721: 16389: 16346: 16319: 16304: 16265: 16228: 15946: 15751: 15746: 15708: 15698: 15547: 15463: 15458: 15400: 15248: 15238: 15003: 14860: 14672: 14613: 14600: 14587: 14449: 14399: 14259: 14228: 14209: 14123: 13962: 13944: 13931: 13550: 13511: 13501: 13171: 13101: 12391: 12359: 12281: 12254: 12227: 11822: 11762: 11710: 11640: 11575: 11463: 11459: 11272: 11232: 11157: 11103: 10867: 10840: 10813: 10786: 10746: 10682: 10655: 10549: 10525: 10453: 10298: 10228: 9737: 9710: 9617: 9610: 9558: 9513: 9501: 9398: 9373: 9275: 9012: 8896: 8642: 8362: 7856: 7764: 7550: 7480: 7405: 7322: 7215: 7174: 7157: 7106: 6858: 6850: 6720: 6658: 6621: 6579: 6345: 6340: 6278: 6163: 5887: 5731:(1712). After Newton's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. 5724: 5626: 5563: 5541: 5402: 5341: 5173: 5169: 5130: 5111: 4771: 4683: 4588: 4450: 4380: 4285: 4270: 4037: 3977: 3932: 3917: 3877: 3812: 3591: 3581: 3518: 3409: 2682: 2439: 2369: 2344: 2334: 2314: 2134: 2021: 1952: 1914: 1727: 1594: 1461: 1451: 1396: 1318: 1192: 1177: 1055: 1025: 955: 945: 880: 697: 680: 652: 632: 534: 529: 462: 393: 388: 328: 323: 272: 257: 240: 190: 100: 18712: 15787: 15208: 14738: 14546:

Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding.

9468: 7851:

One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the

7062: 5526:

in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the

5398: 5223: 5081: 615: 24251: 24056: 24036: 23956: 23941: 23840: 23742: 23616: 23456: 23414: 23409: 23389: 23372: 23285: 23079: 22786: 22609: 22585: 22546: 22126: 21283: 20673: 20532: 20520: 19812: 19772: 19767: 19592: 19479: 19414: 19241: 19236: 19218: 19076: 18877: 18830: 18328: 18318: 18144: 18092: 17996: 17860: 17749: 17699: 17677: 17672: 17603: 17372: 17287: 17232: 17202: 17153: 17113: 17096: 17086: 17021: 16993: 16798: 16412: 16368: 16097: 16077: 15951: 15583: 15563: 15532: 15223: 15188: 15132: 14539:

The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna

14518: 14437: 14249: 14136: 13493: 13489: 13377: 13315: 13089: 11946: 11752: 11268:

Jews, Confucians, and Protestants: Cultural Capital and the End of Multiculturalism

11149: 10286: 10274: 10151: 9493: 9363: 9080: 8654: 8565: 8380: 8211: 7756: 7695: 7660: 7345: 7310: 7279: 7258:, Karol Wyrwicz, and Wojciech Skarszewski. The movement went into decline with the 6937: 6898: 6842: 6820: 6793: 6617: 6102: 6053:

Both Rousseau's and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of

6012: 5986: 5891: 5830: 5559: 5142: 5092: 4931: 4914: 4633: 4613: 4533: 4528: 4470: 4430: 4420: 4385: 4305: 4280: 4250: 4235: 4230: 4205: 4150: 4135: 4042: 4017: 3947: 3902: 3872: 3760: 3748: 3676: 3661: 3601: 3566: 3325: 3318: 2657: 2607: 2572: 2517: 2424: 2409: 2384: 2319: 2289: 2156: 2107: 2082: 2065: 2060: 1994: 1919: 1845: 1833: 1529: 1504: 1456: 1436: 1381: 1358: 1308: 1187: 1090: 1080: 1070: 1035: 925: 875: 865: 860: 373: 289: 20401: 16422: 15666: 14769: 14717:

What is Enlightenment?: Eighteenth-Century Answers and Twentieth-Century Questions

14168: 14084: 13601:

Margaret C. Jacob's seminal work on Enlightenment freemasonry, Margaret C. Jacob,

13078:"The Shape of Knowledge: Children and the Visual Culture of Literacy and Numeracy" 9692:

The Business of Enlightenment: a publishing history of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800

8256: 7055: 5537: 4713: 4375: 4105: 2577: 24516: 24309: 24276: 24220: 24214: 24071: 23976: 23880: 23692: 23186: 23151: 22504: 22111: 21685: 21361: 20725: 20547: 20332: 20096: 19922: 19567: 18882: 18702: 18642: 18527: 18375: 18370: 18348: 18268: 18222: 17979: 17933: 17831: 17808: 17791: 17764: 17549: 17412: 17387: 17175: 17158: 17003: 16828: 16748: 16716: 16397: 16092: 15756: 15641: 15517: 15479: 15298: 15142: 15137: 14939: 14845: 14734: 14705: 13956: 12353: 12277:

The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences

12275: 12250:

The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences

12248: 12226:. Translated by E. Jephcott. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 3. 12153: 11857: 11757: 11569: 11538: 11455: 11226: 11057: 10676: 9731: 9218: 9116: 9048: 8569: 8276: 7726: 7542: 7440:" which means Citizen Tipu. In parts of India, an important movement called the " 7424:

was an enlightened monarch, who "was one of the founding members of the (French)

7318: 7066: 7051: 6991:

and "was particularly impressed by Raynal's prediction of the coming of a 'Black

6941: 6913: 6777: 6654: 6435: 6391: 6249: 6137: 6126:

in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model

6071: 6050:

society to a commercial and civil society without agreeing to a social contract.

6047: 6011:

argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the

5978: 5935: 5915: 5747: 5692: 5654: 5634: 5455: 5422: 5251: 5247: 5219: 5161: 5053: 5045: 5041: 4851: 4846: 4791: 4598: 4558: 4390: 4360: 4345: 4295: 4265: 4200: 4140: 4100: 4022: 4012: 3912: 3656: 3646: 3421: 2717: 2707: 2692: 2612: 2602: 2582: 2474: 2454: 2414: 2389: 2299: 2193: 2181: 2171: 2112: 1972: 1967: 1838: 1739: 1584: 1489: 1446: 1426: 1421: 1411: 1406: 1328: 1123: 383: 20605: 15805: 14751: 14486:

The Creation of the Modern World: The Untold Story of the British Enlightenment.

14329:

Bronner, Stephen (1995). "The Great Divide: The Enlightenment and its Critics".

13603:

Living the Enlightenment: Free masonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe

12798:

12, 13. For a more detailed description of French censorship laws, see Darnton,

10863:

British Philosophy and the Age of Enlightenment: Routledge History of Philosophy

8858:

systematic creed with its own myths, values, and rituals originated in Scotland

8758: 8738:

recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published

8323: 8186: 7615: 7607: 7537:

The idea of the Enlightenment has always been contested territory. According to

7487:"oversaw the publication of hundreds of European works in the Arabic language." 6145:, a social reformer, was publicly executed in 1772 for usurping royal authority. 5513: 5297: 24511: 24372: 24197: 23991: 23966: 23930: 23870: 23863: 23858: 23848: 23702: 23687: 23626: 23502: 23492: 23248: 22885: 22576: 21995: 21623: 21619: 21270: 20888: 20827: 20667: 20138: 19972: 19760: 19748: 19434: 19319: 18995: 18980: 18970: 18872: 18774: 18732: 18652: 18607: 18547: 18512: 18304: 18217: 18122: 18030: 17821: 17655: 17578: 17362: 17352: 17347: 17342: 17322: 17312: 17227: 17170: 17063: 17026: 16402: 16351: 16329: 16324: 16309: 16299: 16292: 15928: 15878: 15736: 15613: 15608: 15598: 15494: 15420: 15329: 15324: 15147: 15122: 15102: 15087: 15072: 15057: 14441: 14382: 14350:

Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind

13998: 13863: 13727:

Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and politics in eighteenth-century Europe

13477: 13272:

A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England,

11293:

The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity

11124:

The creation of the modern world: the untold story of the British Enlightenment

10701: 10028:"Oxford University Press: Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment: Alan Charles Kors" 9635:

I. Bernard Cohen, "Scientific Revolution and Creativity in the Enlightenment."

8875: 8735: 8731: 8645:

conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sun light

8604: 8350: 8349:

systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of

8341: 8235:, a 44 volume encyclopedia describing everything known about the natural world. 7957: 7883: 7811: 7794: 7760: 7649: 7522: 7504: 7496: 7401: 7306: 7231: 7166: 7102: 6945: 6854: 6562: 6510: 6466: 6439: 6431: 6423: 6399: 6288:

Several novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including

6236: 5859: 5787: 5577: 5555: 5231: 4806: 4698: 4668: 4658: 4583: 4553: 4548: 4538: 4425: 4405: 4365: 4335: 4275: 4215: 4190: 4130: 3817: 3626: 3389: 3362: 3357: 3330: 3286: 2632: 2567: 2419: 2394: 2359: 2309: 2249: 2176: 2077: 2038: 2028: 1902: 1870: 1692: 1677: 1647: 1569: 1065: 910: 900: 830: 815: 810: 467: 23565: 22825: 14299: 13497: 13093: 11709:

Chapter 23, "Scientific Traveller." New York: Cambridge University Press 1991

10545:

Encyclopedia of the Age of Political Revolutions and New Ideologies, 1760–1815

10290: 8044: 7518: 6742:

The ideas of the Enlightenment also appeared in literature and theater works.

5307:). Published between 1751 and 1772 in 35 volumes, it was compiled by Diderot, 4703: 2622: 2444: 1431: 24430: 24256: 24182: 24148: 24132: 24092: 23775: 23750: 23526: 23436: 23421: 23343: 22965: 22917: 22359: 21985: 20148: 19472: 19453: 19397: 19351: 19339: 19334: 19329: 19183: 19178: 19055: 19048: 18687: 18572: 18487: 18432: 18292: 18212: 18107: 17957: 17950: 17843: 17796: 17689: 17545: 17458: 17257: 16924: 16863: 15956: 15913: 15883: 15863: 15527: 15453: 15380: 15283: 15213: 15127: 15082: 15067: 14964: 14913: 14503:

Philadelphia's Enlightenment, 1740–1800: Kingdom of Christ, Empire of Reason.

13515: 11766: 11703: 11451: 11441: 11161: 10907:"God, Locke and Equality: Christian Foundations of Locke's Political Thought" 9505: 9377: 9088: 8921: 8909: 8727: 8673: 8578: 8456:

Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers.

8301: 8181: 8168: 7852: 7734: 7674: 7445: 7429: 7389: 7381: 7373: 7361: 7235: 7070: 6846: 6716: 6543: 6458: 6427: 6301: 6263: 5982: 5950: 5939: 5783: 5767: 5590: 5582: 5267: 5263: 5255: 5227: 5215: 5154: 5126: 5115: 5049: 4831: 4826: 4693: 4643: 4623: 4618: 4593: 4568: 4465: 4370: 4290: 4210: 4185: 4110: 4047: 3882: 3681: 3345: 2667: 2627: 2557: 2527: 2494: 2489: 2469: 2349: 2274: 2186: 2049: 1865: 1682: 1554: 1514: 1386: 1050: 950: 930: 675: 17514: 13912:

Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights 1750–1790

11153: 10277:(2012). "The Politics of Enlightenment: From Peter Gay to Jonathan Israel". 9840:"Northern Lights: How modern life emerged from eighteenth-century Edinburgh" 9368: 8649:

The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the

6897:, the last Spanish Habsburg monarch, died his successor was from the French 6700: 6461:, Voltaire, or Rousseau. However, its leading intellectuals such as Gibbon, 6360: 5699:

introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the

5585:, one of the most influential figures of Enlightenment and modern philosophy 5494:

launched the popular and scholarly Enlightenment critique of religion. As a

4115: 24366: 24241: 24097: 24061: 23800: 23722: 23566: 23312: 23307: 23302: 23290: 21083: 20730: 20552: 20395: 20251: 19700: 19658: 19587: 19324: 19209: 19163: 19151: 19094: 19060: 18722: 18522: 18427: 18273: 18247: 18156: 17838: 17826: 17774: 17734: 17729: 17593: 17588: 17417: 17247: 17118: 17036: 16455: 15966: 15961: 15908: 15898: 15873: 15853: 15573: 15542: 15489: 15484: 15268: 15178: 15117: 15097: 14984: 14908: 14563:

Mozart and the Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue, and Beauty in Mozart's Operas.

13974: 12733:

The Commerce of Everyday Life: Selections from The Tatler and The Spectator

11622:

Pier Luigi Porta, "Lombard enlightenment and classical political economy."

11211:

Media and the Mind: Art, Science and Notebooks as Paper Machines, 1700–1830

10904: 10121: 9594:

Media and the Mind: Art, Science and Notebooks as Paper Machines, 1700–1830

9497: 9162: 8678: 8478: 8004: 7942: 7709:(1687), which built upon the work of earlier scientists and formulated the 7700: 7526: 7433: 7349: 7302: 7283: 7043: 6816: 6751: 6689: 6678: 6522: 6462: 6313: 6297: 6174:(1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under 6130:

expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before

5990: 5704: 5676:

Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and

5491: 5283: 5239: 5177: 5097: 5057: 4573: 4523: 4518: 4503: 4460: 4445: 4415: 4340: 4325: 4300: 4260: 4220: 4195: 4160: 4075: 3379: 2712: 2687: 2617: 2464: 2294: 2284: 2087: 1604: 1544: 1471: 1255: 1030: 940: 419: 363: 32: 9230:

For example, Robert Darnton, Roger Chartier, Brian Cowan, Donna T. Andrew.

6883: 6684:

German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers

6677:

greatly influenced the development of German theatre and promoted serious

4563: 24167: 23996: 23971: 23946: 23919: 23906: 23815: 23717: 23404: 23084: 21366: 21008: 20984: 20354: 20342: 20264: 19840: 19653: 19457: 19193: 19141: 19116: 19099: 19038: 18662: 18410: 18405: 18397: 18382: 18207: 18112: 17923: 17759: 17724: 17704: 17684: 17662: 17627: 17402: 17280: 17265: 17237: 17073: 16590: 16065: 15918: 15703: 15499: 15273: 15112: 14991: 14974: 14969: 14760: 14592: 13546:

The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 2: Printer and Publisher, 1730–1747

9122: 8917: 8847: 8817: 8813: 8718: 8665: 8390: 8080: 7836: 7785: 7781: 7670: 7421: 7409: 7314: 6728: 6674: 6558: 6474: 6244: 6190: 6028: 5532: 5519: 5418: 5414: 5271: 5210:

The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the

5190: 5134: 5006: 4998: 4796: 4678: 4513: 4475: 4455: 4395: 4355: 4320: 4255: 4245: 4225: 4180: 4095: 4065: 4027: 3922: 3765: 3695: 3561: 2697: 2499: 2484: 2459: 2254: 2239: 2146: 1999: 1947: 1687: 1589: 1509: 1265: 960: 915: 885: 840: 735: 434: 22256: 14933: 14108:

The Roads to Modernity: The British, French, and American Enlightenments

11169: 11137: 10262:

The Enlightenment Past: reconstructing eighteenth-century French thought

8838: 8426:

Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerk- und Handlungs-Lexicon

8253:

La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain

7962:

A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period

7909:"the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude" and 7564: 6811: 6609: 5214:. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included 3416: 23951: 23536: 22922: 21929: 21572: 21142: 19804: 19392: 19146: 19104: 19090: 18958: 18943: 18193: 18181: 18151: 18117: 18057: 17739: 17165: 15923: 15903: 15888: 15858: 15107: 15018: 14875: 14850: 14840: 14778: 14755: 14720: 14700: 14690: 14637: 14549: 14530: 14489: 14458:

The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment

14377: 14353: 14323: 14313:

The Scottish Enlightenment: The Historical Age of the Historical Nation

14183:

Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress

14164: 14131: 14050: 14039: 13885:

Radical Enlightenment; Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750

13844: 13389: 13327: 12582:

The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment

10964: 10202:

The Illusion of Free Markets, Bernard E. Harcourt, p. 260, notes 11–14.

9970: 9036: 8980: 8883: 8867: 8638: 8376: 8372: 7875: 7802: 7654: 7468: 7287: 6525:, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist. 6518: 6489: 6453: 6088: 6020: 6016: 5911: 5863: 5666: 5430: 5410: 5279: 5259: 5235: 5077: 5018: 5002: 4766: 4673: 4410: 4240: 3942: 3897: 3335: 3301: 3296: 2966: 2479: 2269: 2244: 2151: 2004: 1984: 1790: 1667: 1376: 1197: 1128: 786: 607: 442: 73: 16013: 14254: 11417:(Dec 2017) 35#4 pp. 588–602, round table discussion of historiography. 10163: 9256:"The Age of Enlightenment: A History From Beginning to End: Chapter 3" 8798:

Spouting clubs, established to help actors train for theatrical roles.

8408: 7839:

in Hungary—another important reform of Joseph II was the abolition of

7234:) were in deep crisis. The political system was built on aristocratic 7077:. During the 18th century, enlightened literary movements such as the 5953:

and the state), the view that all legitimate political power must be "

21849: 20973: 20850: 20680: 20163: 19494: 19173: 19168: 19131: 19126: 18990: 18933: 18918: 18787: 18627: 18464: 18199: 18161: 17754: 17568: 17212: 16580: 16575: 16427: 14949: 14870: 14664: 14031: 11494:

Owens, Samantha; Reul, Barbara M.; Stockigt, Janice B., eds. (2011).

11317:

Michael Atiyah, "Benjamin Franklin and the Edinburgh Enlightenment,"

10191:

Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics

9147:

Marie Louise Nicole Élisabeth de La Rochefoucauld, Duchesse d'Anville

8623: 8398: 7862: 7357: 7223: 6992: 6506: 6309: 6175: 5993:, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens. 5779: 5716: 5688:

coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century.

5650: 5567: 5150: 5107: 5080:. Some date the beginning of the Enlightenment to the publication of 5061: 4761: 4603: 4435: 4145: 3982: 3967: 3857: 3837: 3827: 3472: 3404: 3202: 2404: 1924: 1707: 1697: 1642: 1466: 1401: 1245: 993: 800: 16941: 14522: 14026:

The Enlightenment and the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture

13381: 13319: 13285:

Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life

12154:"PHYS 200 – Lecture 3 – Newton's Laws of Motion – Open Yale Courses" 11400:

Katrin Keller, "Saxony: Rétablissement and Enlightened Absolutism."

8177: 6552:

imagines the drafting committee presenting its work to the Congress.

81: 24410: 23765: 23519: 23507: 22524: 21267: 19188: 19136: 18617: 18313: 18134: 17962: 17877: 17816: 17779: 17422: 17217: 16555: 16543: 15308: 14903: 14896: 13858:

The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse

13839:

Andrew, Donna T. "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780."

13402:

Donna T. Andrew, "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780,"

13162:

Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding

13148:

A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment Montpellier

13131: 13117:

Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications 1543–1630

13077: 12812: 11209: 10313: 10155: 9592: 9052: 8948: 8568:. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by 8222: 7879: 7776:

Extending Horkheimer and Adorno's argument, intellectual historian

7722: 7545:

during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions.

7500: 7400:

During this time, Korea "aimed at isolation" and was known as the "

7344:

The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries.

7219: 6828: 6282: 6262:, as he tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the 6220: 6205:

not all children of the same father and creatures of the same God?

5977:, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the 5822: 5762:," which was expressed historically in works by authors including 5601: 5483: 5287: 5146: 5014: 3340: 3313: 3217: 3008: 2259: 2102: 1534: 1441: 895: 805: 477: 37: 14306:

The Enlightenment Past: Reconstructing 18th-Century French Thought

10778: 10215:. History-world.org. Archived from the original on 23 January 2013 9557:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. pp. 3–4. 8846:

Historians have debated the extent to which the secret network of

7793:

after the fact; that the Enlightenment did not see an increase in

6215: 5882:. Many of the major political and intellectual figures behind the 5743: 24022: 23636: 23258: 18975: 18953: 18903: 18807: 18743: 18532: 18387: 18299: 17292: 17103: 16102: 14420:

Golinski, Jan (2011). "Science in the Enlightenment, Revisited".

14091:

European Thought in the 18th Century: From Montesquieu to Lessing

12112:

Postmodern theory and biblical theology: vanquishing God's shadow

11937:

Lough, John (1985). "Reflections on Enlightenment and Lumieres".

11094:

Karen O'Brien, "English Enlightenment Histories, 1750–c.1815" in

10423:

Marx and the postmodernism debates: an agenda for critical theory

8920:. People took inspiration from it and revived classical art into 8913: 8749:

as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the

8468:

most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each.

8446:(1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons. 8379:. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including 7840: 7827: 7681: 7425: 7274: 7042:'s riverside district in straight and perpendicular streets (the 6824: 6784:

In Italy the main centers of diffusion of the Enlightenment were

6747: 6727:'s brief reign was marked by this conflict, with his ideology of 6293: 6274: 5677: 5670: 5662: 5658: 5646: 5495: 5122: 5073: 5069: 5010: 4493: 3972: 3952: 2449: 2055: 1989: 1722: 835: 14607:

American Enlightenments: Pursuing Happiness in the Age of Reason

12706:"history of publishing :: Developments in the 18th century" 12306:

The End of the Old Regime in Europe 1768–1776: The First Crisis.

10623:

Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2001, Introduction, pp. 1–72.

8581:

wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled

7097:

was also an important Enlightenment figure, contributing to the

6269:

Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of

24188:

Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary

23631: 23541: 23446: 19408: 18985: 18898: 18552: 14979: 14389:. Translated by Lydia G. Cochrane. Duke University Press, 1991. 13485: 12756:

In particular, see Chapter 6, "Reading, Writing and Publishing"

11496:

Music at German Courts, 1715–1760: Changing Artistic Priorities

9352:"Enlightenment in Global History: A Historiographical Critique" 9182: 8585:(1782), which was published for many years in eleven editions. 8402: 8027:

a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being:

7624: 7339: 7039: 6908:

and established missions deeper inland in South America. Under

6836:

Della diceosina, o sia della Filosofia del Giusto e dell'Onesto

6785: 5570:: David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in the 5065: 4498: 2119: 1734: 424: 14584:

Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century

14242:

Warman, Caroline; et al. (2016), Warman, Caroline (ed.),

12030: 12028: 11637:

Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century

10767:

Of the Religion of Deism Compared with the Christian Religion,

10025:

ed. Alan Charles Kors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)

9818: 9816: 9762: 8129:

data 1477–1799 by decade given with a regional differentiation

6780:, considered one of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment 6653:

broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the

5960:

Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in

4938: 4909: 20043: 19940: 19801: 18923: 18517: 18507: 18502: 17974: 17969: 14865: 14658:

The Encyclopédie of Diderot and D'Alembert: Selected Articles

14376:

1955. a highly influential study by a neoKantian philosopher

12467:

J. Peter Burkholder, Donald J. Grout, and Claude V. Palisca,

12141:

The Newton Wars and the Beginning of the French Enlightenment

11332:

Atlantic Cousins: Benjamin Franklin and His Visionary Friends

11099:

The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800

10249:

Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present,

8964: 8506: 8437: 8084: 7806:

even religion appears somewhat taboo in intellectual strata.

7620: 7313:; China was posited as the incarnation of an enlightened and 6981:. Toussaint had read the critique of European colonialism in 6789: 6305: 6289: 5906: 5474: 5463: 4310: 920: 429: 14225:

A Global Enlightenment: Western Progress and Chinese Science

6484: 6153: 5096:("I think, therefore I am"). Others cite the publication of 18928: 18647: 14649:

Diderot, Denis. "Letter on the Blind" in Tunstall, Kate E.

14556:

The Dialogues of the Dead of the Early German Enlightenment

12217: 12025: 10709: 10409:

Enlightenment, Britain and the Creation of the Modern World

9813: 9791: 9789: 8795:

Mooting clubs, set up by law students to practice rhetoric.

8365:: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. 7835:, commemorating his grant of religious liberty to Jews and 7499:

in the 1830s and continued into the late 19th century. The

5625:

There were immediate practical results. The experiments of

5138: 3743: 12178:

Histoire et dictionnaire du temps des Lumières (1715–1789)

11184:"The Enlightenment (1650–1800): The English Enlightenment" 10941: 10905:

ENR // AgencyND // University of Notre Dame (4 May 2003).

8393:

edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The

5589:

Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief,

5246:. Some of the major figures of the Enlightenment included 5157:, trace their intellectual heritage to the Enlightenment. 24077:

Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution

14002:

The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers.

13951:. London: Allen Lane, 2020; New York: HarperCollins, 2021 13484:. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 8. 12880: 12856: 12077: 12053: 11879:

Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, (1984) 1991.

11786: 10178:

A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment, 1730–1790

9706:

The Dream of Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Philosophy

8533: 5401:, widely considered a seminal figure in the emergence of 5060:, among others, as well as the rationalist philosophy of 21391: 14098:

From Enlightenment to Romanticism in 18th Century Europe

13799:

Neil L. York, "Freemasons and the American Revolution,"

12280:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 61–62. 12253:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 58–61. 12041: 11888:

Keith Thomas, "The Great Fight Over the Enlightenment,"

9801: 9786: 8155:

Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the

5786:(and thus the U.S. Constitution), and as popularised by 22685:

Professionalization and institutionalization of history

18632: 14465:

The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern

14198:

The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790.

13441: 13439: 12595:

The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern

12471:(New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2006), 475. 12127:

Crisis theory and world order: Heideggerian reflections

11729:

vol. 5, p. 165. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.

11624:

The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought

11054:

A History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present,

10083: 8944:

European and American voyages of scientific exploration

7680:

Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and

7444:" led to Enlightenment reforms beginning in the 1820s. 6739:'s rule was primarily marked by relations with France. 5811:

Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth

5318:

A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge

5110:

of France in 1715 and its end with the outbreak of the

14154:

Enlightenment: A Comparative Social History, 1721–1794

13949:

The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790

13876:

The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Philosophy

12868: 8766:

The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for

8540:

The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the

8287:

was the earliest academic journal published in Europe.

8041:

arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic."

5886:

associated themselves closely with the Enlightenment:

5695:

of science among an increasingly literate population.

24108:

Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary

22977:

Heroic theory of invention and scientific development

14320:

The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment

14206:

Histoire de Paris: Politique, urbanisme, civilisation

12994:

Jacob, (1988), p. 191; Melton, (2001), pp. 82–83

12909: 12907: 12897: 12895: 11524:

Van Dulmen, Richard; Williams, Anthony, eds. (1992).

11138:"Locating the 1650s in England's Seventeenth Century" 10674: 8461:

Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot,

7669:

Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the

7348:

found "origins of modern Japan in certain strands of

6031:

to every problem is considered the essential change.

5914:

argued that the authority of government stems from a

21825:

Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe

14597:

Cincinnatus: George Washington and the Enlightenment

14367:

The Origins and Nature of the Scottish Enlightenment

13549:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 83–92. 13436: 12851:

Making sex: body and gender from the Greeks to Freud

12065: 11387:

Charles W. Ingrao, "A Pre-Revolutionary Sonderweg."

10929: 10917: 10742:

Spinoza's Modernity: Mendelssohn, Lessing, and Heine

10112:

Capital of the Mind: how Edinburgh Changed the World

9774: 9750: 9555:

European socialism: a concise history with documents

8174:

read, discussed, and even produced on the premises.

8019:" was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal 7081:(lasting from 1756 until 1776, then replaced by the 6868: 6158:

The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the

5633:

enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a

13274:

Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press, 1994.

12414:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 12. 12387:

The Cambridge Companion to the French Enlightenment

12331:

The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere,

12224:

Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments

12174:

Historians and eighteenth-century Europe, 1715–1789

11727:

Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture,

9419:

The Enlightenment and Its Effects on Modern Society

8714:

English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries

8271: 8023:Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of 7801:; and that a blur in the early modern ideas of the 7025:) was heavily marked by the rule of Prime Minister 6940:on the throne. To add legitimacy to this move, the 6331:

Separation of church and state in the United States

6002:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

5036:The Enlightenment was preceded by and overlaps the 2748:

Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party

23181: 21785:Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia 21643: 19425: 14398:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1989. 13814: 13788:The Age of the Democratic Revolution: The Struggle 12904: 12892: 12777: 12775: 11725:Thiessen, Heather. "Spain: Constitution of 1812." 11523: 9967:Integration and Enlightenment: Scotland, 1746–1832 9609: 5922:. According to Locke, the authority of government 5293:One influential Enlightenment publication was the 22443: 14395:Europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution 14049:(1969, 2nd ed. 1995), a highly influential study 13843:, Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405–423. 11493: 11319:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 11081:Roy Porter, "England" in Alan Charles Kors, ed., 10205: 8312: 6320: 5550:, a moral philosopher and founding figure of the 24428: 24178:Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII 14177:(2006), emphasis on Germany; heavily illustrated 12553:Chartier, 26, 26. Kant, "What is Enlightenment?" 12103: 11902: 11900: 10805: 10621:The Enlightenment: Brief History with Documents, 10021:James E. McClellan III, "Learned Societies," in 9486:Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 9473:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 8583:The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature 8199:narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by 8063:in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male 8025:Histoire de la République des Lettres en France, 6601:Hymnody of continental Europe § Rationalism 6587:from which he removed all supernatural aspects. 5738: 5160:The central doctrines of the Enlightenment were 27:17th- to 18th-century European cultural movement 23009: 19252:Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought 12827:Emma Spary, "The 'Nature' of Enlightenment" in 12772: 12273: 12246: 11371:"The Founding Fathers, Deism, and Christianity" 11037:David N. Livingstone and Charles W.J. Withers, 10513:Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters 10452:. Cambridge University Press. pp. xiv–xv. 8754:different order than any university tutorial." 7859:), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts. 7699:("I think, therefore I am"), which shifted the 7376:interaction." In Japan in particular, the term 7089:. A distinct member of this group was the poet 7065:who spent a considerable amount of his life in 16561:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe 14467:. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. 14343:British Philosophy in the Age of Enlightenment 14036:The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism 13920:The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe 13542: 12531: 12529: 12527: 12513: 12511: 12509: 12495: 12493: 12479: 12477: 12445:'Public Opinion' at the End of the Old Regime" 12318:The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe 10723:"Jerusalem: Or on Religious Power and Judaism" 10647: 10541: 10445: 9709:. W. W. Norton & Company. 30 August 2016. 9097:Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes 8356:The first technical dictionary was drafted by 6673:, a poet and historian. The theatre principal 5998:Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury 5183:Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment? 23167: 22833:Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church 22703:Western European colonialism and colonization 21252: 18759: 17544: 17530: 16957: 16029: 14794: 14387:The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution 14273:The Blackwell Companion to the Enlightenment. 14118:Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents 13851:Science in the Enlightenment: An Encyclopædia 12383: 12189: 11897: 11851:"The Polish Literature of the Enlightenment." 11594: 11049: 11047: 10779:Ellen Judy Wilson; Peter Hanns Reill (2004). 10681:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–68. 10584:Chartier, 8. See also Alexis de Tocqueville, 8097:Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the 7436:, and asked to be addressed as 'Tipu Citoyen, 6488:One leader of the Scottish Enlightenment was 5729:Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books 4963: 3441: 2773:International Alliance of Libertarian Parties 2743:Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe 1759: 755: 576: 21163: 14923: 14894: 14880: 14669:The Enlightenment: A Comprehensive Anthology 14189:Reill, Peter Hanns, and Wilson, Ellen Judy. 13812: 12632:Darnton, "The Literary Underground," 21, 23. 12469:A History of Western Music, Seventh Edition, 12300:Outram, 6. See also, A. Owen Alridge (ed.), 11781:Modern Russian History & Historiography, 11574:(in Italian). Gius.Laterza & Figli Spa. 11070:The Enlightenment: A comprehensive anthology 10963:Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, p. 29 ("It took 10107: 9435:Princeton: Princeton University Press 2019 1 9262:. Archived from the original on 3 March 2017 8627: 8501:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica 8493: 8292: 8280: 8230: 7613:— An engraving from the 1772 edition of the 7286:worked with several Chinese elites, such as 7218:, as the Polish middle class was weaker and 5295: 5198: 21266: 16551:History of European Jews in the Middle Ages 14989: 14579:. George Macaulay Trevelyan Lecture, (1971) 14416:(University of Chicago Press; 2010) 209 pp. 13821:. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. pp. 12524: 12506: 12490: 12474: 12218:Theodor W. Adorno; Horkheimer, Max (1947). 11985:Immanuel Kant, "What is Enlightenment?", 1. 11095: 10836:The Enlightenment: And Why it Still Matters 10720: 10311: 8588: 8071:In France, the established men of letters ( 7917: 6746:was an important representative. In music, 6074:would not go against one's natural rights. 5727:committed the Newtonian system to verse in 5188: 24193:Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary 24143:Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart 23174: 23160: 21259: 21245: 18766: 18752: 17537: 17523: 16964: 16950: 16036: 16022: 14801: 14787: 14687:The Enlightenment: A Sourcebook and Reader 14245:Tolerance: The Beacon of the Enlightenment 14076:(2004). 714 pp. 39 essays by scholars 14056:Greensides F., Hyland P., Gomez O. (ed.). 14009:Historical Dictionary of the Enlightenment 13873: 13868:The Literary Underground of the Old Regime 12804: 11694:Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2012. 11668:Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1971. 11245: 11102:. Oxford, England: OUP. pp. 518–535. 11044: 10500:Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, 10411:, Allen Lane, The Penguin Press, p. 3 10141: 9807: 9795: 9607: 9416: 9093:Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune 7483:and expanding the Enlightenment in Egypt, 6936:abdicated and Napoleon placed his brother 6831:, where among others, Pompeo Neri worked. 6528: 5425:applied in philosophic areas leading to a 5205:List of intellectuals of the Enlightenment 4970: 4956: 3448: 3434: 1766: 1752: 762: 748: 583: 569: 21888:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 14365:Campbell, R.S. and Skinner, A.S., (eds.) 14360:Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 14253: 14047:The Enlightenment: The Science of Freedom 13925: 13475: 13406:Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405–423. 12735:(Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998), 16. 11756: 11426: 11285: 10738: 10101: 9822: 9367: 7987: 7521:, a political activist and member of the 7495:The Enlightenment began to influence the 6620:, a tribute to The Enlightenment and the 6417:Georgian era § English Enlightenment 6154:American Revolution and French Revolution 6077: 5942:ushered in this new debate with his work 5901: 5574:and empiricist traditions of philosophy. 2778:International Federation of Liberal Youth 23107:Historical geographic information system 19873: 14808: 14770:Collection: Art of the Enlightenment Era 14634:The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology 14609:(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016) 14419: 13991: 13961:(2nd ed.), Macmillan Education UK, 13860:. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005 13168:Continuum International Publishing Group 12685:Darnton, "The Literary Underground," 16. 11741:"Six Sermons, written by António Vieira" 11271:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 92. 11264: 10839:. Oxford University Press. p. 100. 10745:. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 126. 10654:. Oxford University Press. p. 179. 10570:Thomas Jefferson. A Revolutionary World. 10080:see Hall (1954), iii; Mason (1956), 223. 9833: 9831: 9673: 9671: 9552: 8837: 8637: 8618: 8524:Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds 8505: 8407: 8316: 8275: 8221: 8176: 8121: 8043: 7998: 7925: 7861: 7826: 7606: 7459: 7352:thinking, a 'functional analogue to the 7273: 7198: 7148: 6882: 6771: 6758:were associated with the Enlightenment. 6608: 6538: 6492:, the father of modern economic science. 6483: 6359: 6214: 6136: 6087: 6042:An Essay on the History of Civil Society 5905: 5742: 5684:societies. In reference to this growth, 5576: 5421:foundation was not as successful as his 5393: 646:Classical education in the Eastern world 641:Classical education in the Western world 31: 16043: 14508: 14328: 14222: 14203: 14063: 13813:Janson, H. W.; Janson, Anthony (2003). 13692: 13569: 13371: 12354:Alexander Von Humboldt: A Metabiography 11965:Discours préliminaire de l'Encyclopédie 11479: 11429:Germany under the Old Regime, 1600–1790 11253:How the Scots Invented the Modern World 11214:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 10273: 9860: 9470:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 9466: 8976:Witch trials in the early modern period 8574:A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy 8477:gained popularity, it was published in 8021:Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres. 7188: 6597:History of Germany § Enlightenment 6170:" philosophy as delineated by Locke in 2758:Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats 14: 24429: 22747:English historical school of economics 20799:Historical Series of the Bank of Italy 18853: 14577:Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment 14180: 14130:(4 vol. 1990; 2nd ed. 2003), 1984 pp. 13954: 13909: 13900: 13891: 13882: 13605:(Oxford University Press, 1991) p. 49. 13445: 13225:vol. 64 (mai-juin 2009), n. 3, 633–62. 13114: 12886: 12874: 12862: 12358:" University of Chicago Press. p. 138 12071: 12059: 12047: 12019: 11994: 11939:Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 11792: 11224: 10947: 10935: 10923: 10832: 10502:1983, Vol. 10 Issue 2, pp. 83–110 10474:Aspects of European history, 1494–1789 10406: 9780: 9768: 9756: 9729: 9652:Oxford: Oxford University Press 2011,9 9483: 9390: 9349: 9057:Charles-Augustin de Ferriol d'Argental 8537:] Rules and Astronomical Tables." 8010: 7822: 7717:. French historians usually place the 7204:Polish–Lithuanian Constitution of 1791 7010: 6355: 6350:Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom 5691:Another important development was the 23155: 23063: 23008: 22943:Revisionist school of Islamic studies 22782:Historical reliability of the Gospels 22640: 22167: 21240: 21229: 19872: 19615: 19379: 19018: 18852: 18747: 17518: 16971: 16945: 16017: 15039: 14820: 14782: 14066:The Enlightenment: History of an Idea 13803:Volume: 55. Issue: 2. 1993, pp. 315+. 13305: 13223:Annales. Histoire, Sciences sociales, 12606:Crébillon fils, quoted from Darnton, 12176:(Oxford UP, 1979); Jean de Viguerie, 12090:For up to Descartes ... a particular 11936: 11739:Cohen, Thomas M. (15 November 2018). 11738: 11508: 11135: 10886: 10866:. Taylor & Francis. p. 256. 10859: 10675:Ole Peter Grell; Porter, Roy (2000). 10632: 10389:Discourse on the Origin of Inequality 10365:An Intellectual History of Liberalism 10330:The American Enlightenment, 1750–1820 10213:"The Enlightenment throughout Europe" 9922: 9881:"Kant's essay What is Enlightenment?" 9837: 9828: 9668: 9345: 9343: 9341: 9339: 9337: 9335: 9333: 9331: 9329: 9327: 9325: 9323: 9321: 9319: 9317: 9315: 9313: 9311: 8777: 8595:Education in the Age of Enlightenment 8546:Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, 8375:along with the physical sciences and 6932:When Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, 6062:right to preserve life and property. 5843:Considerazioni sul processo criminale 5750:, father of classical criminal theory 5504:influenced many of the Enlightenment 4739:International socialist organizations 3687:To each according to his contribution 24487:Philosophical schools and traditions 23135: 21230: 20760:More Irish than the Irish themselves 16700:Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) 14774:University of Michigan Museum of Art 14374:The Philosophy of the Enlightenment. 14280: 14147:Women, Catholicism and Enlightenment 13129: 13075: 12810: 12008:The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, 11567: 11207: 10785:. Infobase Publishing. p. 148. 10398: 10062:See Gillispie, (1980), "Conclusion." 9951:A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 9612:The Enlightenment: An Interpretation 9590: 9528:"British Library- The Enlightenment" 9350:Conrad, Sebastian (1 October 2012). 9309: 9307: 9305: 9303: 9301: 9299: 9297: 9295: 9293: 9291: 9155:François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis 8614: 8414:Figurative system of human knowledge 7905:contrasted "opinion" with populace, 7206:, Europe's first modern constitution 6710: 6386:fueled by slave labor. In 1791, the 5607:A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 5436:Essay Concerning Human Understanding 24047:Suppression of the Society of Jesus 21830:Functionalism–intentionalism debate 19019: 17479:History of the Mediterranean region 16910:History of the Mediterranean region 16113:International relations (1648–1814) 14765:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project 14744:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 14663: 13362:(New York: Viking, 2004), 188, 189. 12940:Headrick, (2000), pp. 150–152. 12829:The Sciences in Enlightened Europe, 11843: 11783:2009, Vol. 2 Issue 2, pp. 1–26 11482:The Literature of Weimar Classicism 10953: 10812:. Infobase Publishing. p. 26. 10183: 10176:D. Daiches, P. Jones and J. Jones, 9730:Rahman, Shoaib (20 November 2023). 9187:Jeanne Julie Éléonore de Lespinasse 9073:Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville 8184:is best known as the editor of the 7974:Music and Reason in Western Society 7831:A medal minted during the reign of 7242:(second half of the 18th century). 7069:denouncing discriminations against 6019:, the scientific method, religious 5620:Science in the Age of Enlightenment 5501:Dictionnaire Historique et Critique 5203:For a more comprehensive list, see 2798:Liberal South East European Network 24: 23602:Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran 22843:Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II 20787:Fourth Italian War of Independence 18773: 14625: 14191:Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment. 13986: 13926:Petitfils, Jean-Christian (2005). 13283:Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, 13119:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 11951:10.1111/j.1754-0208.1985.tb00093.x 11321:(Dec 2006) 150#4 pp. 591–606. 10678:Toleration in Enlightenment Europe 10023:Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment, 9927:. Historyguide.org. Archived from 9736:(Hardcover ed.). Fadew, Inc. 9397:, Getty Publications, p. 29, 9159:Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon 8217: 7337:of Japan enforced a policy called 6583:and Thomas Jefferson in his short 6565:. There was a great emphasis upon 25: 24533: 18728:Western European and Others Group 16667:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 16234:Journalism of Early Modern Europe 14733: 14727: 14697:The Portable Enlightenment Reader 14128:Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment 14072:Fitzpatrick, Martin et al., eds. 14016:Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment 13773:Richard Weisberger et al., eds., 12922:Porter, (2003), pp. 249–250. 11666:The Ibero-American Enlightenment. 11653:Journal of Modern Italian Studies 11568:Mori, Massimo (1 February 2015). 11358:Montesquieu in America, 1760–1801 11295:(Basic Books, 2003), pp. 117–143. 11083:Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment 10980:Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, p. 29 10809:Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment 10782:Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment 10769:1804, Internet History Sourcebook 10586:L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution, 10485:Nicholas Henderson, "Joseph II," 10318:. Nelson Cengage. pp. 34–35. 10251:Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. 457 10108:M. Magnusson (10 November 2003), 9288: 9195:René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 8833: 8432:(1721) was better known than the 8241:René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 8210:, condemned by both the King and 8146:rates, particularly among women. 7532: 7490: 7033:from 1756 to 1777. Following the 6869:Bourbon Spain and Spanish America 6815:(1762–1766), founded by brothers 2788:Liberal Network for Latin America 2221:(contributions to liberal theory) 550:Social and political philosophers 24409: 24397: 23728:Fourth Council of Constantinople 23683:Second Council of Constantinople 23134: 23125: 23124: 22641: 22141: 22140: 21982:Palestinian expulsion and flight 20494:5000-year civilization assertion 20070:Nadir of American race relations 17464:Bibliography of European history 17059:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 15997: 15996: 14289:The Ibero-American Enlightenment 13806: 13793: 13780: 13767: 13754: 13741: 13732: 13729:(Oxford University Press, 1991.) 13719: 13686: 13677: 13661: 13652: 13643: 13630: 13621: 13608: 13595: 13582: 13563: 13536: 13522: 13469: 13460: 13451: 13427: 13418: 13409: 13396: 13365: 13352: 13343: 13334: 13299: 13290: 13277: 13264: 13246: 13237: 13228: 13215: 13202: 13193: 13180: 13153: 13140: 13123: 13108: 13069: 13060: 13051: 13042: 13033: 13024: 13015: 13006: 12997: 12988: 12979: 12970: 12961: 12952: 12943: 12934: 12925: 12916: 12843: 12834: 12821: 12788: 12759: 12750: 12738: 12725: 12716: 12698: 12688: 12679: 12670: 12657: 12648: 12635: 12626: 12613: 12600: 12587: 12574: 12565: 12556: 12547: 12538: 12517:Burkholder, Grout, and Palisca, 12461: 12458:(New York: Routledge, 2005), 58. 12448: 12435: 12426: 12417: 12404: 12377: 12368: 12345: 12336: 12323: 12310: 12302:The Ibero-American Enlightenment 12294: 12267: 12240: 12211: 12183: 12164: 12146: 12133: 12118: 12036:A History of Western Philosophy. 12013: 12000: 11988: 11979: 11969: 11957: 11930: 11918: 11909: 11882: 11869: 11831: 11811: 11798: 11773: 11732: 11719: 11697: 11684: 11671: 11658: 11645: 11629: 11616: 11603: 11588: 11561: 11548: 11532: 11517: 11502: 11487: 11473: 11435: 11420: 11407: 11394: 11381: 11363: 11350: 11337: 11324: 11311: 11298: 11258: 11218: 11201: 11176: 11129: 11116: 11088: 11075: 11062: 10989: 10542:Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2007). 10144:The British Journal of Sociology 9925:"Mary Wollstonecraft, 1759–1797" 9850:from the original on 6 June 2011 9838:Denby, David (11 October 2004), 9224: 9025:Guillaume Thomas François Raynal 8272:Scientific and literary journals 8117: 7476:Napoleon's expedition into Egypt 7250:and reformers Piotr Switkowski, 6983:Guillaume Thomas François Raynal 6590: 6405: 6300:, deism is the simple belief in 5837:wrote important studies such as 5470:which sought a return to faith. 5311:, and a team of 150 others. The 4937: 4925: 4908: 3479: 3415: 3403: 1797: 1733: 1721: 614: 94: 80: 53:Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier 23698:Third Council of Constantinople 23622:First Council of Constantinople 22971:Protestant Ethic and Capitalism 21845:Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust 21780:Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising 21587:Causes of the Armenian genocide 19896:Pyramid construction techniques 19463:Comparative historical research 19380: 19081:Library and information science 17489:History of Western civilization 17092:Christianity in the Middle Ages 16900:History of Western civilization 16186:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 14646:(2008) excerpt and text search. 14644:Rameau's Nephew and other Works 14511:Journal of the History of Ideas 14496:The Enlightenment and Community 14227:. University of Chicago Press. 14208:. Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot. 12454:David Beard and Kenneth Gloag, 12390:. Cambridge UP. pp. 91ff. 12274:Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). 12247:Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). 11480:Richter, Simon J., ed. (2005), 11255:(Crown Publishing Group, 2001). 11031: 11019: 11007: 10995: 10983: 10970: 10898: 10880: 10853: 10826: 10799: 10772: 10759: 10732: 10714: 10695: 10668: 10641: 10626: 10613: 10600: 10591: 10578: 10562: 10535: 10518: 10505: 10492: 10479: 10466: 10439: 10428: 10415: 10392: 10383: 10370: 10357: 10335: 10322: 10305: 10267: 10254: 10241: 10196: 10170: 10135: 10092: 10074: 10065: 10056: 10047: 10015: 10006: 9997: 9988: 9975: 9959: 9943: 9923:Kreis, Steven (13 April 2012). 9916: 9903: 9873: 9854: 9723: 9697: 9684: 9655: 9642: 9629: 9601: 9584: 9571: 9546: 9520: 9151:Philippe Jules François Mancini 9143:Louis François, Prince of Conti 9135:Bernard Le Bouyer de Fontenelle 8707: 8548:published by Voltaire in 1738. 8328:published between 1751 and 1766 8245:Histoire naturelle des insectes 7744: 7050:, became collectively known as 7021:The Enlightenment in Portugal ( 7017:History of Portugal (1640–1777) 6912:, the crown began to implement 6657:movement of proto-Romanticism. 6614:Weimar's Courtyard of the Muses 6364:Europe at the beginning of the 5827:classical school of criminology 5649:and a conglomerate grouping of 5195:('dare to know') can be found. 23937:Dissolution of the monasteries 23203:History of the Catholic Church 22983:Gunpowder and gun transmission 22933:Religionsgeschichtliche Schule 22742:Historical school of economics 22679:Nationalism in the Middle Ages 22117:Gunpowder and gun transmission 21991:Zionism as settler colonialism 20996:Limpieza de sangre controversy 19963:Metropolitan-hinterland thesis 17333:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 17276:Christianity in the modern era 17047:Christianity in late antiquity 16529:Christianity in the modern era 16315:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 14414:The Enlightenment: A Genealogy 14038:(1966, 2nd ed. 1995), 592 pp. 14004:(1932), a famous short classic 13618:(Routledge, 2004) pp. 272–287. 13374:The American Historical Review 12796:The Business of Enlightenment, 12374:Melton, 4, 5. Habermas, 14–26. 12220:"The Concept of Enlightenment" 12180:(Paris: Robert Laffont, 1995). 11571:Storia della filosofia moderna 11447:Dictionary of German Biography 11265:Harrison, Lawrence E. (2012). 10706:Theologico-Political Treatise, 10635:Reasonableness of Christianity 10588:1850, Book Three, Chapter One. 9597:. University of Chicago Press. 9477: 9460: 9438: 9425: 9410: 9384: 9356:The American Historical Review 9248: 9109:Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan 9061:Jean François de Saint-Lambert 8993: 8770:public noise or rumour. These 8313:Encyclopedias and dictionaries 7503:was a period of reform in the 7228:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 7091:Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage 6906:Spanish missions in California 6879:Spanish American Enlightenment 6394:by emancipated slaves against 6327:Separation of church and state 6321:Separation of church and state 5841:(Political Essays, 1783); and 5797:In 1776, Adam Smith published 5600:was one of England's earliest 5366:The Theory of Moral Sentiments 5031:separation of church and state 2162:Separation of church and state 13: 1: 23811:Fourth Council of the Lateran 23786:Second Council of the Lateran 23395:Apostles in the New Testament 22792:Opposition to Papal supremacy 22168: 19980:Indigenous population history 17484:History of the European Union 16874:History of the European Union 16712:Giovanni Pico della Mirandola 16502:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 16466:War of the Spanish Succession 14479:The Enlightenment in America. 14472:Science and the Enlightenment 14175:Panorama of the Enlightenment 14068:. Princeton University Press. 14051:excerpt and text search vol 2 14040:excerpt and text search vol 1 13878:. Cambridge University Press. 13130:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). 13076:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013). 12811:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). 11679:Colonial Latin America Review 11208:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2022). 11025: 9616:, W.W. Norton & Company, 9591:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2022). 9394:Panorama of the Enlightenment 9237: 9101:Armand de Vignerot du Plessis 9041:Charles-Jean-François Hénault 9021:Charles Marie de La Condamine 8859: 8430:Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon 8075:) had fused with the elites ( 7833:Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor 7557: 7095:António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches 6366:War of the Spanish Succession 6348:in Virginia and authored the 6072:lawful captive in time of war 5739:Sociology, economics, and law 5389: 5005:and political ideals such as 3572:Critique of political economy 1525:Critique of political economy 1183:Critique of political economy 56: 23925:Catholic Counter-Reformation 23791:Third Council of the Lateran 23781:First Council of the Lateran 23237:Catholic ecumenical councils 22708:Desacralization of knowledge 20979:Carlism in the Francoist era 20947:Holodomor in modern politics 19616: 16777:Early Netherlandish painting 15040: 14926:Liberté, égalité, fraternité 14558:(Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2022) 13910:Israel, Jonathan I. (2011). 13901:Israel, Jonathan I. (2010). 13892:Israel, Jonathan I. (2006). 13883:Israel, Jonathan I. (2001). 13674:p. 62, (The MIT Press, 1988) 13636:Fitzpatrick and Jones, eds. 13308:Huntington Library Quarterly 13296:Shapin and Schaffer, 58, 59. 13188:France in the Enlightenment, 13021:Phillips, (1991), pp. 85, 90 12746:An Early Information Society 12456:Musicology, The Key Concepts 12085:The Age of the World Picture 11758:10.1163/22141332-00504010-11 11681:15, no. 1 (June 2006) 55–79. 11595:D'Onofrio, Federico (2015). 11431:. pp. 217–234, 375–395. 11413:"The German Enlightenment," 11306:The Enlightenment in America 10526:Enlightenment and Revolution 10449:Voltaire: Political Writings 10446:David Williams, ed. (1994). 10312:von Guttner, Darius (2015). 9953:(Renascence Editions, 2000) 9242: 9139:Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 8562:Il Newtonianism per le dame, 8107:Charles Théveneau de Morande 7688: 7467:, considered the founder of 7240:Stanisław August Poniatowski 7075:indigenous peoples in Brazil 6946:A war of national resistance 6888:Spanish Constitution of 1812 6430:, John Locke, Isaac Newton, 6422:such major intellectuals as 5478:ground under the support of 4842:Socialist calculation debate 4812:List of socialist economists 4787:Economic calculation problem 3672:Socialist mode of production 3529:Socialist calculation debate 1575:Periodizations of capitalism 49:Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 7: 24462:History of Europe by period 23100:Historiographic metafiction 23064: 23010:Organizations, publications 22799:Proto-orthodox Christianity 21749:German resistance to Nazism 21605:Persian famine of 1917–1919 21015:Islamic revolution of Spain 20942:Holodomor genocide question 20818:Revisionism of Risorgimento 20812:Rerum italicarum scriptores 20793:Historiae Patriae Monumenta 20560:Self-Strengthening Movement 19710:decolonization of knowledge 17443:Russian invasion of Ukraine 17054:Crisis of the Third Century 16418:Absolute monarchy in France 16362:Lands of the Bohemian Crown 14895: 14296:The Enlightenment in France 14223:Statman, Alexander (2023). 13979:France in the Enlightenment 12519:A History of Western Music, 12384:Daniel Brewer, ed. (2014). 12351:Nicolaas A. Rupke (2008). " 12109:Ingraffia, Brian D. (1995) 11556:Modern Intellectual History 11427:Gagliardo, John G. (1991). 11039:Geography and Enlightenment 10721:Mendelssohn, Moses (1783). 10380:New York: NYU, 1990. Print. 10003:Burns (2003), entry: 7,103. 9203:Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 9185:at the desk reading aloud, 9001:Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset 8927: 8874:," chosen to reflect their 8842:Masonic initiation ceremony 8696:Historiography of the salon 8229:is best remembered for his 7576:"), the German term became 7511:in 1839 and ended with the 6651:Johann Gottfried von Herder 6549:Declaration of Independence 6496: 6197: 6172:Two Treatises of Government 5963:Two Treatises of Government 5896:Declaration of Independence 5848: 1271:Simple commodity production 10: 24538: 23271:History of the Roman Curia 22897:Wissenschaft des Judentums 22874:Criticism of Protestantism 21754:Nazi foreign policy debate 21185:Second colonial occupation 20932:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 20570:Tibetan sovereignty debate 20114:Progressive-era historians 19549:Nationalization of history 19500:Historical-critical method 17499:Military history of Europe 17494:Maritime history of Europe 16884:Military history of Europe 16879:Maritime history of Europe 16772:Dutch and Flemish painting 16683:Science in the Renaissance 14821: 14442:10.1177/007327531104900204 14140:The Catholic Enlightenment 14064:Ferrone, Vincenzo (2017). 13914:. Oxford University Press. 13896:. Oxford University Press. 13887:. Oxford University Press. 13832: 13683:Thomas Munck, 1994, p. 70. 13360:Paris: Biography of a City 11925:Oxford English Dictionary, 11126:(2000), pp. 1–12, 482–484. 11013: 11001: 10548:. Greenwood. p. 190. 10089:Burns, (2003), entry: 158. 10044:(accessed on 8 June 2008). 10012:Gillispie, (1980), p. xix. 9679:European History Quarterly 9553:Smaldone, William (2014). 9433:The Secular Enlightenment. 9417:Zafirovski, Milan (2010), 9211:Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton 9121:Front row, right to left: 9113:Henri François d'Aguesseau 8960:Modern Greek Enlightenment 8816:, Reformed (Calvinist) or 8781: 8711: 8693: 8592: 8416:," the structure that the 7752:Dialectic of Enlightenment 7192: 7138:Liberal Revolution of 1820 7014: 6962:universal manhood suffrage 6914:serious structural changes 6872: 6765: 6667:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 6594: 6532: 6414: 6410: 6324: 6132:the nation was partitioned 6124:Johann Friedrich Struensee 6081: 5806:Anne Robert Jacques Turgot 5703:and the popularization of 5617: 5613: 5528:United States Constitution 5357:(1762); Cesare Beccaria's 5336:A Treatise of Human Nature 5202: 1580:Perspectives on capitalism 714:Between World War I and II 706:20th-century neoclassicism 24472:History of libertarianism 24392: 24292: 24158: 24085: 24020: 24007:European wars of religion 23904: 23839: 23741: 23663: 23554: 23477: 23337: 23326: 23318:Eastern Catholic Churches 23193: 23119: 23070: 23059: 23015: 23004: 22953: 22757: 22716: 22647: 22636: 22492: 22178: 22174: 22163: 22135: 22104: 22068: 21962: 21916: 21902:Second Sino-Japanese War 21880: 21810: 21762: 21724: 21684: 21560: 21382: 21301: 21277: 21236: 21225: 21201: 21099: 21066: 20957: 20881: 20838: 20779: 20744: 20716: 20707:Vergangenheitsbewältigung 20651: 20578: 20484: 20412: 20126: 20055: 19988: 19950: 19883: 19879: 19868: 19693: 19626: 19622: 19611: 19388: 19375: 19202: 19069: 19031: 19027: 19014: 18891: 18865: 18861: 18848: 18781: 18498:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance 18478: 18396: 18233: 18068: 17939:Standard Average European 17807: 17636: 17556: 17469:Genetic history of Europe 17451: 17256: 17072: 17012: 16979: 16922: 16892: 16869:Genetic history of Europe 16856: 16849: 16791: 16741: 16734: 16691: 16675: 16639: 16630: 16618:European wars of religion 16521: 16514: 16479: 16461:Second Hundred Years' War 16438: 16382: 16258: 16251: 16221: 16214: 16173: 16166: 16121: 16058: 16051: 15983: 15937: 15839: 15796: 15775: 15722: 15691: 15675: 15622: 15556: 15508: 15472: 15439: 15358: 15317: 15161: 15050: 15046: 15035: 14940:Methodological skepticism 14831: 14827: 14816: 14685:Gomez, Olga, et al. eds. 14287:Aldridge, A. Owen (ed.). 14204:Sarmant, Thierry (2012). 13874:Haakonssen, Knud (2008). 13749:History of European Ideas 13498:10.1163/9789004273122_008 13094:10.1017/s0269889713000045 13066:Phillips, (1991), p. 107. 12949:Headrick, (2000), p. 153. 12931:Headrick, (2000), p. 168. 12913:Headrick, (2000), p. 172. 12901:Headrick, (2000), p. 144. 12783:The Literary Underground, 12767:The Literary Underground, 12665:The Literary Underground, 12643:The Literary Underground, 12621:The Literary Underground, 12608:The Literary Underground, 12304:(1971)., Franco Venturi, 12083:Martin Heidegger (2002) 11963:Jean le Rond d'Alembert, 11865:Retrieved 7 October 2011. 11745:Journal of Jesuit Studies 11611:History of European ideas 11391:20#3 (2002), pp. 279–286. 11096:José Rabasa, ed. (2012). 10806:Wilson and Reill (2004). 10739:Goetschel, Willi (2004). 10291:10.1017/s0018246x12000301 10233:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 10110:"Review of James Buchan, 9650:Democratic Enlightenment. 9448:. Encyclopædia Britannica 9280:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 8999:Back row, left to right: 8784:London Debating Societies 8700:Salons were places where 8689: 8494:Popularization of science 8335:encyclopedic dictionaries 7970:Deconstructive Variations 7465:Jean-François Champollion 7260:Third Partition of Poland 7156:visits Russian scientist 7144: 6513:, physician and chemist; 5819:Of Crimes and Punishments 5715:; a new understanding of 5473:In the mid-18th century, 5384: 5360:On Crimes and Punishments 5244:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 5199:Influential intellectuals 5027:constitutional government 4837:Socialism and LGBT rights 3781:Socialist-oriented market 3729:Socialist planned economy 3632:Material balance planning 3385:Sexually liberal feminism 3292:Bias in American academia 2763:European Democratic Party 2219:List of liberal theorists 297:Middle Eastern philosophy 24452:Enlightenment philosophy 24138:Mary of the Divine Heart 23761:Clash against the empire 23713:Second Council of Nicaea 23607:Old St. Peter's Basilica 22657:Crisis of historiography 21820:Auschwitz bombing debate 21506:Indian Rebellion of 1857 21357:Late Bronze Age collapse 21291:List of military museums 20894:Pre-Revolutionary Russia 20866:Polish People's Republic 20701:Sybel-Ficker controversy 20065:African-American history 20038:Colonial Spanish America 19827:Second Thirty Years' War 18638:Lancaster House Treaties 18128:Christian existentialism 18088:Ancient Roman philosophy 18078:Ancient Greek philosophy 14632:Broadie, Alexander, ed. 14248:, Open Book Publishers, 13918:Melton, James Van Horn. 13751:10 no. 3 (1989): 283–94. 13404:This Historical Journal, 13057:Phillips, (1991), p. 92. 13030:Phillips, (1991), p. 90. 13012:Headrick, (2000), p. 19. 12800:The Literary Underground 12193:The age of Enlightenment 11976:support the later model. 10833:Pagden, Anthony (2013). 10608:A Treatise on Toleration 10435:Of the Original Contract 10098:Thomson, (1786), p. 203. 9771:, pp. vii–viii, 19. 9665:New York: Messner (1955) 9391:Outram, Dorinda (2006), 9069:Jacques-Germain Soufflot 8986: 8589:Schools and universities 8051:The Gentleman's Magazine 7918:Implications in the arts 7797:or the dominance of the 7513:First Constitutional Era 7455: 7415: 7395: 7328: 7269: 7111:José de Azeredo Coutinho 6967: 6925:gave Prussian scientist 6761: 6036:Of the Original Contract 5429:of mind and matter. His 5330:Philosophical Dictionary 3776:Socialist market economy 3701:Workers' self-management 3667:Socialism in one country 3514:Age of the Enlightenment 2044:Labor theory of property 851:Economic interventionism 18:The Age of Enlightenment 24404:Vatican City portal 23756:Investiture Controversy 23612:First Council of Nicaea 21770:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 21629:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 21180:Porter–MacKenzie debate 20937:Causes of the Holodomor 20474:Problem of two emperors 20422:Catilinarian conspiracy 19649:Historical significance 19510:Indiscipline of history 19485:Historical anthropology 18416:Equality before the law 17623:Romano-Germanic culture 17474:History of Christianity 16905:History of Christianity 16487:French–Habsburg rivalry 16446:French Wars of Religion 14721:excerpt and text search 14712:(1965) online, excerpts 14701:excerpt and text search 14691:excerpt and text search 14638:excerpt and text search 14550:excerpt and text search 14490:excerpt and text search 14378:excerpt and text search 14354:excerpt and text search 14324:excerpt and text search 14271:Yolton, John W. et al. 14193:(2nd ed. 2004). 670 pp. 14181:Pinker, Steven (2018). 14165:excerpt and text search 14132:excerpt and text search 14112:excerpt and text search 14074:The Enlightenment World 13894:Enlightenment Contested 13693:Diderot, Denis (1769). 13638:The Enlightenment World 13616:The Enlightenment World 13572:Eighteenth-Century Life 13543:J.A. Leo Lemay (2013). 13530:Alexander Pope: A Life, 13482:Handbook of Freemasonry 13115:Hotson, Howard (2007). 13048:Porter, (2003), p. 101. 13039:Porter, (2003), p. 300. 13003:Headrick, (2000), p. 15 12976:Darnton, (1979), p. 37. 12710:Encyclopædia Britannica 12316:James Van Horn Melton, 12222:. In G.S. Noerr (ed.). 12124:Norman K. Swazo (2002) 11819:Acta Poloniae Historica 11664:Aldridge, Alfred Owen. 11509:Kuehn, Manfred (2001). 11375:Encyclopædia Britannica 11154:10.1111/1468-229X.00016 10648:R.B. Bernstein (2003). 10619:Margaret C. Jacob, ed. 10476:(1990) pp. 258–266 10378:Social Contract Theory. 9971:excerpt and text search 9637:Eighteenth-Century Life 9179:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 9171:Claude-Adrien Helvétius 9105:Pierre Louis Maupertuis 9009:Jean-François Marmontel 8939:Early modern philosophy 8683:experimental philosophy 8451:universal encyclopedias 8443:Encyclopædia Britannica 8249:Jacques Gautier d'Agoty 7966:Rose Rosengard Subotnik 7954:Dictionnaire de musique 7945:and Mozart, with their 7633:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 7420:In 18th-century India, 7384:and the rationality of 7333:From 1641 to 1853, the 7119:Cláudio Manoel da Costa 6988:Histoire des deux Indes 6958:constitutional monarchy 6756:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 6694:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 6624:depicting German poets 6529:Anglo-American colonies 6168:consent of the governed 6027:in particular to apply 5975:consent of the governed 5969:Discourse on Inequality 5928:consent of the governed 5876:Frederick II of Prussia 5855:political modernization 5572:skeptical philosophical 5433:was refined by Locke's 5378:Critique of Pure Reason 5348:Discourse on Inequality 5309:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 5087:Discourse on the Method 4777:Criticism of capitalism 3788:Participatory economics 3622:Labour-time calculation 2753:Arab Liberal Federation 1943:Consent of the governed 1520:Criticism of capitalism 24416:Catholicism portal 24227:Second Vatican Council 24113:Our Lady of La Salette 23920:Protestant Reformation 23907:Protestant Reformation 23826:Second Council of Lyon 23215:Ecclesiastical history 22864:Protestant Reformation 22838:Second Vatican Council 22816:Succession to Muhammad 22811:Criticism of the Quran 22562:Religious perspectives 22296:Klemens von Metternich 21893:"Battle for Australia" 21775:Soviet offensive plans 21744:Broad vs. narrow front 21583:Late Ottoman genocides 20516:Century of humiliation 20297:Goguryeo controversies 20275:2,500-year celebration 19933:Double genocide theory 19720:Historical negationism 19544:Ancestral civilisation 19532:Historical materialism 19490:Historical determinism 19440:History of mentalities 18578:Eastern European Group 18167:Continental philosophy 18098:Judeo-Christian ethics 18083:Hellenistic philosophy 17564:Cradle of civilization 17298:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 16650:Renaissance philosophy 16566:Protestant Reformation 16374:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 16181:Fall of Constantinople 14990: 14924: 14890:Enlightened absolutism 14881: 14671:. Simon and Schuster. 13841:The Historical Journal 13817:A Basic History of Art 13649:Jacob, pp. 20, 73, 89. 13159:Peter Barrett (2004), 12985:Darnton, (1979), p. 6. 12967:Darnton, (1979), p. 7. 12190:Frost, Martin (2008), 12143:(2008), "Introduction" 12100: 11856:5 October 2011 at the 10976:Feldman, Noah (2005). 10959:Feldman, Noah (2005). 10887:Bayle, Pierre (1741). 10860:Brown, Stuart (2003). 10071:Porter, (2003), p. 90. 10053:Porter, (2003), p. 91. 9498:10.1098/rsnr.1988.0006 9199:Françoise de Graffigny 9017:Antoine Léonard Thomas 8971:Renaissance philosophy 8955:Midlands Enlightenment 8951:, Jewish Enlightenment 8903: 8843: 8646: 8635: 8628: 8552:'s translation of the 8514: 8470: 8421: 8329: 8293: 8288: 8281: 8236: 8231: 8191: 8130: 8056: 8034: 8007: 7988:Dissemination of ideas 7933: 7931:George Frideric Handel 7871: 7868:Alexander von Humboldt 7844: 7810:Intellectuals such as 7774: 7628: 7574:What is Enlightenment? 7471: 7297: 7207: 7161: 7101:and being part of the 7048:earthquake engineering 7038:His reconstruction of 7035:1755 Lisbon earthquake 6927:Alexander von Humboldt 6890: 6875:Enlightenment in Spain 6863:Francesco Mario Pagano 6841:Science flourished as 6781: 6640: 6553: 6535:American Enlightenment 6503:Scottish Enlightenment 6493: 6369: 6228: 6207: 6146: 6097: 6084:Enlightened absolutism 6078:Enlightened absolutism 6070:that enslavement of a 5931: 5902:Theories of government 5880:enlightened absolutism 5868:Catherine II of Russia 5835:Francesco Mario Pagano 5758:thinkers developed a " 5756:Scottish Enlightenment 5751: 5586: 5552:Scottish Enlightenment 5406: 5342:The Spirit of the Laws 5339:(1740); Montesquieu's 5324:Letters on the English 5296: 5189: 5168:, in opposition to an 4782:Criticism of socialism 3734:Decentralized planning 3637:Peer‑to‑peer economics 2768:European Liberal Youth 2738:Africa Liberal Network 1963:Economic globalization 1550:Exploitation of labour 1261:Primitive accumulation 520:Aesthetic philosophers 62: 24502:Scientific Revolution 24467:History of liberalism 24123:First Vatican Council 23821:First Council of Lyon 23585:Constantine the Great 23281:Christian monasticism 22988:Torsion mangonel myth 22891:Modern Jewish history 22886:Jesuit historiography 22879:Protestant work ethic 22859:Hesychast controversy 22724:Industrial Revolution 22674:Library of Alexandria 22592:The Lord of the Rings 22242:Constantine the Great 22122:Torsion mangonel myth 22054:Sri Lankan Civil War 21133:Storm over the gentry 21034:Colonies or Provinces 20565:Sprouts of capitalism 19639:Historic preservation 19634:Change and continuity 18698:Three Seas Initiative 18673:Pacific Islands Forum 18538:British–Irish Council 18286:Greek Orthodox Church 17745:Industrial Revolution 17715:Scientific Revolution 17378:Industrial Revolution 16929:History of philosophy 16804:Industrial Revolution 16202:Scientific Revolution 14856:Counter-Enlightenment 14695:Kramnick, Issac, ed. 13992:Reference and surveys 13136:. Aldershot: Ashgate. 12744:See Mackie, Darnton, 12088: 11613:32.4 (2006): 385–405. 11444:, "Seyler, Abel", in 11404:20.3 (2002): 309–331. 11330:Jack Fruchtman, Jr., 11225:Towsey, Mark (2010). 11136:Hirst, Derek (1996). 10528:, Pluralism Project, 10489:(March 1991) 41:21–27 10376:Lessnoff, Michael H. 10315:The French Revolution 9994:Porter (2003), 79–80. 9949:Mary Wollstonecraft, 9369:10.1093/ahr/117.4.999 9215:Georges-Louis Leclerc 9191:Anne-Marie du Boccage 9175:Charles-André van Loo 9077:Anne Claude de Caylus 9029:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 8841: 8641: 8630:Académie des sciences 8622: 8519:Bernard de Fontenelle 8512:Bernard de Fontenelle 8509: 8465: 8411: 8320: 8279: 8225: 8180: 8125: 8047: 8029: 8002: 7929: 7895:Industrial Revolution 7865: 7830: 7799:mechanistic worldview 7790:Counter-Enlightenment 7778:Jason Josephson Storm 7769: 7715:universal gravitation 7706:Principia Mathematica 7637:Preliminary Discourse 7610: 7463: 7277: 7210:Enlightenment ideas ( 7202: 7179:Russian Enlightenment 7152: 7123:Tomás Antônio Gonzaga 7087:University of Coimbra 6886: 6807:Parthenopean Republic 6775: 6768:Italian Enlightenment 6744:Joseph von Sonnenfels 6686:Johann Sebastian Bach 6612: 6595:Further information: 6542: 6533:Further information: 6487: 6415:Further information: 6363: 6256:resurrection of Jesus 6243:, one of the English 6218: 6202: 6186:Alexis de Tocqueville 6180:divine right of kings 6140: 6091: 6065:Locke argues against 6048:hunting and gathering 5909: 5800:The Wealth of Nations 5746: 5686:Bernard de Fontenelle 5580: 5468:Counter-Enlightenment 5397: 5372:The Wealth of Nations 5363:(1764); Adam Smith's 5276:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 5212:Scientific Revolution 5103:Principia Mathematica 5038:Scientific Revolution 3410:Liberalism portal 3282:Anti-authoritarianism 2783:Liberal International 1728:Capitalism portal 1540:Culture of capitalism 1495:Capitalist propaganda 1251:Industrial Revolution 1241:Commercial Revolution 101:Philosophy portal 35: 24447:Classical liberalism 24437:Age of Enlightenment 24300:Sexual abuse scandal 24209:Mit brennender Sorge 24052:Age of Enlightenment 23831:Bernard of Clairvaux 23708:Byzantine Iconoclasm 23647:Council of Chalcedon 23427:Council of Jerusalem 23296:Role in civilization 23276:Religious institutes 23208:By country or region 23075:Commemorative plaque 22291:Juan Manuel de Rosas 21739:"Blitzkrieg" concept 21610:Powder keg of Europe 21485:Franco-Prussian War 21155:Winter of Discontent 21138:Suffragette Campaign 20805:Italiani brava gente 20771:Revolutionary period 20593:Frankish Interregnum 20526:"Chineseness" debate 20459:Byzantine succession 20444:Fall of Western Rome 20385:Executed Renaissance 19874:By country or region 19818:Age of Enlightenment 19792:Vaticinium ex eventu 19739:Modernisation theory 19573:Quantitative history 18949:Historical documents 18693:Special Relationship 18103:Christian philosophy 18048:Western Christianity 17710:Age of Enlightenment 17584:Hellenistic Kingdoms 17433:European debt crisis 17428:European integration 17368:Age of Enlightenment 17208:Republic of Florence 16655:Renaissance humanism 16539:Bohemian Reformation 16497:Treaties of Nijmegen 16108:Age of Enlightenment 14810:Age of Enlightenment 14761:Age of Enlightenment 14752:Age of Enlightenment 14715:Schmidt, James, ed. 14706:Manuel, Frank Edward 14605:Winterer, Caroline. 14501:Reid-Maroney, Nina. 14318:Broadie, Alexander. 14311:Broadie, Alexander. 14196:Robertson, Ritchie. 14104:Himmelfarb, Gertrude 13955:Porter, Roy (2001), 13695:"D'Alembert's Dream" 13667:Reinhart Koselleck, 13492:. pp. 100–116. 13433:Andrew, 406–08, 411. 13146:Elizabeth Williams, 12849:See Thomas Laqueur, 11808:37.4 (2010): 360–77. 11690:Bleichmar, Daniela. 11655:10.2 (2005): 142–67. 11626:18.4 (2011): 521–50. 11558:5.2 (2008): 195–223. 10950:, pp. vii–viii. 10633:Locke, John (1695). 10421:Lorraine Y. Landry, 10407:Porter, Roy (2000), 10345:. Plato.stanford.edu 10328:Robert A. Ferguson, 9864:(28 November 2006), 9862:Barroso, José Manuel 9681:22.2 (1992): 247–55. 9648:Israel, Jonathan I. 9167:Charles Pinot Duclos 9131:Claude Joseph Vernet 9033:Jean-Philippe Rameau 8967:, Arab Enlightenment 8934:Atlantic Revolutions 8741:The Spectator (1711) 8662:concours académiques 8103:Le Gazetier cuirassé 7976:) compares Mozart's 7509:Gülhane Hatt-ı Şerif 7507:that began with the 7226:) together with the 7222:(nobility) culture ( 7195:Polish Enlightenment 7189:Poland and Lithuania 7130:invasion of Portugal 7115:José da Silva Lisboa 6979:Toussaint Louverture 6954:Constitution of 1812 6942:Bayonne Constitution 6396:French colonial rule 6128:constitution of 1791 6067:indentured servitude 5872:Joseph II of Austria 5792:classical liberalism 5631:Montgolfier brothers 5524:separation of powers 5488:Siècle des Lumières, 5123:scientific academies 4984:Age of Enlightenment 4932:Communism portal 4915:Socialism portal 3607:Industrial democracy 3557:Collective ownership 2214:Age of Enlightenment 2167:Separation of powers 1703:Right-libertarianism 1633:Classical liberalism 1600:Venture philanthropy 1236:Capitalism and Islam 1231:Age of Enlightenment 826:Capital accumulation 667:Age of Enlightenment 637:Classical education 545:Philosophers of mind 24128:Papal infallibility 24118:Our Lady of Lourdes 24067:Shimabara Rebellion 23911:Counter-Reformation 22904:Schools of thought 22869:Proto-Protestantism 22738:School of Thoughts 22620:William Shakespeare 22605:Robert Falcon Scott 22510:Friedrich Nietzsche 22348:Cult of personality 22333:Neville Chamberlain 22193:Alexander the Great 22075:Russo-Georgian War 22048:Sovereignty dispute 22027:Iranian Revolution 21857:"Polish death camp" 21834:In relation to the 21543:Myth of English aid 21534:War of the Pacific 21311:Albigensian Crusade 20736:Indigenous Aryanism 20432:Constantinian shift 19968:Residential schools 19725:Historian's fallacy 19644:Historic recurrence 19142:Numismatics (Money) 18914:Archaeological site 18838:theories of history 18718:West Nordic Council 18583:Eastern Partnership 18172:Analytic philosophy 17873:Classical tradition 17695:Early modern period 17651:Classical antiquity 17646:European Bronze Age 17398:Revolutions of 1848 17328:Early modern France 17109:Anglo-Saxon England 17014:Classical antiquity 16841:Revolutions of 1848 16762:Florentine painting 16613:Counter-Reformation 16534:Proto-Protestantism 16492:Peace of Westphalia 16335:Seventeen Provinces 16194:Printing Revolution 16088:Early modern Europe 16083:Early modern period 16045:Early modern Europe 15816:Feijóo y Montenegro 15767:Vorontsova-Dashkova 14554:Suitner, Riccarda. 14470:Hankins, Thomas L. 14434:2011HisSc..49..217G 14341:Brown, Stuart, ed. 14294:Artz, Frederick B. 13725:Margaret C. Jacob, 13707:on 29 November 2014 13670:Critique and Crisis 13376:. 105#1 (1): 1–35. 12423:Outram 2005, p. 13. 12333:(1989), pp. 36, 37. 12034:Russell, Bertrand. 11891:The New York Review 11821:100 (2009): 57–77. 11056:Second Edition, by 10573:Library of Congress 9891:on 17 February 2020 9608:Gay, Peter (1996), 9446:"The Enlightenment" 9431:Jacob, Margaret C. 8558:Francesco Algarotti 8295:Journal des sçavans 8283:Journal des sçavans 8152:bibliothèque bleue, 8143:reading revolution. 8017:Republic of Letters 8011:Republic of Letters 8003:French philosopher 7888:Republic of Letters 7823:Society and culture 7719:Siècle des Lumières 7666:Counter-Reformation 7570:Jean-Baptiste Dubos 7248:Stanislaw II August 7134:evacuated to Brazil 7011:Portugal and Brazil 6575:religious tolerance 6356:National variations 6225:religious tolerance 6219:French philosopher 6160:American Revolution 6141:Denmark's minister 6101:other words, be a " 5884:American Revolution 5645:, was divided into 5598:Mary Wollstonecraft 5581:German philosopher 5480:Madame de Pompadour 5375:(1776); and Kant's 5354:The Social Contract 5345:(1748); Rousseau's 5321:(1710), Voltaire's 5166:religious tolerance 4817:Market abolitionism 4802:Left-libertarianism 3739:Inclusive Democracy 3706:Workplace democracy 3552:Calculation in kind 3534:Socialist economics 3524:Revolutions of 1848 3422:Politics portal 2125:Civil and political 2098:Popular sovereignty 1958:Economic liberalism 1740:Business portal 856:Economic liberalism 846:Competitive markets 624:Classical antiquity 555:Women in philosophy 285:Indigenous American 68:Part of a series on 43:The Orphan of China 24173:Our Lady of Fátima 23962:Ignatius of Loyola 23886:Catherine of Siena 23854:Pope Boniface VIII 23673:Benedict of Nursia 23642:Council of Ephesus 23479:Ante-Nicene period 23432:Split with Judaism 23266:Crusading movement 23095:Historical realism 23090:Historical fiction 23035:History institutes 23025:Historical society 23020:Heritage registers 22908:Biblical criticism 22821:Islamic golden age 22772:Early Christianity 22652:Bears in antiquity 22540:Medieval Christian 22338:Pedro II of Brazil 22286:José de San Martín 22090:Syrian revolution 22002:Malayan Emergency 21977:1948 Palestine war 21710:Spanish Civil War 21660:War guilt question 21469:American Civil War 21449:Invasion of Russia 21425:New Russian School 21209:Colonial Australia 20925:October Revolution 20688:Strukturgeschichte 20624:Location of Alésia 20543:Hua–Yi distinction 20464:Moscow, third Rome 20080:Reconstruction era 19901:Black Egypt Thesis 19823:European Civil War 19779:Translatio imperii 19734:Invented tradition 18855:Historical sources 18177:Post-structuralism 18140:Christian humanism 17770:Universal suffrage 17504:Crusading movement 17408:Russian Revolution 17243:Hundred Years' War 17139:Maritime republics 17042:Early Christianity 17032:Hellenistic period 16989:Paleolithic Europe 16571:Ninety-five Theses 16357:Kingdom of Bohemia 16271:Free imperial city 16239:The General Crisis 14955:Natural philosophy 14568:Tunstall, Kate E. 14494:Redkop, Benjamin. 14422:History of Science 14145:Lehner, Ulrich L. 14124:Kors, Alan Charles 13945:Robertson, Ritchie 13786:Robert R. Palmer, 13764:(1996) pp. 634–635 13592:(1996) pp. 634–635 13243:Caradonna, 653–54. 13234:Caradonna, 634–36. 13082:Science in Context 12889:, pp. 150–51. 12865:, pp. 143–44. 12200:on 10 October 2007 12062:, pp. v–viii. 11795:, pp. 609–32. 10530:Harvard University 10279:Historical Journal 10193:(Routledge, 1992). 9983:Histoire de Paris, 9981:Sarmant, Thierry, 9931:on 11 January 2014 9825:, pp. 99–105. 9639:7.2 (1982): 41–54. 9260:publishinghau5.com 9207:Bernard de Jussieu 9005:Pierre de Marivaux 8844: 8778:Debating societies 8651:Academy of Science 8647: 8636: 8577:scientific works. 8550:Émilie du Châtelet 8515: 8422: 8330: 8321:First page of the 8289: 8237: 8232:Histoire naturelle 8192: 8157:bibliothèque bleue 8136:bibliothèque bleue 8131: 8057: 8008: 7947:Viennese Classical 7934: 7872: 7845: 7735:global integration 7629: 7472: 7442:Bengal Renaissance 7335:Tokugawa shogunate 7321:for criticisms of 7298: 7256:Gracjan Piotrowski 7230:political system ( 7214:) emerged late in 7208: 7171:Peter Simon Pallas 7162: 6974:Haitian Revolution 6891: 6802:Gaetano Filangieri 6798:Ferdinando Galiani 6782: 6750:musicians such as 6671:Friedrich Schiller 6641: 6554: 6494: 6388:Haitian Revolution 6384:plantation economy 6370: 6271:organized religion 6229: 6147: 6120:Pombal in Portugal 6098: 5932: 5752: 5709:Émilie du Châtelet 5643:natural philosophy 5591:individual freedom 5587: 5482:, the mistress of 5427:dualistic doctrine 5407: 5162:individual liberty 4822:Marxist philosophy 3642:Production for use 3612:Input–output model 3577:Economic democracy 2093:Permissive society 2073:Limited government 1500:Capitalist realism 891:Goods and services 871:Fictitious capital 248:Eastern philosophy 63: 24424: 24423: 24384:COVID-19 pandemic 24362:Pope Benedict XVI 24267:Pope John Paul II 24042:Pope Benedict XIV 24028:French Revolution 24012:Thirty Years' War 24002:Robert Bellarmine 23987:John of the Cross 23891:Pope Alexander VI 23876:Council of Vienne 23806:Francis of Assisi 23796:Pope Innocent III 23665:Early Middle Ages 23659: 23658: 23655: 23654: 23597:Arian controversy 23550: 23549: 23498:Apostolic Fathers 23149: 23148: 23115: 23114: 23055: 23054: 23000: 22999: 22996: 22995: 22913:Catholic theology 22767:Avestan geography 22632: 22631: 22628: 22627: 22615:Søren Kierkegaard 22488: 22487: 22399:Warren G. Harding 22159: 22158: 22155: 22154: 21958: 21957: 21836:Armenian genocide 21699:Polish–Soviet War 21694:Burning of Smyrna 21680: 21679: 21670:Reichstag inquiry 21593:Patriotic consent 21464: 21463: 21439:War in the Vendée 21403:French Revolution 21385:century conflicts 21374:Peloponnesian War 21335:Eighty Years' War 21221: 21220: 21217: 21216: 21197: 21196: 21193: 21192: 21126:Westminster Stone 20823:Southern question 20662:Alltagsgeschichte 20612:Legendary Saracen 20314:Early settlements 20122: 20121: 20102:Political history 20087:Consensus history 19864: 19863: 19860: 19859: 19856: 19855: 19846:Continuity thesis 19785:Translatio studii 19671:Theory of history 19607: 19606: 19603: 19602: 19561:Subaltern Studies 19446:Nouvelle histoire 19371: 19370: 19367: 19366: 19283:Medieval churches 19270:Geistesgeschichte 19214:Paleoanthropology 19122:Encyclopaedistics 19010: 19009: 19006: 19005: 18878:Secondary sources 18741: 18740: 18568:Council of Europe 18470:International law 18423:Constitutionalism 18281:Eastern Orthodoxy 17787:Post–Cold War era 17720:Age of Revolution 17574:Greco-Roman world 17512: 17511: 17438:COVID-19 pandemic 17383:French Revolution 17358:Habsburg monarchy 17338:Cossack Hetmanate 17318:Portuguese Empire 17308:Absolute monarchy 17303:Thirty Years' War 17198:Holy Roman Empire 17123:Bulgarian Empire 17082:Early Middle Ages 16999:Bronze Age Europe 16973:History of Europe 16939: 16938: 16933:History of Europe 16918: 16917: 16814:French Revolution 16809:Age of Revolution 16787: 16786: 16767:Venetian painting 16730: 16729: 16722:Leonardo da Vinci 16626: 16625: 16510: 16509: 16451:Thirty Years' War 16390:Habsburg monarchy 16347:Habsburg monarchy 16320:Cossack Hetmanate 16305:Portuguese Empire 16266:Holy Roman Empire 16247: 16246: 16229:Absolute monarchy 16210: 16209: 16162: 16161: 16011: 16010: 15979: 15978: 15975: 15974: 15031: 15030: 15027: 15026: 15004:Scientific method 14861:Critical thinking 14710:The Enlightenment 14653:(Continuum, 2011) 14618:978-84-16473-45-8 14582:Venturi, Franco. 14575:Venturi, Franco. 14572:(Continuum, 2011) 14544:Staloff, Darren. 14405:978-0-87099-451-7 14372:Cassirer, Ernst. 14369:, Edinburgh, 1982 14281:Specialty studies 14265:978-1-78374-203-5 14255:10.11647/OBP.0088 14215:978-2-7558-0330-3 14173:Outram, Dorinda. 14161:The Enlightenment 14159:Outram, Dorinda. 14137:Lehner, Ulrich L. 14116:Jacob, Margaret. 14081:The Enlightenment 14079:Hampson, Norman. 14058:The Enlightenment 14007:Chisick, Harvey. 13968:978-0-333-94505-6 13958:The Enlightenment 13937:978-2-7441-9130-5 13762:Europe: A History 13590:Europe: A History 13556:978-0-8122-0929-7 13507:978-90-04-21833-8 12958:d'Alembert, p. 4. 12712:. 5 October 2023. 12499:Beard and Gloag, 12483:Beard and Gloag, 12412:The Enlightenment 12410:Outram, Dorinda. 12397:978-1-316-19432-4 12329:Jürgen Habermas, 12287:978-0-226-40336-6 12260:978-0-226-40336-6 12233:978-1-85984-154-9 12050:, pp. 49–50. 11927:3rd Edn (revised) 11581:978-88-581-1845-0 11511:Kant: A Biography 11460:Walter de Gruyter 11356:Paul M. Spurlin, 11343:Charles C. Mann, 11278:978-1-4422-1964-9 11109:978-0-19-921917-9 10873:978-0-415-30877-9 10846:978-0-19-966093-3 10819:978-1-4381-1021-9 10792:978-1-4381-1021-9 10752:978-0-299-19083-5 10708:"Preface," 1677, 10688:978-0-521-65196-7 10661:978-0-19-975844-9 10511:Giles MacDonogh, 10459:978-0-521-43727-1 10399:Rand, B. (1900), 10275:De Dijn, Annelien 9965:Bruce P. Lenman, 9911:Kant: A Biography 9743:979-8-8681-1641-4 9564:978-1-4422-0909-1 9534:on 24 August 2023 9127:Sophie d'Houdetot 9013:Joseph-Marie Vien 8922:neo-classical art 8897:George Washington 8643:Antoine Lavoisier 8615:Learned academies 8434:Handlungs-Lexicon 8369:Lexicon Technicum 8363:Lexicon Technicum 7765:Theodor W. Adorno 7749:In the 1947 book 7551:Ritchie Robertson 7481:Islamic modernism 7406:Independence Club 7325:rule in Europe." 7293:Euclid's Elements 7290:, in translating 7175:serfdom in Russia 7158:Mikhail Lomonosov 7154:Empress Elizabeth 7107:Portuguese Empire 7027:Marquis of Pombal 6859:Giambattista Vico 6851:Joseph Schumpeter 6711:Habsburg monarchy 6659:Weimar Classicism 6622:Weimar Classicism 6580:The Age of Reason 6398:in the colony of 6346:Church of England 6341:American colonies 6279:Moses Mendelssohn 6237:Word of God alone 6233:Thirty Years' War 6164:French Revolution 6109:Great of Russia, 6094:Marquis of Pombal 5926:and required the 5888:Benjamin Franklin 5790:was the basis of 5776:William Robertson 5725:Richard Blackmore 5657:, which included 5627:Antoine Lavoisier 5564:scientific method 5548:Francis Hutcheson 5542:French Revolution 5403:modern philosophy 5187:where the phrase 5174:scientific method 5170:absolute monarchy 5112:French Revolution 5029:, and the formal 4992:the Enlightenment 4980: 4979: 4772:Communist society 4744:Socialist parties 4003:Saint-Simonianism 3592:Equal opportunity 3582:Economic planning 3519:French Revolution 3458: 3457: 3297:Bias in the media 2813:Regional variants 2130:Natural and legal 1776: 1775: 1595:Spontaneous order 1565:History of theory 1208:New institutional 1178:Market monetarism 1113:Economic theories 946:Supply and demand 881:Free price system 772: 771: 681:Weimar Classicism 633:Greco-Roman world 593: 592: 401: 400: 16:(Redirected from 24529: 24507:Secular humanism 24414: 24413: 24402: 24401: 24400: 24379:Patriarch Kirill 24252:Pope John Paul I 24057:Anti-clericalism 24037:Pope Innocent XI 23957:Society of Jesus 23942:Council of Trent 23896:Age of Discovery 23841:Late Middle Ages 23743:High Middle Ages 23733:East–West Schism 23617:Pope Sylvester I 23563: 23562: 23552: 23551: 23462:General epistles 23457:Pauline epistles 23390:John the Baptist 23373:Great Commission 23335: 23334: 23286:Catholic culture 23176: 23169: 23162: 23153: 23152: 23138: 23137: 23128: 23127: 23080:Documentary film 23061: 23060: 23040:History journals 23006: 23005: 22979: 22851: 22787:Primacy of Peter 22734:Great Depression 22714: 22713: 22687: 22665: 22638: 22637: 22586:J. R. R. Tolkien 22441: 22440: 22436: 22424: 22412: 22394:Ulysses S. Grant 22389:Thomas Jefferson 22380: 22356: 22319: 22282: 22270: 22238: 22226: 22218:Chiang Ching-kuo 22208:Cato the Younger 22198:Amin al-Husseini 22176: 22175: 22165: 22164: 22144: 22143: 22127:War and genocide 21951: 21937:Résistancialisme 21924:Battle of France 21906:Nanjing Massacre 21760: 21759: 21641: 21640: 21637: 21601: 21551: 21433: 21416: 21389: 21388: 21316:Catharism debate 21302:pre-18th century 21284:Military history 21261: 21254: 21247: 21238: 21237: 21231:By war, conflict 21227: 21226: 21175:Cambridge School 21161: 21160: 21059: 21047: 21023: 21004: 20914: 20902: 20874: 20696: 20674:Historikerstreit 20644: 20632: 20620: 20601: 20587:Cordon sanitaire 20533:New Qing History 20521:Conquest dynasty 20512: 20427:Christianization 20410: 20409: 20329: 20242: 20230: 20218: 20196: 20184: 20176:Byzantine Empire 20031:Iquicha Royalism 20020: 19986: 19985: 19909: 19881: 19880: 19870: 19869: 19813:Age of Discovery 19802:Periodization of 19799: 19798: 19773:Transhistoricity 19768:Thirty-year rule 19679: 19667: 19624: 19623: 19613: 19612: 19593:Great Man theory 19556:People's history 19518: 19423: 19422: 19415:Three-age system 19377: 19376: 19077:Archival science 19029: 19028: 19016: 19015: 18883:Tertiary sources 18863: 18862: 18850: 18849: 18799:by area of study 18768: 18761: 18754: 18745: 18744: 18613:EU Customs Union 18145:Secular humanism 18093:Christian ethics 18043:East–West Schism 18026:Physical culture 17750:Great Divergence 17700:Age of Discovery 17539: 17532: 17525: 17516: 17515: 17373:Great Divergence 17288:Age of Discovery 17233:Late Middle Ages 17203:High Middle Ages 17114:Byzantine Empire 17097:Christianization 17087:Migration Period 17022:Classical Greece 16994:Neolithic Europe 16966: 16959: 16952: 16943: 16942: 16854: 16853: 16799:Great Divergence 16757:Italian painting 16739: 16738: 16637: 16636: 16519: 16518: 16471:Seven Years' War 16413:House of Bourbon 16369:Protestant Union 16340:Economic history 16256: 16255: 16219: 16218: 16171: 16170: 16098:Age of Discovery 16078:High Renaissance 16056: 16055: 16038: 16031: 16024: 16015: 16014: 16000: 15999: 15048: 15047: 15037: 15036: 14995: 14929: 14900: 14886: 14829: 14828: 14818: 14817: 14803: 14796: 14789: 14780: 14779: 14748: 14735:Zalta, Edward N. 14682: 14656:Diderot, Denis. 14642:Diderot, Denis. 14561:Till, Nicholas. 14534: 14453: 14412:Edelstein, Dan. 14409: 14362:13, no. 4: 3–28. 14338: 14304:Brewer, Daniel. 14268: 14257: 14238: 14219: 14186: 14185:. Penguin Books. 14069: 13971: 13941: 13915: 13906: 13897: 13888: 13879: 13849:Burns, William. 13827: 13826: 13820: 13810: 13804: 13797: 13791: 13784: 13778: 13771: 13765: 13758: 13752: 13745: 13739: 13736: 13730: 13723: 13717: 13716: 13714: 13712: 13706: 13700:. Archived from 13699: 13690: 13684: 13681: 13675: 13665: 13659: 13656: 13650: 13647: 13641: 13634: 13628: 13625: 13619: 13612: 13606: 13599: 13593: 13586: 13580: 13579: 13567: 13561: 13560: 13540: 13534: 13526: 13520: 13519: 13490:Brill Publishers 13473: 13467: 13464: 13458: 13455: 13449: 13443: 13434: 13431: 13425: 13422: 13416: 13413: 13407: 13400: 13394: 13393: 13369: 13363: 13356: 13350: 13347: 13341: 13338: 13332: 13331: 13303: 13297: 13294: 13288: 13281: 13275: 13268: 13262: 13261: 13258:royalsociety.org 13254:"Royal Charters" 13250: 13244: 13241: 13235: 13232: 13226: 13219: 13213: 13206: 13200: 13197: 13191: 13184: 13178: 13157: 13151: 13144: 13138: 13137: 13127: 13121: 13120: 13112: 13106: 13105: 13073: 13067: 13064: 13058: 13055: 13049: 13046: 13040: 13037: 13031: 13028: 13022: 13019: 13013: 13010: 13004: 13001: 12995: 12992: 12986: 12983: 12977: 12974: 12968: 12965: 12959: 12956: 12950: 12947: 12941: 12938: 12932: 12929: 12923: 12920: 12914: 12911: 12902: 12899: 12890: 12884: 12878: 12872: 12866: 12860: 12854: 12847: 12841: 12838: 12832: 12825: 12819: 12818: 12808: 12802: 12792: 12786: 12779: 12770: 12763: 12757: 12754: 12748: 12742: 12736: 12729: 12723: 12720: 12714: 12713: 12702: 12696: 12692: 12686: 12683: 12677: 12674: 12668: 12661: 12655: 12652: 12646: 12639: 12633: 12630: 12624: 12617: 12611: 12604: 12598: 12591: 12585: 12578: 12572: 12569: 12563: 12560: 12554: 12551: 12545: 12542: 12536: 12533: 12522: 12515: 12504: 12497: 12488: 12481: 12472: 12465: 12459: 12452: 12446: 12444: 12439: 12433: 12430: 12424: 12421: 12415: 12408: 12402: 12401: 12381: 12375: 12372: 12366: 12349: 12343: 12340: 12334: 12327: 12321: 12314: 12308: 12298: 12292: 12291: 12271: 12265: 12264: 12244: 12238: 12237: 12215: 12209: 12208: 12207: 12205: 12196:, archived from 12187: 12181: 12168: 12162: 12161: 12150: 12144: 12137: 12131: 12122: 12116: 12107: 12101: 12081: 12075: 12069: 12063: 12057: 12051: 12045: 12039: 12038:pp. 492–494 12032: 12023: 12017: 12011: 12006:Ernst Cassirer, 12004: 11998: 11992: 11986: 11983: 11977: 11973: 11967: 11961: 11955: 11954: 11934: 11928: 11922: 11916: 11913: 11907: 11904: 11895: 11886: 11880: 11875:Ronald P. Toby, 11873: 11867: 11866: 11847: 11841: 11835: 11829: 11815: 11809: 11802: 11796: 11790: 11784: 11777: 11771: 11770: 11760: 11736: 11730: 11723: 11717: 11701: 11695: 11688: 11682: 11675: 11669: 11662: 11656: 11649: 11643: 11635:Franco Venturi, 11633: 11627: 11620: 11614: 11607: 11601: 11600: 11592: 11586: 11585: 11565: 11559: 11552: 11546: 11536: 11530: 11529: 11521: 11515: 11514: 11506: 11500: 11499: 11491: 11485: 11484: 11477: 11471: 11439: 11433: 11432: 11424: 11418: 11411: 11405: 11398: 11392: 11385: 11379: 11378: 11367: 11361: 11354: 11348: 11341: 11335: 11328: 11322: 11315: 11309: 11302: 11296: 11289: 11283: 11282: 11262: 11256: 11249: 11243: 11242: 11222: 11216: 11215: 11205: 11199: 11198: 11196: 11194: 11180: 11174: 11173: 11148:(263): 359–383. 11133: 11127: 11120: 11114: 11113: 11092: 11086: 11085:(2003) 1:409–15. 11079: 11073: 11066: 11060: 11051: 11042: 11035: 11029: 11023: 11017: 11011: 11005: 10999: 10993: 10987: 10981: 10974: 10968: 10957: 10951: 10945: 10939: 10933: 10927: 10921: 10915: 10914: 10902: 10896: 10895: 10884: 10878: 10877: 10857: 10851: 10850: 10830: 10824: 10823: 10803: 10797: 10796: 10776: 10770: 10763: 10757: 10756: 10736: 10730: 10729: 10727: 10718: 10712: 10699: 10693: 10692: 10672: 10666: 10665: 10651:Thomas Jefferson 10645: 10639: 10638: 10630: 10624: 10617: 10611: 10604: 10598: 10595: 10589: 10582: 10576: 10566: 10560: 10559: 10539: 10533: 10522: 10516: 10509: 10503: 10496: 10490: 10483: 10477: 10472:Stephen J. Lee, 10470: 10464: 10463: 10443: 10437: 10432: 10426: 10419: 10413: 10412: 10404: 10396: 10390: 10387: 10381: 10374: 10368: 10367:(1994) pp. 20–38 10361: 10355: 10354: 10352: 10350: 10339: 10333: 10326: 10320: 10319: 10309: 10303: 10302: 10271: 10265: 10258: 10252: 10245: 10239: 10238: 10232: 10224: 10222: 10220: 10209: 10203: 10200: 10194: 10187: 10181: 10174: 10168: 10167: 10139: 10133: 10132: 10131: 10129: 10120:, archived from 10105: 10099: 10096: 10090: 10087: 10081: 10078: 10072: 10069: 10063: 10060: 10054: 10051: 10045: 10043: 10041: 10039: 10034:on 30 March 2012 10030:. Archived from 10019: 10013: 10010: 10004: 10001: 9995: 9992: 9986: 9979: 9973: 9963: 9957: 9947: 9941: 9940: 9938: 9936: 9920: 9914: 9907: 9901: 9900: 9898: 9896: 9887:. Archived from 9877: 9871: 9870: 9858: 9852: 9851: 9835: 9826: 9820: 9811: 9805: 9799: 9793: 9784: 9778: 9772: 9766: 9760: 9754: 9748: 9747: 9727: 9721: 9720: 9701: 9695: 9690:Robert Darnton, 9688: 9682: 9675: 9666: 9659: 9653: 9646: 9640: 9633: 9627: 9626: 9615: 9605: 9599: 9598: 9588: 9582: 9575: 9569: 9568: 9550: 9544: 9543: 9541: 9539: 9530:. Archived from 9524: 9518: 9517: 9481: 9475: 9474: 9464: 9458: 9457: 9455: 9453: 9442: 9436: 9429: 9423: 9422: 9414: 9408: 9407: 9388: 9382: 9381: 9371: 9347: 9286: 9285: 9279: 9271: 9269: 9267: 9252: 9231: 9228: 9222: 9085:François Quesnay 9081:Fortunato Felice 9045:Étienne François 8997: 8864: 8861: 8672:In England, the 8633: 8566:Elizabeth Carter 8381:Ephraim Chambers 8298: 8286: 8255:(1746). Outside 8234: 7866:German explorer 7757:Frankfurt School 7696:Cogito, ergo sum 7673:that began with 7661:Bertrand Russell 7584:=to illuminate; 7451: 7439: 7432:, had planted a 7367: 7354:Protestant Ethic 7319:instrumentalized 7252:Antoni Poplawski 7093:. The physician 7079:Arcádia Lusitana 6998: 6938:Joseph Bonaparte 6899:House of Bourbon 6843:Alessandro Volta 6821:Alessandro Verri 6794:Antonio Genovesi 6721:Habsburg monarch 6663:Weimarer Klassik 6618:Theobald von Oer 6585:Jefferson Bible, 6211: 6162:of 1776 and the 6143:Johann Struensee 6103:philosopher-king 6059:Second Treatise, 6013:market mechanism 5987:private property 5892:Thomas Jefferson 5831:criminal justice 5707:by Voltaire and 5560:consequentialist 5554:, described the 5540:and shaping the 5301: 5194: 5093:Cogito, ergo sum 5040:and the work of 4972: 4965: 4958: 4944:Organized Labour 4942: 4941: 4930: 4929: 4928: 4913: 4912: 4857:Workers' council 4494:Gracchi Brothers 4018:Social democracy 3761:Market socialism 3749:Project Cybersyn 3677:Soviet democracy 3662:Social ownership 3617:Internationalism 3597:Free association 3567:Common ownership 3483: 3460: 3459: 3450: 3443: 3436: 3420: 3419: 3408: 3407: 3326:Economic freedom 3319:Radical centrism 2157:Secular humanism 2083:Natural monopoly 2034:Internationalism 1851:Internationalist 1801: 1778: 1777: 1768: 1761: 1754: 1738: 1737: 1726: 1725: 1530:Critique of work 1505:Capitalist state 1188:Critique of work 1071:Regulated market 973:Economic systems 926:Private property 876:Financial market 866:Entrepreneurship 861:Economic surplus 774: 773: 764: 757: 750: 618: 595: 594: 585: 578: 571: 290:Aztec philosophy 169:Ancient Egyptian 151: 150: 103: 99: 98: 97: 84: 65: 64: 61: 58: 47:in the salon of 21: 24537: 24536: 24532: 24531: 24530: 24528: 24527: 24526: 24522:Western culture 24457:Historical eras 24427: 24426: 24425: 24420: 24408: 24398: 24396: 24388: 24310:World Youth Day 24288: 24277:World Youth Day 24221:Pacem in terris 24215:Pope John XXIII 24154: 24081: 24072:Edict of Nantes 24030: 24026: 24016: 23982:Teresa of Ávila 23977:Tridentine Mass 23913: 23909: 23900: 23881:Knights Templar 23835: 23737: 23693:Gregorian chant 23651: 23577: 23574: 23571: 23569: 23558: 23546: 23473: 23342: 23330: 23322: 23189: 23187:Catholic Church 23180: 23150: 23145: 23144: 23111: 23066: 23051: 23011: 22992: 22975: 22958: 22949: 22845: 22753: 22729:Great Recession 22712: 22683: 22659: 22643: 22624: 22515:H. P. Lovecraft 22484: 22446: 22439: 22430: 22418: 22406: 22374: 22350: 22323:Muammar Gaddafi 22313: 22301:Leonid Brezhnev 22276: 22264: 22247:Gregory Palamas 22232: 22230:Chiang Kai Shek 22220: 22180: 22170: 22151: 22150: 22131: 22112:Conflict thesis 22100: 22064: 21954: 21945: 21912: 21876: 21806: 21758: 21720: 21686:Interwar period 21676: 21646: 21639: 21631: 21615:Schlieffen Plan 21595: 21556: 21545: 21460: 21427: 21410: 21395: 21384: 21378: 21362:Dorian invasion 21347:Fall of Babylon 21303: 21297: 21296: 21273: 21265: 21232: 21213: 21189: 21166: 21159: 21121:Kingdom of Alba 21102: 21095: 21062: 21053: 21041: 21039:Spanish decline 21017: 20998: 20953: 20908: 20896: 20877: 20868: 20834: 20775: 20740: 20726:Greater Magadha 20712: 20690: 20647: 20638: 20626: 20614: 20595: 20574: 20548:Four Barbarians 20506: 20480: 20408: 20365:Götaland theory 20333:Lusotropicalism 20323: 20304:North Macedonia 20236: 20224: 20212: 20190: 20178: 20118: 20097:Frontier thesis 20092:Cyclical theory 20075:Neoabolitionism 20051: 20014: 19984: 19946: 19923:Greater Morocco 19903: 19875: 19852: 19803: 19797: 19689: 19673: 19661: 19618: 19599: 19512: 19427: 19421: 19403:Historical eras 19384: 19363: 19198: 19095:Writing systems 19065: 19023: 19021:Fields of study 19002: 18996:Service records 18981:Religious texts 18887: 18873:Primary sources 18857: 18844: 18843: 18777: 18772: 18742: 18737: 18703:UKUSA Agreement 18643:Lublin Triangle 18528:Baltic Assembly 18480: 18474: 18392: 18229: 18064: 17934:Eurolinguistics 17803: 17792:Information age 17765:Interwar period 17632: 17552: 17543: 17513: 17508: 17447: 17413:Interwar period 17388:Napoleonic Wars 17252: 17223:Mongol invasion 17176:Crown of Aragon 17068: 17008: 17004:Iron Age Europe 16975: 16970: 16940: 16935: 16914: 16888: 16845: 16783: 16749:Renaissance art 16726: 16717:Matteo Palmieri 16687: 16671: 16660:Northern Europe 16632: 16622: 16506: 16475: 16434: 16398:House of Stuart 16378: 16243: 16206: 16158: 16129:Northern Europe 16117: 16093:Elizabethan era 16047: 16042: 16012: 16007: 16006: 15993: 15971: 15933: 15835: 15792: 15771: 15718: 15687: 15683:Carvalho e Melo 15671: 15618: 15552: 15504: 15468: 15435: 15354: 15313: 15157: 15042: 15023: 15009:Spanish America 14883:Encyclopédistes 14846:Civil liberties 14823: 14812: 14807: 14739:"Enlightenment" 14730: 14725: 14679: 14628: 14626:Primary sources 14623: 14537:Sorkin, David. 14523:10.2307/3654234 14456:Goodman, Dena. 14406: 14392: 14383:Chartier, Roger 14348:Buchan, James. 14283: 14278: 14275:(1992). 581 pp. 14266: 14241: 14235: 14216: 14163:(1995) 157 pp. 14152:Munck, Thomas. 14018:(2001) 1480 pp. 14014:Delon, Michel. 13999:Becker, Carl L. 13994: 13989: 13987:Further reading 13984: 13969: 13938: 13864:Darnton, Robert 13835: 13830: 13811: 13807: 13798: 13794: 13785: 13781: 13772: 13768: 13759: 13755: 13746: 13742: 13737: 13733: 13724: 13720: 13710: 13708: 13704: 13697: 13691: 13687: 13682: 13678: 13666: 13662: 13657: 13653: 13648: 13644: 13635: 13631: 13626: 13622: 13613: 13609: 13600: 13596: 13588:Norman Davies, 13587: 13583: 13568: 13564: 13557: 13541: 13537: 13527: 13523: 13508: 13478:Jacob, Margaret 13476:Crow, Matthew; 13474: 13470: 13465: 13461: 13457:Andrew, 412–15. 13456: 13452: 13444: 13437: 13432: 13428: 13423: 13419: 13414: 13410: 13401: 13397: 13382:10.2307/2652433 13370: 13366: 13357: 13353: 13348: 13344: 13339: 13335: 13320:10.2307/3817904 13304: 13300: 13295: 13291: 13282: 13278: 13270:Steven Shapin, 13269: 13265: 13252: 13251: 13247: 13242: 13238: 13233: 13229: 13220: 13216: 13207: 13203: 13198: 13194: 13185: 13181: 13158: 13154: 13145: 13141: 13128: 13124: 13113: 13109: 13074: 13070: 13065: 13061: 13056: 13052: 13047: 13043: 13038: 13034: 13029: 13025: 13020: 13016: 13011: 13007: 13002: 12998: 12993: 12989: 12984: 12980: 12975: 12971: 12966: 12962: 12957: 12953: 12948: 12944: 12939: 12935: 12930: 12926: 12921: 12917: 12912: 12905: 12900: 12893: 12885: 12881: 12877:, pp. 142. 12873: 12869: 12861: 12857: 12848: 12844: 12839: 12835: 12826: 12822: 12809: 12805: 12793: 12789: 12780: 12773: 12764: 12760: 12755: 12751: 12743: 12739: 12730: 12726: 12721: 12717: 12704: 12703: 12699: 12693: 12689: 12684: 12680: 12676:Outram, 17, 20. 12675: 12671: 12662: 12658: 12653: 12649: 12640: 12636: 12631: 12627: 12618: 12614: 12605: 12601: 12592: 12588: 12579: 12575: 12570: 12566: 12561: 12557: 12552: 12548: 12543: 12539: 12534: 12525: 12516: 12507: 12498: 12491: 12482: 12475: 12466: 12462: 12453: 12449: 12442: 12440: 12436: 12431: 12427: 12422: 12418: 12409: 12405: 12398: 12382: 12378: 12373: 12369: 12350: 12346: 12341: 12337: 12328: 12324: 12315: 12311: 12299: 12295: 12288: 12272: 12268: 12261: 12245: 12241: 12234: 12216: 12212: 12203: 12201: 12188: 12184: 12171:Anderson, M. S. 12169: 12165: 12152: 12151: 12147: 12138: 12134: 12123: 12119: 12108: 12104: 12082: 12078: 12070: 12066: 12058: 12054: 12046: 12042: 12033: 12026: 12018: 12014: 12005: 12001: 11993: 11989: 11984: 11980: 11974: 11970: 11962: 11958: 11935: 11931: 11923: 11919: 11914: 11910: 11905: 11898: 11887: 11883: 11874: 11870: 11864: 11858:Wayback Machine 11848: 11844: 11836: 11832: 11816: 11812: 11806:Russian History 11803: 11799: 11791: 11787: 11778: 11774: 11737: 11733: 11724: 11720: 11702: 11698: 11689: 11685: 11676: 11672: 11663: 11659: 11650: 11646: 11634: 11630: 11621: 11617: 11608: 11604: 11593: 11589: 11582: 11566: 11562: 11553: 11549: 11539:Thomas P. Saine 11537: 11533: 11522: 11518: 11507: 11503: 11492: 11488: 11478: 11474: 11456:Rudolf Vierhaus 11440: 11436: 11425: 11421: 11412: 11408: 11399: 11395: 11386: 11382: 11369: 11368: 11364: 11355: 11351: 11342: 11338: 11329: 11325: 11316: 11312: 11303: 11299: 11290: 11286: 11279: 11263: 11259: 11250: 11246: 11239: 11223: 11219: 11206: 11202: 11192: 11190: 11182: 11181: 11177: 11134: 11130: 11121: 11117: 11110: 11093: 11089: 11080: 11076: 11068:Peter Gay, ed. 11067: 11063: 11058:Teresa A. Meade 11052: 11045: 11036: 11032: 11024: 11020: 11012: 11008: 11000: 10996: 10988: 10984: 10978:Divided by God. 10975: 10971: 10961:Divided by God. 10958: 10954: 10946: 10942: 10934: 10930: 10922: 10918: 10903: 10899: 10885: 10881: 10874: 10858: 10854: 10847: 10831: 10827: 10820: 10804: 10800: 10793: 10777: 10773: 10764: 10760: 10753: 10737: 10733: 10725: 10719: 10715: 10700: 10696: 10689: 10673: 10669: 10662: 10646: 10642: 10631: 10627: 10618: 10614: 10605: 10601: 10596: 10592: 10583: 10579: 10567: 10563: 10556: 10540: 10536: 10523: 10519: 10510: 10506: 10497: 10493: 10484: 10480: 10471: 10467: 10460: 10444: 10440: 10433: 10429: 10420: 10416: 10397: 10393: 10388: 10384: 10375: 10371: 10363:Pierre Manent, 10362: 10358: 10348: 10346: 10341: 10340: 10336: 10327: 10323: 10310: 10306: 10272: 10268: 10260:Daniel Brewer, 10259: 10255: 10246: 10242: 10226: 10225: 10218: 10216: 10211: 10210: 10206: 10201: 10197: 10188: 10184: 10175: 10171: 10140: 10136: 10127: 10125: 10106: 10102: 10097: 10093: 10088: 10084: 10079: 10075: 10070: 10066: 10061: 10057: 10052: 10048: 10037: 10035: 10026: 10020: 10016: 10011: 10007: 10002: 9998: 9993: 9989: 9980: 9976: 9964: 9960: 9948: 9944: 9934: 9932: 9921: 9917: 9909:Manfred Kuehn, 9908: 9904: 9894: 9892: 9879: 9878: 9874: 9859: 9855: 9836: 9829: 9821: 9814: 9808:Haakonssen 2008 9806: 9802: 9796:Haakonssen 2008 9794: 9787: 9779: 9775: 9767: 9763: 9755: 9751: 9744: 9728: 9724: 9717: 9703: 9702: 9698: 9689: 9685: 9676: 9669: 9661:Sootin, Harry. 9660: 9656: 9647: 9643: 9634: 9630: 9624: 9606: 9602: 9589: 9585: 9576: 9572: 9565: 9551: 9547: 9537: 9535: 9526: 9525: 9521: 9482: 9478: 9465: 9461: 9451: 9449: 9444: 9443: 9439: 9430: 9426: 9415: 9411: 9405: 9389: 9385: 9362:(4): 999–1027. 9348: 9289: 9273: 9272: 9265: 9263: 9254: 9253: 9249: 9245: 9240: 9235: 9234: 9229: 9225: 9219:Comte de Buffon 9120: 9117:Alexis Clairaut 9065:Edmé Bouchardon 9049:duc de Choiseul 8998: 8994: 8989: 8930: 8906: 8876:original intent 8862: 8836: 8786: 8780: 8768:bruits publics, 8716: 8710: 8698: 8692: 8617: 8597: 8591: 8570:Henry Pemberton 8496: 8401:, brewing, and 8315: 8274: 8220: 8218:Natural history 8120: 8073:gens de lettres 8013: 7990: 7978:Die Zauberflöte 7920: 7825: 7816:Jürgen Habermas 7747: 7727:Napoleonic Wars 7701:epistemological 7691: 7627: 7568:(used first by 7560: 7543:Reign of Terror 7535: 7493: 7485:Rifa al-Tahtawi 7458: 7449: 7437: 7418: 7398: 7365: 7331: 7272: 7197: 7191: 7147: 7128:The Napoleonic 7067:colonial Brazil 7052:Pombaline style 7019: 7013: 6996: 6970: 6950:Cortes de Cádiz 6881: 6873:Main articles: 6871: 6778:Cesare Beccaria 6770: 6764: 6713: 6655:Sturm und Drang 6603: 6593: 6537: 6531: 6499: 6448:Anthony Collins 6436:Joshua Reynolds 6419: 6413: 6408: 6392:slave rebellion 6358: 6333: 6325:Main articles: 6323: 6302:God the Creator 6296:. According to 6250:Jefferson Bible 6241:Anthony Collins 6213: 6210:Voltaire (1763) 6209: 6200: 6156: 6086: 6080: 5979:state of nature 5936:social contract 5916:social contract 5904: 5851: 5754:Hume and other 5748:Cesare Beccaria 5741: 5655:natural history 5635:hot air balloon 5622: 5616: 5507:Encyclopédistes 5460:Christian Wolff 5456:Jonathan Israel 5423:method of doubt 5413:and Descartes' 5392: 5387: 5333:(1764); Hume's 5252:George Berkeley 5248:Cesare Beccaria 5220:Pierre Gassendi 5208: 5201: 5131:literary salons 5054:Pierre Gassendi 5046:Galileo Galilei 5042:Johannes Kepler 4976: 4936: 4926: 4924: 4907: 4900: 4899: 4870: 4862: 4861: 4852:Socialist state 4847:Socialist Party 4792:Economic system 4757: 4749: 4748: 4734: 4724: 4723: 4489: 4481: 4480: 4061: 4053: 4052: 3868:Democratic road 3803: 3793: 3792: 3719: 3711: 3710: 3657:Social dividend 3647:Sharing economy 3547: 3539: 3538: 3509: 3501: 3454: 3414: 3402: 3395: 3394: 3277: 3269: 3268: 3071:North Macedonia 2815: 2805: 2804: 2803: 2802: 2793:Liberal parties 2731: 2723: 2722: 2513: 2505: 2504: 2235: 2225: 2224: 2209: 2199: 2198: 2194:State of nature 2182:Social services 2172:Social contract 2135:To own property 1938: 1930: 1929: 1809: 1772: 1732: 1720: 1713: 1712: 1618: 1610: 1609: 1585:Post-capitalism 1490:Anti-capitalism 1485: 1477: 1476: 1372: 1364: 1363: 1284: 1276: 1275: 1226: 1218: 1217: 1114: 1106: 1105: 1096:State-sponsored 974: 966: 965: 831:Capital markets 796: 768: 589: 560: 559: 525:Epistemologists 515: 514: 503: 502: 439: 415: 414: 403: 402: 148: 147: 136: 95: 93: 92: 59: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 24535: 24525: 24524: 24519: 24514: 24509: 24504: 24499: 24494: 24489: 24484: 24482:Libertarianism 24479: 24474: 24469: 24464: 24459: 24454: 24449: 24444: 24439: 24422: 24421: 24419: 24418: 24406: 24393: 24390: 24389: 24387: 24386: 24381: 24376: 24369: 24364: 24359: 24358: 24357: 24352: 24347: 24342: 24337: 24332: 24327: 24322: 24317: 24307: 24302: 24296: 24294: 24290: 24289: 24287: 24286: 24285: 24284: 24274: 24269: 24264: 24259: 24254: 24249: 24239: 24234: 24229: 24224: 24217: 24212: 24205: 24200: 24198:Lateran Treaty 24195: 24190: 24185: 24180: 24175: 24170: 24164: 24162: 24156: 24155: 24153: 24152: 24145: 24140: 24135: 24130: 24125: 24120: 24115: 24110: 24105: 24100: 24095: 24089: 24087: 24083: 24082: 24080: 24079: 24074: 24069: 24064: 24059: 24054: 24049: 24044: 24039: 24033: 24031: 24023:Baroque period 24021: 24018: 24017: 24015: 24014: 24009: 24004: 23999: 23994: 23992:Peter Canisius 23989: 23984: 23979: 23974: 23969: 23967:Francis Xavier 23964: 23959: 23954: 23949: 23944: 23939: 23934: 23931:Exsurge Domine 23927: 23922: 23916: 23914: 23905: 23902: 23901: 23899: 23898: 23893: 23888: 23883: 23878: 23873: 23871:Pope Clement V 23868: 23867: 23866: 23864:Avignon Papacy 23859:Western Schism 23856: 23851: 23849:Thomas Aquinas 23845: 23843: 23837: 23836: 23834: 23833: 23828: 23823: 23818: 23813: 23808: 23803: 23798: 23793: 23788: 23783: 23778: 23773: 23768: 23763: 23758: 23753: 23747: 23745: 23739: 23738: 23736: 23735: 23730: 23725: 23720: 23715: 23710: 23705: 23703:Saint Boniface 23700: 23695: 23690: 23688:Pope Gregory I 23685: 23680: 23675: 23669: 23667: 23661: 23660: 23657: 23656: 23653: 23652: 23650: 23649: 23644: 23639: 23634: 23629: 23627:Biblical canon 23624: 23619: 23614: 23609: 23604: 23599: 23594: 23593: 23592: 23581: 23579: 23560: 23556:Late antiquity 23548: 23547: 23545: 23544: 23539: 23534: 23529: 23524: 23523: 23522: 23517: 23516: 23515: 23510: 23505: 23503:Pope Clement I 23493:Church Fathers 23490: 23484: 23482: 23475: 23474: 23472: 23471: 23470: 23469: 23464: 23459: 23454: 23449: 23444: 23434: 23429: 23424: 23419: 23418: 23417: 23412: 23407: 23402: 23392: 23387: 23382: 23377: 23376: 23375: 23370: 23365: 23360: 23349: 23347: 23332: 23324: 23323: 23321: 23320: 23315: 23310: 23305: 23300: 23299: 23298: 23293: 23283: 23278: 23273: 23268: 23263: 23262: 23261: 23256: 23254:Biblical canon 23249:Catholic Bible 23246: 23245: 23244: 23234: 23233: 23232: 23222: 23217: 23212: 23211: 23210: 23199: 23197: 23191: 23190: 23179: 23178: 23171: 23164: 23156: 23147: 23146: 23143: 23142: 23132: 23121: 23120: 23117: 23116: 23113: 23112: 23110: 23109: 23104: 23103: 23102: 23097: 23087: 23082: 23077: 23071: 23068: 23067: 23057: 23056: 23053: 23052: 23050: 23049: 23048: 23047: 23037: 23032: 23022: 23016: 23013: 23012: 23002: 23001: 22998: 22997: 22994: 22993: 22991: 22990: 22985: 22980: 22973: 22968: 22962: 22960: 22951: 22950: 22948: 22947: 22946: 22945: 22940: 22935: 22930: 22925: 22920: 22915: 22910: 22902: 22901: 22900: 22888: 22883: 22882: 22881: 22876: 22871: 22861: 22856: 22855: 22854: 22853: 22852: 22830: 22829: 22828: 22823: 22818: 22813: 22803: 22802: 22801: 22796: 22795: 22794: 22784: 22779: 22769: 22763: 22761: 22755: 22754: 22752: 22751: 22750: 22749: 22744: 22736: 22731: 22726: 22720: 22718: 22711: 22710: 22705: 22700: 22693: 22688: 22681: 22676: 22671: 22666: 22654: 22648: 22645: 22644: 22634: 22633: 22630: 22629: 22626: 22625: 22623: 22622: 22617: 22612: 22607: 22602: 22597: 22596: 22595: 22583: 22582: 22581: 22580: 22579: 22574: 22569: 22559: 22554: 22544: 22543: 22542: 22537: 22532: 22522: 22517: 22512: 22507: 22505:Charles Darwin 22502: 22496: 22494: 22490: 22489: 22486: 22485: 22483: 22482: 22477: 22475:United Kingdom 22472: 22467: 22465:Modern Germany 22462: 22457: 22451: 22449: 22438: 22437: 22425: 22413: 22401: 22396: 22391: 22386: 22384:Thomas Aquinas 22381: 22369: 22364: 22363: 22362: 22357: 22340: 22335: 22330: 22325: 22320: 22308: 22303: 22298: 22293: 22288: 22283: 22271: 22259: 22254: 22252:Horatio Nelson 22249: 22244: 22239: 22227: 22215: 22210: 22205: 22200: 22195: 22190: 22184: 22182: 22172: 22171: 22161: 22160: 22157: 22156: 22153: 22152: 22149: 22148: 22137: 22136: 22133: 22132: 22130: 22129: 22124: 22119: 22114: 22108: 22106: 22102: 22101: 22099: 22098: 22097: 22096: 22088: 22087: 22086: 22084:Responsibility 22081: 22072: 22070: 22066: 22065: 22063: 22062: 22061: 22060: 22052: 22051: 22050: 22040: 22035: 22034: 22033: 22025: 22024: 22023: 22015: 22010: 22009: 22008: 22000: 21999: 21998: 21996:New Historians 21993: 21988: 21974: 21968: 21966: 21960: 21959: 21956: 21955: 21953: 21952: 21940: 21933: 21926: 21920: 21918: 21914: 21913: 21911: 21910: 21909: 21908: 21900: 21895: 21890: 21884: 21882: 21878: 21877: 21875: 21874: 21869: 21864: 21862:Responsibility 21859: 21854: 21853: 21852: 21842: 21832: 21827: 21822: 21816: 21814: 21808: 21807: 21805: 21804: 21803: 21802: 21797: 21787: 21782: 21777: 21772: 21766: 21764: 21757: 21756: 21751: 21746: 21741: 21736: 21730: 21728: 21722: 21721: 21719: 21718: 21717: 21716: 21708: 21707: 21706: 21696: 21690: 21688: 21682: 21681: 21678: 21677: 21675: 21674: 21673: 21672: 21667: 21657: 21651: 21649: 21638: 21626: 21620:Spirit of 1914 21617: 21612: 21607: 21602: 21590: 21580: 21577:Fischer thesis 21566: 21564: 21558: 21557: 21555: 21554: 21553: 21552: 21540: 21532: 21531: 21530: 21520: 21518:Paraguayan War 21515: 21514: 21513: 21503: 21498: 21497: 21496: 21491: 21483: 21482: 21481: 21476: 21465: 21462: 21461: 21459: 21458: 21457: 21456: 21451: 21444:Napoleonic era 21441: 21436: 21435: 21434: 21422: 21417: 21408:Pre-revolution 21399: 21397: 21393:Coalition Wars 21386: 21380: 21379: 21377: 21376: 21371: 21370: 21369: 21364: 21354: 21349: 21344: 21343: 21342: 21332: 21331: 21330: 21320: 21319: 21318: 21307: 21305: 21299: 21298: 21295: 21294: 21287: 21279: 21278: 21275: 21274: 21271:historiography 21264: 21263: 21256: 21249: 21241: 21234: 21233: 21223: 21222: 21219: 21218: 21215: 21214: 21212: 21211: 21205: 21203: 21199: 21198: 21195: 21194: 21191: 21190: 21188: 21187: 21182: 21177: 21171: 21169: 21158: 21157: 21152: 21151: 21150: 21140: 21135: 21130: 21129: 21128: 21123: 21113: 21107: 21105: 21097: 21096: 21094: 21093: 21092: 21091: 21089:Decline thesis 21086: 21079:Ottoman Empire 21076: 21070: 21068: 21064: 21063: 21061: 21060: 21048: 21036: 21031: 21026: 21025: 21024: 21005: 20993: 20988: 20981: 20976: 20971: 20961: 20959: 20955: 20954: 20952: 20951: 20950: 20949: 20944: 20939: 20929: 20928: 20927: 20917: 20916: 20915: 20906:Skeptic School 20891: 20889:Anti-Normanism 20885: 20883: 20879: 20878: 20876: 20875: 20863: 20858: 20853: 20848: 20846:Golden Liberty 20842: 20840: 20836: 20835: 20833: 20832: 20831: 20830: 20828:Neo-Bourbonism 20820: 20815: 20808: 20801: 20796: 20789: 20783: 20781: 20777: 20776: 20774: 20773: 20768: 20763: 20756: 20750: 20748: 20742: 20741: 20739: 20738: 20733: 20728: 20722: 20720: 20714: 20713: 20711: 20710: 20703: 20698: 20684: 20677: 20670: 20668:Borussian myth 20665: 20657: 20655: 20649: 20648: 20646: 20645: 20633: 20621: 20609: 20602: 20590: 20582: 20580: 20576: 20575: 20573: 20572: 20567: 20562: 20557: 20556: 20555: 20550: 20540: 20535: 20530: 20529: 20528: 20518: 20513: 20501: 20496: 20490: 20488: 20482: 20481: 20479: 20478: 20477: 20476: 20471: 20466: 20461: 20451: 20446: 20441: 20436: 20435: 20434: 20424: 20418: 20416: 20407: 20406: 20405: 20404: 20399: 20389: 20388: 20387: 20379: 20374: 20369: 20368: 20367: 20359: 20358: 20357: 20347: 20346: 20345: 20337: 20336: 20335: 20318: 20317: 20316: 20306: 20301: 20300: 20299: 20294: 20284: 20279: 20278: 20277: 20269: 20268: 20267: 20257: 20256: 20255: 20245: 20244: 20243: 20231: 20219: 20204: 20199: 20198: 20197: 20173: 20168: 20167: 20166: 20158: 20153: 20152: 20151: 20143: 20142: 20141: 20139:Dealbanisation 20130: 20128: 20124: 20123: 20120: 20119: 20117: 20116: 20111: 20110: 20109: 20099: 20094: 20089: 20084: 20083: 20082: 20077: 20072: 20061: 20059: 20053: 20052: 20050: 20049: 20048: 20047: 20035: 20034: 20033: 20023: 20022: 20021: 20009: 20003:May Revolution 19994: 19992: 19983: 19982: 19977: 19976: 19975: 19973:Staples thesis 19970: 19965: 19954: 19952: 19948: 19947: 19945: 19944: 19937: 19936: 19935: 19927: 19926: 19925: 19917: 19912: 19911: 19910: 19898: 19889: 19887: 19877: 19876: 19866: 19865: 19862: 19861: 19858: 19857: 19854: 19853: 19851: 19850: 19849: 19848: 19838: 19829: 19820: 19815: 19809: 19807: 19805:modern history 19796: 19795: 19788: 19775: 19770: 19765: 19764: 19763: 19751: 19749:Paradigm shift 19746: 19741: 19736: 19731: 19722: 19717: 19712: 19703: 19697: 19695: 19691: 19690: 19688: 19687: 19682: 19681: 19680: 19656: 19651: 19646: 19641: 19636: 19630: 19628: 19620: 19619: 19609: 19608: 19605: 19604: 19601: 19600: 19598: 19597: 19596: 19595: 19585: 19580: 19575: 19570: 19565: 19564: 19563: 19553: 19552: 19551: 19546: 19536: 19535: 19534: 19524: 19519: 19507: 19502: 19497: 19492: 19487: 19482: 19477: 19476: 19475: 19465: 19460: 19451: 19450: 19449: 19442: 19435:Annales school 19431: 19429: 19420: 19419: 19418: 19417: 19412: 19405: 19395: 19389: 19386: 19385: 19373: 19372: 19369: 19368: 19365: 19364: 19362: 19361: 19360: 19359: 19354: 19349: 19348: 19347: 19337: 19332: 19327: 19322: 19317: 19307: 19306: 19305: 19300: 19298:Constitutional 19290: 19285: 19280: 19275: 19274: 19273: 19261: 19260: 19259: 19254: 19249: 19244: 19234: 19221: 19216: 19206: 19204: 19200: 19199: 19197: 19196: 19191: 19186: 19181: 19176: 19174:Postage stamps 19171: 19166: 19161: 19160: 19159: 19149: 19144: 19139: 19134: 19129: 19124: 19119: 19114: 19113: 19112: 19102: 19097: 19088: 19073: 19071: 19067: 19066: 19064: 19063: 19058: 19053: 19052: 19051: 19041: 19035: 19033: 19025: 19024: 19012: 19011: 19008: 19007: 19004: 19003: 19001: 19000: 18999: 18998: 18988: 18983: 18978: 18973: 18971:Oral tradition 18968: 18967: 18966: 18956: 18951: 18946: 18941: 18936: 18931: 18926: 18921: 18916: 18911: 18906: 18901: 18895: 18893: 18889: 18888: 18886: 18885: 18880: 18875: 18869: 18867: 18859: 18858: 18846: 18845: 18842: 18841: 18834: 18827: 18820: 18812: 18811: 18804: 18803: 18802: 18783: 18782: 18779: 18778: 18775:Historiography 18771: 18770: 18763: 18756: 18748: 18739: 18738: 18736: 18735: 18733:Westernization 18730: 18725: 18720: 18715: 18713:Visegrád Group 18710: 18705: 18700: 18695: 18690: 18685: 18680: 18675: 18670: 18665: 18660: 18655: 18653:Nordic Council 18650: 18645: 18640: 18635: 18630: 18625: 18620: 18615: 18610: 18605: 18600: 18595: 18590: 18585: 18580: 18575: 18570: 18565: 18560: 18555: 18550: 18548:Bucharest Nine 18545: 18540: 18535: 18530: 18525: 18520: 18515: 18513:Arctic Council 18510: 18505: 18500: 18495: 18490: 18484: 18482: 18476: 18475: 18473: 18472: 18467: 18462: 18461: 18460: 18455: 18450: 18445: 18440: 18435: 18425: 18420: 18419: 18418: 18408: 18402: 18400: 18394: 18393: 18391: 18390: 18385: 18380: 18379: 18378: 18373: 18368: 18363: 18358: 18357: 18356: 18351: 18346: 18341: 18331: 18326: 18321: 18311: 18310: 18309: 18308: 18307: 18297: 18296: 18295: 18290: 18289: 18288: 18278: 18277: 18276: 18266: 18265: 18264: 18239: 18237: 18231: 18230: 18228: 18227: 18226: 18225: 18215: 18210: 18205: 18204: 18203: 18191: 18190: 18189: 18179: 18174: 18169: 18164: 18159: 18154: 18149: 18148: 18147: 18142: 18132: 18131: 18130: 18123:Existentialism 18120: 18115: 18110: 18105: 18100: 18095: 18090: 18085: 18080: 18074: 18072: 18066: 18065: 18063: 18062: 18061: 18060: 18055: 18050: 18045: 18035: 18034: 18033: 18023: 18022: 18021: 18016: 18006: 18005: 18004: 17994: 17989: 17988: 17987: 17982: 17977: 17967: 17966: 17965: 17955: 17954: 17953: 17943: 17942: 17941: 17936: 17926: 17921: 17916: 17911: 17910: 17909: 17899: 17894: 17893: 17892: 17882: 17881: 17880: 17870: 17869: 17868: 17858: 17853: 17852: 17851: 17841: 17836: 17835: 17834: 17829: 17824: 17813: 17811: 17805: 17804: 17802: 17801: 17800: 17799: 17794: 17784: 17783: 17782: 17777: 17772: 17767: 17762: 17757: 17752: 17747: 17742: 17737: 17732: 17727: 17722: 17717: 17712: 17707: 17702: 17697: 17687: 17682: 17681: 17680: 17675: 17670: 17660: 17659: 17658: 17656:Late antiquity 17648: 17642: 17640: 17634: 17633: 17631: 17630: 17625: 17620: 17615: 17610: 17609: 17608: 17607: 17606: 17601: 17591: 17586: 17581: 17571: 17566: 17560: 17558: 17554: 17553: 17542: 17541: 17534: 17527: 17519: 17510: 17509: 17507: 17506: 17501: 17496: 17491: 17486: 17481: 17476: 17471: 17466: 17461: 17455: 17453: 17449: 17448: 17446: 17445: 17440: 17435: 17430: 17425: 17420: 17415: 17410: 17405: 17400: 17395: 17390: 17385: 17380: 17375: 17370: 17365: 17363:Russian Empire 17360: 17355: 17353:British Empire 17350: 17348:Dutch Republic 17345: 17343:Swedish Empire 17340: 17335: 17330: 17325: 17323:Spanish Empire 17320: 17315: 17313:Ottoman Empire 17310: 17305: 17300: 17295: 17290: 17285: 17284: 17283: 17273: 17268: 17262: 17260: 17254: 17253: 17251: 17250: 17245: 17240: 17235: 17230: 17228:Serbian Empire 17225: 17220: 17215: 17210: 17205: 17200: 17195: 17173: 17168: 17163: 17162: 17161: 17156: 17151: 17146: 17136: 17135: 17134: 17129: 17121: 17116: 17111: 17106: 17101: 17100: 17099: 17089: 17084: 17078: 17076: 17070: 17069: 17067: 17066: 17064:Late antiquity 17061: 17056: 17051: 17050: 17049: 17039: 17034: 17029: 17027:Roman Republic 17024: 17018: 17016: 17010: 17009: 17007: 17006: 17001: 16996: 16991: 16985: 16983: 16977: 16976: 16969: 16968: 16961: 16954: 16946: 16937: 16936: 16923: 16920: 16919: 16916: 16915: 16913: 16912: 16907: 16902: 16896: 16894: 16890: 16889: 16887: 16886: 16881: 16876: 16871: 16866: 16860: 16858: 16851: 16847: 16846: 16844: 16843: 16838: 16833: 16832: 16831: 16826: 16819:Coalition Wars 16816: 16811: 16806: 16801: 16795: 16793: 16789: 16788: 16785: 16784: 16782: 16781: 16780: 16779: 16774: 16769: 16764: 16759: 16751: 16745: 16743: 16736: 16732: 16731: 16728: 16727: 16725: 16724: 16719: 16714: 16709: 16703: 16695: 16693: 16689: 16688: 16686: 16685: 16679: 16677: 16673: 16672: 16670: 16669: 16664: 16663: 16662: 16652: 16647: 16643: 16641: 16634: 16628: 16627: 16624: 16623: 16621: 16620: 16615: 16610: 16609: 16608: 16603: 16598: 16593: 16588: 16583: 16578: 16573: 16563: 16558: 16553: 16548: 16547: 16546: 16536: 16531: 16525: 16523: 16516: 16512: 16511: 16508: 16507: 16505: 16504: 16499: 16494: 16489: 16483: 16481: 16477: 16476: 16474: 16473: 16468: 16463: 16458: 16453: 16448: 16442: 16440: 16436: 16435: 16433: 16432: 16431: 16430: 16425: 16420: 16415: 16407: 16406: 16405: 16403:House of Tudor 16400: 16392: 16386: 16384: 16380: 16379: 16377: 16376: 16371: 16366: 16365: 16364: 16354: 16352:Russian Empire 16349: 16344: 16343: 16342: 16337: 16330:Dutch Republic 16327: 16325:Swedish Empire 16322: 16317: 16312: 16310:Spanish Empire 16307: 16302: 16300:Ottoman Empire 16297: 16296: 16295: 16293:British Empire 16285: 16280: 16275: 16274: 16273: 16262: 16260: 16253: 16249: 16248: 16245: 16244: 16242: 16241: 16236: 16231: 16225: 16223: 16216: 16215:Social history 16212: 16211: 16208: 16207: 16205: 16204: 16199: 16196: 16191: 16190:Technological: 16188: 16183: 16177: 16175: 16168: 16164: 16163: 16160: 16159: 16157: 16156: 16151: 16146: 16141: 16136: 16131: 16125: 16123: 16119: 16118: 16116: 16115: 16110: 16105: 16100: 16095: 16090: 16085: 16080: 16075: 16074: 16073: 16062: 16060: 16053: 16049: 16048: 16041: 16040: 16033: 16026: 16018: 16009: 16008: 16005: 16004: 15986: 15985: 15984: 15981: 15980: 15977: 15976: 15973: 15972: 15970: 15969: 15964: 15959: 15954: 15949: 15943: 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15378: 15373: 15368: 15362: 15360: 15356: 15355: 15353: 15352: 15347: 15342: 15337: 15332: 15327: 15321: 15319: 15315: 15314: 15312: 15311: 15306: 15301: 15296: 15291: 15286: 15281: 15276: 15271: 15266: 15261: 15256: 15251: 15246: 15241: 15236: 15231: 15226: 15221: 15216: 15211: 15206: 15201: 15196: 15191: 15186: 15181: 15176: 15171: 15165: 15163: 15159: 15158: 15156: 15155: 15153:Wollstonecraft 15150: 15145: 15140: 15135: 15130: 15125: 15120: 15115: 15110: 15105: 15100: 15095: 15090: 15085: 15080: 15075: 15070: 15065: 15060: 15054: 15052: 15044: 15043: 15033: 15032: 15029: 15028: 15025: 15024: 15022: 15021: 15016: 15011: 15006: 15001: 14996: 14987: 14982: 14977: 14972: 14967: 14962: 14957: 14952: 14947: 14942: 14937: 14930: 14921: 14916: 14911: 14906: 14901: 14892: 14887: 14878: 14873: 14868: 14863: 14858: 14853: 14848: 14843: 14838: 14832: 14825: 14824: 14814: 14813: 14806: 14805: 14798: 14791: 14783: 14777: 14776: 14767: 14758: 14749: 14729: 14728:External links 14726: 14724: 14723: 14713: 14703: 14693: 14683: 14677: 14667:, ed. (1973). 14661: 14654: 14647: 14640: 14629: 14627: 14624: 14622: 14621: 14610: 14603: 14590: 14580: 14573: 14566: 14559: 14552: 14548:2005. 419 pp. 14542: 14535: 14517:(3): 421–443. 14506: 14499: 14492: 14488:2000. 608 pp. 14482: 14477:May, Henry F. 14475: 14468: 14463:Hesse, Carla. 14461: 14454: 14428:(2): 217–231. 14417: 14410: 14404: 14390: 14380: 14370: 14363: 14356: 14346: 14339: 14326: 14316: 14309: 14302: 14292: 14284: 14282: 14279: 14277: 14276: 14269: 14264: 14239: 14234:978-0226825762 14233: 14220: 14214: 14201: 14194: 14187: 14178: 14171: 14157: 14150: 14143: 14134: 14121: 14114: 14101: 14096:Hesmyr, Atle. 14094: 14089:Hazard, Paul. 14087: 14077: 14070: 14061: 14054: 14043: 14029: 14019: 14012: 14005: 13995: 13993: 13990: 13988: 13985: 13983: 13982: 13972: 13967: 13952: 13942: 13936: 13923: 13916: 13907: 13898: 13889: 13880: 13871: 13861: 13856:Cowan, Brian, 13854: 13847: 13836: 13834: 13831: 13829: 13828: 13805: 13792: 13779: 13766: 13753: 13740: 13731: 13718: 13685: 13676: 13660: 13658:Jacob, 145–47. 13651: 13642: 13629: 13620: 13607: 13594: 13581: 13562: 13555: 13535: 13528:Maynard Mack, 13521: 13506: 13468: 13459: 13450: 13435: 13426: 13417: 13408: 13395: 13364: 13351: 13349:Cowan, 90, 91. 13342: 13333: 13298: 13289: 13276: 13263: 13245: 13236: 13227: 13214: 13208:Caradonna JL. 13201: 13199:Roche, 515–16. 13192: 13179: 13152: 13139: 13122: 13107: 13088:(2): 215–245. 13068: 13059: 13050: 13041: 13032: 13023: 13014: 13005: 12996: 12987: 12978: 12969: 12960: 12951: 12942: 12933: 12924: 12915: 12903: 12891: 12879: 12867: 12855: 12842: 12840:Spary, 289–93. 12833: 12820: 12803: 12787: 12771: 12758: 12749: 12737: 12724: 12715: 12697: 12687: 12678: 12669: 12656: 12647: 12634: 12625: 12612: 12599: 12586: 12580:Dena Goodman, 12573: 12564: 12555: 12546: 12537: 12523: 12505: 12489: 12473: 12460: 12447: 12434: 12425: 12416: 12403: 12396: 12376: 12367: 12344: 12335: 12322: 12309: 12293: 12286: 12266: 12259: 12239: 12232: 12210: 12182: 12163: 12145: 12132: 12130:pp. 97–99 12117: 12102: 12076: 12064: 12052: 12040: 12024: 12012: 11999: 11987: 11978: 11968: 11956: 11929: 11917: 11908: 11896: 11881: 11868: 11849:Jerzy Snopek, 11842: 11830: 11810: 11797: 11785: 11772: 11751:(4): 692–695. 11731: 11718: 11704:Brading, D. A. 11696: 11683: 11670: 11657: 11644: 11628: 11615: 11602: 11587: 11580: 11560: 11547: 11531: 11516: 11501: 11486: 11472: 11434: 11419: 11415:German History 11406: 11402:German History 11393: 11389:German History 11380: 11362: 11349: 11336: 11323: 11310: 11304:Henry F. May, 11297: 11284: 11277: 11257: 11244: 11237: 11217: 11200: 11175: 11128: 11115: 11108: 11087: 11074: 11061: 11043: 11030: 11026:Cogliano, 2003 11018: 11006: 10994: 10982: 10969: 10952: 10940: 10928: 10926:, pp. 11. 10916: 10897: 10894:. p. 778. 10879: 10872: 10852: 10845: 10825: 10818: 10798: 10791: 10771: 10765:Thomas Paine, 10758: 10751: 10731: 10713: 10702:Baruch Spinoza 10694: 10687: 10667: 10660: 10640: 10625: 10612: 10599: 10590: 10577: 10561: 10554: 10534: 10517: 10504: 10491: 10478: 10465: 10458: 10438: 10427: 10414: 10391: 10382: 10369: 10356: 10334: 10321: 10304: 10285:(3): 785–805. 10266: 10253: 10247:Roland Sarti, 10240: 10204: 10195: 10182: 10169: 10156:10.2307/588406 10150:(2): 164–180. 10134: 10124:on 6 June 2011 10100: 10091: 10082: 10073: 10064: 10055: 10046: 10014: 10005: 9996: 9987: 9974: 9958: 9942: 9915: 9902: 9872: 9853: 9844:The New Yorker 9827: 9823:Petitfils 2005 9812: 9800: 9785: 9773: 9761: 9749: 9742: 9722: 9715: 9696: 9683: 9667: 9654: 9641: 9628: 9622: 9600: 9583: 9570: 9563: 9545: 9519: 9476: 9459: 9437: 9424: 9409: 9404:978-0892368617 9403: 9383: 9287: 9246: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9233: 9232: 9223: 8991: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8984: 8983: 8978: 8973: 8968: 8962: 8957: 8952: 8946: 8941: 8936: 8929: 8926: 8905: 8902: 8835: 8834:Masonic lodges 8832: 8806: 8805: 8799: 8796: 8793: 8782:Main article: 8779: 8776: 8736:Richard Steele 8732:Joseph Addison 8712:Main article: 8709: 8706: 8694:Main article: 8691: 8688: 8616: 8613: 8605:associationism 8593:Main article: 8590: 8587: 8510:A portrait of 8495: 8492: 8351:egalitarianism 8342:Charles Porset 8314: 8311: 8273: 8270: 8227:Georges Buffon 8219: 8216: 8119: 8116: 8048:Front page of 8012: 8009: 7989: 7986: 7958:Charles Burney 7919: 7916: 7884:self-awareness 7824: 7821: 7812:Robert Darnton 7795:disenchantment 7761:Max Horkheimer 7746: 7743: 7711:laws of motion 7690: 7687: 7650:Ernst Cassirer 7641:l'Encyclopédie 7612: 7600:(Spanish) and 7586:sich aufklären 7559: 7556: 7534: 7533:Historiography 7531: 7523:Young Ottomans 7505:Ottoman Empire 7497:Ottoman Empire 7492: 7491:Ottoman Empire 7489: 7457: 7454: 7417: 7414: 7402:hermit kingdom 7397: 7394: 7330: 7327: 7271: 7268: 7232:Golden Liberty 7193:Main article: 7190: 7187: 7183:prosveshchenie 7167:Leonhard Euler 7146: 7143: 7071:New Christians 7063:António Vieira 7015:Main article: 7012: 7009: 6969: 6966: 6918:comercio libre 6870: 6867: 6855:Franco Venturi 6827:, Veneto, and 6766:Main article: 6763: 6760: 6712: 6709: 6592: 6589: 6563:Matthew Tindal 6530: 6527: 6515:James Anderson 6511:William Cullen 6498: 6495: 6467:Samuel Johnson 6440:Jonathan Swift 6432:Alexander Pope 6424:Joseph Addison 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6400:Saint-Domingue 6357: 6354: 6322: 6319: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6178:known as the " 6155: 6152: 6082:Main article: 6079: 6076: 6055:natural rights 5955:representative 5920:natural rights 5903: 5900: 5860:Robert Darnton 5850: 5847: 5839:Saggi politici 5788:Dugald Stewart 5760:science of man 5740: 5737: 5693:popularization 5618:Main article: 5615: 5612: 5399:René Descartes 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5232:Baruch Spinoza 5224:René Descartes 5200: 5197: 5127:Masonic lodges 5082:René Descartes 4978: 4977: 4975: 4974: 4967: 4960: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4947: 4946: 4934: 4922: 4902: 4901: 4898: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4871: 4868: 4867: 4864: 4863: 4860: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4807:Libertarianism 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4758: 4756:Related topics 4755: 4754: 4751: 4750: 4747: 4746: 4741: 4735: 4730: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4722: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4490: 4487: 4486: 4483: 4482: 4479: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4103: 4098: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4068: 4062: 4059: 4058: 4055: 4054: 4051: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3804: 3799: 3798: 3795: 3794: 3791: 3790: 3785: 3784: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3758: 3757: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3736: 3726: 3720: 3717: 3716: 3713: 3712: 3709: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3627:Labour voucher 3624: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3548: 3545: 3544: 3541: 3540: 3537: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3510: 3507: 3506: 3503: 3502: 3500: 3499: 3494: 3488: 3485: 3484: 3476: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3456: 3455: 3453: 3452: 3445: 3438: 3430: 3427: 3426: 3425: 3424: 3412: 3397: 3396: 3393: 3392: 3390:Utilitarianism 3387: 3382: 3377: 3376: 3375: 3370: 3363:Libertarianism 3360: 3358:Land value tax 3355: 3354: 3353: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3331:Egalitarianism 3328: 3323: 3322: 3321: 3311: 3310: 3309: 3299: 3294: 3289: 3287:Anti-communism 3284: 3278: 3276:Related topics 3275: 3274: 3271: 3270: 3267: 3266: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3250: 3249: 3244: 3243: 3242: 3232: 3230:Arizona School 3222: 3221: 3220: 3215: 3210: 3205: 3198:United Kingdom 3195: 3190: 3185: 3180: 3175: 3170: 3165: 3160: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3135: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3115: 3110: 3109: 3108: 3098: 3093: 3088: 3083: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3012: 3011: 3001: 2996: 2991: 2986: 2981: 2976: 2971: 2970: 2969: 2959: 2954: 2949: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2888: 2887: 2877: 2872: 2867: 2862: 2857: 2852: 2847: 2842: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2822: 2816: 2811: 2810: 2807: 2806: 2801: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2755: 2750: 2745: 2740: 2734: 2733: 2732: 2729: 2728: 2725: 2724: 2721: 2720: 2715: 2710: 2705: 2700: 2695: 2690: 2685: 2680: 2675: 2670: 2665: 2660: 2655: 2650: 2645: 2640: 2635: 2630: 2625: 2620: 2615: 2610: 2605: 2600: 2595: 2590: 2585: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2535: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2514: 2511: 2510: 2507: 2506: 2503: 2502: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2472: 2467: 2462: 2457: 2452: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2407: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2325:Wollstonecraft 2322: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2292: 2287: 2282: 2277: 2272: 2267: 2262: 2257: 2252: 2247: 2242: 2236: 2231: 2230: 2227: 2226: 2223: 2222: 2216: 2210: 2205: 2204: 2201: 2200: 2197: 2196: 2191: 2190: 2189: 2184: 2177:Social justice 2174: 2169: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2144: 2143: 2142: 2137: 2132: 2127: 2117: 2116: 2115: 2110: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2078:Market economy 2075: 2070: 2069: 2068: 2063: 2053: 2046: 2041: 2039:Invisible hand 2036: 2031: 2029:Harm principle 2026: 2025: 2024: 2019: 2014: 2009: 2008: 2007: 2002: 1987: 1982: 1981: 1980: 1975: 1965: 1960: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1939: 1936: 1935: 1932: 1931: 1928: 1927: 1922: 1917: 1912: 1907: 1906: 1905: 1900: 1895: 1894: 1893: 1878: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1842: 1841: 1831: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1810: 1807: 1806: 1803: 1802: 1794: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1774: 1773: 1771: 1770: 1763: 1756: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1743: 1742: 1730: 1715: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1693:Ordoliberalism 1690: 1685: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1619: 1616: 1615: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1607: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1582: 1577: 1572: 1570:Market economy 1567: 1562: 1557: 1552: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1486: 1484:Related topics 1483: 1482: 1479: 1478: 1475: 1474: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1373: 1370: 1369: 1366: 1365: 1362: 1361: 1356: 1354:State monopoly 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1285: 1282: 1281: 1278: 1277: 1274: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1220: 1219: 1216: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1137: 1136: 1126: 1121: 1115: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1063: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 981: 975: 972: 971: 968: 967: 964: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 938: 933: 928: 923: 918: 913: 911:Liberalization 908: 903: 901:Invisible hand 898: 893: 888: 883: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 828: 823: 818: 816:Businessperson 813: 811:Business cycle 808: 803: 797: 794: 793: 790: 789: 783: 782: 770: 769: 767: 766: 759: 752: 744: 741: 740: 739: 738: 733: 728: 723: 717: 716: 708: 707: 703: 702: 701: 700: 695: 690: 684: 683: 678: 670: 669: 663: 662: 661: 660: 655: 650: 649: 648: 643: 635: 627: 626: 620: 619: 611: 610: 604: 603: 591: 590: 588: 587: 580: 573: 565: 562: 561: 558: 557: 552: 547: 542: 540:Metaphysicians 537: 532: 527: 522: 516: 510: 509: 508: 505: 504: 501: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 468:Metaphilosophy 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 438: 437: 432: 427: 422: 416: 410: 409: 408: 405: 404: 399: 398: 397: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 353: 352: 346: 345: 344: 343: 342: 341: 336: 331: 326: 321: 316: 306: 305: 304: 294: 293: 292: 282: 281: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 245: 244: 243: 238: 233: 220: 219: 213: 212: 211: 210: 209: 208: 203: 193: 188: 183: 178: 177: 176: 171: 158: 157: 149: 143: 142: 141: 138: 137: 135: 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 89: 86: 85: 77: 76: 70: 69: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 24534: 24523: 24520: 24518: 24515: 24513: 24510: 24508: 24505: 24503: 24500: 24498: 24495: 24493: 24490: 24488: 24485: 24483: 24480: 24478: 24475: 24473: 24470: 24468: 24465: 24463: 24460: 24458: 24455: 24453: 24450: 24448: 24445: 24443: 24440: 24438: 24435: 24434: 24432: 24417: 24412: 24407: 24405: 24395: 24394: 24391: 24385: 24382: 24380: 24377: 24375: 24374: 24370: 24368: 24365: 24363: 24360: 24356: 24353: 24351: 24348: 24346: 24343: 24341: 24338: 24336: 24333: 24331: 24328: 24326: 24323: 24321: 24318: 24316: 24313: 24312: 24311: 24308: 24306: 24303: 24301: 24298: 24297: 24295: 24291: 24283: 24280: 24279: 24278: 24275: 24273: 24270: 24268: 24265: 24263: 24260: 24258: 24257:Mother Teresa 24255: 24253: 24250: 24247: 24243: 24240: 24238: 24235: 24233: 24230: 24228: 24225: 24223: 24222: 24218: 24216: 24213: 24211: 24210: 24206: 24204: 24201: 24199: 24196: 24194: 24191: 24189: 24186: 24184: 24183:Pope Pius XII 24181: 24179: 24176: 24174: 24171: 24169: 24166: 24165: 24163: 24161: 24157: 24151: 24150: 24149:Rerum novarum 24146: 24144: 24141: 24139: 24136: 24134: 24133:Pope Leo XIII 24131: 24129: 24126: 24124: 24121: 24119: 24116: 24114: 24111: 24109: 24106: 24104: 24103:United States 24101: 24099: 24096: 24094: 24093:Pope Pius VII 24091: 24090: 24088: 24084: 24078: 24075: 24073: 24070: 24068: 24065: 24063: 24060: 24058: 24055: 24053: 24050: 24048: 24045: 24043: 24040: 24038: 24035: 24034: 24032: 24029: 24024: 24019: 24013: 24010: 24008: 24005: 24003: 24000: 23998: 23995: 23993: 23990: 23988: 23985: 23983: 23980: 23978: 23975: 23973: 23970: 23968: 23965: 23963: 23960: 23958: 23955: 23953: 23950: 23948: 23945: 23943: 23940: 23938: 23935: 23933: 23932: 23928: 23926: 23923: 23921: 23918: 23917: 23915: 23912: 23908: 23903: 23897: 23894: 23892: 23889: 23887: 23884: 23882: 23879: 23877: 23874: 23872: 23869: 23865: 23862: 23861: 23860: 23857: 23855: 23852: 23850: 23847: 23846: 23844: 23842: 23838: 23832: 23829: 23827: 23824: 23822: 23819: 23817: 23814: 23812: 23809: 23807: 23804: 23802: 23799: 23797: 23794: 23792: 23789: 23787: 23784: 23782: 23779: 23777: 23776:Scholasticism 23774: 23772: 23769: 23767: 23764: 23762: 23759: 23757: 23754: 23752: 23751:Pope Urban II 23749: 23748: 23746: 23744: 23740: 23734: 23731: 23729: 23726: 23724: 23721: 23719: 23716: 23714: 23711: 23709: 23706: 23704: 23701: 23699: 23696: 23694: 23691: 23689: 23686: 23684: 23681: 23679: 23676: 23674: 23671: 23670: 23668: 23666: 23662: 23648: 23645: 23643: 23640: 23638: 23635: 23633: 23630: 23628: 23625: 23623: 23620: 23618: 23615: 23613: 23610: 23608: 23605: 23603: 23600: 23598: 23595: 23591: 23588: 23587: 23586: 23583: 23582: 23580: 23576: 23568: 23564: 23561: 23557: 23553: 23543: 23540: 23538: 23535: 23533: 23530: 23528: 23527:Justin Martyr 23525: 23521: 23518: 23514: 23511: 23509: 23506: 23504: 23501: 23500: 23499: 23496: 23495: 23494: 23491: 23489: 23486: 23485: 23483: 23480: 23476: 23468: 23465: 23463: 23460: 23458: 23455: 23453: 23450: 23448: 23445: 23443: 23440: 23439: 23438: 23437:New Testament 23435: 23433: 23430: 23428: 23425: 23423: 23420: 23416: 23413: 23411: 23408: 23406: 23403: 23401: 23400:Commissioning 23398: 23397: 23396: 23393: 23391: 23388: 23386: 23383: 23381: 23378: 23374: 23371: 23369: 23366: 23364: 23361: 23359: 23356: 23355: 23354: 23351: 23350: 23348: 23345: 23344:Apostolic Age 23340: 23336: 23333: 23329: 23325: 23319: 23316: 23314: 23311: 23309: 23306: 23304: 23301: 23297: 23294: 23292: 23289: 23288: 23287: 23284: 23282: 23279: 23277: 23274: 23272: 23269: 23267: 23264: 23260: 23257: 23255: 23252: 23251: 23250: 23247: 23243: 23240: 23239: 23238: 23235: 23231: 23230:Papal primacy 23228: 23227: 23226: 23223: 23221: 23218: 23216: 23213: 23209: 23206: 23205: 23204: 23201: 23200: 23198: 23196: 23192: 23188: 23184: 23177: 23172: 23170: 23165: 23163: 23158: 23157: 23154: 23141: 23133: 23131: 23123: 23122: 23118: 23108: 23105: 23101: 23098: 23096: 23093: 23092: 23091: 23088: 23086: 23083: 23081: 23078: 23076: 23073: 23072: 23069: 23062: 23058: 23046: 23043: 23042: 23041: 23038: 23036: 23033: 23030: 23026: 23023: 23021: 23018: 23017: 23014: 23007: 23003: 22989: 22986: 22984: 22981: 22978: 22974: 22972: 22969: 22967: 22966:Merton thesis 22964: 22963: 22961: 22956: 22952: 22944: 22941: 22939: 22936: 22934: 22931: 22929: 22926: 22924: 22921: 22919: 22918:Panbabylonism 22916: 22914: 22911: 22909: 22906: 22905: 22903: 22899: 22898: 22894: 22893: 22892: 22889: 22887: 22884: 22880: 22877: 22875: 22872: 22870: 22867: 22866: 22865: 22862: 22860: 22857: 22849: 22844: 22841: 22840: 22839: 22836: 22835: 22834: 22831: 22827: 22824: 22822: 22819: 22817: 22814: 22812: 22809: 22808: 22807: 22804: 22800: 22797: 22793: 22790: 22789: 22788: 22785: 22783: 22780: 22778: 22775: 22774: 22773: 22770: 22768: 22765: 22764: 22762: 22760: 22756: 22748: 22745: 22743: 22740: 22739: 22737: 22735: 22732: 22730: 22727: 22725: 22722: 22721: 22719: 22715: 22709: 22706: 22704: 22701: 22699: 22698: 22694: 22692: 22689: 22686: 22682: 22680: 22677: 22675: 22672: 22670: 22667: 22663: 22658: 22655: 22653: 22650: 22649: 22646: 22639: 22635: 22621: 22618: 22616: 22613: 22611: 22608: 22606: 22603: 22601: 22598: 22594: 22593: 22589: 22588: 22587: 22584: 22578: 22575: 22573: 22570: 22568: 22565: 22564: 22563: 22560: 22558: 22555: 22553: 22550: 22549: 22548: 22545: 22541: 22538: 22536: 22533: 22531: 22528: 22527: 22526: 22523: 22521: 22518: 22516: 22513: 22511: 22508: 22506: 22503: 22501: 22498: 22497: 22495: 22491: 22481: 22480:United States 22478: 22476: 22473: 22471: 22468: 22466: 22463: 22461: 22458: 22456: 22453: 22452: 22450: 22448: 22442: 22434: 22429: 22426: 22422: 22417: 22414: 22410: 22405: 22402: 22400: 22397: 22395: 22392: 22390: 22387: 22385: 22382: 22378: 22373: 22370: 22368: 22365: 22361: 22360:Bolivarianism 22358: 22354: 22349: 22346: 22345: 22344: 22343:Simon Bolivar 22341: 22339: 22336: 22334: 22331: 22329: 22326: 22324: 22321: 22317: 22312: 22309: 22307: 22304: 22302: 22299: 22297: 22294: 22292: 22289: 22287: 22284: 22280: 22275: 22274:Joseph Stalin 22272: 22268: 22263: 22260: 22258: 22255: 22253: 22250: 22248: 22245: 22243: 22240: 22236: 22231: 22228: 22224: 22219: 22216: 22214: 22211: 22209: 22206: 22204: 22201: 22199: 22196: 22194: 22191: 22189: 22186: 22185: 22183: 22177: 22173: 22166: 22162: 22147: 22139: 22138: 22134: 22128: 22125: 22123: 22120: 22118: 22115: 22113: 22110: 22109: 22107: 22103: 22095: 22092: 22091: 22089: 22085: 22082: 22080: 22077: 22076: 22074: 22073: 22071: 22069:Post-Cold War 22067: 22059: 22056: 22055: 22053: 22049: 22046: 22045: 22044: 22043:Falklands War 22041: 22039: 22038:Iran–Iraq War 22036: 22032: 22029: 22028: 22026: 22022: 22019: 22018: 22016: 22014: 22011: 22007: 22004: 22003: 22001: 21997: 21994: 21992: 21989: 21987: 21986:Ongoing Nakba 21983: 21980: 21979: 21978: 21975: 21973: 21970: 21969: 21967: 21965: 21961: 21949: 21944: 21941: 21939: 21938: 21934: 21932: 21931: 21927: 21925: 21922: 21921: 21919: 21917:Western Front 21915: 21907: 21904: 21903: 21901: 21899: 21898:Bengal famine 21896: 21894: 21891: 21889: 21886: 21885: 21883: 21879: 21873: 21870: 21868: 21865: 21863: 21860: 21858: 21855: 21851: 21848: 21847: 21846: 21843: 21841: 21837: 21833: 21831: 21828: 21826: 21823: 21821: 21818: 21817: 21815: 21813: 21812:The Holocaust 21809: 21801: 21798: 21796: 21793: 21792: 21791: 21788: 21786: 21783: 21781: 21778: 21776: 21773: 21771: 21768: 21767: 21765: 21763:Eastern Front 21761: 21755: 21752: 21750: 21747: 21745: 21742: 21740: 21737: 21735: 21732: 21731: 21729: 21727: 21723: 21715: 21712: 21711: 21709: 21705: 21702: 21701: 21700: 21697: 21695: 21692: 21691: 21689: 21687: 21683: 21671: 21668: 21666: 21663: 21662: 21661: 21658: 21656: 21653: 21652: 21650: 21648: 21642: 21635: 21630: 21627: 21625: 21621: 21618: 21616: 21613: 21611: 21608: 21606: 21603: 21599: 21594: 21591: 21588: 21584: 21581: 21578: 21574: 21570: 21567: 21565: 21563: 21559: 21549: 21544: 21541: 21539: 21536: 21535: 21533: 21529: 21526: 21525: 21524: 21521: 21519: 21516: 21512: 21509: 21508: 21507: 21504: 21502: 21499: 21495: 21494:Paris Commune 21492: 21490: 21487: 21486: 21484: 21480: 21479:Turning point 21477: 21475: 21472: 21471: 21470: 21467: 21466: 21455: 21452: 21450: 21447: 21446: 21445: 21442: 21440: 21437: 21431: 21426: 21423: 21421: 21418: 21414: 21409: 21406: 21405: 21404: 21401: 21400: 21398: 21394: 21390: 21387: 21383:18th and 19th 21381: 21375: 21372: 21368: 21365: 21363: 21360: 21359: 21358: 21355: 21353: 21350: 21348: 21345: 21341: 21338: 21337: 21336: 21333: 21329: 21328:Islamic views 21326: 21325: 21324: 21321: 21317: 21314: 21313: 21312: 21309: 21308: 21306: 21300: 21293: 21292: 21288: 21286: 21285: 21281: 21280: 21276: 21272: 21269: 21262: 21257: 21255: 21250: 21248: 21243: 21242: 21239: 21235: 21228: 21224: 21210: 21207: 21206: 21204: 21200: 21186: 21183: 21181: 21178: 21176: 21173: 21172: 21170: 21168: 21162: 21156: 21153: 21149: 21146: 21145: 21144: 21141: 21139: 21136: 21134: 21131: 21127: 21124: 21122: 21119: 21118: 21117: 21114: 21112: 21109: 21108: 21106: 21104: 21098: 21090: 21087: 21085: 21082: 21081: 21080: 21077: 21075: 21072: 21071: 21069: 21065: 21057: 21052: 21051:Ser de España 21049: 21045: 21040: 21037: 21035: 21032: 21030: 21027: 21021: 21016: 21013: 21012: 21011: 21010: 21006: 21002: 20997: 20994: 20992: 20989: 20987: 20986: 20982: 20980: 20977: 20975: 20972: 20970: 20966: 20963: 20962: 20960: 20956: 20948: 20945: 20943: 20940: 20938: 20935: 20934: 20933: 20930: 20926: 20923: 20922: 20921: 20918: 20912: 20907: 20904: 20903: 20900: 20895: 20892: 20890: 20887: 20886: 20884: 20880: 20872: 20867: 20864: 20862: 20859: 20857: 20854: 20852: 20849: 20847: 20844: 20843: 20841: 20837: 20829: 20826: 20825: 20824: 20821: 20819: 20816: 20814: 20813: 20809: 20807: 20806: 20802: 20800: 20797: 20795: 20794: 20790: 20788: 20785: 20784: 20782: 20778: 20772: 20769: 20767: 20764: 20761: 20757: 20755: 20752: 20751: 20749: 20747: 20743: 20737: 20734: 20732: 20729: 20727: 20724: 20723: 20721: 20719: 20715: 20709: 20708: 20704: 20702: 20699: 20697: 20694: 20689: 20685: 20683: 20682: 20678: 20676: 20675: 20671: 20669: 20666: 20664: 20663: 20659: 20658: 20656: 20654: 20650: 20642: 20637: 20634: 20630: 20625: 20622: 20618: 20613: 20610: 20608: 20607: 20603: 20599: 20594: 20591: 20589: 20588: 20584: 20583: 20581: 20577: 20571: 20568: 20566: 20563: 20561: 20558: 20554: 20551: 20549: 20546: 20545: 20544: 20541: 20539: 20536: 20534: 20531: 20527: 20524: 20523: 20522: 20519: 20517: 20514: 20510: 20505: 20502: 20500: 20497: 20495: 20492: 20491: 20489: 20487: 20483: 20475: 20472: 20470: 20469:Ottoman claim 20467: 20465: 20462: 20460: 20457: 20456: 20455: 20452: 20450: 20449:Prosopography 20447: 20445: 20442: 20440: 20437: 20433: 20430: 20429: 20428: 20425: 20423: 20420: 20419: 20417: 20415: 20411: 20403: 20402:Trưng sisters 20400: 20398: 20397: 20393: 20392: 20390: 20386: 20383: 20382: 20380: 20378: 20375: 20373: 20370: 20366: 20363: 20362: 20360: 20356: 20353: 20352: 20351: 20348: 20344: 20341: 20340: 20338: 20334: 20331: 20330: 20327: 20322: 20319: 20315: 20312: 20311: 20310: 20307: 20305: 20302: 20298: 20295: 20293: 20290: 20289: 20288: 20285: 20283: 20280: 20276: 20273: 20272: 20270: 20266: 20263: 20262: 20261: 20258: 20254: 20253: 20249: 20248: 20246: 20240: 20235: 20232: 20228: 20223: 20220: 20216: 20211: 20208: 20207: 20205: 20203: 20200: 20194: 20189: 20186: 20185: 20182: 20177: 20174: 20172: 20169: 20165: 20162: 20161: 20159: 20157: 20154: 20150: 20149:Habsburg myth 20147: 20146: 20144: 20140: 20137: 20136: 20135: 20132: 20131: 20129: 20125: 20115: 20112: 20108: 20105: 20104: 20103: 20100: 20098: 20095: 20093: 20090: 20088: 20085: 20081: 20078: 20076: 20073: 20071: 20068: 20067: 20066: 20063: 20062: 20060: 20058: 20057:United States 20054: 20046: 20045: 20041: 20040: 20039: 20036: 20032: 20029: 20028: 20027: 20024: 20018: 20013: 20010: 20008: 20004: 20001: 20000: 19999: 19996: 19995: 19993: 19991: 19990:Latin America 19987: 19981: 19978: 19974: 19971: 19969: 19966: 19964: 19961: 19960: 19959: 19956: 19955: 19953: 19949: 19943: 19942: 19938: 19934: 19931: 19930: 19928: 19924: 19921: 19920: 19918: 19916: 19913: 19907: 19902: 19899: 19897: 19894: 19893: 19891: 19890: 19888: 19886: 19882: 19878: 19871: 19867: 19847: 19844: 19843: 19842: 19839: 19837: 19833: 19830: 19828: 19824: 19821: 19819: 19816: 19814: 19811: 19810: 19808: 19806: 19800: 19794: 19793: 19789: 19787: 19786: 19781: 19780: 19776: 19774: 19771: 19769: 19766: 19762: 19759: 19758: 19757: 19756: 19752: 19750: 19747: 19745: 19742: 19740: 19737: 19735: 19732: 19730: 19726: 19723: 19721: 19718: 19716: 19713: 19711: 19707: 19704: 19702: 19699: 19698: 19696: 19692: 19686: 19683: 19677: 19672: 19669: 19668: 19665: 19660: 19657: 19655: 19652: 19650: 19647: 19645: 19642: 19640: 19637: 19635: 19632: 19631: 19629: 19625: 19621: 19614: 19610: 19594: 19591: 19590: 19589: 19586: 19584: 19583:Transnational 19581: 19579: 19576: 19574: 19571: 19569: 19566: 19562: 19559: 19558: 19557: 19554: 19550: 19547: 19545: 19542: 19541: 19540: 19537: 19533: 19530: 19529: 19528: 19525: 19523: 19520: 19516: 19511: 19508: 19506: 19503: 19501: 19498: 19496: 19493: 19491: 19488: 19486: 19483: 19481: 19478: 19474: 19473:Decoloniality 19471: 19470: 19469: 19466: 19464: 19461: 19459: 19455: 19454:Historiometry 19452: 19448: 19447: 19443: 19441: 19438: 19437: 19436: 19433: 19432: 19430: 19424: 19416: 19413: 19411: 19410: 19406: 19404: 19401: 19400: 19399: 19398:Periodization 19396: 19394: 19391: 19390: 19387: 19383: 19378: 19374: 19358: 19355: 19353: 19350: 19346: 19343: 19342: 19341: 19338: 19336: 19333: 19331: 19328: 19326: 19323: 19321: 19318: 19316: 19313: 19312: 19311: 19308: 19304: 19301: 19299: 19296: 19295: 19294: 19291: 19289: 19286: 19284: 19281: 19279: 19276: 19272: 19271: 19267: 19266: 19265: 19262: 19258: 19255: 19253: 19250: 19248: 19245: 19243: 19240: 19239: 19238: 19235: 19233: 19229: 19225: 19222: 19220: 19217: 19215: 19211: 19208: 19207: 19205: 19201: 19195: 19192: 19190: 19187: 19185: 19184:Sigillography 19182: 19180: 19179:Prosopography 19177: 19175: 19172: 19170: 19167: 19165: 19162: 19158: 19155: 19154: 19153: 19150: 19148: 19145: 19143: 19140: 19138: 19135: 19133: 19130: 19128: 19125: 19123: 19120: 19118: 19115: 19111: 19108: 19107: 19106: 19103: 19101: 19098: 19096: 19092: 19089: 19086: 19082: 19078: 19075: 19074: 19072: 19068: 19062: 19059: 19057: 19056:Local history 19054: 19050: 19049:Human history 19047: 19046: 19045: 19044:World history 19042: 19040: 19037: 19036: 19034: 19030: 19026: 19022: 19017: 19013: 18997: 18994: 18993: 18992: 18989: 18987: 18984: 18982: 18979: 18977: 18974: 18972: 18969: 18965: 18962: 18961: 18960: 18957: 18955: 18952: 18950: 18947: 18945: 18942: 18940: 18937: 18935: 18932: 18930: 18927: 18925: 18922: 18920: 18917: 18915: 18912: 18910: 18907: 18905: 18902: 18900: 18897: 18896: 18894: 18890: 18884: 18881: 18879: 18876: 18874: 18871: 18870: 18868: 18864: 18860: 18856: 18851: 18847: 18840: 18839: 18835: 18833: 18832: 18828: 18826: 18825: 18821: 18819: 18818: 18814: 18813: 18810: 18809: 18805: 18801: 18800: 18796: 18792: 18791: 18790: 18789: 18785: 18784: 18780: 18776: 18769: 18764: 18762: 18757: 18755: 18750: 18749: 18746: 18734: 18731: 18729: 18726: 18724: 18721: 18719: 18716: 18714: 18711: 18709: 18706: 18704: 18701: 18699: 18696: 18694: 18691: 18689: 18686: 18684: 18681: 18679: 18678:PROSUR/PROSUL 18676: 18674: 18671: 18669: 18666: 18664: 18661: 18659: 18656: 18654: 18651: 18649: 18646: 18644: 18641: 18639: 18636: 18634: 18631: 18629: 18626: 18624: 18621: 18619: 18616: 18614: 18611: 18609: 18606: 18604: 18601: 18599: 18596: 18594: 18591: 18589: 18586: 18584: 18581: 18579: 18576: 18574: 18573:Craiova Group 18571: 18569: 18566: 18564: 18561: 18559: 18556: 18554: 18551: 18549: 18546: 18544: 18541: 18539: 18536: 18534: 18531: 18529: 18526: 18524: 18521: 18519: 18516: 18514: 18511: 18509: 18506: 18504: 18501: 18499: 18496: 18494: 18491: 18489: 18488:ABCANZ Armies 18486: 18485: 18483: 18477: 18471: 18468: 18466: 18463: 18459: 18456: 18454: 18451: 18449: 18446: 18444: 18441: 18439: 18436: 18434: 18431: 18430: 18429: 18426: 18424: 18421: 18417: 18414: 18413: 18412: 18409: 18407: 18404: 18403: 18401: 18399: 18395: 18389: 18386: 18384: 18381: 18377: 18374: 18372: 18369: 18367: 18364: 18362: 18359: 18355: 18352: 18350: 18347: 18345: 18342: 18340: 18337: 18336: 18335: 18332: 18330: 18327: 18325: 18322: 18320: 18317: 18316: 18315: 18312: 18306: 18303: 18302: 18301: 18298: 18294: 18293:Protestantism 18291: 18287: 18284: 18283: 18282: 18279: 18275: 18272: 18271: 18270: 18267: 18263: 18259: 18256: 18255: 18254: 18251: 18250: 18249: 18246: 18245: 18244: 18241: 18240: 18238: 18236: 18232: 18224: 18221: 18220: 18219: 18216: 18214: 18213:Sovereigntism 18211: 18209: 18206: 18202: 18201: 18197: 18196: 18195: 18192: 18188: 18185: 18184: 18183: 18180: 18178: 18175: 18173: 18170: 18168: 18165: 18163: 18160: 18158: 18155: 18153: 18150: 18146: 18143: 18141: 18138: 18137: 18136: 18133: 18129: 18126: 18125: 18124: 18121: 18119: 18116: 18114: 18111: 18109: 18108:Scholasticism 18106: 18104: 18101: 18099: 18096: 18094: 18091: 18089: 18086: 18084: 18081: 18079: 18076: 18075: 18073: 18071: 18067: 18059: 18056: 18054: 18051: 18049: 18046: 18044: 18041: 18040: 18039: 18036: 18032: 18029: 18028: 18027: 18024: 18020: 18017: 18015: 18012: 18011: 18010: 18007: 18003: 18000: 17999: 17998: 17995: 17993: 17990: 17986: 17983: 17981: 17978: 17976: 17973: 17972: 17971: 17968: 17964: 17961: 17960: 17959: 17956: 17952: 17949: 17948: 17947: 17944: 17940: 17937: 17935: 17932: 17931: 17930: 17927: 17925: 17922: 17920: 17917: 17915: 17912: 17908: 17905: 17904: 17903: 17900: 17898: 17895: 17891: 17888: 17887: 17886: 17883: 17879: 17876: 17875: 17874: 17871: 17867: 17864: 17863: 17862: 17859: 17857: 17854: 17850: 17847: 17846: 17845: 17842: 17840: 17837: 17833: 17830: 17828: 17825: 17823: 17820: 17819: 17818: 17815: 17814: 17812: 17810: 17806: 17798: 17797:War on terror 17795: 17793: 17790: 17789: 17788: 17785: 17781: 17778: 17776: 17773: 17771: 17768: 17766: 17763: 17761: 17758: 17756: 17753: 17751: 17748: 17746: 17743: 17741: 17738: 17736: 17733: 17731: 17728: 17726: 17723: 17721: 17718: 17716: 17713: 17711: 17708: 17706: 17703: 17701: 17698: 17696: 17693: 17692: 17691: 17690:Modern period 17688: 17686: 17683: 17679: 17676: 17674: 17671: 17669: 17666: 17665: 17664: 17661: 17657: 17654: 17653: 17652: 17649: 17647: 17644: 17643: 17641: 17639: 17635: 17629: 17626: 17624: 17621: 17619: 17616: 17614: 17611: 17605: 17602: 17600: 17597: 17596: 17595: 17592: 17590: 17587: 17585: 17582: 17580: 17577: 17576: 17575: 17572: 17570: 17567: 17565: 17562: 17561: 17559: 17555: 17551: 17547: 17546:Western world 17540: 17535: 17533: 17528: 17526: 17521: 17520: 17517: 17505: 17502: 17500: 17497: 17495: 17492: 17490: 17487: 17485: 17482: 17480: 17477: 17475: 17472: 17470: 17467: 17465: 17462: 17460: 17459:Art of Europe 17457: 17456: 17454: 17450: 17444: 17441: 17439: 17436: 17434: 17431: 17429: 17426: 17424: 17421: 17419: 17416: 17414: 17411: 17409: 17406: 17404: 17401: 17399: 17396: 17394: 17391: 17389: 17386: 17384: 17381: 17379: 17376: 17374: 17371: 17369: 17366: 17364: 17361: 17359: 17356: 17354: 17351: 17349: 17346: 17344: 17341: 17339: 17336: 17334: 17331: 17329: 17326: 17324: 17321: 17319: 17316: 17314: 17311: 17309: 17306: 17304: 17301: 17299: 17296: 17294: 17291: 17289: 17286: 17282: 17279: 17278: 17277: 17274: 17272: 17269: 17267: 17264: 17263: 17261: 17259: 17258:Modern period 17255: 17249: 17246: 17244: 17241: 17239: 17236: 17234: 17231: 17229: 17226: 17224: 17221: 17219: 17216: 17214: 17211: 17209: 17206: 17204: 17201: 17199: 17196: 17193: 17189: 17185: 17181: 17177: 17174: 17172: 17169: 17167: 17164: 17160: 17157: 17155: 17152: 17150: 17147: 17145: 17142: 17141: 17140: 17137: 17133: 17130: 17128: 17125: 17124: 17122: 17120: 17117: 17115: 17112: 17110: 17107: 17105: 17102: 17098: 17095: 17094: 17093: 17090: 17088: 17085: 17083: 17080: 17079: 17077: 17075: 17071: 17065: 17062: 17060: 17057: 17055: 17052: 17048: 17045: 17044: 17043: 17040: 17038: 17035: 17033: 17030: 17028: 17025: 17023: 17020: 17019: 17017: 17015: 17011: 17005: 17002: 17000: 16997: 16995: 16992: 16990: 16987: 16986: 16984: 16982: 16978: 16974: 16967: 16962: 16960: 16955: 16953: 16948: 16947: 16944: 16934: 16930: 16926: 16925:Human history 16921: 16911: 16908: 16906: 16903: 16901: 16898: 16897: 16895: 16891: 16885: 16882: 16880: 16877: 16875: 16872: 16870: 16867: 16865: 16864:Art of Europe 16862: 16861: 16859: 16855: 16852: 16848: 16842: 16839: 16837: 16834: 16830: 16827: 16825: 16824:Revolutionary 16822: 16821: 16820: 16817: 16815: 16812: 16810: 16807: 16805: 16802: 16800: 16797: 16796: 16794: 16792:End of period 16790: 16778: 16775: 16773: 16770: 16768: 16765: 16763: 16760: 16758: 16755: 16754: 16752: 16750: 16747: 16746: 16744: 16740: 16737: 16733: 16723: 16720: 16718: 16715: 16713: 16710: 16707: 16704: 16702: 16701: 16697: 16696: 16694: 16690: 16684: 16681: 16680: 16678: 16674: 16668: 16665: 16661: 16658: 16657: 16656: 16653: 16651: 16648: 16645: 16644: 16642: 16638: 16635: 16629: 16619: 16616: 16614: 16611: 16607: 16604: 16602: 16599: 16597: 16594: 16592: 16589: 16587: 16584: 16582: 16579: 16577: 16574: 16572: 16569: 16568: 16567: 16564: 16562: 16559: 16557: 16554: 16552: 16549: 16545: 16542: 16541: 16540: 16537: 16535: 16532: 16530: 16527: 16526: 16524: 16520: 16517: 16513: 16503: 16500: 16498: 16495: 16493: 16490: 16488: 16485: 16484: 16482: 16478: 16472: 16469: 16467: 16464: 16462: 16459: 16457: 16454: 16452: 16449: 16447: 16444: 16443: 16441: 16437: 16429: 16426: 16424: 16423:Ancien Régime 16421: 16419: 16416: 16414: 16411: 16410: 16408: 16404: 16401: 16399: 16396: 16395: 16393: 16391: 16388: 16387: 16385: 16381: 16375: 16372: 16370: 16367: 16363: 16360: 16359: 16358: 16355: 16353: 16350: 16348: 16345: 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15930: 15927: 15925: 15922: 15920: 15917: 15915: 15912: 15910: 15907: 15905: 15902: 15900: 15897: 15895: 15892: 15890: 15887: 15885: 15882: 15880: 15877: 15875: 15872: 15870: 15867: 15865: 15862: 15860: 15857: 15855: 15852: 15850: 15847: 15846: 15844: 15842: 15838: 15832: 15829: 15827: 15824: 15822: 15819: 15817: 15814: 15812: 15809: 15807: 15804: 15803: 15801: 15799: 15795: 15789: 15786: 15784: 15781: 15780: 15778: 15774: 15768: 15765: 15763: 15760: 15758: 15755: 15753: 15750: 15748: 15745: 15743: 15740: 15738: 15735: 15733: 15730: 15729: 15727: 15725: 15721: 15715: 15712: 15710: 15707: 15705: 15702: 15700: 15699:Budai-Deleanu 15697: 15696: 15694: 15690: 15684: 15681: 15680: 15678: 15674: 15668: 15665: 15663: 15660: 15658: 15655: 15653: 15650: 15648: 15645: 15643: 15640: 15638: 15635: 15633: 15630: 15629: 15627: 15625: 15621: 15615: 15612: 15610: 15607: 15605: 15602: 15600: 15597: 15595: 15592: 15590: 15587: 15585: 15582: 15580: 15577: 15575: 15572: 15570: 15567: 15565: 15562: 15561: 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15180: 15177: 15175: 15172: 15170: 15167: 15166: 15164: 15160: 15154: 15151: 15149: 15146: 15144: 15141: 15139: 15136: 15134: 15131: 15129: 15126: 15124: 15121: 15119: 15116: 15114: 15111: 15109: 15106: 15104: 15101: 15099: 15096: 15094: 15091: 15089: 15086: 15084: 15081: 15079: 15076: 15074: 15071: 15069: 15066: 15064: 15063:Ashley-Cooper 15061: 15059: 15056: 15055: 15053: 15049: 15045: 15038: 15034: 15020: 15017: 15015: 15012: 15010: 15007: 15005: 15002: 15000: 14997: 14994: 14993: 14988: 14986: 14983: 14981: 14978: 14976: 14973: 14971: 14968: 14966: 14965:Progressivism 14963: 14961: 14958: 14956: 14953: 14951: 14948: 14946: 14943: 14941: 14938: 14936: 14935: 14931: 14928: 14927: 14922: 14920: 14917: 14915: 14914:Individualism 14912: 14910: 14907: 14905: 14902: 14899: 14898: 14893: 14891: 14888: 14885: 14884: 14879: 14877: 14874: 14872: 14869: 14867: 14864: 14862: 14859: 14857: 14854: 14852: 14849: 14847: 14844: 14842: 14839: 14837: 14834: 14833: 14830: 14826: 14819: 14815: 14811: 14804: 14799: 14797: 14792: 14790: 14785: 14784: 14781: 14775: 14771: 14768: 14766: 14762: 14759: 14757: 14753: 14750: 14746: 14745: 14740: 14736: 14732: 14731: 14722: 14718: 14714: 14711: 14707: 14704: 14702: 14698: 14694: 14692: 14688: 14684: 14680: 14674: 14670: 14666: 14662: 14659: 14655: 14652: 14648: 14645: 14641: 14639: 14635: 14631: 14630: 14619: 14615: 14611: 14608: 14604: 14602: 14598: 14594: 14591: 14589: 14585: 14581: 14578: 14574: 14571: 14567: 14565:1993. 384 pp. 14564: 14560: 14557: 14553: 14551: 14547: 14543: 14540: 14536: 14532: 14528: 14524: 14520: 14516: 14512: 14507: 14505:2001. 199 pp. 14504: 14500: 14497: 14493: 14491: 14487: 14484:Porter, Roy. 14483: 14481:1976. 419 pp. 14480: 14476: 14473: 14469: 14466: 14462: 14459: 14455: 14451: 14447: 14443: 14439: 14435: 14431: 14427: 14423: 14418: 14415: 14411: 14407: 14401: 14397: 14396: 14391: 14388: 14384: 14381: 14379: 14375: 14371: 14368: 14364: 14361: 14357: 14355: 14351: 14347: 14344: 14340: 14336: 14332: 14327: 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13770: 13763: 13757: 13750: 13744: 13735: 13728: 13722: 13703: 13696: 13689: 13680: 13673: 13671: 13664: 13655: 13646: 13639: 13633: 13624: 13617: 13611: 13604: 13598: 13591: 13585: 13577: 13573: 13566: 13558: 13552: 13548: 13547: 13539: 13531: 13525: 13517: 13513: 13509: 13503: 13499: 13495: 13491: 13487: 13483: 13479: 13472: 13463: 13454: 13447: 13442: 13440: 13430: 13421: 13412: 13405: 13399: 13391: 13387: 13383: 13379: 13375: 13368: 13361: 13358:Colin Jones, 13355: 13346: 13337: 13329: 13325: 13321: 13317: 13313: 13309: 13302: 13293: 13286: 13280: 13273: 13267: 13259: 13255: 13249: 13240: 13231: 13224: 13218: 13211: 13205: 13196: 13189: 13186:Daniel Roche, 13183: 13177: 13176:0-567-08969-X 13173: 13169: 13165: 13163: 13156: 13149: 13143: 13135: 13134: 13126: 13118: 13111: 13103: 13099: 13095: 13091: 13087: 13083: 13079: 13072: 13063: 13054: 13045: 13036: 13027: 13018: 13009: 13000: 12991: 12982: 12973: 12964: 12955: 12946: 12937: 12928: 12919: 12910: 12908: 12898: 12896: 12888: 12883: 12876: 12871: 12864: 12859: 12852: 12846: 12837: 12830: 12824: 12816: 12815: 12807: 12801: 12797: 12791: 12784: 12778: 12776: 12768: 12765:See Darnton, 12762: 12753: 12747: 12741: 12734: 12731:Erin Mackie, 12728: 12722:Outram, 27–29 12719: 12711: 12707: 12701: 12691: 12682: 12673: 12666: 12660: 12651: 12644: 12638: 12629: 12622: 12616: 12609: 12603: 12596: 12593:Carla Hesse, 12590: 12583: 12577: 12568: 12559: 12550: 12544:Chartier, 26. 12541: 12532: 12530: 12528: 12520: 12514: 12512: 12510: 12502: 12496: 12494: 12486: 12480: 12478: 12470: 12464: 12457: 12451: 12438: 12432:Chartier, 27. 12429: 12420: 12413: 12407: 12399: 12393: 12389: 12388: 12380: 12371: 12365: 12364:0-226-73149-9 12361: 12357: 12355: 12348: 12339: 12332: 12326: 12320:(2001), p. 4. 12319: 12313: 12307: 12303: 12297: 12289: 12283: 12279: 12278: 12270: 12262: 12256: 12252: 12251: 12243: 12235: 12229: 12225: 12221: 12214: 12199: 12195: 12194: 12186: 12179: 12175: 12172: 12167: 12159: 12155: 12149: 12142: 12139:Shank, J. B. 12136: 12129: 12128: 12121: 12114: 12113: 12106: 12099: 12097: 12093: 12086: 12080: 12074:, pp. 3. 12073: 12068: 12061: 12056: 12049: 12044: 12037: 12031: 12029: 12021: 12016: 12010:(1951), p. vi 12009: 12003: 11996: 11991: 11982: 11972: 11966: 11960: 11952: 11948: 11944: 11940: 11933: 11926: 11921: 11912: 11903: 11901: 11894: 11893:April 3, 2014 11892: 11885: 11878: 11872: 11863: 11860:(PDF 122 KB) 11859: 11855: 11852: 11846: 11840: 11834: 11828: 11824: 11820: 11814: 11807: 11801: 11794: 11789: 11782: 11776: 11768: 11764: 11759: 11754: 11750: 11746: 11742: 11735: 11728: 11722: 11716: 11715:0-521-39130-X 11712: 11708: 11705: 11700: 11693: 11687: 11680: 11674: 11667: 11661: 11654: 11648: 11642: 11638: 11632: 11625: 11619: 11612: 11606: 11598: 11591: 11583: 11577: 11573: 11572: 11564: 11557: 11551: 11544: 11540: 11535: 11527: 11520: 11512: 11505: 11497: 11490: 11483: 11476: 11469: 11465: 11461: 11457: 11453: 11452:Walther Killy 11449: 11448: 11443: 11442:Wilhelm Kosch 11438: 11430: 11423: 11416: 11410: 11403: 11397: 11390: 11384: 11376: 11372: 11366: 11359: 11353: 11346: 11340: 11333: 11327: 11320: 11314: 11307: 11301: 11294: 11291:J. Repcheck, 11288: 11280: 11274: 11270: 11269: 11261: 11254: 11248: 11240: 11238:9789004193512 11234: 11230: 11229: 11221: 11213: 11212: 11204: 11189: 11185: 11179: 11171: 11167: 11163: 11159: 11155: 11151: 11147: 11143: 11139: 11132: 11125: 11119: 11111: 11105: 11101: 11100: 11091: 11084: 11078: 11071: 11065: 11059: 11055: 11050: 11048: 11040: 11034: 11027: 11022: 11015: 11010: 11003: 10998: 10991: 10990:Ferling, 2000 10986: 10979: 10973: 10966: 10962: 10956: 10949: 10944: 10938:, p. 19. 10937: 10932: 10925: 10920: 10912: 10908: 10901: 10893: 10892: 10883: 10875: 10869: 10865: 10864: 10856: 10848: 10842: 10838: 10837: 10829: 10821: 10815: 10811: 10810: 10802: 10794: 10788: 10784: 10783: 10775: 10768: 10762: 10754: 10748: 10744: 10743: 10735: 10724: 10717: 10711: 10710:gutenberg.com 10707: 10703: 10698: 10690: 10684: 10680: 10679: 10671: 10663: 10657: 10653: 10652: 10644: 10636: 10629: 10622: 10616: 10610: 10609: 10603: 10597:Chartier, 13. 10594: 10587: 10581: 10574: 10571: 10565: 10557: 10555:9780313049514 10551: 10547: 10546: 10538: 10531: 10527: 10521: 10515:(2001) p. 341 10514: 10508: 10501: 10495: 10488: 10487:History Today 10482: 10475: 10469: 10461: 10455: 10451: 10450: 10442: 10436: 10431: 10424: 10418: 10410: 10403:, p. 353 10402: 10395: 10386: 10379: 10373: 10366: 10360: 10344: 10338: 10331: 10325: 10317: 10316: 10308: 10300: 10296: 10292: 10288: 10284: 10280: 10276: 10270: 10263: 10257: 10250: 10244: 10236: 10230: 10214: 10208: 10199: 10192: 10186: 10179: 10173: 10165: 10161: 10157: 10153: 10149: 10145: 10138: 10123: 10119: 10118:New Statesman 10115: 10113: 10104: 10095: 10086: 10077: 10068: 10059: 10050: 10033: 10029: 10024: 10018: 10009: 10000: 9991: 9984: 9978: 9972: 9968: 9962: 9956: 9952: 9946: 9930: 9926: 9919: 9912: 9906: 9890: 9886: 9882: 9876: 9869: 9868: 9863: 9857: 9849: 9845: 9841: 9834: 9832: 9824: 9819: 9817: 9810:, p. 34. 9809: 9804: 9798:, p. 33. 9797: 9792: 9790: 9783:, p. 11. 9782: 9777: 9770: 9765: 9759:, p. 15. 9758: 9753: 9745: 9739: 9735: 9734: 9726: 9718: 9716:9781631492082 9712: 9708: 9707: 9700: 9693: 9687: 9680: 9674: 9672: 9664: 9663:Isaac Newton. 9658: 9651: 9645: 9638: 9632: 9625: 9623:0-393-00870-3 9619: 9614: 9613: 9604: 9596: 9595: 9587: 9580: 9577:Eugen Weber, 9574: 9566: 9560: 9556: 9549: 9533: 9529: 9523: 9515: 9511: 9507: 9503: 9499: 9495: 9491: 9487: 9480: 9472: 9471: 9463: 9447: 9441: 9434: 9428: 9421:, p. 144 9420: 9413: 9406: 9400: 9396: 9395: 9387: 9379: 9375: 9370: 9365: 9361: 9357: 9353: 9346: 9344: 9342: 9340: 9338: 9336: 9334: 9332: 9330: 9328: 9326: 9324: 9322: 9320: 9318: 9316: 9314: 9312: 9310: 9308: 9306: 9304: 9302: 9300: 9298: 9296: 9294: 9292: 9283: 9277: 9261: 9257: 9251: 9247: 9227: 9220: 9216: 9212: 9208: 9204: 9200: 9196: 9192: 9188: 9184: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9168: 9164: 9160: 9156: 9152: 9148: 9144: 9140: 9136: 9132: 9128: 9124: 9118: 9114: 9110: 9106: 9102: 9098: 9094: 9090: 9089:Denis Diderot 9086: 9082: 9078: 9074: 9070: 9066: 9062: 9058: 9054: 9050: 9046: 9042: 9038: 9034: 9030: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9014: 9010: 9006: 9002: 8996: 8992: 8982: 8979: 8977: 8974: 8972: 8969: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8932: 8931: 8925: 8923: 8919: 8915: 8911: 8910:Classical art 8901: 8898: 8892: 8888: 8885: 8879: 8877: 8873: 8869: 8855: 8853: 8849: 8840: 8831: 8828: 8822: 8819: 8815: 8810: 8803: 8800: 8797: 8794: 8791: 8790: 8789: 8785: 8775: 8773: 8769: 8765: 8764:Encyclopédie. 8760: 8755: 8752: 8746: 8744: 8742: 8737: 8733: 8729: 8723: 8720: 8715: 8705: 8703: 8697: 8687: 8684: 8680: 8675: 8674:Royal Society 8670: 8667: 8663: 8658: 8656: 8652: 8644: 8640: 8632: 8631: 8626:visiting the 8625: 8621: 8612: 8608: 8606: 8601: 8596: 8586: 8584: 8580: 8579:Sarah Trimmer 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8559: 8555: 8551: 8547: 8543: 8538: 8536: 8535: 8530: 8526: 8525: 8520: 8513: 8508: 8504: 8502: 8491: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8476: 8469: 8464: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8445: 8444: 8439: 8435: 8431: 8427: 8419: 8415: 8410: 8406: 8404: 8400: 8396: 8392: 8388: 8387: 8382: 8378: 8374: 8370: 8366: 8364: 8360:and entitled 8359: 8354: 8352: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8336: 8327: 8325: 8319: 8310: 8306: 8304: 8303: 8302:lingua franca 8297: 8296: 8285: 8284: 8278: 8269: 8267: 8261: 8258: 8257:Ancien Régime 8254: 8250: 8246: 8242: 8233: 8228: 8224: 8215: 8213: 8209: 8204: 8202: 8198: 8190: 8188: 8183: 8182:Denis Diderot 8179: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8169:The Spectator 8165: 8164: 8158: 8153: 8147: 8144: 8139: 8137: 8128: 8124: 8118:Book industry 8115: 8113: 8108: 8104: 8100: 8096: 8094: 8088: 8086: 8082: 8078: 8074: 8069: 8066: 8062: 8054: 8052: 8046: 8042: 8040: 8033: 8028: 8026: 8022: 8018: 8006: 8001: 7997: 7995: 7985: 7981: 7979: 7975: 7971: 7967: 7963: 7959: 7955: 7950: 7948: 7944: 7940: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7915: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7898: 7896: 7891: 7889: 7885: 7881: 7877: 7869: 7864: 7860: 7858: 7854: 7853:public sphere 7849: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7829: 7820: 7817: 7813: 7807: 7804: 7800: 7796: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7779: 7773: 7768: 7766: 7762: 7759:philosophers 7758: 7755: 7753: 7742: 7740: 7736: 7730: 7728: 7724: 7720: 7716: 7712: 7708: 7707: 7702: 7698: 7697: 7686: 7683: 7678: 7676: 7675:Martin Luther 7672: 7667: 7662: 7658: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7642: 7638: 7634: 7626: 7622: 7618: 7617: 7609: 7605: 7603: 7599: 7596:o (Italian), 7595: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7579: 7575: 7571: 7567: 7566: 7555: 7552: 7546: 7544: 7540: 7530: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7502: 7498: 7488: 7486: 7482: 7477: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7453: 7447: 7446:Ram Mohan Roy 7443: 7435: 7431: 7427: 7423: 7413: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7393: 7391: 7390:globalization 7387: 7383: 7382:laissez-faire 7379: 7375: 7369: 7363: 7362:Tsuda Mamichi 7359: 7355: 7351: 7347: 7346:Robert Bellah 7343: 7341: 7336: 7326: 7324: 7320: 7316: 7312: 7308: 7304: 7296:into Chinese. 7295: 7294: 7289: 7285: 7281: 7276: 7267: 7265: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7243: 7241: 7237: 7236:republicanism 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7205: 7201: 7196: 7186: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7142: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7126: 7124: 7120: 7116: 7112: 7108: 7104: 7103:Russian court 7100: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7059: 7057: 7056:Távora affair 7053: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7018: 7008: 7006: 7000: 6994: 6990: 6989: 6984: 6980: 6975: 6965: 6963: 6959: 6955: 6951: 6948:erupted. The 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6934:Ferdinand VII 6930: 6928: 6924: 6919: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6902: 6900: 6896: 6889: 6885: 6880: 6876: 6866: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6848: 6847:Luigi Galvani 6844: 6839: 6837: 6832: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6814: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6759: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6740: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6717:Maria Theresa 6715:The reign of 6708: 6704: 6702: 6697: 6695: 6691: 6687: 6682: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6646: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6611: 6607: 6602: 6598: 6591:German states 6588: 6586: 6582: 6581: 6576: 6572: 6571:republicanism 6568: 6564: 6560: 6551: 6550: 6545: 6544:John Trumbull 6541: 6536: 6526: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6491: 6486: 6482: 6480: 6479:coffee houses 6476: 6473:According to 6471: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6455: 6451: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6428:Edward Gibbon 6425: 6418: 6406:Great Britain 6403: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6379: 6376: 6367: 6362: 6353: 6351: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6328: 6318: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6286: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6267: 6265: 6264:New Testament 6261: 6257: 6253: 6251: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6226: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6206: 6195: 6192: 6187: 6183: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6151: 6144: 6139: 6135: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6116: 6112: 6106: 6104: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6075: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6060: 6056: 6051: 6049: 6045: 6043: 6037: 6032: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6005: 6003: 5999: 5994: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5983:right to life 5980: 5976: 5972: 5970: 5965: 5964: 5958: 5956: 5952: 5951:civil society 5947: 5946: 5941: 5940:Thomas Hobbes 5937: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5908: 5899: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5856: 5846: 5844: 5840: 5836: 5832: 5829:by promoting 5828: 5824: 5820: 5815: 5813: 5812: 5808:'s drafts of 5807: 5803: 5801: 5795: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5784:James Madison 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5768:Adam Ferguson 5765: 5764:James Burnett 5761: 5757: 5749: 5745: 5736: 5734: 5733:James Thomson 5730: 5726: 5720: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5689: 5687: 5681: 5679: 5674: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5638: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5621: 5611: 5609: 5608: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5592: 5584: 5583:Immanuel Kant 5579: 5575: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5534: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5515: 5510: 5508: 5503: 5502: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5486:. Called the 5485: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5454:According to 5452: 5450: 5449: 5444: 5443: 5438: 5437: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5382: 5380: 5379: 5374: 5373: 5368: 5367: 5362: 5361: 5356: 5355: 5350: 5349: 5344: 5343: 5338: 5337: 5332: 5331: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5319: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5300: 5299: 5291: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5268:Lord Monboddo 5265: 5264:Immanuel Kant 5261: 5257: 5256:Denis Diderot 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5228:Thomas Hobbes 5225: 5221: 5217: 5216:Francis Bacon 5213: 5206: 5196: 5193: 5192: 5186: 5184: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5158: 5156: 5155:neoclassicism 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5139:printed books 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5119: 5117: 5116:Immanuel Kant 5113: 5109: 5105: 5104: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5089: 5088: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5050:Francis Bacon 5047: 5043: 5039: 5034: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4995: 4993: 4989: 4988:Age of Reason 4985: 4973: 4968: 4966: 4961: 4959: 4954: 4953: 4951: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4933: 4923: 4920: 4916: 4911: 4906: 4905: 4904: 4903: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4875:Related lists 4873: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4832:Progressivism 4830: 4828: 4827:Nanosocialism 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4759: 4753: 4752: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4733: 4732:Organizations 4728: 4727: 4720: 4719:Ocasio-Cortez 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4639:van der Lubbe 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4491: 4485: 4484: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4176:Chernyshevsky 4174: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4063: 4060:Intellectuals 4057: 4056: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3994: 3993:Revolutionary 3991: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3981: 3979: 3976: 3974: 3971: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3961: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3928:Laissez-faire 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3833:Authoritarian 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3805: 3802: 3797: 3796: 3789: 3786: 3782: 3779: 3777: 3774: 3772: 3769: 3767: 3764: 3763: 3762: 3759: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3731: 3730: 3727: 3725: 3722: 3721: 3715: 3714: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3682:Strike action 3680: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3587:Equal liberty 3585: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3543: 3542: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3490: 3489: 3487: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3477: 3474: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3461: 3451: 3446: 3444: 3439: 3437: 3432: 3431: 3429: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3411: 3406: 3401: 3400: 3399: 3398: 3391: 3388: 3386: 3383: 3381: 3378: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3365: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3356: 3352: 3349: 3348: 3347: 3346:Individualism 3344: 3342: 3339: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3324: 3320: 3317: 3316: 3315: 3312: 3308: 3305: 3304: 3303: 3300: 3298: 3295: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3283: 3280: 3279: 3273: 3272: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3248: 3245: 3241: 3238: 3237: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3227: 3226: 3225:United States 3223: 3219: 3216: 3214: 3211: 3209: 3206: 3204: 3201: 3200: 3199: 3196: 3194: 3191: 3189: 3186: 3184: 3181: 3179: 3176: 3174: 3171: 3169: 3166: 3164: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3154: 3151: 3149: 3146: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3136: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3126: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3116: 3114: 3111: 3107: 3104: 3103: 3102: 3099: 3097: 3094: 3092: 3089: 3087: 3084: 3082: 3079: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3010: 3007: 3006: 3005: 3002: 3000: 2997: 2995: 2992: 2990: 2987: 2985: 2982: 2980: 2977: 2975: 2972: 2968: 2965: 2964: 2963: 2960: 2958: 2955: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2938: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2913: 2910: 2908: 2905: 2903: 2900: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2886: 2883: 2882: 2881: 2878: 2876: 2873: 2871: 2868: 2866: 2863: 2861: 2858: 2856: 2853: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2825:Latin America 2823: 2821: 2818: 2817: 2814: 2809: 2808: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2791: 2789: 2786: 2784: 2781: 2779: 2776: 2774: 2771: 2769: 2766: 2764: 2761: 2759: 2756: 2754: 2751: 2749: 2746: 2744: 2741: 2739: 2736: 2735: 2730:Organizations 2727: 2726: 2719: 2716: 2714: 2711: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2699: 2696: 2694: 2691: 2689: 2686: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2644: 2641: 2639: 2636: 2634: 2631: 2629: 2626: 2624: 2621: 2619: 2616: 2614: 2611: 2609: 2606: 2604: 2601: 2599: 2596: 2594: 2591: 2589: 2586: 2584: 2581: 2579: 2576: 2574: 2571: 2569: 2566: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2544: 2541: 2539: 2536: 2534: 2531: 2529: 2526: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2515: 2509: 2508: 2501: 2498: 2496: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2466: 2463: 2461: 2458: 2456: 2453: 2451: 2448: 2446: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2428: 2426: 2423: 2421: 2418: 2416: 2413: 2411: 2408: 2406: 2403: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2316: 2313: 2311: 2308: 2306: 2303: 2301: 2298: 2296: 2293: 2291: 2288: 2286: 2283: 2281: 2278: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2256: 2253: 2251: 2248: 2246: 2243: 2241: 2238: 2237: 2234: 2229: 2228: 2220: 2217: 2215: 2212: 2211: 2208: 2203: 2202: 2195: 2192: 2188: 2187:Welfare state 2185: 2183: 2180: 2179: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2148: 2145: 2141: 2138: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2128: 2126: 2123: 2122: 2121: 2118: 2114: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2105: 2104: 2101: 2099: 2096: 2094: 2091: 2089: 2086: 2084: 2081: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2071: 2067: 2064: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2051: 2050:Laissez-faire 2047: 2045: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2023: 2020: 2018: 2015: 2013: 2010: 2006: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1997: 1996: 1993: 1992: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1979: 1976: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1969: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1944: 1941: 1940: 1934: 1933: 1926: 1923: 1921: 1918: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1904: 1901: 1899: 1896: 1892: 1889: 1888: 1887: 1884: 1883: 1882: 1879: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1854: 1852: 1849: 1847: 1844: 1840: 1837: 1836: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1812: 1811: 1805: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1795: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1779: 1769: 1764: 1762: 1757: 1755: 1750: 1749: 1747: 1746: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1718: 1717: 1716: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1694: 1691: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1683:Neoliberalism 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1628:Authoritarian 1626: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1614: 1613: 1606: 1603: 1601: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1576: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1555:Globalization 1553: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1515:Crisis theory 1513: 1511: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1481: 1480: 1473: 1470: 1468: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1448: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1371:Intellectuals 1368: 1367: 1360: 1359:Technological 1357: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1286: 1280: 1279: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1228: 1222: 1221: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1151:Institutional 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1130: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1116: 1110: 1109: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1057: 1054: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1011: 1010:Laissez-faire 1007: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 984:Authoritarian 982: 980: 977: 976: 970: 969: 962: 959: 957: 954: 952: 951:Surplus value 949: 947: 944: 942: 939: 937: 934: 932: 931:Privatization 929: 927: 924: 922: 919: 917: 914: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 882: 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 862: 859: 857: 854: 852: 849: 847: 844: 842: 839: 837: 834: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 802: 799: 798: 792: 791: 788: 785: 784: 780: 776: 775: 765: 760: 758: 753: 751: 746: 745: 743: 742: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 718: 715: 712: 711: 710: 709: 705: 704: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 685: 682: 679: 677: 676:Neoclassicism 674: 673: 672: 671: 668: 665: 664: 659: 656: 654: 651: 647: 644: 642: 639: 638: 636: 634: 631: 630: 629: 628: 625: 622: 621: 617: 613: 612: 609: 606: 605: 601: 597: 596: 586: 581: 579: 574: 572: 567: 566: 564: 563: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 541: 538: 536: 533: 531: 528: 526: 523: 521: 518: 517: 513: 507: 506: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 483:Phenomenology 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 440: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 417: 413: 407: 406: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 356: 355: 354: 351: 348: 347: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 311: 310: 307: 303: 300: 299: 298: 295: 291: 288: 287: 286: 283: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 250: 249: 246: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 228: 227: 224: 223: 222: 221: 218: 215: 214: 207: 204: 202: 199: 198: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 175: 174:Ancient Greek 172: 170: 167: 166: 165: 162: 161: 160: 159: 156: 153: 152: 146: 140: 139: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 102: 91: 90: 88: 87: 83: 79: 78: 75: 72: 71: 67: 66: 54: 50: 46: 44: 39: 34: 30: 19: 24371: 24367:Pope Francis 24293:21st century 24242:Pope Paul VI 24219: 24207: 24160:20th century 24147: 24098:Pope Pius IX 24086:19th century 24062:Pope Pius VI 24051: 23929: 23801:Latin Empire 23771:Universities 23723:Pope Leo III 23590:Christianity 23575:state church 23567:Great Church 23368:Resurrection 23331:(30–325/476) 23328:Early Church 23313:Latin Church 23308:Papal States 23303:Vatican City 22895: 22697:The Simpsons 22695: 22642:Other topics 22590: 22567:Christianity 22557:Resurrection 22188:Adolf Hitler 22017:Six-Day War 22013:Algerian War 21984: / 21943:Vichy France 21935: 21928: 21838: / 21726:World War II 21622: / 21289: 21282: 21084:Ghaza thesis 21007: 20983: 20969:White legend 20967: / 20965:Black legend 20920:Soviet Union 20810: 20803: 20791: 20754:Great Famine 20731:Indocentrism 20705: 20686: 20679: 20672: 20660: 20606:Grand Siècle 20604: 20585: 20553:Sinocentrism 20414:Ancient Rome 20394: 20252:Aryan Kartli 20250: 20042: 20005: / 19939: 19836:19th century 19834: / 19825: / 19817: 19790: 19783: 19782: / 19777: 19753: 19727: / 19701:Black legend 19659:Historiology 19456: / 19444: 19407: 19345:Quantitative 19268: 19264:Intellectual 19230: / 19226: / 19212: / 19210:Anthropology 19164:Phaleristics 19157:preservation 19152:Oral history 19093: / 19079: / 19061:Microhistory 18836: 18829: 18822: 18815: 18806: 18797: / 18793: 18786: 18723:Western Bloc 18523:AUSCANNZUKUS 18479:Contemporary 18428:Human rights 18274:Latin Church 18248:Christianity 18198: 18157:Conservatism 18002:contemporary 17839:Architecture 17775:World War II 17735:Emancipation 17730:Abolitionism 17709: 17618:Romanization 17613:Roman legacy 17594:Roman Empire 17418:World War II 17367: 17271:Early modern 17248:Kalmar Union 17119:Papal States 17037:Roman Empire 16705: 16698: 16456:Cabinet wars 16107: 15987: 15732:Catherine II 15184:Beaumarchais 15014:Universality 14985:Reductionism 14932: 14909:Human rights 14809: 14742: 14716: 14709: 14696: 14686: 14668: 14657: 14650: 14643: 14633: 14606: 14596: 14593:Wills, Garry 14583: 14576: 14569: 14562: 14555: 14545: 14538: 14514: 14510: 14502: 14495: 14485: 14478: 14471: 14464: 14457: 14425: 14421: 14413: 14394: 14386: 14373: 14366: 14359: 14349: 14342: 14334: 14331:New Politics 14330: 14319: 14312: 14305: 14295: 14288: 14272: 14244: 14224: 14205: 14197: 14190: 14182: 14174: 14160: 14153: 14146: 14139: 14127: 14117: 14107: 14097: 14090: 14080: 14073: 14065: 14057: 14046: 14045:Gay, Peter. 14035: 14025: 14022:Dupré, Louis 14015: 14008: 14001: 13978: 13957: 13948: 13927: 13919: 13911: 13905:. Princeton. 13902: 13893: 13884: 13875: 13867: 13857: 13850: 13840: 13816: 13808: 13800: 13795: 13790:(1970) p. 53 13787: 13782: 13774: 13769: 13761: 13756: 13748: 13743: 13734: 13726: 13721: 13709:. Retrieved 13702:the original 13688: 13679: 13668: 13663: 13654: 13645: 13637: 13632: 13623: 13615: 13610: 13602: 13597: 13589: 13584: 13575: 13571: 13565: 13545: 13538: 13529: 13524: 13481: 13471: 13466:Andrew, 422. 13462: 13453: 13448:, p. 4. 13429: 13424:Andrew, 408. 13420: 13411: 13403: 13398: 13373: 13367: 13359: 13354: 13345: 13336: 13314:(1): 31–51. 13311: 13307: 13301: 13292: 13284: 13279: 13271: 13266: 13257: 13248: 13239: 13230: 13222: 13217: 13209: 13204: 13195: 13190:(1998), 420. 13187: 13182: 13160: 13155: 13150:(2003) p. 50 13147: 13142: 13132: 13125: 13116: 13110: 13085: 13081: 13071: 13062: 13053: 13044: 13035: 13026: 13017: 13008: 12999: 12990: 12981: 12972: 12963: 12954: 12945: 12936: 12927: 12918: 12882: 12870: 12858: 12850: 12845: 12836: 12828: 12823: 12813: 12806: 12799: 12795: 12790: 12782: 12766: 12761: 12752: 12745: 12740: 12732: 12727: 12718: 12709: 12700: 12690: 12681: 12672: 12664: 12659: 12650: 12642: 12637: 12628: 12620: 12615: 12607: 12602: 12594: 12589: 12581: 12576: 12567: 12558: 12549: 12540: 12518: 12500: 12484: 12468: 12463: 12455: 12450: 12441:Mona Ozouf, 12437: 12428: 12419: 12411: 12406: 12386: 12379: 12370: 12352: 12347: 12338: 12330: 12325: 12317: 12312: 12305: 12301: 12296: 12276: 12269: 12249: 12242: 12223: 12213: 12202:, retrieved 12198:the original 12192: 12185: 12177: 12173: 12166: 12158:oyc.yale.edu 12157: 12148: 12140: 12135: 12126: 12120: 12111: 12105: 12095: 12091: 12089: 12084: 12079: 12067: 12055: 12043: 12035: 12022:, p. 70 12015: 12007: 12002: 11990: 11981: 11971: 11964: 11959: 11942: 11938: 11932: 11924: 11920: 11911: 11906:Thomas, 2014 11890: 11884: 11876: 11871: 11861: 11845: 11833: 11818: 11813: 11805: 11800: 11788: 11780: 11775: 11748: 11744: 11734: 11726: 11721: 11706: 11699: 11691: 11686: 11678: 11673: 11665: 11660: 11652: 11647: 11636: 11631: 11623: 11618: 11610: 11605: 11596: 11590: 11570: 11563: 11555: 11550: 11542: 11534: 11525: 11519: 11510: 11504: 11495: 11489: 11481: 11475: 11445: 11437: 11428: 11422: 11414: 11409: 11401: 11396: 11388: 11383: 11374: 11365: 11357: 11352: 11344: 11339: 11331: 11326: 11318: 11313: 11305: 11300: 11292: 11287: 11267: 11260: 11252: 11247: 11227: 11220: 11210: 11203: 11191:. Retrieved 11187: 11178: 11145: 11141: 11131: 11123: 11122:Roy Porter, 11118: 11098: 11090: 11082: 11077: 11072:(1973) p. 14 11069: 11064: 11053: 11038: 11033: 11021: 11009: 10997: 10985: 10977: 10972: 10960: 10955: 10943: 10931: 10919: 10910: 10900: 10889: 10882: 10862: 10855: 10835: 10828: 10808: 10801: 10781: 10774: 10766: 10761: 10741: 10734: 10716: 10705: 10697: 10677: 10670: 10650: 10643: 10634: 10628: 10620: 10615: 10607: 10602: 10593: 10585: 10580: 10564: 10544: 10537: 10520: 10512: 10507: 10499: 10494: 10486: 10481: 10473: 10468: 10448: 10441: 10434: 10430: 10422: 10417: 10408: 10400: 10394: 10385: 10377: 10372: 10364: 10359: 10347:. Retrieved 10337: 10329: 10324: 10314: 10307: 10282: 10278: 10269: 10264:(2008), p. 1 10261: 10256: 10248: 10243: 10217:. Retrieved 10207: 10198: 10190: 10185: 10177: 10172: 10147: 10143: 10137: 10126:, retrieved 10122:the original 10117: 10111: 10103: 10094: 10085: 10076: 10067: 10058: 10049: 10036:. Retrieved 10032:the original 10022: 10017: 10008: 9999: 9990: 9982: 9977: 9966: 9961: 9950: 9945: 9933:. Retrieved 9929:the original 9918: 9910: 9905: 9893:. Retrieved 9889:the original 9884: 9875: 9866: 9856: 9843: 9803: 9776: 9764: 9752: 9732: 9725: 9705: 9699: 9691: 9686: 9678: 9662: 9657: 9649: 9644: 9636: 9631: 9611: 9603: 9593: 9586: 9578: 9573: 9554: 9548: 9536:. Retrieved 9532:the original 9522: 9492:(1): 35–52. 9489: 9485: 9479: 9469: 9462: 9450:. Retrieved 9440: 9432: 9427: 9418: 9412: 9393: 9386: 9359: 9355: 9264:. Retrieved 9259: 9250: 9226: 9163:Alexis Piron 9051:, a bust of 8995: 8907: 8893: 8889: 8880: 8856: 8845: 8826: 8823: 8811: 8807: 8787: 8771: 8767: 8763: 8759:Café Procope 8756: 8750: 8747: 8739: 8724: 8719:Coffeehouses 8717: 8708:Coffeehouses 8701: 8699: 8679:Robert Boyle 8671: 8661: 8659: 8648: 8609: 8602: 8598: 8582: 8573: 8561: 8553: 8545: 8541: 8539: 8532: 8528: 8522: 8516: 8500: 8497: 8487:Encyclopédie 8486: 8483:Encyclopédie 8482: 8475:Encyclopédie 8474: 8471: 8466: 8460: 8455: 8448: 8441: 8433: 8429: 8425: 8423: 8418:Encyclopédie 8417: 8394: 8384: 8368: 8361: 8355: 8347:hierarchical 8339: 8331: 8324:Encyclopédie 8322: 8307: 8300: 8290: 8265: 8262: 8252: 8244: 8238: 8208:Encyclopédie 8207: 8205: 8197:Encyclopédie 8196: 8193: 8187:Encyclopédie 8185: 8167: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8148: 8142: 8140: 8132: 8111: 8102: 8098: 8091: 8089: 8076: 8072: 8070: 8065:philosophes. 8064: 8060: 8058: 8055:January 1731 8049: 8039:Encyclopédie 8038: 8035: 8030: 8024: 8020: 8014: 8005:Pierre Bayle 7993: 7991: 7982: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7961: 7953: 7951: 7935: 7921: 7899: 7892: 7873: 7850: 7846: 7808: 7775: 7770: 7750: 7748: 7745:Modern study 7731: 7718: 7704: 7694: 7692: 7679: 7659: 7645:Encyclopédie 7644: 7640: 7636: 7630: 7616:Encyclopédie 7614: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7590:les Lumières 7589: 7585: 7581: 7577: 7563: 7561: 7547: 7539:Keith Thomas 7536: 7527:Ernest Renan 7517: 7494: 7473: 7434:liberty tree 7430:Seringapatam 7419: 7399: 7377: 7370: 7338: 7332: 7317:society—and 7315:meritocratic 7299: 7291: 7284:Matteo Ricci 7244: 7211: 7209: 7182: 7163: 7127: 7099:Encyclopédie 7098: 7083:Nova Arcádia 7060: 7044:Lisbon Baixa 7022: 7020: 7001: 6986: 6971: 6931: 6917: 6903: 6892: 6840: 6835: 6833: 6810: 6783: 6752:Joseph Haydn 6741: 6719:, the first 6714: 6705: 6698: 6690:Joseph Haydn 6683: 6679:German opera 6662: 6649: 6644: 6642: 6613: 6604: 6584: 6578: 6555: 6547: 6523:Joseph Black 6500: 6472: 6463:Edmund Burke 6452: 6444:Freethinking 6420: 6380: 6374: 6371: 6338: 6334: 6314:Pierre Bayle 6298:Thomas Paine 6292:and talk of 6287: 6268: 6248: 6245:freethinkers 6230: 6208: 6203: 6184: 6171: 6157: 6148: 6107: 6099: 6064: 6058: 6052: 6040: 6035: 6033: 6024: 6008: 6006: 5995: 5991:general will 5967: 5961: 5959: 5943: 5933: 5910:Philosopher 5852: 5842: 5838: 5818: 5816: 5809: 5798: 5796: 5753: 5728: 5721: 5705:Newtonianism 5701:Encyclopédie 5700: 5696: 5690: 5682: 5675: 5639: 5623: 5605: 5596: 5588: 5546: 5531: 5530:. While the 5514:Encyclopédie 5512: 5505: 5499: 5492:Pierre Bayle 5487: 5472: 5453: 5446: 5441: 5434: 5419:metaphysical 5408: 5376: 5370: 5364: 5358: 5352: 5346: 5340: 5334: 5328: 5322: 5316: 5313:Encyclopédie 5312: 5305:Encyclopedia 5304: 5298:Encyclopédie 5294: 5292: 5284:Hugo Grotius 5240:Pierre Bayle 5209: 5181: 5178:reductionism 5159: 5135:coffeehouses 5120: 5101: 5098:Isaac Newton 5091: 5085: 5058:Isaac Newton 5035: 4996: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4981: 3888:Evolutionary 3808:21st-century 3602:Freed market 3513: 3380:Pirate Party 3240:Jeffersonian 3148:South Africa 2638:Lloyd George 2233:Philosophers 2213: 2140:To bear arms 2088:Open society 2048: 1819:Conservative 1605:Wage slavery 1545:Evergreening 1256:Mercantilism 1230: 1203:Neoclassical 1031:Mercantilist 1008: 941:Rent seeking 906:Visible hand 666: 512:Philosophers 420:Epistemology 241:South Africa 196:Contemporary 145:Philosophies 51:in 1755, by 41: 40:'s tragedy, 29: 24373:Laudato si' 24168:Pope Pius X 23997:Philip Neri 23972:Pope Pius V 23947:Thomas More 23816:Inquisition 23718:Charlemagne 23678:Monasticism 23488:Persecution 23380:Holy Spirit 23363:Crucifixion 23242:First seven 23085:Hagiography 22846: [ 22806:Early Islam 22660: [ 22552:Historicity 22530:Historicity 22520:Jane Austen 22500:The Beatles 22470:Netherlands 22431: [ 22428:Zhuge Liang 22419: [ 22407: [ 22404:Yuan Shikai 22375: [ 22372:Sun Yat Tse 22351: [ 22314: [ 22277: [ 22265: [ 22262:Jiang Zemin 22233: [ 22221: [ 22213:Che Guevara 21946: [ 21881:Pacific War 21665:Article 231 21655:Reparations 21632: [ 21596: [ 21573:Color books 21562:World War I 21546: [ 21523:War of 1812 21428: [ 21411: [ 21396:(1792–1815) 21367:Sea Peoples 21352:Gallic Wars 21054: [ 21042: [ 21029:Revisionist 21018: [ 21009:Reconquista 20999: [ 20991:Inquisition 20985:Convivencia 20909: [ 20897: [ 20869: [ 20766:Revisionism 20691: [ 20639: [ 20627: [ 20615: [ 20596: [ 20538:Golden ages 20507: [ 20504:Wunu School 20499:Archaeology 20372:Switzerland 20355:Kosovo Myth 20343:Great Union 20324: [ 20309:Philippines 20292:Nationalist 20265:Ages of Man 20237: [ 20225: [ 20213: [ 20191: [ 20179: [ 20015: [ 20012:Revisionist 19904: [ 19841:Renaissance 19706:Coloniality 19674: [ 19662: [ 19654:Historicity 19578:Revisionist 19568:Pop history 19539:Nationalist 19513: [ 19458:Cliometrics 19426:Approaches, 19382:Methodology 19278:Linguistics 19228:Environment 19194:Vexillology 19117:Diplomatics 19100:Chorography 19039:Big History 18991:War diaries 18964:Illuminated 18959:Manuscripts 18944:Hieroglyphs 18824:historicity 18663:Open Balkan 18481:integration 18411:Rule of law 18406:Natural law 18383:Agnosticism 18361:Hellenistic 18339:Anglo-Saxon 18269:Catholicism 18208:Atlanticism 18113:Rationalism 17919:Immigration 17902:Esotericism 17760:World War I 17725:Romanticism 17705:Reformation 17685:Renaissance 17663:Middle Ages 17628:Christendom 17557:Foundations 17403:World War I 17393:Nationalism 17281:Reformation 17266:Renaissance 17238:Black Death 17171:Kievan Rus' 17074:Middle Ages 16836:Nationalism 16646:Philosophy: 16601:Switzerland 16591:Lutheranism 16066:Renaissance 15989:Romanticism 15811:Charles III 15652:Poniatowski 15589:Leeuwenhoek 15569:de la Court 15557:Netherlands 15401:Mendelssohn 15396:Lichtenberg 15274:Montesquieu 14992:Sapere aude 14975:Rationalism 14970:Rationality 14960:Objectivity 13738:Roche, 437. 13711:17 November 13627:Roche, 436. 13446:Israel 2001 12887:Israel 2001 12875:Israel 2001 12863:Israel 2001 12654:Outram, 22. 12597:(2001), 42. 12584:(1994), 53. 12571:Goodman, 3. 12562:Outram, 23. 12535:Outram, 21. 12501:Musicology, 12485:Musicology, 12072:Israel 2001 12060:Israel 2006 12048:Israel 2010 12020:Porter 2001 11997:, p. 1 11995:Porter 2001 11945:(1): 1–15. 11793:Israel 2011 11251:A. Herman, 11193:18 December 11014:Hayes, 2008 11002:Mayer, 1994 10948:Israel 2010 10936:Israel 2010 10924:Israel 2011 10425:(2000) p. 7 9885:mnstate.edu 9781:Israel 2010 9769:Israel 2010 9757:Israel 2006 9452:16 November 9123:Montesquieu 8918:Herculaneum 8872:enlightened 8863: 1600 8848:Freemasonry 8827:status quo. 8802:John Henley 8702:philosophes 8666:Middle Ages 8395:Cyclopaedia 8386:Cyclopaedia 8358:John Harris 8212:Clement XII 8201:Malesherbes 8112:philosophes 8081:Grub Street 8061:salonnières 7994:philosophes 7972:(subtitled 7837:Protestants 7786:Romanticism 7782:Renaissance 7772:triumphant. 7598:ilustración 7519:Namik Kemal 7422:Tipu Sultan 7264:Romanticism 7029:under King 6910:Charles III 6729:Josephinism 6675:Abel Seyler 6559:John Toland 6475:Derek Hirst 6375:philosophes 6223:argued for 6191:bourgeoisie 6029:rationality 6025:philosophes 6009:philosophes 5924:was limited 5772:John Millar 5697:Philosophes 5665:, geology, 5556:utilitarian 5533:philosophes 5520:natural law 5445:(1670) and 5415:rationalist 5405:and science 5369:(1759) and 5351:(1754) and 5327:(1733) and 5272:Montesquieu 5191:sapere aude 5007:natural law 4999:rationalism 4919:WikiProject 4797:French Left 4589:Spiridonova 4488:Politicians 4401:Castoriadis 4081:Saint-Simon 4033:Third World 4028:Syndicalism 3963:Nationalist 3938:Libertarian 3903:Free-market 3766:Lange model 3754:Soviet-type 3724:Communalism 3696:Vanguardism 3652:Spontaneism 3562:Cooperative 3508:Development 3208:Gladstonian 3168:Switzerland 3153:South Korea 3096:Philippines 3056:New Zealand 3051:Netherlands 2708:Verhofstadt 2703:Balcerowicz 2512:Politicians 2440:Collingwood 2380:Tocqueville 2255:Montesquieu 2147:Rule of law 1948:Due process 1688:Objectivism 1673:Libertarian 1590:Speculation 1510:Consumerism 1344:Progressive 1283:Development 1266:Physiocracy 1213:Supply-side 1021:Libertarian 999:Free-market 979:Anglo-Saxon 961:Wage labour 916:Marginalism 886:Free market 841:Corporation 435:Metaphysics 350:By religion 206:Continental 186:Renaissance 60: 1812 36:Reading of 24431:Categories 24246:coronation 23952:Pope Leo X 23537:Tertullian 23467:Revelation 23442:Background 23140:Multimedia 22959:Technology 22923:Urreligion 22826:Kharijites 22777:Background 22445:Historical 22416:Zhou Enlai 22311:Mao Zedong 22306:Louis Riel 22079:Background 21930:Guilty Men 21872:Uniqueness 21795:Background 21790:Winter War 21714:Background 21647:Versailles 21501:Great Game 21148:Ricardians 21143:Tudor myth 20861:Partitions 20454:Succession 19744:Narratives 19729:Presentism 19685:Philosophy 19505:Humanistic 19393:Case study 19325:Indigenous 19303:Diplomatic 19247:Capitalism 19147:Onomastics 19105:Chronology 18934:Facsimiles 18919:Chronicles 18817:historians 18788:Historians 18683:Rio Treaty 18194:Relativism 18152:Liberalism 18118:Empiricism 18070:Philosophy 18058:Secularism 18009:Philosophy 17946:Literature 17740:Capitalism 17166:Viking Age 16981:Prehistory 16829:Napoleonic 16753:Painting: 16640:Philosophy 16122:By country 15831:Villarroel 15826:Jovellanos 15762:Radishchev 15709:Micu-Klein 15647:Niemcewicz 15614:Swammerdam 15604:Nieuwentyt 15594:Mandeville 15449:Farmakidis 15335:Burlamaqui 15244:La Mettrie 15219:Fontenelle 15174:d'Argenson 15169:d'Alembert 15093:Harrington 15019:Utopianism 14919:Liberalism 14876:Empiricism 14851:Classicism 14841:Capitalism 14756:PhilPapers 14678:0671217070 14665:Gay, Peter 14032:Gay, Peter 13930:. Perrin. 13340:Klein, 35. 12817:. Ashgate. 12342:Melton, 8. 12204:18 January 12096:sub-iectum 12092:sub-iectum 12087:quotation: 11862:Poland.pl. 11468:3110966298 11458:, Vol. 9, 11188:SparkNotes 10965:John Locke 10405:quoted in 10349:14 January 10038:16 October 9935:14 January 9895:4 November 9238:References 9037:La Clairon 8981:Illuminism 8868:Illuminati 8728:Noah's Ark 8560:published 8554:Principia, 8377:navigation 8373:arithmetic 8077:les grands 8015:The term " 7911:d'Alembert 7876:capitalism 7803:humanities 7784:and later 7655:Roy Porter 7602:Aufklärung 7594:illuminism 7592:(French), 7558:Definition 7469:Egyptology 7410:Yu Kilchun 7323:absolutist 7288:Xu Guangqi 7212:oświecenie 7109:, such as 7023:Iluminismo 6923:Charles IV 6895:Charles II 6776:Statue of 6737:Francis II 6733:Leopold II 6701:Königsberg 6699:In remote 6645:Aufklärung 6519:agronomist 6490:Adam Smith 6454:Roy Porter 6275:Judaic law 6111:Leopold II 6017:capitalism 5912:John Locke 5864:Roy Porter 5667:mineralogy 5538:Old Regime 5431:skepticism 5411:empiricism 5390:Philosophy 5280:Adam Smith 5260:David Hume 5236:John Locke 5078:John Locke 5023:fraternity 5019:toleration 5003:empiricism 4986:(also the 4890:Socialists 4885:By country 4767:Capitalism 4649:Mitterrand 4614:Gerhardsen 4559:Liebknecht 4544:Markievicz 4471:Varoufakis 4421:Fotopoulos 4091:Saint-Just 4086:Buonarroti 4071:Campanella 4008:Scientific 3943:Marhaenism 3898:Fourierism 3883:Ecological 3863:Democratic 3336:Empiricism 3307:Democratic 3302:Capitalism 3213:Manchester 3046:Montenegro 3031:Luxembourg 2967:Venizelism 2897:Costa Rica 2152:Secularism 1985:Federalism 1937:Principles 1829:Democratic 1791:Liberalism 1668:Liberalism 1653:Humanistic 1638:Democratic 1617:Ideologies 1452:Schumpeter 1198:Monetarist 1129:Chartalism 1076:Regulatory 1051:Neoliberal 1004:Humanistic 787:Capitalism 736:Philosophy 608:Classicism 443:Aesthetics 132:Categories 74:Philosophy 24497:Reasoning 24262:Communism 24232:Ecumenism 23578:(380–451) 23570:(180–451) 23559:(313–476) 23481:(100–325) 22928:Perennial 22717:Economics 22669:Feudalism 22455:Australia 22203:Aurangzeb 22179:Political 22169:By person 21850:Pius Wars 21645:Treaty of 21304:conflicts 21111:Poor Laws 20974:Hispanism 20851:Sarmatism 20681:Sonderweg 20439:Expansion 20164:Litvinism 19998:Argentina 19832:Long 18th 19715:Dark Ages 19495:Historism 19293:Political 19232:Geography 19169:Philology 19132:Genealogy 19127:Epigraphy 19070:By source 18909:Artifacts 18628:Five Eyes 18623:EU–UK TCA 18465:Democracy 18354:Old Norse 18243:Abrahamic 18200:Peritrope 18182:Tolerance 18162:Socialism 17992:Mythology 17980:Classical 17929:Languages 17907:Astrology 17755:Modernism 17569:Old World 17213:Feudalism 17184:Catalonia 16631:Academic 16581:Huguenots 16576:Calvinism 16522:Overviews 16480:Diplomacy 16428:Louis XIV 16259:Countries 16174:Political 16052:Overviews 15952:Jefferson 15894:Hutcheson 15783:Obradović 15752:Lomonosov 15747:Kheraskov 15657:Śniadecki 15421:Weishaupt 15416:Thomasius 15406:Pufendorf 15249:Lavoisier 15234:d'Holbach 15229:Helvétius 15209:Descartes 15204:Condorcet 15199:Condillac 15133:Priestley 14950:Modernity 14871:Democracy 14772:from the 14460:. (1994). 14450:142886527 13981:. (1998). 13928:Louis XVI 13922:. (2001). 13870:. (1982). 13516:1874-6691 13102:147123263 12794:Darnton, 12781:Darnton, 12663:Darnton, 12641:Darnton, 12619:Darnton, 11827:0001-6829 11767:2214-1324 11231:. Brill. 11162:0018-2648 10299:145439970 9514:145282986 9506:0035-9149 9378:0002-8762 9243:Citations 8751:virtuosi, 8655:mesmerism 8624:Louis XIV 8542:Principia 8529:Astronomy 8399:engraving 7907:Marmontel 7903:Condorcet 7739:diffusion 7689:Time span 7582:aufklären 7578:Aufklärun 7515:in 1876. 7358:Max Weber 7350:Confucian 7305:emperors 7224:Sarmatism 6993:Spartacus 6725:Joseph II 6507:Calvinist 6260:his death 6176:feudalism 6021:tolerance 5945:Leviathan 5918:based on 5780:modernity 5717:magnetism 5678:academies 5651:chemistry 5637:in 1783. 5568:Edinburgh 5442:Tractatus 5151:socialism 5147:pamphlets 5108:Louis XIV 5062:Descartes 4762:Anarchism 4684:Gorbachev 4534:Malatesta 4529:Bernstein 4306:Pankhurst 4286:Pannekoek 4276:Luxemburg 4231:Plekhanov 4206:Carpenter 4201:Kropotkin 3998:Ricardian 3988:Religious 3983:Reformism 3968:Nkrumaism 3958:Municipal 3858:Communism 3853:Christian 3838:Blanquism 3828:Anarchism 3771:Mutualism 3473:Socialism 3351:Anarchist 3259:Venezuela 3235:Classical 3203:Cobdenism 3106:Cracovian 3061:Nicaragua 3026:Lithuania 2885:Hong Kong 2840:Australia 2678:Roosevelt 2648:Ståhlberg 2643:Venizelos 2598:Sarmiento 2588:Gladstone 2548:Lamartine 2518:Jefferson 2370:Martineau 2320:De Gouges 2305:Condorcet 2290:Priestley 1953:Democracy 1925:Third Way 1886:Christian 1881:Religious 1814:Classical 1708:Third Way 1698:Privatism 1658:Inclusive 1643:Dirigisme 1437:von Mises 1324:Illiberal 1304:Corporate 1299:Community 1246:Feudalism 1156:Keynesian 1146:Classical 989:Corporate 801:Austerity 726:Economics 688:Economics 535:Logicians 530:Ethicists 488:Political 448:Education 369:Christian 364:Confucian 263:Indonesia 217:By region 155:By period 24492:Progress 24477:Learning 24442:Autonomy 24272:HIV/AIDS 23766:Crusades 23520:Irenaeus 23513:Ignatius 23508:Polycarp 23358:Ministry 23346:(30–100) 23220:Timeline 23130:Category 23045:template 22759:Religion 22610:Socrates 22525:Muhammed 22447:rankings 22328:Napoleon 22146:Category 21964:Cold War 21867:Slovakia 21454:Waterloo 21323:Crusades 21268:Military 21116:Scotland 21074:Kemalist 20396:Nam tiến 20391:Vietnam 20381:Ukraine 20339:Romania 20321:Portugal 20247:Georgia 20222:Medieval 20171:Bulgaria 20160:Belarus 20145:Austria 19951:Americas 19919:Morocco 19915:Ethiopia 19694:Specific 19617:Concepts 19522:Leninist 19480:Feminist 19468:Critical 19315:Feminism 19288:Military 19242:Business 19237:Economic 19219:Cultural 19203:By topic 19189:Toponymy 19137:Heraldry 19085:template 19032:By scale 18954:Logbooks 18939:Features 18904:Archives 18688:Schengen 18618:Eurozone 18458:Property 18453:Religion 18344:Frankish 18334:Germanic 18314:Paganism 18235:Religion 18223:European 18135:Humanism 18038:Religion 17997:Painting 17963:Internet 17914:Folklore 17885:Clothing 17856:Calendar 17832:Cyrillic 17817:Alphabet 17780:Cold War 17452:See also 17423:Cold War 17218:Crusades 17188:Valencia 16850:See also 16596:Scottish 16556:Haskalah 16544:Hussites 16515:Religion 16394:England 16283:Germany 16252:Politics 16222:Concepts 16002:Category 15947:Franklin 15914:Playfair 15884:Ferguson 15841:Scotland 15788:Mrazović 15742:Kantemir 15737:Fonvizin 15676:Portugal 15642:Krasicki 15637:Konarski 15632:Kołłątaj 15584:Koerbagh 15533:Genovesi 15518:Beccaria 15480:Berkeley 15411:Schiller 15376:Humboldt 15350:Saussure 15345:Rousseau 15309:Voltaire 15264:Maréchal 15239:Jaucourt 15194:Châtelet 15189:Chamfort 15138:Reynolds 15041:Thinkers 14945:Midlands 14934:Lumières 14904:Humanism 14897:Haskalah 14337:: 65–86. 13845:in JSTOR 13760:Davies, 13578:(1): 81. 13210:Annales, 11854:Archived 11470:, p. 308 11462:, 2005, 11170:24423269 10992:, p. 158 10229:cite web 10219:25 March 10189:M. Fry, 10128:27 April 9848:archived 9276:cite web 9053:Voltaire 8949:Haskalah 8928:See also 8884:Jacobite 8818:Anglican 8814:Lutheran 8099:libelles 7880:autonomy 7857:critical 7723:Louis XV 7565:Lumières 7501:Tanzimat 7428:Club in 7311:Qianlong 7278:Italian 7220:szlachta 7073:and the 7031:Joseph I 6985:'s book 6829:Piedmont 6812:Il Caffè 6748:Austrian 6626:Schiller 6497:Scotland 6310:orthodox 6221:Voltaire 6198:Religion 5849:Politics 5825:and the 5823:penology 5713:taxonomy 5610:(1791). 5602:feminist 5484:Louis XV 5451:(1677). 5409:Bacon's 5381:(1781). 5288:Voltaire 5143:journals 5015:progress 4880:Category 4619:Erlander 4579:Kerensky 4549:Connolly 4406:Thompson 4391:Bookchin 4381:Montseny 4331:Vanzetti 4296:Einstein 4266:Landauer 4171:Saltykov 4166:Lassalle 4126:Proudhon 3908:Gandhian 3893:Feminist 3843:Buddhist 3823:Agrarian 3801:Variants 3465:a series 3463:Part of 3341:Humanism 3314:Centrism 3264:Zimbabwe 3218:Whiggism 3178:Thailand 3143:Slovenia 3138:Slovakia 3113:Portugal 3086:Paraguay 3009:Liberism 2974:Honduras 2892:Colombia 2865:Bulgaria 2658:Rathenau 2633:Milyukov 2553:Macaulay 2523:Kołłątaj 2495:Kymlicka 2475:Friedman 2420:Cassirer 2410:Hobhouse 2345:Constant 2340:Humboldt 2300:Beccaria 2265:Rousseau 2260:Voltaire 2103:Property 2066:Positive 2061:Negative 2017:Religion 1995:Economic 1968:Equality 1891:Catholic 1861:National 1856:Muscular 1834:Feminist 1824:Cultural 1783:a series 1781:Part of 1535:Cronyism 1447:Rothbard 1422:Marshall 1407:Friedman 1339:Merchant 1294:Consumer 1289:Advanced 1124:Austrian 1119:American 1046:National 1041:Monopoly 994:Dirigist 896:Investor 806:Business 795:Concepts 779:a series 777:Part of 658:Language 600:a series 598:Part of 493:Religion 478:Ontology 458:Language 412:Branches 359:Buddhist 314:American 236:Ethiopia 201:Analytic 181:Medieval 122:Glossary 107:Contents 38:Voltaire 24237:Judaism 23637:Vulgate 23447:Gospels 23422:Stephen 23339:Origins 23259:Vulgate 23195:General 23185:of the 23183:History 23065:Related 22955:Science 22600:Madonna 22572:Judaism 22535:Judaism 22367:Saladin 22257:Hypatia 22181:leaders 22105:Related 22058:Origins 22021:Origins 21972:Origins 21528:Origins 21474:Origins 21340:Origins 21202:Oceania 21165:British 21103:Kingdom 20746:Ireland 20653:Germany 20361:Sweden 20234:New Age 20210:Ancient 20206:Europe 20202:Croatia 20134:Albania 20127:Eurasia 19929:Rwanda 19627:General 19527:Marxist 19428:schools 19257:Thought 19224:Ecology 18986:Scrolls 18924:Codices 18892:Sources 18831:history 18808:History 18533:Benelux 18438:Thought 18388:Atheism 18329:Finnish 18305:Culture 18300:Judaism 18262:Eastern 18258:Western 18253:Culture 18187:Paradox 18053:Decline 18014:Science 17890:History 17878:Studies 17861:Cuisine 17849:Periods 17809:Culture 17638:History 17604:Eastern 17599:Western 17550:culture 17293:Baroque 17192:Majorca 17104:Francia 16742:General 16706:Authors 16676:Science 16606:Radical 16586:English 16409:France 16383:Leaders 16288:Britain 16149:Germany 16134:England 16103:Baroque 16071:Outline 15957:Madison 15929:Stewart 15869:Burnett 15864:Boswell 15849:Beattie 15821:Moratín 15806:Cadalso 15757:Novikov 15692:Romania 15667:Wybicki 15662:Staszic 15609:Spinoza 15579:Huygens 15574:Grotius 15528:Galvani 15523:Galiani 15473:Ireland 15454:Feraios 15426:Wieland 15391:Lessing 15386:Leibniz 15359:Germany 15340:Prévost 15325:Abauzit 15289:Quesnay 15279:Morelly 15269:Meslier 15254:Leclerc 15214:Diderot 15103:Johnson 15078:Collins 15073:Bentham 15058:Addison 15051:England 14999:Science 14836:Atheism 14763:at the 14737:(ed.). 14719:(1996) 14699:(1995) 14689:(2001) 14636:(2001) 14599:(1984) 14586:(1972) 14531:3654234 14474:(1985). 14430:Bibcode 14352:(2004) 14322:(2003) 14298:(1998) 14291:(1971). 14200:(2021). 14167:; also 14110:(2004) 14083:(1981) 13833:Sources 13823:458–474 13390:2652433 13328:3817904 13166:p. 14, 12853:(1990). 12785:135–47. 12623:19, 20. 11639:(1972) 11450:, eds. 11142:History 11028:, p. 14 11016:, p. 10 10332:(1994). 10180:(1986). 9985:p. 120. 9969:(1993) 9913:(2001). 9694:(2009). 9581:(1992). 9538:21 June 9266:3 April 8914:Pompeii 8852:Lessing 8266:le goût 8093:libelle 7841:serfdom 7767:argue: 7682:Marxian 7426:Jacobin 7356:' that 7282:priest 6825:Tuscany 6630:Wieland 6567:liberty 6501:In the 6459:Diderot 6411:England 6294:atheism 6115:Tuscany 5671:zoology 5663:biology 5659:anatomy 5647:physics 5614:Science 5496:skeptic 5464:deistic 5137:and in 5074:Leibniz 5070:Spinoza 5011:liberty 5001:and of 4714:Sánchez 4699:Sankara 4659:Mandela 4644:Kreisky 4634:Allende 4629:Senghor 4624:Douglas 4609:Durruti 4574:Trotsky 4466:Graeber 4446:Hampton 4416:Chomsky 4361:Marcuse 4346:Gramsci 4336:Bordiga 4326:Polanyi 4281:Russell 4271:Berkman 4261:Goldman 4251:Du Bois 4221:Kautsky 4216:Bellamy 4181:Tolstoy 4156:Wallace 4141:Bakunin 4131:Greeley 4121:Blanqui 4101:Fourier 4048:Zionist 4038:Utopian 3978:Popular 3973:Owenism 3953:Marxism 3933:Liberal 3918:Islamic 3878:Ethical 3873:Digital 3848:Chinese 3813:African 3497:Outline 3492:History 3254:Uruguay 3193:Ukraine 3183:Tunisia 3128:Senegal 3118:Romania 3066:Nigeria 3041:Moldova 2984:Iceland 2979:Hungary 2957:Germany 2952:Georgia 2942:Finland 2937:Estonia 2927:Ecuador 2922:Denmark 2917:Czechia 2902:Croatia 2855:Bolivia 2850:Belgium 2845:Austria 2835:Armenia 2830:Albania 2698:Jenkins 2693:Kennedy 2683:Pearson 2668:Einaudi 2653:Gokhale 2613:Itagaki 2608:Naoroji 2603:Mommsen 2583:Lincoln 2573:Mazzini 2558:Kossuth 2543:Broglie 2538:Bolívar 2533:Artigas 2528:Madison 2390:Spencer 2375:Emerson 2365:Bastiat 2350:Ricardo 2310:Bentham 2250:Spinoza 2207:History 2108:Private 2056:Liberty 1990:Freedom 1910:Secular 1898:Islamic 1876:Radical 1808:Schools 1663:Liberal 1623:Anarcho 1560:History 1392:Malthus 1387:Ricardo 1349:Rentier 1334:Marxist 1314:Finance 1225:Origins 1193:Marxist 1141:Chicago 1101:Welfare 1061:Private 1016:Liberal 836:Company 821:Capital 698:Physics 653:Element 498:Science 453:History 379:Islamic 339:Russian 334:Italian 319:British 309:Western 302:Iranian 278:Vietnam 253:Chinese 226:African 164:Ancient 127:History 112:Outline 24517:Virtue 24203:Nazism 24025:to the 23632:Jerome 23542:Origen 23225:Papacy 22691:Salons 22493:Others 22460:Canada 22094:Causes 22031:Causes 22006:Causes 21800:Spirit 21734:Causes 21704:Causes 21569:Causes 21538:Causes 21511:Causes 21489:Causes 21420:Causes 21167:Empire 21101:United 21067:Turkey 20882:Russia 20856:Deluge 20839:Poland 20579:France 20377:Taiwan 20350:Serbia 20156:Balhae 20007:Causes 19958:Canada 19892:Egypt 19885:Africa 19409:Tarikh 19330:Labour 19320:Gender 19310:Social 19110:dating 18976:Papyri 18899:Annals 18553:CANZUK 18443:Speech 18371:Slavic 18349:Gothic 18324:Celtic 18319:Baltic 18218:Values 18019:Values 17579:Greece 17180:Aragon 17159:Amalfi 17144:Venice 17132:Second 16857:Europe 16633:fields 16278:France 16167:Events 16144:France 16139:Papacy 15909:Newton 15899:Hutton 15879:Cullen 15776:Serbia 15724:Russia 15714:Șincai 15624:Poland 15564:Bekker 15538:Pagano 15500:Toland 15464:Korais 15459:Kairis 15441:Greece 15371:Herder 15366:Goethe 15330:Bonnet 15318:Geneva 15304:Turgot 15294:Raynal 15284:Pascal 15224:Gouges 15162:France 15148:Tindal 15143:Sidney 15118:Newton 15113:Milton 15088:Godwin 15083:Gibbon 14980:Reason 14822:Topics 14708:, ed. 14675: 14616: 14601:online 14588:online 14541:(2008) 14529: 14498:, 1999 14448: 14402: 14345:(2002) 14315:(2007) 14308:(2008) 14300:online 14262: 14231: 14212: 14169:online 14156:(1994) 14149:(2017) 14142:(2016) 14100:(2018) 14093:(1965) 14085:online 14060:(2002) 14028:(2004) 14011:(2005) 13965: 13934: 13853:(2003) 13777:(2002) 13640:p. 281 13553: 13514: 13504: 13486:Leiden 13388: 13326: 13174: 13100: 12695:1974). 12667:35–40. 12394: 12362: 12284: 12257: 12230: 12115:p. 126 11839:online 11825: 11765: 11713: 11641:online 11578: 11545:(1997) 11466: 11360:(1941) 11347:(2005) 11334:(2007) 11308:(1978) 11275: 11235: 11168: 11160: 11106: 11041:(1999) 10911:Nd.edu 10870: 10843: 10816: 10789: 10749: 10685: 10658: 10552: 10456: 10297: 10164:588406 10162: 9955:online 9740: 9713: 9620: 9561: 9512: 9504: 9401: 9376: 9183:Lekain 8772:bruits 8690:Salons 8572:. 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