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expressions), social and personality (for example, aggression, sexuality), psychological well-being, and motor behaviors. Using results from a review of 46 meta-analyses, she found that 78% of gender differences were small or close to zero. A few exceptions were some motor behaviors (such as throwing distance) and some aspects of sexuality (such as attitudes about casual sex), which show the largest gender differences. She concludes her article by stating: "It is time to consider the costs of overinflated claims of gender differences. Arguably, they cause harm in numerous realms, including women’s opportunities in the workplace, couple conflict and communication, and analyses of self-esteem problems among adolescents." Hyde also stated elsewhere that "variations
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about the sex or gender of deities and religious figures; and beliefs about the origin and meaning of human gender. External religious issues can be broadly defined as an examination of a given religion from an outsider's perspective, including possible clashes between religious leaders and laity; and the influence of, and differences between, religious perspectives on social issues. For example, various religious perspectives have either endorsed or condemned alternative family structures, homosexual relationships, and abortion. External religious issues can also be examined from the "lens of gender" perspective embraced by some in
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that there is a "middle age – middle sex" effect: sex differences in these two types of abilities observed in younger groups might be entangled with age and hormonal changes. The study concluded that a one-dimensional approach to sex differences (common in meta-analytic studies) therefore overlooks a possible interaction of sex differences with age. This hormones-based "middle age-middle sex effect", and also specifics of the few psychological sex differences (verbal and physical) were analysed in terms of the systemic evolutional tendencies driving sex dimorphism.
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body as the basis for clinical studies. Similar findings are also reported in the sport medicine literature where males typically account for >60% of the individuals studied. The findings of these studies have often been applied across the sexes and healthcare providers have assumed a uniform approach in treating both male and female patients. More recently, medical research has started to understand the importance of taking the sex into account as the symptoms and responses to medical treatment may be very different between sexes.
978:. A May 3, 2015 article in the Wall Street Journal by Georgette Jasen reported that "when it comes to investing, men sometimes have their way of doing things, and women have different ways." Scholarly research has documented systematic differences in financial decisions such as buying investments versus insurance, donating to ingroups versus outgroups (such as terrorism victims in Iraq versus the United States), spending in stores, and the endowment effect-or asking price for goods people have.
34:
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capital, women's role in family, and community ensures that they have strong networks. There is potential that the concept can help to bring women's unpaid 'community and household labor', vital to survival and development, to the attention of economists. However, research analyzing social capital from a gendered perspective is rare, and the notable exceptions are very critical.
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2155:"en who are involved in disputes with their partners, whether as alleged victims or as alleged offenders or both, are disadvantaged and treated less favorably than women by the law-enforcement system at almost every step." Brown, G. (2004). Gender as a factor in the response of the law-enforcement system to violence against partners. Sexuality and Culture, 8, (3-4), 3–139.
754:, psychologist Richard Lippa found that there were large differences in women's and men's preferences for realistic occupations (for example, mechanic or carpenters) and moderate differences in their preferences for social and artistic occupations. His results also found that women tend to be more people-oriented and men more thing-oriented.
632:(with rare exceptions), each individual is created with zero or one Y-chromosome. The complementary result for the X-chromosome follows, either a double or a single X. Therefore, direct sex differences are usually binary in expression, although the deviations in more complex biological processes produce a variety of exceptions.
915:
Sex differences in religion can be classified as either "internal" or "external". Internal religious issues are studied from the perspective of a given religion, and might include religious beliefs and practices about the roles and rights of men and women in government, education and worship; beliefs
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is more common in men. Gender-based medicine, also called "gender medicine", is the field of medicine that studies the biological and physiological differences between the human sexes and how that affects differences in disease. Traditionally, medical research has mostly been conducted using the male
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each year concerning workplace topics. When questioned about preferences of a female boss or a male boss, women chose a preference for a male boss 39% of the time, compared to 26% of men displaying preference for a male boss. Only 27% of women would prefer a boss of the same gender. This preference,
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Statistics have been consistent in reporting that men commit more criminal acts than women. Self-reported delinquent acts are also higher for men than women across many different actions. Many professionals have offered explanations for this sex difference. Some differing explanations include men's
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genders." However, another paper argued that the gender similarities hypothesis was untestable as currently formulated because it does not provide a metric for the psychological importance of relevant dimensions, nor a rule for counting dimensions; a small number of relevant differences may be more
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Because social and environmental factors affect brain activity and behavior, where differences are found, it can be difficult for researchers to assess whether or not the differences are innate. Some studies showing that differences are due to socially assigned roles (nurture), while other studies
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and have not been constructed to eliminate sex differences also tend to show that sex differences are either non-existent or negligible. 2008 research found that, for grades 2 to 11, there were no significant gender differences in math skills among the general population. Differences in variability
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Kryst, Łukasz, Magdalena Żegleń, Małgorzata Kowal, Agnieszka
Woronkowicz, Parasmani Dasgupta, Rana Saha, Rituparna Das, and Sukanta Das. "Sexual dimorphism of body proportions and composition among 16–19-year-olds from South Asia (India) and Central Europe (Poland)." Anthropologischer Anzeiger 78,
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or sociobiological theories). Taking the nature of the crime itself into consideration may also be a factor. Crime can be measured by such data as arrest records, imprisonment rates, and surveys. However, not all crimes are reported or investigated. Moreover, some studies show that men can have an
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In 2011, Irina
Trofimova found a significant female advantage in time on the lexical task and on the temperament scale of social-verbal tempo, and a male advantage on the temperament scale of physical endurance which were more pronounced in young age groups and faded in older groups. She suggested
722:
Chromosomal makeup is important in human psychology. Females normally have two X chromosomes while males typically have an X and a Y chromosome. The X chromosome is more active and encodes more information than the Y chromosome, which has been shown to affect behavior. Genetic researchers theorize
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Kleisner, Karel, Petr Tureček, S. Craig
Roberts, Jan Havlíček, Jaroslava Varella Valentova, Robert Mbe Akoko, Juan David Leongómez, Silviu Apostol, Marco AC Varella, and S. Adil Saribay. "How and why patterns of sexual dimorphism in human faces vary across the world." Scientific reports 11, no. 1
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Sex differences in suicide have been shown to be significant; there are highly asymmetric rates of suicide and suicide attempts between males and females. The gap, also called the gender paradox of suicidal behavior, can vary significantly between different countries. Statistics demonstrate that
663:
The most obvious differences between males and females include all the features related to reproductive roles, notably the endocrine (hormonal) systems and their physiological and behavioral effects, including gonadal differentiation, internal and external genital and breast differentiation, and
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is often seen as the missing link in development; as social networks facilitate access to resources and protect the commons, while cooperation makes markets work more efficiently. Social capital has been thought of as women's capital as whereas there are gendered barriers to accessing economic
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Hartung & Widiger (1998) found that many kinds of mental illnesses and behavioral problems show gender differences in prevalence and incidence. "Of the 80 disorders diagnosed in adulthood for which sex ratios are provided, 35 are said to be more common in men than in women (17 of which are
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Differences in male and female jealousy can also be observed. While female jealousy is more likely to be inspired by emotional infidelity, male jealousy is most likely to be brought on by sexual infidelity. A clear majority of approximately 62% to 86% of women reported that they would be more
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introduced the gender similarities hypothesis, which suggests that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. The research focused on cognitive variables (for example, reading comprehension, mathematics), communication (for example, talkativeness, facial
604:
Sex differences in human physiology are distinctions of physiological characteristics associated with either male or female humans. These can be of several types, including direct and indirect, direct being the direct result of differences prescribed by the Y-chromosome (due to the
1200:
Scott, Isabel M., Andrew P. Clark, Steven C. Josephson, Adam H. Boyette, Innes C. Cuthill, Ruby L. Fried, Mhairi A. Gibson et al. "Human preferences for sexually dimorphic faces may be evolutionarily novel." Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 40 (2014):
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positions leading to a lack of data on how they behave in such positions. The two main lines of research contradict one another, the first being that there are significant sex differences in leadership and the second being that gender does not have an effect on leadership.
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may provide a way to investigate such a relationship from a gender differences perspective. An observable difference in crime rates between men and women might be due to social and cultural factors, crimes going unreported, or to biological factors (for example,
647:(i.e., normal) distribution which can be broadly described by the mean (peak distribution) and standard deviation (indicator of size of range). Often only the mean or mean difference between sexes is given. This may or may not preclude overlap in distributions.
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showed that the females had greater volume in the prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, superior temporal cortex, lateral parietal cortex, and insula, whereas males had greater volume in the ventral temporal and occipital regions.
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Statistics repeatedly show that many more men than women commit crimes. Indeed, as
Richard Collier notes, 'most crimes would remain unimaginable without the presence of men (Collier, 1998; see also Jefferson,
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Most IQ tests are constructed so that there are no overall score differences between females and males. Areas where differences have been found include verbal and mathematical ability. IQ tests that measure
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show that differences are due to inherent differences (natural or innate). Studies on this topic explore the possibility of social influences on how both sexes perform in cognitive and behavioral tests.
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Sexual dimorphism for specific traits in humans can also vary between population groups, which may be due to a variety of factors such as environmental influences, genetic variation or hormonal effects.
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Laurie, Nina; Andolina, Robert; and
Radcliffe, Sarah (2005) 'Ethnodevelopment: Social Movements, Creating Experts and Professionalising Indigenous Knowledge in Ecuador' Antipode 37(3): 470–496
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Research has been undertaken to examine whether or not there are sex differences in leadership. Leadership positions continue to be dominated by men. Women were rarely seen in senior
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Sex differences in financial decision making are relevant and significant. Numerous studies have found that women tend to be financially more risk-averse than men and hold safer
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Neisser U, Boodoo G, Bouchard TJ Jr, Boykin AW, Brody N, Ceci SJ, Halpern DF, Loehlin JC, Perloff R, Sternberg RJ, Urbina S (1996). "Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns".
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Sex differences in social capital are differences between men and women in their ability to coordinate actions and achieve their aims through trust, norms and networks.
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overwhelming bias against reporting themselves to be the victims of a crime (particularly when victimized by a woman), and some studies have argued that men reporting
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posits that sexual selection has led to increased exposure to testosterone in males, causing greater competitive behavior which could lead to criminality.
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Savic I, Garcia-Falgueras A, Swaab DF (2010-01-01). "Sexual differentiation of the human brain in relation to gender identity and sexual orientation".
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1749:"Sex differences in human jealousy: A coordinated study of forced-choice, continuous rating-scale, and physiological responses on the same subjects"
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Hyde JS, Lindberg, S. M., Linn, M. C., Ellis, A. B., Williams, C. C. (July 2008). "DIVERSITY: Gender
Similarities Characterize Math Performance".
2841:
Kurt D, Inman JJ, Argo JJ (2011). "The influence of friends on consumer spending: The role of agency-communion orientation and self-monitoring".
1381:
Nisbett RE, Aronson J, Blair C, Dickens W, Flynn J, Halpern DF, Turkheimer E (2012). "Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments".
542:; and sex-related diseases, which are diseases that are more usual to one sex, or which manifest differently in each sex. For example, certain
1704:
Hartung CM, Widiger, TA (May 1998). "Gender differences in the diagnosis of mental disorders: conclusions and controversies of the DSM-IV".
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Eveleth, Phyllis B. "Differences between ethnic groups in sex dimorphism of adult height." Annals of human biology 2, no. 1 (1975): 35-39.
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105:
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77:
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Dommer SL, Swaminathan V (2013). "Explaining the endowment effect through ownership: The role of identity, gender, and self-threat".
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differentiation of muscle mass, height, and hair distribution. There are also differences in the structure of specific areas of the
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348:
84:
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Hedges LV, Nowell, Amy (1995). "Sex
Differences in Mental Test Scores, Variability, and Numbers of High-Scoring Individuals".
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343:
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3163:
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Rowe D, Vazsonyi A, Flannery D (1995). "Sex
Differences in Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes?".
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among both sexes, for male leadership in the workplace has continued unabated for sixty years according to Gallup surveys.
657:, but an individual female could be taller than an individual male. The extents of these differences vary across societies.
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Andersen JA, Hansson PH (2011). "At the end of the road? On differences between women and men in leadership behavior".
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2010:
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Gustafsson A, Lindenfors P (2004). "Human size evolution: no allometric relationship between male and female stature".
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bothered by emotional infidelity and 47% to 60% of men reported that they would be more bothered by sexual infidelity.
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Research on biological sex differences in human psychology investigates cognitive and behavioral differences between
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in humans) has been repeatedly found to be considerably larger in males than in females. A brain study done by the
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Felson RB, Pare P (2005). "The reporting of domestic violence and sexual assault by nonstrangers to the police".
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MacLean K (2010-06-25). "Capitalizing on Women's Social
Capital? Women-Targeted Microfinance in Bolivia".
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Sometimes and in some places, there are sex differences in educational achievement. This may be caused by
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3024:
1748:
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Colom R, Juan-Espinosa M, Abad F, García Ĺ (2000). "Negligible Sex Differences in General Intelligence".
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762:), 31 are said to be more common in women than men, and 14 are said to be equally common in both sexes."
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308:
193:
98:
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Inferior: How Science Got Women Wrong – and the New Research That's Rewriting the Story
1317:
Tanoyouye E (June 28, 1996). "Heredity Theory Says Intelligence in Males is 'Like Mother, Like Son'".
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about differences between men and women have been shown to affect a person's behavior (this is called
3130:
3110:
3051:
1952:
Trofimova I (2015). "Do psychological sex differences reflect evolutionary bi-sexual partitioning?".
841:
576:
547:
325:
286:
52:
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609:), and indirect being characteristics influenced indirectly (e.g., hormonally) by the Y-chromosome.
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of IQ scores have been observed in studies, with more men falling at the extremes of the spectrum.
728:
562:, which are infections that have a significant probability of transmission through sexual contact.
440:
381:
59:
2459:
Molyneux M (2002-12-16). "Gender and the Silences of Social Capital: Lessons from Latin America".
471:
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48:
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Felson, R. B. (2008). "The legal consequences of intimate partner violence for men and women".
2174:
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find disadvantageous biases in law enforcement. Burton et al. (1998) found that low levels of
2215:
Burton V, Cullen F, Evans D, Alarid LF, Dunaway RG (1998). "Gender, Self-Control, and Crime".
2038:
1996:
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8:
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1969:
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Machin, S., Pekkarinen, T. (2008). "Global Sex Differences in Test Score Variability".
1468:
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1020:
770:
543:
313:
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2312:"Employment: Female share of seats on boards of the largest publicly listed companies"
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1429:
707:, which take a variety of forms. Tests focus on possible differences in areas such as
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in law or culture, or may reflect natural differences in the interests of the sexes.
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Zuriff GE (2015). "The gender similarities hypothesis is untestable as formulated".
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Understanding Statistics for the Social Sciences, Criminal Justice, and Criminology
2002:
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1965:
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1086:
1068:"Where are all the female participants in Sports and Exercise Medicine research?"
921:
363:
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2091:
1717:
589:
Different levels of prevention, reporting, diagnosis or treatment in each gender
2775:
Bajtelsmit VL, Bernasek A (1996). "Why Do Women Invest Differently Than Men?".
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Trofimova I (2012). "A study of the dynamics of sex differences in adulthood".
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Pearson J, Riegle-Crumb C (2009). "Gender, Education and". In Ritzer G (ed.).
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Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference
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Ellis L (2005). "A Theory Explaining Biological Correlates of Criminality".
1574:"An Evaluation of Evidence for Innate Sex Differences in Linguistic Ability"
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1981:
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refers to an individual's sex as determined by their internal and external
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ed. Muriel Lederman and Ingrid Bartsch. New York, Routledge, 2001. 306–322
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it is well supported in research that more men than women commit crimes.
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Gender differences in mathematics: an integrative psychological approach
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Sex Differences in the Human Brain, their Underpinnings and Implications
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tendency toward risk and violent behavior, sex differences in activity,
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that the X chromosome may contain a gene influencing social behaviours.
508:. A subset of such differences is hypothesized to be the product of the
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2326:"Ranked and mapped: Women in public sector leadership around the world"
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759:
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if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and
1994:
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Sex differences in medicine include sex-specific diseases, which are
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Indirect sex differences are general differences as quantified by
2796:"Gender Differences in Risk Aversion: A Developing Nation's Case"
866:
A world map showing countries by gender education disparity, 2010
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654:
625:
531:
2669:
1785:
Hyde JS (September 2005). "The Gender Similarities Hypothesis".
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may occur predominantly in one sex, for unknown reasons. 90% of
2932:
2515:"Social Capital, Microfinance, and the Politics of Development"
963:
871:
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2447:
Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and Training
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700:
650:
2036:
1746:
1415:
1334:"Hey guys, for your next party, try borrowing women's genes"
1124:
Cuozzo, Karen, Bratman, Steven (reviewer) (September 2005).
2298:"Facts & Stats | Institute for Women's Leadership"
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significant than a massive number of trivial similarities.
643:
analysis. Most differing characteristics will conform to a
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differences between males and females of the same species.
1925:"Are men evolutionarily wired to love the "Easy" buttons?"
1380:
1229:
2670:
Tsirigotis K, Gruszczynski W, Tsirigotis M (2011-08-01).
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Canetto, Silvia (1998). "The Gender Paradox in Suicide".
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Making Democracy Work. Civic Traditions in Modern Italy
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708:
1056:. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association
1010:
2728:"Suicides in the UK - Office for National Statistics"
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Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences
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1703:
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474:generally occurs by the presence or absence of a
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2338:
1679:(2. ed.). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum. pp.
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703:. This research employs experimental tests of
58:Please review the contents of the article and
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2840:
1740:
962:die much more often by means of suicide than
830:Despite the difficulty of interpreting them,
448:
21:For sex differences in human physiology, see
2905:
2777:Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning
2391:. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2010:245–258.
2284:"Female Business Leaders: Global Statistics"
2217:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
2080:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
586:expected of that sex in a particular society
1126:"Women, Men, and Medicine: We're Not Equal"
565:Sex-related illnesses have various causes:
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470:have been studied in a variety of fields.
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441:
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2178:
1988:
1951:
1936:
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1316:
1136:
2551:on 8 October 2011 – via Zunia.org.
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1998:Criminology: A Sociological Introduction
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969:
861:
558:Neither concept should be confused with
2620:
2485:
2479:
2037:Jeffery T. Walker, Sean Maddan (2013).
1011:Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D.
848:are associated with criminal activity.
478:in the 23rd pair of chromosomes in the
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2426:
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2030:
1850:
1829:
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2823:"Male Investors vs. Female Investors"
2629:Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior
2439:
2112:
1672:
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16:Difference between males and females
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2071:
1784:
1656:, Cambridge University Press, 2005,
1618:
1612:
1578:Journal of Psycholinguistic Research
896:Women and men have been surveyed by
782:genders are greater than variations
719:, and brain structure and function.
27:
2252:Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology
1889:International Journal of Psychology
1371:
1297:National Institutes of Health (NIH)
825:evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory
600:Sex differences in human physiology
500:Sex differences generally refer to
23:Sex differences in human physiology
13:
2899:
2641:10.1111/j.1943-278X.1998.tb00622.x
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14:
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582:Social causes that relate to the
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2931:
2794:Adhikari BK, O'Leary VE (2011).
2752:"U.S. Suicide Statistics (2005)"
2500:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2010.01649.x
2189:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00156.x
993:Sexual differentiation in humans
150:
124:
32:
2869:
2834:
2820:Georgette Jasen (May 3, 2015).
2813:
2787:
2768:
2744:
2720:
2663:
2394:
2381:
2359:
2332:
2318:
2304:
2290:
2276:
2260:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosg016
2243:
2208:
2195:
2158:
2149:
2115:European Journal of Criminology
2106:
2045:Jones & Bartlett Publishers
1945:
1916:
1879:
1844:
1778:
1697:
1666:
1565:
1522:
1479:
1436:
1409:
1325:
1310:
1285:
1223:
1214:
1204:
988:Neuroscience of sex differences
775:University of Wisconsin-Madison
668:. For example, on average, the
560:sexually transmitted infections
3149:Age disparity in relationships
2449:London and New York: Routledge
2401:'Unborn Child Protection Bill'
2167:Journal of Marriage and Family
1954:American Journal of Psychology
1194:
1184:
1117:
1059:
1046:
1004:
552:primary sclerosing cholangitis
344:age disparity in relationships
60:add the appropriate references
1:
2843:Journal of Marketing Research
2436:. Princeton University Press.
1765:10.1016/s1090-5138(01)00078-2
1430:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00035-5
1179:The Gender and Science Reader
998:
884:Sex differences in leadership
877:
691:Sex differences in psychology
684:
653:are, on average, taller than
593:
495:secondary sex characteristics
2878:Journal of Consumer Research
2513:Katharine N. Rankin (2002).
1974:10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.4.0485
1966:10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.4.0485
1902:10.1080/00207594.2012.756981
1753:Evolution and Human Behavior
1157:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.07.004
1087:10.1080/17461391.2014.911354
858:Sex differences in education
851:
823:. In particular, Lee Ellis'
579:that are specific to one sex
7:
2803:Journal of Personal Finance
2229:10.1177/0022427898035002001
2092:10.1177/0022427895032001004
1718:10.1037/0033-2909.123.3.260
1676:Gender, nature, and nurture
981:
911:Sex differences in religion
904:
794:
752:Gender, Nature, and Nurture
526:Sex differences in medicine
519:
74:"Sex differences in humans"
45:reliable medical references
10:
3266:
1830:Tugend A (December 2014).
1809:10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581
1608:– via Springer Link.
1145:Journal of Human Evolution
953:Sex differences in suicide
950:
946:
931:
908:
881:
855:
803:
688:
597:
523:
20:
3245:Sex differences in humans
3179:
3087:
3023:
3012:
2981:
2975:Sex differences in humans
2562:Udry JR (November 1994).
2534:10.1080/13545700210125167
2353:10.1108/01437731111146550
1853:The American Psychologist
1365:10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77
842:intimate partner violence
550:cases are women, whereas
548:primary biliary cirrhosis
468:Sex differences in humans
144:Sex differences in humans
51:or relies too heavily on
2127:10.1177/1477370805054098
1938:10.1038/npre.2011.5562.1
806:Sex differences in crime
799:
2828:The Wall Street Journal
2676:Medical Science Monitor
2473:10.1111/1467-7660.00246
2445:Moser, Caroline (1993)
2432:Putnam, Robert. (1993)
1551:10.1126/science.7604277
1500:10.1126/science.1162573
1457:10.1126/science.1160364
758:substance related or a
624:Through the process of
3116:Emotional intelligence
2989:Sexual differentiation
2564:"The Nature of Gender"
2488:Development and Change
2461:Development and Change
2410:, State Parliament of
1706:Psychological Bulletin
1572:Hirst G (March 1982).
867:
304:Emotional intelligence
167:Sexual differentiation
2906:Angela Saini (2018).
2855:10.1509/jmkr.48.4.741
1787:American Psychologist
1383:American Psychologist
1353:American Psychologist
1043:. NY: Academic Press.
970:Financial risk-taking
865:
711:, spatial reasoning,
2940:at Wikimedia Commons
2377:on October 16, 2014.
1923:Trofimova I (2011).
1052:Geary, D. C. (2009)
1039:Mealey, L. (2000).
292:Emotional expression
2688:10.12659/MSM.881887
1543:1995Sci...269...41H
1494:(5906): 1331–1332.
1338:Wall Street Journal
1332:Langreth R (1997).
1319:Wall Street Journal
924:and its offshoots.
750:In his book titled
577:reproductive system
544:autoimmune diseases
194:Scientific measures
138:Part of a series on
2522:Feminist Economics
2406:2016-03-03 at the
2328:. 26 January 2018.
1840:(Winter 2014): 50.
1832:"Engendering Sons"
1648:Ann M. Gallagher,
1590:10.1007/BF01068214
1021:Sinauer Associates
872:sex discrimination
868:
771:Janet Shibley Hyde
613:is a term for the
506:sexually dimorphic
493:and expression of
314:Gender empathy gap
3250:Sexual dimorphism
3232:
3231:
3204:Gender inequality
2938:Biology of gender
2936:Media related to
1929:Nature Precedings
1673:Lippa RA (2005).
1451:(5888): 494–495.
1132:on July 10, 2006.
821:gender inequality
745:stereotype threat
611:Sexual dimorphism
572:genetic illnesses
538:in people of one
472:Sex determination
465:
464:
399:Gender inequality
133:
132:
109:
3257:
3047:Mental disorders
3018:
2968:
2961:
2954:
2945:
2944:
2935:
2921:
2910:. Beacon Press.
2894:
2893:
2884:(5): 1034–1050.
2873:
2867:
2866:
2838:
2832:
2831:
2825:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2800:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2739:
2738:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2707:
2682:(8): PH65–PH70.
2667:
2661:
2660:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2615:
2609:. Archived from
2568:
2559:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2544:. Archived from
2519:
2510:
2504:
2503:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2456:
2450:
2443:
2437:
2430:
2424:
2421:
2415:
2398:
2392:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2336:
2330:
2329:
2322:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2294:
2288:
2287:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2212:
2206:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2182:
2162:
2156:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2061:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2021:
2019:
2003:Psychology Press
1992:
1986:
1985:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1940:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1865:10.1037/a0039679
1848:
1842:
1841:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1802:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1744:
1738:
1737:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1670:
1664:
1650:James C. Kaufman
1646:
1640:
1639:
1628:. W. W. Norton.
1616:
1610:
1609:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1395:10.1037/a0026699
1378:
1369:
1368:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1329:
1323:
1322:
1314:
1308:
1307:
1305:
1304:
1289:
1283:
1282:
1238:
1227:
1221:
1218:
1212:
1208:
1202:
1198:
1192:
1188:
1182:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1121:
1115:
1114:
1072:
1063:
1057:
1050:
1044:
1037:
1031:
1030:
1028:
1027:
1019:(2nd ed.).
1008:
832:crime statistics
658:
514:sexual selection
457:
450:
443:
429:equality paradox
424:Sociolinguistics
228:Mental disorders
154:
135:
134:
128:
127:
119:
116:
110:
108:
67:
36:
35:
28:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3235:
3234:
3233:
3228:
3175:
3083:
3067:Substance abuse
3042:Life expectancy
3019:
3010:
2977:
2972:
2928:
2918:
2902:
2900:Further reading
2897:
2874:
2870:
2839:
2835:
2818:
2814:
2798:
2792:
2788:
2773:
2769:
2760:
2758:
2750:
2749:
2745:
2736:
2734:
2726:
2725:
2721:
2668:
2664:
2625:
2621:
2613:
2583:10.2307/2061790
2566:
2560:
2556:
2548:
2517:
2511:
2507:
2484:
2480:
2457:
2453:
2444:
2440:
2431:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2412:New South Wales
2408:Wayback Machine
2399:
2395:
2386:
2382:
2365:
2364:
2360:
2337:
2333:
2324:
2323:
2319:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2282:
2281:
2277:
2270:
2248:
2244:
2213:
2209:
2200:
2196:
2180:10.1.1.160.1175
2163:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2111:
2107:
2076:
2072:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2035:
2031:
2017:
2015:
2013:
1993:
1989:
1950:
1946:
1921:
1917:
1884:
1880:
1849:
1845:
1828:
1824:
1800:10.1.1.374.1723
1783:
1779:
1769:
1767:
1745:
1741:
1702:
1698:
1691:
1671:
1667:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1617:
1613:
1570:
1566:
1537:(5220): 41–45.
1527:
1523:
1484:
1480:
1441:
1437:
1414:
1410:
1379:
1372:
1349:
1345:
1330:
1326:
1315:
1311:
1302:
1300:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1263:
1236:
1228:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1195:
1189:
1185:
1176:
1172:
1141:
1137:
1122:
1118:
1070:
1064:
1060:
1051:
1047:
1041:Sex differences
1038:
1034:
1025:
1023:
1009:
1005:
1001:
984:
972:
955:
949:
936:
930:
922:critical theory
913:
907:
886:
880:
860:
854:
808:
802:
797:
693:
687:
648:
602:
596:
528:
522:
461:
248:substance abuse
223:Life expectancy
129:
125:
120:
114:
111:
68:
57:
53:primary sources
37:
33:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3263:
3253:
3252:
3247:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3226:
3224:Social support
3221:
3219:Social capital
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3189:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3176:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3097:
3095:
3085:
3084:
3082:
3081:
3076:
3075:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3044:
3039:
3033:
3031:
3021:
3020:
3013:
3011:
3009:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2997:
2996:
2985:
2983:
2979:
2978:
2971:
2970:
2963:
2956:
2948:
2942:
2941:
2927:
2926:External links
2924:
2923:
2922:
2917:978-0807010037
2916:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2890:10.1086/666737
2868:
2849:(4): 741–754.
2833:
2812:
2786:
2767:
2743:
2732:www.ons.gov.uk
2719:
2662:
2619:
2616:on 2013-04-03.
2577:(4): 561–573.
2554:
2505:
2494:(3): 495–515.
2478:
2467:(2): 167–188.
2451:
2438:
2425:
2416:
2393:
2380:
2358:
2347:(5): 428–441.
2331:
2317:
2303:
2289:
2275:
2268:
2242:
2223:(2): 123–147.
2207:
2205:, 30, 639–646.
2194:
2173:(3): 597–610.
2157:
2148:
2121:(3): 287–315.
2105:
2070:
2054:978-1449634032
2053:
2047:. p. 99.
2029:
2012:978-0415281676
2011:
2005:. p. 88.
1987:
1960:(4): 485–514.
1944:
1915:
1896:(6): 1–7, 47.
1878:
1859:(7): 663–664.
1843:
1822:
1793:(6): 581–592.
1777:
1739:
1712:(3): 260–278.
1696:
1690:978-0805853445
1689:
1665:
1662:978-0521826051
1641:
1635:978-0393068382
1634:
1611:
1564:
1521:
1478:
1435:
1408:
1389:(2): 130–159.
1370:
1343:
1324:
1309:
1284:
1262:978-0444536303
1261:
1222:
1213:
1203:
1193:
1183:
1177:Birke, Lydia.
1170:
1151:(4): 253–266.
1135:
1116:
1081:(8): 847–851.
1058:
1045:
1032:
1013:"What is Sex?"
1002:
1000:
997:
996:
995:
990:
983:
980:
971:
968:
951:Main article:
948:
945:
940:Social capital
932:Main article:
929:
928:Social capital
926:
909:Main article:
906:
903:
882:Main article:
879:
876:
856:Main article:
853:
850:
817:social support
804:Main article:
801:
798:
796:
793:
689:Main article:
686:
683:
637:empirical data
598:Main article:
595:
592:
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587:
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573:
524:Main article:
521:
518:
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460:
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431:
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419:Social support
416:
414:Social capital
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15:
9:
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3:
2:
3262:
3251:
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3240:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3182:
3178:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
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3147:
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3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
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3112:
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3104:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3080:
3077:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3062:Schizophrenia
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3049:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3022:
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3007:
3004:
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2992:
2991:
2990:
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2980:
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2964:
2962:
2957:
2955:
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2949:
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2929:
2919:
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2909:
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2872:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2837:
2829:
2824:
2816:
2809:(2): 122–147.
2808:
2804:
2797:
2790:
2782:
2778:
2771:
2757:
2753:
2747:
2733:
2729:
2723:
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2327:
2321:
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2307:
2299:
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2279:
2271:
2269:9781405124331
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2246:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2211:
2204:
2198:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2152:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2109:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2074:
2067:
2056:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2041:
2033:
2026:
2014:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1999:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1890:
1882:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1847:
1839:
1838:
1833:
1826:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1766:
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1750:
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1711:
1707:
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1692:
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1669:
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1631:
1627:
1626:
1621:
1615:
1607:
1603:
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1595:
1591:
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1584:(2): 95–113.
1583:
1579:
1575:
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1418:Intelligence
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1017:Neuroscience
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846:self control
837:testosterone
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476:Y chromosome
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321:Intelligence
269:Neuroscience
218:Autoimmunity
143:
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49:verification
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3197:in the U.S.
3141:Neurosexism
3079:Stroke care
3001:In research
2756:Suicide.org
2635:(1): 1–23.
2528:(1): 1–24.
741:Stereotypes
641:statistical
584:gender role
534:that occur
512:process of
392:in the U.S.
336:Neurosexism
260:Stroke care
179:In research
43:needs more
3239:Categories
3209:Leadership
3154:Attraction
3145:Sexuality
3136:Narcissism
3101:Aggression
3093:Psychology
3057:Depression
3006:Physiology
2761:2019-09-10
2737:2021-08-05
2571:Demography
2086:: 84–100.
1837:California
1303:2023-03-27
1026:2019-05-09
999:References
976:portfolios
890:leadership
878:Leadership
760:paraphilia
713:aggression
685:Psychology
645:bell-curve
619:phenotypic
594:Physiology
570:Sex-linked
485:Phenotypic
404:Leadership
349:attraction
340:Sexuality
331:Narcissism
297:Aggression
273:psychology
238:depression
189:Dimorphism
184:Physiology
85:newspapers
3192:Education
3180:Sociology
3106:Cognition
2994:Disorders
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2371:Bloomberg
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2175:CiteSeerX
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2060:August 7,
2018:August 7,
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1271:1875-7855
1095:1536-7290
852:Education
773:from the
769:In 2005,
705:cognition
615:genotypic
504:that are
491:genitalia
387:Education
374:Sociology
282:Cognition
172:disorders
115:June 2014
3214:Religion
3169:Jealousy
3025:Medicine
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2657:12699944
2607:38476067
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520:Medicine
409:Religion
364:jealousy
205:Medicine
3164:Fantasy
3121:Empathy
3072:Suicide
2982:Biology
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1488:Science
1445:Science
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947:Suicide
784:between
717:emotion
655:females
626:meiosis
359:fantasy
309:Empathy
253:suicide
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2096:S2CID
1970:JSTOR
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1602:S2CID
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