Personalized medicine

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arise when processing such large amounts of genetic data. Even with error rates as low as 1 per 100 kilobases, processing a human genome could have roughly 30,000 errors. This many errors, especially when trying to identify specific markers, can make discoveries and verifiability difficult. There are methods to overcome this, but they are computationally taxing and expensive. There are also issues from an effectiveness standpoint, as after the genome has been processed, function in the variations among genomes must be analyzed using genome-wide studies. While the impact of the SNPs discovered in these kinds of studies can be predicted, more work must be done to control for the vast amounts of variation that can occur because of the size of the genome being studied. In order to effectively move forward in this area, steps must be taken to ensure the data being analyzed is good, and a wider view must be taken in terms of analyzing multiple SNPs for a phenotype. The most pressing issue that the implementation of personalized medicine is to apply the results of genetic mapping to improve the healthcare system. This is not only due to the infrastructure and technology required for a centralized database of genome data, but also the physicians that would have access to these tools would likely be unable to fully take advantage of them. In order to truly implement a personalized medicine healthcare system, there must be an end-to-end change.

1523:, which estimate traits such as disease risk by summing the estimated effects of individual variants discovered through a GWAS. These have been used for a wide variety of conditions, such as cancer, diabetes, and coronary artery disease. Many genetic variants are associated with ancestry, and it remains a challenge to both generate accurate estimates and to decouple biologically relevant variants from those that are coincidentally associated. Estimates generated from one population do not usually transfer well to others, requiring sophisticated methods and more diverse and global data. Most studies have used data from those with European ancestry, leading to calls for more equitable genomics practices to reduce health disparities. Additionally, while polygenic scores have some predictive accuracy, their interpretations are limited to estimating an individual's 1516:) technologies, molecular-scale information about patients can be easily obtained. These so-called molecular biomarkers have proven powerful in disease prognosis, such as with cancer. The main three areas of cancer prediction fall under cancer recurrence, cancer susceptibility and cancer survivability. Combining molecular scale information with macro-scale clinical data, such as patients' tumor type and other risk factors, significantly improves prognosis. Consequently, given the use of molecular biomarkers, especially genomics, cancer prognosis or prediction has become very effective, especially when screening a large population. Essentially, population genomics screening can be used to identify people at risk for disease, which can assist in preventative efforts. 1111:, and silica nanoparticles. Alteration of surface chemistry allows these nanoparticles to be loaded with drugs, as well as to avoid the body's immune response, making nanoparticle-based theranostics possible. Nanocarriers' targeting strategies are varied according to the disease. For example, if the disease is cancer, a common approach is to identify the biomarker expressed on the surface of cancer cells and to load its associated targeting vector onto nanocarrier to achieve recognition and binding; the size scale of the nanocarriers will also be engineered to reach the 972:

As more causes of diseases are mapped out according to mutations that exist within a genome, the easier they can be identified in an individual. Measures can then be taken to prevent a disease from developing. Even if mutations were found within a genome, having the details of their DNA can reduce the impact or delay the onset of certain diseases. Having the genetic content of an individual will allow better guided decisions in determining the source of the disease and thus treating it or preventing its progression. This will be extremely useful for diseases like

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the final stages of a clinical trial. Being able to identify patients who will benefit most from a clinical trial will increase the safety of patients from adverse outcomes caused by the product in testing, and will allow smaller and faster trials that lead to lower overall costs. In addition, drugs that are deemed ineffective for the larger population can gain approval by the FDA by using personal genomes to qualify the effectiveness and need for that specific drug or therapy even though it may only be needed by a small percentage of the population.,

914:, its rate of adverse events is among the highest of all commonly prescribed drugs. However, with the discovery of polymorphic variants in CYP2C9 and VKORC1 genotypes, two genes that encode the individual anticoagulant response, physicians can use patients' gene profile to prescribe optimum doses of warfarin to prevent side effects such as major bleeding and to allow sooner and better therapeutic efficacy. The pharmacogenomic process for discovery of genetic variants that predict adverse events to a specific drug has been termed 1235: 613:(possibly in combination) to address that individual patient's disease process. The patient's response is then tracked as closely as possible, often using surrogate measures such as tumor load (versus true outcomes, such as five-year survival rate), and the treatment finely adapted to the patient's response. The branch of precision medicine that addresses cancer is referred to as "precision oncology". The field of precision medicine that is related to psychiatric disorders and mental health is called "precision psychiatry." 1583: 218: 987: 1658:

occurring genes cannot be patented, while "synthetic DNA" that is edited or artificially- created can still be patented. The Patent Office is currently reviewing a number of issues related to patent laws for personalised medicine, such as whether "confirmatory" secondary genetic tests post initial diagnosis, can have full immunity from patent laws. Those who oppose patents argue that patents on DNA sequences are an impediment to ongoing research while proponents point to

894:, which uses an individual's genome to provide a more informed and tailored drug prescription. Often, drugs are prescribed with the idea that it will work relatively the same for everyone, but in the application of drugs, there are a number of factors that must be considered. The detailed account of genetic information from the individual will help prevent adverse events, allow for appropriate dosages, and create maximum efficacy with drug prescriptions. For instance, 7632: 332: 1693:

providing the data to be used is of prominent concern as well. In 2008, the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) was passed in an effort to minimize the fear of patients participating in genetic research by ensuring that their genetic information will not be misused by employers or insurers. On February 19, 2015, FDA issued a press release titled: "FDA permits marketing of first direct-to-consumer genetic carrier test for Bloom syndrome.

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prevent disease and to treat it with precision when it occurs. The concepts of personalised health care are receiving increasing acceptance with the Veterans Administration committing to personalised, proactive patient driven care for all veterans. In some instances personalised health care can be tailored to the markup of the disease causing agent instead of the patient's genetic markup; examples are drug resistant bacteria or viruses.

1285: 6841: 1675:, took two different diagnostic tests which are BRACAnalysis and Oncotype DX. These tests have over ten-day turnaround times which results in the tests failing and delays in treatments. Patients are not being reimbursed for these delays which results in tests not being ordered. Ultimately, this leads to patients having to pay out-of-pocket for treatments because insurance companies do not want to accept the risks involved. 682:" (GWAS). A GWAS study will look at one disease, and then sequence the genome of many patients with that particular disease to look for shared mutations in the genome. Mutations that are determined to be related to a disease by a GWAS study can then be used to diagnose that disease in future patients, by looking at their genome sequence to find that same mutation. The first GWAS, conducted in 2005, studied patients with 7652: 983:. This technology is an assay that is developed during or after a drug is made available on the market and is helpful in enhancing the therapeutic treatment available based on the individual. These companion diagnostics have incorporated the pharmacogenomic information related to the drug into their prescription label in an effort to assist in making the most optimal treatment decision possible for the patient. 727:-based precision medicine to cohorts of individuals with undiagnosed disease has yielded a diagnosis rate ~35% with ~1 in 5 of newly diagnosed receiving recommendations regarding changes in therapy. It has been suggested that until pharmacogenetics becomes further developed and able to predict individual treatment responses, the N-of-1 trials are the best method of identifying patients responding to treatments. 7642: 764:. For example, the presence of multiple entry fields with values entered by multiple observers can create distortions in the ways data is understood and interpreted. A 2020 paper showed that training machine learning models in a population-specific fashion (i.e. training models specifically for Black cancer patients) can yield significantly superior performance than population-agnostic models. 7698: 513:, with medical decisions, treatments, practices, or products being tailored to a subgroup of patients, instead of a one‐drug‐fits‐all model. In precision medicine, diagnostic testing is often employed for selecting appropriate and optimal therapies based on the context of a patient's genetic content or other molecular or cellular analysis. Tools employed in precision medicine can include 757:

patient care, enable cost-effectiveness, and reduce readmission and mortality rates. A 2021 paper reported that machine learning was able to predict the outcomes of Phase III clinical trials (for treatment of prostate cancer) with 76% accuracy. This suggests that clinical trial data could provide a practical source for machine learning-based tools for precision medicine.

887:, have created Direct-to-Consumer genome sequencing accessible to the public. Having this information from individuals can then be applied to effectively treat them. An individual's genetic make-up also plays a large role in how well they respond to a certain treatment, and therefore, knowing their genetic content can change the type of treatment they receive. 723:

body. Many different aspects of precision medicine are tested in research settings (e.g., proteome, microbiome), but in routine practice not all available inputs are used. The ability to practice precision medicine is also dependent on the knowledge bases available to assist clinicians in taking action based on test results. Early studies applying

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diagnosis. However, initial symptoms are nonspecific, and the clinical diagnosis is made late frequently. Over the last few years, personalized medicine has emerged as a medical care approach that uses novel technology aiming to personalize treatments according to the particular patient's medical needs. In specific,

791:. A short-term goal of this initiative was to expand cancer genomics to develop better prevention and treatment methods. In the long term, the Precision Medicine Initiative aimed to build a comprehensive scientific knowledge base by creating a national network of scientists and embarking on a national 1119:

that binds to the receptors inside that organ to achieve organ-targeting drug delivery and avoid non-specific uptake. Despite the great potential of this nanoparticle-based drug delivery system, the significant progress in the field is yet to be made, and the nanocarriers are still being investigated

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Physicians commonly use a trial and error strategy until they find the treatment therapy that is most effective for their patient. With personalized medicine, these treatments can be more specifically tailored by predicting how an individual's body will respond and if the treatment will work based on

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of the Precision Medicine Initiative read: "To enable a new era of medicine through research, technology, and policies that empower patients, researchers, and providers to work together toward development of individualized treatments". In 2016 this initiative was renamed to "All of Us" and by January

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are used for genomic sequence and to analyze and draw inferences from the vast amounts of data patients and healthcare institutions recorded in every moment. AI techniques are used in precision cardiovascular medicine to understand genotypes and phenotypes in existing diseases, improve the quality of

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or found to be non-responsive towards certain treatments. This includes the psychological effects on patients due to genetic testing results. The right of family members who do not directly consent is another issue, considering that genetic predispositions and risks are inheritable. The implications

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Reimbursement policies will have to be redefined to fit the changes that personalised medicine will bring to the healthcare system. Some of the factors that should be considered are the level of efficacy of various genetic tests in the general population, cost-effectiveness relative to benefits, how

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and advanced analytical techniques. Respiratory proteomics has made significant progress in the development of personalized medicine for supporting health care in recent years. For example, in a study conducted by Lazzari et al. in 2012, the proteomics-based approach has made substantial improvement

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In addition to specific treatment, personalised medicine can greatly aid the advancements of preventive care. For instance, many women are already being genotyped for certain mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene if they are predisposed because of a family history of breast cancer or ovarian cancer.

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The use of the term "precision medicine" can extend beyond treatment selection to also cover creating unique medical products for particular individuals—for example, "...patient-specific tissue or organs to tailor treatments for different people." Hence, the term in practice has so much overlap with

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Precision medicine refers to the tailoring of medical treatment to the individual characteristics of each patient. It does not literally mean the creation of drugs or medical devices that are unique to a patient, but rather the ability to classify individuals into subpopulations that differ in their

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Consequently, if the designed algorithms for personalized medicine are biased, then the outcome of the algorithm will also be biased because of the lack of genetic testing in certain populations. For instance, the results from the Framingham Heart Study have led to biased outcomes of predicting the

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As personalised medicine is practiced more widely, a number of challenges arise. The current approaches to intellectual property rights, reimbursement policies, patient privacy, data biases and confidentiality as well as regulatory oversight will have to be redefined and restructured to accommodate

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is another application of personalised medicine. Though not necessarily using genetic information, the customized production of a drug whose various properties (e.g. dose level, ingredient selection, route of administration, etc.) are selected and crafted for an individual patient is accepted as an

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Having an individual's genomic information can be significant in the process of developing drugs as they await approval from the FDA for public use. Having a detailed account of an individual's genetic make-up can be a major asset in deciding if a patient can be chosen for inclusion or exclusion in

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for a particular disease, based on one or even several genes. This approach uses the same sequencing technology to focus on the evaluation of disease risk, allowing the physician to initiate preventive treatment before the disease presents itself in their patient. For example, if it is found that a

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The concepts of personalised medicine can be applied to new and transformative approaches to health care. Personalised health care is based on the dynamics of systems biology and uses predictive tools to evaluate health risks and to design personalised health plans to help patients mitigate risks,

590:, can show which RNA molecules are involved with specific diseases. Unlike DNA, levels of RNA can change in response to the environment. Therefore, sequencing RNA can provide a broader understanding of a person's state of health. Recent studies have linked genetic differences between individuals to 1714:

Several issues must be addressed before personalized medicine can be implemented. Very little of the human genome has been analyzed, and even if healthcare providers had access to a patient's full genetic information, very little of it could be effectively leveraged into treatment. Challenges also

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As with any innovation in medicine, investment and interest in personalised medicine is influenced by intellectual property rights. There has been a lot of controversy regarding patent protection for diagnostic tools, genes, and biomarkers. In June 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that natural

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susceptibility to a particular disease, in the biology or prognosis of those diseases they may develop, or in their response to a specific treatment. Preventive or therapeutic interventions can then be concentrated on those who will benefit, sparing expense and side effects for those who will not.

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sequencing. While precision medicine currently individualizes treatment mainly on the basis of genomic tests (e.g. Oncotype DX), several promising technology modalities are being developed, from techniques combining spectrometry and computational power to real-time imaging of drug effects in the

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Moreover, we could refer to the privacy issue at all layers of personalized medicine from discovery to treatment. One of the leading issues is the consent of the patients to have their information used in genetic testing algorithms primarily AI algorithms. The consent of the institution who is

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Respiratory diseases affect humanity globally, with chronic lung diseases (e.g., asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, among others) and lung cancer causing extensive morbidity and mortality. These conditions are highly heterogeneous and require an early

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Precision medicine helps health care providers better understand the many things—including environment, lifestyle, and heredity—that play a role in a patient's health, disease, or condition. This information lets them more accurately predict which treatments will be most effective and safe, or

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One active area of research is efficiently delivering personalized drugs generated from pharmacy compounding to the disease sites of the body. For instance, researchers are trying to engineer nanocarriers that can precisely target the specific site by using real-time imaging and analyzing the

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the changes personalised medicine will bring to healthcare. For instance, a survey performed in the UK concluded that 63% of UK adults are not comfortable with their personal data being used for the sake of utilizing AI in the medical field. Furthermore, the analysis of acquired diagnostic

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set up FutureProofing Healthcare which produces a Personalised Health Index, rating different countries performance against 27 different indicators of personalised health across four categories called 'Vital Signs'. They have run conferences in many countries to examine their findings.

1393:, or genetic diversity within a single tumor. Among other prospects, these discoveries raise the possibility of finding that drugs that have not given good results applied to a general population of cases may yet be successful for a proportion of cases with particular genetic profiles. 1437:. Its main use is to treat certain breast cancers. This drug is only used if a patient's cancer is tested for over-expression of the HER2/neu receptor. Two tissue-typing tests are used to screen patients for possible benefit from Herceptin treatment. The tissue tests are 854:

Advances in personalised medicine will create a more unified treatment approach specific to the individual and their genome. Personalised medicine may provide better diagnoses with earlier intervention, and more efficient drug development and more targeted therapies.

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Data biases also play an integral role in personalized medicine. It is important to ensure that the sample of genes being tested come from different populations. This is to ensure that the samples do not exhibit the same human biases we use in decision making.

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prior to its analysis. In the future, adequate tools will be required to accelerate the adoption of personalised medicine to further fields of medicine, which requires the interdisciplinary cooperation of experts from specific fields of research, such as

419:. The terms personalized medicine, precision medicine, stratified medicine and P4 medicine are used interchangeably to describe this concept, though some authors and organizations differentiate between these expressions based on particular nuances. P4 is 5157: 1271:

in identifying multiple biomarkers of lung cancer that can be used in tailoring personalized treatments for individual patients. More and more studies have demonstrated the usefulness of proteomics to provide targeted therapies for respiratory disease.

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between chromosome 9 and chromosome 22) is present in >95% of cases and produces hyperactivated abl-driven protein signaling. These medications specifically inhibit the Ableson tyrosine kinase (ABL) protein and are thus a prime example of

1258:. Proteins control the body's biological activities including health and disease, so proteomics is helpful in early diagnosis. In the case of respiratory disease, proteomics analyzes several biological samples including serum, blood cells, 1016:

gene, a gene that encodes the metabolizing enzyme, were not able to efficiently break down Tamoxifen, making it an ineffective treatment for them. Women are now genotyped for these specific mutations to select the most effective treatment.

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risk of cardiovascular disease. This is because the sample was tested only on white people and when applied to the non-white population, the results were biased with overestimation and underestimation risks of cardiovascular disease.

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The question of who benefits from publicly funded genomics is an important public health consideration, and attention is needed to ensure that implementation of genomic medicine does not further entrench social‐equity concerns.

586:, which ultimately leads to confirming disease. For example, personalised techniques such as genome sequencing can reveal mutations in DNA that influence diseases ranging from cystic fibrosis to cancer. Another method, called 690:, or SNPs), which were associated with ARMD. GWAS studies like this have been very successful in identifying common genetic variations associated with diseases. As of early 2014, over 1,300 GWAS studies have been completed. 4063: 1683:

Perhaps the most critical issue with the commercialization of personalised medicine is the protection of patients. One of the largest issues is the fear and potential consequences for patients who are predisposed after

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medicine) are analogous, applying a person's genetic profile to guide clinical decisions about the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of a disease. Personalized medicine is established on discoveries from the

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to deal with payment systems for extremely rare conditions, and how to redefine the insurance concept of "shared risk" to incorporate the effect of the newer concept of "individual risk factors". The study,

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their genome. This has been summarized as "therapy with the right drug at the right dose in the right patient." Such an approach would also be more cost-effective and accurate. For instance,

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Saglio G, Morotti A, Mattioli G, et al. (December 2004). "Rational approaches to the design of therapeutics targeting molecular markers: the case of chronic myelogenous leukemia".

571:. Although most of the variation between individuals has no effect on health, an individual's health stems from genetic variation with behaviors and influences from the environment. 990:

An overall process of personalized cancer therapy. Genome sequencing will allow for a more accurate and personalized drug prescription and a targeted therapy for different patients.

1625:," in which they outlined steps they would have to take to integrate genetic and biomarker information for clinical use and drug development. These included developing specific 1662:

and stress that patents are necessary to entice and protect the financial investments required for commercial research and the development and advancement of services offered.

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High mutation burden is indicative of response to immunotherapy, and also specific patterns of mutations have been associated with previous exposure to cytotoxic cancer drugs.

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or customized devices. It can also prevent harmful drug interactions, increase overall efficiency when prescribing medications, and reduce costs associated with healthcare.

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Soni A, Gowthamarajan K, Radhakrishnan A (March 2018). "Personalized Medicine and Customized Drug Delivery Systems: The New Trend of Drug Delivery and Disease Management".

453:(NAE), personalized medicine has been identified as a key and prospective approach to "achieve optimal individual health decisions", therefore overcoming the challenge to " 4556: 2308: 541: 5880: 5109:"Changes in plasma mass-spectral profile in course of treatment of non-small cell lung cancer patients with epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors" 3340: 554:"personalized medicine" that they are often used interchangeably, even though the latter is sometimes misterpreted as involving a unique treatment for each individual. 4109: 2421: 1008:

used to be a drug commonly prescribed to women with ER+ breast cancer, but 65% of women initially taking it developed resistance. After research by people such as

3905:"Computationally Derived Image Signature of Stromal Morphology Is Prognostic of Prostate Cancer Recurrence Following Prostatectomy in African American Patients" 2733: 2006: 1115:(EPR) in tumor targeting. If the disease is localized in the specific organ, such as the kidney, the surface of the nanocarriers can be coated with a certain 430:, the usage of the term has risen in recent years thanks to the development of new diagnostic and informatics approaches that provide an understanding of the 4765:

Wang J, Poon C, Chin D, et al. (1 October 2018). "Design and in vivo characterization of kidney-targeting multimodal micelles for renal drug delivery".

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The ability to provide precision medicine to patients in routine clinical settings depends on the availability of molecular profiling tests, e.g. individual

6400: 635:, differentially from person to person. As the theoretical basis of precision medicine, the "unique disease principle" emerged to embrace the ubiquitous 2312: 6378: 3676: 6030: 5064:

Fujii K, Nakamura H, Nishimura T (April 2017). "Recent mass spectrometry-based proteomics for biomarker discovery in lung cancer, COPD, and asthma".

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Telli ML, Hunt SA, Carlson RW, et al. (August 2007). "Trastuzumab-related cardiotoxicity: calling into question the concept of reversibility".

3626: 1874: 1637:. An example of the latter category they were working on is a "genomic reference library", aimed at improving quality and reliability of different 446: 6575: 6457: 1266:(NLF), sputum, among others. The identification and quantification of complete protein expression from these biological samples are conducted by 1649:. The new technology must be assessed for both clinical and cost effectiveness, and as of 2013, regulatory agencies had no standardized method. 2804:"Genomic signatures defining responsiveness to allopurinol and combination therapy for lung cancer identified by systems therapeutics analyses" 698:

Multiple genes collectively influence the likelihood of developing many common and complex diseases. Personalised medicine can also be used to

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Breckenridge A, Orme M, Wesseling H, et al. (April 1974). "Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the enantiomers of warfarin in man".

4135: 3149:"Discovery of colorectal cancer PIK3CA mutation as potential predictive biomarker: power and promise of molecular pathological epidemiology" 2349: 4517: 871:. By having a detailed account of an individual's DNA sequence, their genome can then be compared to a reference genome, like that of the 788: 7161: 1766: 1112: 363: 7502: 2367: 863:

Having the ability to look at a patient on an individual basis will allow for a more accurate diagnosis and specific treatment plan.

654:. The unique disease principle was first described in neoplastic diseases as the unique tumor principle. As the exposome is a common 1349: 1900: 1719: 5398:

Baldus SE, Engelmann K, Hanisch FG (1 January 2004). "MUC1 and the MUCs: a family of human mucins with impact in cancer biology".

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Stratified, personalized or P4 medicine: a new direction for placing the patient at the center of healthcare and health education

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companies are currently utilizing these technologies to not only advance the study of personalised medicine, but also to amplify

6695: 5988:"Regulation, reimbursement, and the long road of implementation of personalized medicine--a perspective from the United States" 1302: 5884: 5023:

Priyadharshini VS, Teran LM (2020). "Role of respiratory proteomics in precision medicine". In Faintuch J, Faintuch S (eds.).

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Pandey S, Giovenzana GB, Szikra D, et al. (2021). "Chapter 11. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Driven Theranostics".

3602: 3337: 2049: 1509: 1328: 1203: 3051:"Molecular pathological epidemiology of epigenetics: emerging integrative science to analyze environment, host, and disease" 2133: 7401: 6501: 5659:"Ancestry deconvolution and partial polygenic score can improve susceptibility predictions in recently admixed individuals" 4113: 2425: 875:, to assess the existing genetic variations that can account for possible diseases. A number of private companies, such as 2739: 707:, this individual can begin lifestyle changes that will lessen their chances of developing Type 2 Diabetes later in life. 481:

characteristics. The use of genetic information has played a major role in certain aspects of personalized medicine (e.g.

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In order for physicians to know if a mutation is connected to a certain disease, researchers often do a study called a "

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A tool that is being used now to test efficacy and safety of a drug specific to a targeted patient group/sub-group is

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On the treatment side, PM can involve the use of customized medical products such drug cocktails produced by pharmacy

1799: 1368: 485:), and the term was first coined in the context of genetics, though it has since broadened to encompass all sorts of 3781: 2696:"Improved prediction of response to antiretroviral combination therapy using the genetic barrier to drug resistance" 5610:"Genome-wide polygenic scores for common diseases identify individuals with risk equivalent to monogenic mutations" 2010: 683: 3539:"Averaged versus individualized: pragmatic N-of-1 design as a method to investigate individual treatment response" 3336:

Precision Medicine: Harnessing the Extraordinary Growth in Medical Data for Personalized Diagnosis and Treatment

2547:"Integrative analysis of RNA, translation, and protein levels reveals distinct regulatory variation across humans" 1317: 450: 5716:"Theoretical and empirical quantification of the accuracy of polygenic scores in ancestry divergent populations" 7743: 7655: 7527: 6961: 6443: 1544:

is a recent challenge of personalized medicine and its implementation. For example, genetic data obtained from

1306: 687: 356: 3640: 388: 236: 6845: 6811: 5285:"Pan-cancer analysis of advanced patient tumours reveals interactions between therapy and genomic landscapes" 3658: 2376:

Toward Precision Medicine: Building a Knowledge Network for Biomedical Research and a New Taxonomy of Disease

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has discovered a great deal about the genetic variety of types of cancer that appear the same in traditional

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Modern advances in personalized medicine rely on technology that confirms a patient's fundamental biology,

686:(ARMD). It found two different mutations, each containing only a variation in only one nucleotide (called 7728: 7151: 4267:

Church D, Kerr R, Domingo E, et al. (June 2014). "'Toxgnostics': an unmet need in cancer medicine".

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Priyadharshini VS, Teran LM (2016). "Personalized Medicine in Respiratory Disease: Role of Proteomics".

7688: 7131: 6816: 6752: 3361:"Developing genomic knowledge bases and databases to support clinical management: current perspectives" 2498:"Characterizing the genetic basis of transcriptome diversity through RNA-sequencing of 922 individuals" 1545: 1396: 773: 632: 125: 6154:(March 2018). "Targeted Supplemental Data Collection - Addressing the Quality-Measurement Conundrum". 5359:

Piccart M, Lohrisch C, Di Leo A, et al. (2001). "The predictive value of HER2 in breast cancer".

4402:"Next-Generation Sequencing in Oncology: Genetic Diagnosis, Risk Prediction and Cancer Classification" 3579: 7560: 6799: 6759: 1467: 1021: 349: 5466: 1641:

platforms. A major challenge for those regulating personalized medicine is a way to demonstrate its

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possibly how to prevent the illness from starting in the first place. In addition, benefits are to:

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to analyze the cause of an individual patient's disease at the molecular level and then to utilize

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eliminate trial-and-error inefficiencies that inflate health care costs and undermine patient care

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Duffy MJ (July 2001). "Biochemical markers in breast cancer: which ones are clinically useful?".

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Paving the Way for Personalized Medicine: FDA's role in a New Era of Medical Product Development

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for certain ethnic groups and presence of a common allele would also have to be considered.

7595: 7555: 7422: 7236: 7231: 7211: 7146: 6998: 6747: 6710: 6690: 6202: 5727: 5670: 5241: 3209: 2607: 2286:. National Human Genome Research Institute, US National Institutes of Health. 24 April 2024 2234:"Molecular characteristics and therapeutic vulnerabilities across paediatric solid tumours" 2161:. National Human Genome Research Institute, US National Institutes of Health. 24 April 2024 1741: 1626: 1482:, which looks at genes in individual patients' tumor biopsies and recommends specific drugs 1438: 1207: 1083:

model the relationships between drugs, their interactions, and an individual's biomarkers.

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http://claudiacopeland.com/uploads/3/6/1/4/3614974/hjno_novdec_2016_precision_medicine.pdf

2136:. MedlinePlus, National Library of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health. 17 May 2022 8: 7718: 7675: 7617: 7600: 7259: 6976: 6804: 6779: 6548: 2307: 2036:. Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology. Vol. 102. pp. 115–146. 1479: 1427: 1390: 699: 617: 469:

is often employed for selecting appropriate and optimal therapies based on the patient's

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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

48: 7565: 7522: 7512: 7301: 7254: 7221: 7216: 6966: 6944: 6821: 6641: 6631: 6619: 6543: 6330: 6305: 6276: 6249: 6225: 6190: 6127: 6102: 6078: 6053: 5937: 5910: 5848: 5821: 5797: 5772: 5748: 5715: 5691: 5658: 5634: 5609: 5585: 5560: 5541: 5484: 5449: 5423: 5380: 5265: 5138: 5089: 5046: 5032: 4965: 4929: 4904: 4880: 4855: 4836: 4782: 4712: 4687: 4663: 4638: 4619: 4453:"Computational neuroscience approach to biomarkers and treatments for mental disorders" 4428: 4401: 4377: 4350: 4311: 4292: 4208: 3937: 3904: 3608: 3514: 3489: 3470: 3387: 3360: 3300: 3275: 3235: 3173: 3148: 3124: 3099: 3075: 3050: 3026: 2999: 2975: 2948: 2929: 2882: 2828: 2803: 2779: 2754: 2725: 2676: 2628: 2595: 2571: 2546: 2522: 2497: 2473: 2448: 2350:"Changing medicine with 3-D bioprinting, where organs can be synthesized by technology" 2262: 2208: 2181: 2110: 2085: 1955: 1851: 1826: 1659: 1634: 1219: 1175: 937: 921:

An aspect of a theranostic platform applied to personalized medicine can be the use of

884: 466: 431: 286: 281: 256: 178: 5337: 4871: 4064:"The Health 202: NIH wants 1 million Americans to contribute to new pool of gene data" 3291: 1642: 1419:, particularly because of its implications in drug therapy. Examples of this include: 420: 7661: 7635: 7517: 7487: 7466: 7429: 7412: 7327: 7291: 7281: 7176: 7096: 7040: 7003: 6988: 6929: 6896: 6865: 6648: 6636: 6614: 6597: 6335: 6281: 6230: 6171: 6151: 6132: 6083: 6009: 5942: 5853: 5802: 5753: 5696: 5639: 5590: 5533: 5489: 5415: 5372: 5341: 5306: 5257: 5214: 5142: 5130: 5081: 5050: 5036: 5000: 4969: 4934: 4885: 4840: 4828: 4786: 4747: 4717: 4668: 4623: 4611: 4474: 4433: 4382: 4331: 4284: 4249: 4200: 4071: 3942: 3924: 3846:"Machine Learning Predicts Outcomes of Phase III Clinical Trials for Prostate Cancer" 3826: 3729: 3598: 3560: 3519: 3462: 3427: 3392: 3305: 3227: 3178: 3129: 3080: 3031: 2980: 2921: 2874: 2833: 2784: 2717: 2668: 2633: 2576: 2527: 2478: 2266: 2254: 2213: 2115: 2055: 2045: 1947: 1856: 1736: 1267: 1243: 1171: 1167: 1041: 868: 800: 474: 336: 221: 100: 6321: 5545: 5427: 5384: 5269: 5158:"HER2/neu Status is an Important Biomarker in Guiding Personalized HER2/neu Therapy" 4296: 4212: 3612: 3239: 3198:"Complement factor H variant increases the risk of age-related macular degeneration" 2933: 2886: 2729: 2680: 2233: 2032:

Priyadharshini VS, Teran LM (2016). "Personalized Medicine in Respiratory Disease".

1959: 7645: 7337: 7322: 7199: 7074: 7030: 6789: 6705: 6533: 6511: 6325: 6317: 6271: 6261: 6220: 6210: 6163: 6122: 6114: 6073: 6065: 5999: 5932: 5922: 5843: 5833: 5792: 5784: 5743: 5735: 5686: 5678: 5629: 5621: 5580: 5572: 5523: 5479: 5471: 5445: 5407: 5364: 5333: 5296: 5249: 5206: 5120: 5093: 5073: 5028: 4992: 4957: 4924: 4916: 4875: 4867: 4818: 4774: 4707: 4699: 4658: 4650: 4601: 4464: 4423: 4413: 4372: 4362: 4323: 4276: 4239: 4192: 3932: 3916: 3857: 3816: 3760: 3719: 3590: 3550: 3509: 3501: 3474: 3454: 3419: 3410:

Ashley EA (June 2015). "The precision medicine initiative: a new national effort".

3382: 3372: 3295: 3287: 3217: 3168: 3160: 3119: 3111: 3070: 3062: 3021: 3011: 2970: 2960: 2913: 2864: 2823: 2815: 2774: 2766: 2707: 2660: 2623: 2615: 2566: 2558: 2517: 2509: 2468: 2460: 2246: 2203: 2193: 2105: 2097: 2037: 1939: 1930:

Lesko LJ (June 2007). "Personalized medicine: elusive dream or imminent reality?".

1846: 1838: 1630: 1617:(FDA) has started taking initiatives to integrate personalised medicine into their 1495: 1412: 1135: 1088: 1076: 922: 911: 907: 891: 761: 750: 629: 610: 482: 396: 228: 5077: 4022: 3920: 3765: 3748: 500: 7702: 7665: 7610: 7471: 7456: 7439: 7379: 7374: 7318: 7296: 6993: 6939: 6919: 6658: 6560: 6521: 6354:"Personalised and precise healthcare means a better quality of life for patients" 6215: 5927: 5773:"Clinical use of current polygenic risk scores may exacerbate health disparities" 5125: 5108: 4996: 4004: 3344: 2901: 2041: 1685: 1549: 1520: 1448: 1382: 1211: 1199: 1104: 1009: 949: 926: 704: 606: 591: 486: 404: 392: 3016: 2651:

Snyderman R (August 2012). "Personalized health care: from theory to practice".

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is the application of personalized medicine to cancer genomics. High-throughput

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While the tailoring of treatment to patients dates back at least to the time of

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Chapter Five - Personalized Medicine in Respiratory Disease: Role of Proteomics

1445:(FISH) Only Her2+ patients will be treated with Herceptin therapy (trastuzumab) 1234: 1179: 1108: 1029: 957: 933: 777: 478: 276: 201: 6353: 6103:"Implementing Machine Learning in Health Care - Addressing Ethical Challenges" 5788: 5625: 5411: 5301: 5284: 4961: 4920: 4823: 4807:"Future of Theranostics: An Outlook on Precision Oncology in Nuclear Medicine" 4778: 3594: 2965: 2770: 2250: 986: 7712: 7580: 7369: 7364: 7226: 7166: 7069: 6826: 6592: 6538: 6266: 5210: 4228:"Effect of VKORC1 haplotypes on transcriptional regulation and warfarin dose" 4075: 3928: 3564: 3490:"Effect of Genetic Diagnosis on Patients with Previously Undiagnosed Disease" 2869: 2852: 1092: 1056: 976:'s or cancers that are thought to be linked to certain mutations in our DNA. 961: 899: 805: 640: 384: 6069: 6031:"Intellectual Property Issues Impacting the Future of Personalized Medicine" 5253: 3724: 3707: 3222: 3197: 2819: 1943: 7585: 7570: 7396: 7121: 6971: 6956: 6902: 6730: 6582: 6553: 6401:"Ireland performs poorly on international index of personalised healthcare" 6339: 6285: 6234: 6175: 6136: 6087: 6013: 5946: 5857: 5806: 5757: 5700: 5643: 5594: 5537: 5493: 5419: 5376: 5345: 5310: 5261: 5218: 5134: 5085: 5004: 4938: 4889: 4832: 4751: 4721: 4672: 4615: 4478: 4437: 4386: 4335: 4288: 4253: 3946: 3830: 3733: 3523: 3466: 3431: 3423: 3396: 3309: 3231: 3182: 3133: 3084: 3035: 2984: 2925: 2878: 2837: 2788: 2721: 2672: 2664: 2637: 2580: 2531: 2482: 2258: 2217: 2119: 2059: 1951: 1860: 1263: 1155: 1147: 1129: 1100: 1045: 792: 780: 659: 651: 494: 266: 4204: 4196: 3505: 2562: 2513: 1803: 7444: 7389: 7286: 7141: 7116: 6934: 6725: 6720: 6653: 6167: 6118: 4606: 4589: 4418: 4367: 4244: 4227: 3164: 1771:(Technical report). Academy of Medical Sciences. May 2015. Archived from 1463: 1423: 1223: 1187: 1151: 1143: 1063: 1048: 945: 941: 915: 842:

reduce the time, cost, and failure rate of pharmaceutical clinical trials

731: 625: 427: 416: 6435: 5561:"Genome-wide Modeling of Polygenic Risk Score in Colorectal Cancer Risk" 3458: 3377: 2619: 1254:

is used to analyze a series of protein expressions, instead of a single

7532: 7417: 7384: 7156: 7106: 7091: 7086: 7079: 7064: 7054: 6685: 6587: 5904: 5902: 4562:. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). October 2013. Archived from 1638: 1524: 1505: 1501: 1309: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1251: 1239: 1195: 880: 864: 753: 667: 636: 510: 490: 196: 110: 90: 65: 5505: 5503: 5368: 4469: 4452: 4327: 3862: 3845: 3708:"What does Australia's investment in genomics mean for public health?" 3115: 3000:"Staging in bipolar disorder: one step closer to precision psychiatry" 1827:"Suffering, meaning, and healing: challenges of contemporary medicine" 27:

Medical model that tailors medical practices to the individual patient

7605: 7347: 7342: 7206: 7184: 7059: 7023: 6715: 5450:"Applications of machine learning in cancer prediction and prognosis" 4654: 1408: 1386: 1255: 1068: 1005: 973: 965: 796: 439: 153: 6379:"Building long term sustainable and personalised healthcare systems" 6189:

Gijsberts CM, Groenewegen KA, Hoefer IE, et al. (2 July 2015).

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Nikles, J., & Mitchell, G. (2015). Nikles J, Mitchell G (eds.).

1842: 1284: 7111: 6888: 6506: 6303: 6188: 5500: 3805:"Artificial Intelligence in Precision Cardiovascular Medicine" 1558: 1554: 1452: 1431: 1416: 1191: 1139: 1037: 903: 895: 716: 647: 621: 602: 470: 435: 212: 95: 85: 40: 6426:

2023 Watch List: Top 10 Precision Medicine Technologies and Issues

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Thomas M, Sakoda LC, Hoffmeister M, et al. (September 2020).

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is the process of obtaining an individual's DNA sequence by using

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Precision Medicine for Investigators, Practitioners and Providers

4685: 4136:"Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools: Human Genome Project" 3844:

Beacher FD, Mujica-Parodi LR, Gupta S, et al. (5 May 2021).

3488:

Splinter K, Adams DR, Bacino CA, et al. (29 November 2018).

3253: 1562: 1215: 1095:. Several candidate nanocarriers are being investigated, such as 876: 655: 644: 587: 583: 506: 408: 5961: 3753:

Journal Expert Review of Precision Medicine and Drug Development

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Fernandes BS, Williams LM, Steiner J, et al. (April 2017).

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Fernald GH, Capriotti E, Daneshjou R, et al. (July 2011).

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Ellsworth RE, Decewicz DJ, Shriver CD, et al. (May 2010).

4314:(October 2011). "Theranostics: combining imaging and therapy". 3843: 3782:"Artificial Intelligence and Blockchain for Precision Medicine" 3706:

Belcher A, Mangelsdorf M, McDonald F, et al. (June 2019).

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Difference between precision medicine and personalized medicine

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Weldon CB, Trosman JR, Gradishar WJ, et al. (July 2012).

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Khera AV, Chaffin M, Aragam KG, et al. (September 2018).

5358: 5282: 4951: 4737: 4182: 3979:"Obama proposes 'precision medicine 'to end one-size-fits-all" 3577: 2596:"Variation and genetic control of protein abundance in humans" 1012:, it was discovered that women with certain mutation in their 839:

avoid prescribing drugs with predictable negative side effects

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stated his intention to give $ 215 million of funding to the "

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for "predictive, preventive, personalized and participatory".

5911:"Machine learning in medicine: Addressing ethical challenges" 5558: 5107:

Lazzari C, Spreafico A, Bachi A, et al. (January 2012).

4854:

Herrmann K, Schwaiger M, Lewis JS, et al. (March 2020).

4853: 4349:

Perkovic MN, Erjavec GN, Strac DS, et al. (March 2017).

3324:"Oncotype DX: Genomic Test to Inform Breast Cancer Treatment" 3147:

Ogino S, Lochhead P, Giovannucci E, et al. (June 2014).

2231:

Jones DT, Banito A, Grünewald TG, et al. (August 2019).

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Barriers to the Use of Personalized Medicine in Breast Cancer

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Bhargava HK, Leo P, Elliott R, et al. (15 April 2020).

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area of personalised medicine (in contrast to mass-produced

6857: 4400:

Kamps R, Brandão RD, Bosch BJ, et al. (January 2017).

4048: 3902: 3196:

Haines JL, Hauser MA, Schmidt S, et al. (April 2005).

2446: 2179: 1621:. In October 2013, the agency published a report entitled " 1541: 1183: 1075:. Computational and mathematical approaches for predicting 5771:

Martin AR, Kanai M, Kamatani Y, et al. (April 2019).

5283:

Pleasance E, Titmuss E, Williamson L, et al. (2020).

5231: 5106: 4399: 3802: 3749:"Expert Review of Precision Medicine and Drug Development" 3048: 2904:(February 2014). "Rapid learning for precision oncology". 2545:

Cenik C, Cenik ES, Byeon GW, et al. (November 2015).

2496:

Battle A, Mostafavi S, Zhu X, et al. (January 2014).

1800:"Many names for one concept or many concepts in one name?" 821:

shift the emphasis in medicine from reaction to prevention

5656: 4493:"Fact Sheet: BRCA1 and BRCA2: Cancer and Genetic Testing" 4266: 4225: 3803:

Krittanawong C, Zhang H, Wang Z, et al. (May 2017).

3677:"Personalized Medicine Benefits - The Jackson Laboratory" 3487: 3274:

Ashley EA, Butte AJ, Wheeler MT, et al. (May 2010).

2801: 2447:

Lu YF, Goldstein DB, Angrist M, et al. (July 2014).

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President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology

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Lu YF, Goldstein DB, Angrist M, et al. (July 2014).

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commonly prescribed to patients with blood clots. Due to

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Precision medicine may be susceptible to subtle forms of

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is providing a paradigm shift toward precision medicine.

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President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology

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Yngvadottir B, Macarthur DG, Jin H, et al. (2009).

5770: 5196: 4639:"Pharmacogenomics: the promise of personalized medicine" 4348: 4226:

Rieder MJ, Reiner AP, Gage BF, et al. (June 2005).

3254:"A Catalog of Published Genome-Wide Association Studies" 3195: 3049:

Ogino S, Lochhead P, Chan AT, et al. (April 2013).

2495: 1415:. Oncogenomics is one of the most promising branches of 1142:

for both imaging (diagnosis) and therapy. The term is a

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algorithms that weigh the result of testing for several

5657:

Marnetto D, Pärna K, Läll K, et al. (April 2020).

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Ashley EA (August 2016). "Towards precision medicine".

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Altmann A, Beerenwinkel N, Sing T, et al. (2007).

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to expand our understanding of health and disease. The

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In explaining the distinction from the similar term of

5607: 5397: 5063: 5018: 5016: 5014: 4905:"Radiotheranostics in Cancer Diagnosis and Management" 4903:

Jadvar H, Chen X, Cai W, et al. (February 2018).

3273: 2850: 2802:

Tavassoly I, Hu Y, Zhao S, et al. (August 2019).

2544: 1678: 7686: 6306:"Bioinformatics challenges for personalized medicine" 4856:"Radiotheranostics: a roadmap for future development" 4764: 4636: 4138:. National Institutes of Health (NIH). Archived from 3276:"Clinical assessment incorporating a personal genome" 3097: 1158:(either gamma or positron emitters) to molecules for 703:

DNA mutation increases a person's risk of developing

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Precision medicine often involves the application of

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Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology

4902: 4162:"Genetics Home Reference: What is pharmacogenomics?" 2594:

Wu L, Candille SI, Choi Y, et al. (July 2013).

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associated with cancer to better understand disease

5908: 5022: 5011: 4982: 4740:

International Journal of Pharmaceutical Compounding

3712:

Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health

2755:"Can we deconstruct cancer, one patient at a time?" 2449:"Personalized medicine and human genetic diversity" 2182:"Personalized medicine and human genetic diversity" 2084:Xie J, Lee S, Chen X (August 2010). Donev R (ed.). 2031: 1455:(marketed as Gleevec) have been developed to treat 620:is diverse, so as inter-personal difference in the 4804: 2232: 5883:. Personalized Medicine Coalition. Archived from 4450: 4112:. Personalized Medicine Coalition. Archived from 3659:"3D-Printed Medical Devices Spark FDA Evaluation" 3358: 2593: 2424:. Personalized Medicine Coalition. Archived from 2009:. Personalized Medicine Coalition. Archived from 1901:"Stratified, personalised, or precision medicine" 1594:. The reason given is: All sources are from 2013. 1020:Screening for these mutations is carried out via 811: 567:Every person has a unique variation of the human 7710: 6299: 6297: 6295: 6033:. American Intellectual Property Law Association 5909:Vayena E, Blasimme A, Cohen IG (November 2018). 5400:Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences 4805:Langbein T, Weber WA, Eiber M (September 2019). 3580:"The Essential Guide to N-of-1 Trials in Health" 2899: 2402: 1475:" based on knowledge of disease pathophysiology. 767: 624:, which influence disease processes through the 6576:Strategies for engineered negligible senescence 4041:"The White House Precision Medicine Initiative" 2851:Garraway LA, Verweij J, Ballman KV (May 2013). 2752: 1652: 6250:"The promise and reality of personal genomics" 6149: 6100: 5875: 5873: 5871: 5869: 5867: 5714:Wang Y, Guo J, Ni G, et al. (July 2020). 5276: 4587: 3876: 3536: 3098:Ogino S, Fuchs CS, Giovannucci E (July 2012). 2398: 2396: 2394: 2392: 1979:"Grand Challenges - Engineer Better Medicines" 1389:. There has also been increasing awareness of 1154:". Its most common applications are attaching 906:'s significant interindividual variability in 6873: 6451: 6292: 5713: 5650: 5190: 4309: 3809:Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2997: 2416: 2414: 1242:sample on a sample carrier to be analyzed by 1182:. Other examples include radio-labelled anti- 1174:. One of the earliest examples is the use of 994: 858: 742:Artificial intelligence in precision medicine 357: 6025: 6023: 5516:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 5439: 5437: 4733: 4731: 4688:"Breast cancer in the personal genomics era" 3961:"The Impact of Precision Medicine on Cancer" 3625:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3481: 3438: 3140: 3042: 1925: 1923: 1921: 666:, which is capable of identifying potential 5881:"Personalized Medicine 101: The Challenges" 5864: 5819: 5764: 5443: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4545: 4406:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 4355:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 4260: 4104: 4102: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4092: 3189: 2453:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 2389: 2186:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 2079: 2077: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2069: 1134:Theranostics is a personalized approach in 789:United States National Institutes of Health 7162:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility 6880: 6866: 6840: 6458: 6444: 5959: 5813: 5552: 5234:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 4518:"BIOMARKER TOOLKIT: Companion Diagnostics" 4451:Yahata N, Kasai K, Kawato M (April 2017). 4351:"Theranostic Biomarkers for Schizophrenia" 4061: 3543:European Journal for Philosophy of Science 3365:Pharmacogenomics and Personalized Medicine 2753:Blau CA, Liakopoulou E (24 October 2012). 2538: 2411: 2083: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1113:enhanced permeability and retention effect 1044:approaches to the traditional approach of 693: 364: 350: 7503:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery 6465: 6329: 6275: 6265: 6224: 6214: 6126: 6101:Char DS, Shah NH, Magnus D (March 2018). 6077: 6020: 6003: 5936: 5926: 5847: 5837: 5796: 5747: 5707: 5690: 5633: 5601: 5584: 5527: 5483: 5465: 5434: 5300: 5124: 4928: 4879: 4822: 4728: 4711: 4662: 4605: 4468: 4427: 4417: 4376: 4366: 4243: 3936: 3877:Ferryman K, Pitcan M (26 February 2018). 3861: 3820: 3764: 3723: 3554: 3537:Serpico D, Maziarz M (14 December 2023). 3513: 3386: 3376: 3299: 3221: 3172: 3123: 3074: 3025: 3015: 2974: 2964: 2949:"The new field of 'precision psychiatry'" 2868: 2827: 2778: 2711: 2650: 2627: 2570: 2521: 2472: 2207: 2197: 2109: 2001: 1999: 1973: 1971: 1969: 1918: 1850: 1665: 1478:The FoundationOne CDx report produced by 1369:Learn how and when to remove this message 1229: 1120:and modified to meet clinical standards. 925:to guide therapy. The tests may involve 662:, precision medicine is intertwined with 509:model that proposes the customization of 460: 5509: 4637:Mancinelli L, Cronin M, Sadée W (2000). 4542: 4512: 4510: 4110:"Personalized Medicine 101: The Promise" 4089: 2422:"Personalized Medicine 101: The Science" 2303: 2301: 2066: 1794: 1792: 1790: 1720:Copenhagen Institute for Futures Studies 1233: 985: 956:agents). or in vitro lab test including 804:2018, 10,000 people had enrolled in its 6403:. Irish Medical Times. 9 September 2021 4800: 4798: 4796: 2278: 2276: 2153: 2151: 2086:"Nanoparticle-based theranostic agents" 1880:. Personalized Medicine Coalition. 2014 1754: 1572: 1489: 1079:are also being developed. For example, 833:customize disease-prevention strategies 442:on which to stratify related patients. 14: 7711: 6696:Differential technological development 5981: 5979: 5155: 4679: 4630: 4303: 4185:Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 3444: 3409: 3104:Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 2313:"Priorities for Personalized Medicine" 1996: 1966: 1932:Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 1519:Genetic data can be used to construct 1426:(trade names Herclon, Herceptin) is a 6861: 6439: 5985: 5323: 4507: 4485: 4457:Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 4164:. National Institutes of Health (NIH) 4154: 3746: 3359:Huser V, Sincan M, Cimino JJ (2014). 3354: 3352: 2347: 2298: 1929: 1898: 1824: 1787: 7641: 7402:Physical medicine and rehabilitation 6502:Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation 5027:. Academic Press. pp. 255–261. 4954:Metal Ions in Bio-Imaging Techniques 4793: 4588:Hamburg MA, Collins FS (July 2010). 3641:"Divining your future in healthcare" 2273: 2148: 1875:"The Case for Personalized Medicine" 1576: 1307:adding citations to reliable sources 1278: 7651: 6785:Future-oriented technology analysis 6156:The New England Journal of Medicine 6107:The New England Journal of Medicine 5976: 5529:10.1146/annurev-genom-083118-014924 4594:The New England Journal of Medicine 4590:"The path to personalized medicine" 4581: 4232:The New England Journal of Medicine 4128: 3779: 3403: 2126: 1679:Patient privacy and confidentiality 1210:and Lutetium-177 PSMA for treating 664:molecular pathological epidemiology 594:, translation, and protein levels. 497:-based theranostics, among others. 24: 7538:Medical Scientist Training Program 5033:10.1016/B978-0-12-819178-1.00024-1 3349: 3267: 2998:Fernandes BS, Berk M (June 2017). 2407:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1867: 1443:Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization 1274: 25: 7755: 6419: 4495:. National Cancer Institute (NCI) 4062:Cunningham PW (16 January 2018). 3004:Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 2906:Nature Reviews. Clinical Oncology 2853:"Precision oncology: an overview" 1709: 1615:U.S. Food and Drug Administration 1403:methods are used to characterize 824:predict susceptibility to disease 7696: 7670: 7660: 7650: 7640: 7631: 7630: 6839: 6393: 6371: 6346: 6241: 6182: 6143: 6094: 6045: 5953: 3879:"Fairness in Precision Medicine" 1802:. PHG Foundation. Archived from 1581: 1283: 684:age-related macular degeneration 447:Grand Challenges for Engineering 331: 330: 217: 216: 47: 7671: 5820:Lewis CM, Vassos E (May 2020). 5391: 5352: 5317: 5225: 5149: 5100: 5057: 4976: 4945: 4896: 4847: 4758: 4444: 4393: 4342: 4219: 4176: 4055: 4033: 4015: 3997: 3971: 3953: 3896: 3870: 3837: 3796: 3773: 3740: 3699: 3669: 3651: 3633: 3571: 3530: 3494:New England Journal of Medicine 3330: 3316: 3246: 3091: 2991: 2940: 2893: 2844: 2795: 2746: 2687: 2644: 2587: 2489: 2440: 2403:Dudley J, Karczewski K (2014). 2378:, National Academies Press (US) 2360: 2341: 2224: 2173: 2096:(11). Academic Press: 1064–79. 1294:needs additional citations for 1123: 948:), and nuclear imaging agents ( 849: 688:single nucleotide polymorphisms 489:measures, including the use of 451:National Academy of Engineering 7528:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine 6962:Oral and maxillofacial surgery 5960:Schapranow MP (27 June 2013). 4956:. Springer. pp. 315–346. 2090:Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 2025: 1892: 1818: 1696: 1430:drug that interferes with the 836:prescribe more effective drugs 812:Benefits of precision medicine 13: 1: 6812:Technology in science fiction 6322:10.1093/bioinformatics/btr295 5962:"Analyze Genomes: Motivation" 5338:10.1016/S0009-9120(00)00201-0 5078:10.1080/14789450.2017.1304215 4872:10.1016/S1470-2045(19)30821-6 3921:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-19-2659 3766:10.1080/23808993.2017.1380516 3292:10.1016/s0140-6736(10)60452-7 1983:www.engineeringchallenges.org 1747: 1534: 1508:(tissue array), and imaging ( 1500:Through the use of genomics ( 1260:bronchoalveolar lavage fluids 1178:for treatment of people with 785:Precision Medicine Initiative 768:Precision Medicine Initiative 680:genome-wide association study 616:Inter-personal difference of 557: 449:, an initiative sponsored by 7508:Bachelor of Medical Sciences 7275:Neurosurgical anesthesiology 6887: 6381:. Economist. 28 January 2021 6216:10.1371/journal.pone.0132321 6058:Journal of Oncology Practice 5928:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002689 5199:Journal of Clinical Oncology 5126:10.1097/JTO.0b013e3182307f17 5113:Journal of Thoracic Oncology 4997:10.1016/bs.apcsb.2015.11.008 2857:Journal of Clinical Oncology 2348:Clerk J (23 February 2015). 2322:. p. 19. 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Hasso Plattner Institute 5839:10.1186/s13073-020-00742-5 5740:10.1038/s41467-020-17719-y 5683:10.1038/s41467-020-15464-w 5577:10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.07.006 5476:10.1177/117693510600200030 4704:10.2174/138920210791110951 3822:10.1016/j.jacc.2017.03.571 3556:10.1007/s13194-023-00559-0 3067:10.1038/modpathol.2012.214 2918:10.1038/nrclinonc.2013.244 2713:10.1177/135965350701200202 2102:10.1016/j.addr.2010.07.009 1546:next-generation sequencing 1493: 1127: 995:Drug development and usage 859:Diagnosis and intervention 774:State of the Union address 465:In personalised medicine, 432:molecular basis of disease 7626: 7548: 7486: 7247: 7175: 7130: 7039: 6910: 6895: 6835: 6800:Technological singularity 6760:Technological convergence 6678: 6480: 6473: 5789:10.1038/s41588-019-0379-x 5626:10.1038/s41588-018-0183-z 5412:10.1080/10408360490452040 5363:. 61 Suppl 2 (2): 73–82. 5302:10.1038/s43018-020-0050-6 4962:10.1515/9783110685701-017 4921:10.1148/radiol.2017170346 4824:10.2967/jnumed.118.220566 4779:10.1007/s12274-018-2100-2 3595:10.1007/978-94-017-7200-6 2966:10.1186/s12916-017-0849-x 2771:10.1016/j.tig.2012.09.004 2368:National Research Council 2251:10.1038/s41568-019-0169-x 2092:. Personalized Medicine. 1831:Annals of Family Medicine 1825:Egnew TR (1 March 2009). 1590:This section needs to be 1397:Personalized oncogenomics 1022:high-throughput screening 898:is the FDA approved oral 827:improve disease detection 673: 562: 455:engineer better medicines 7462:Transplantation medicine 7353:Clinical neurophysiology 7270:Obstetric anesthesiology 7190:Interventional radiology 6950:Digestive system surgery 6495:Microgravity bioprinting 6267:10.1186/gb-2009-10-9-237 5211:10.1200/JCO.2007.11.0106 3909:Clinical Cancer Research 3784:. Inner Light Publishers 3447:Nature Reviews. Genetics 2870:10.1200/jco.2013.49.4799 1645:relative to the current 1468:reciprocal translocation 1457:chronic myeloid leukemia 1097:iron oxide nanoparticles 1073:fixed-dose combinations) 670:for precision medicine. 505:Precision medicine is a 438:. This provides a clear 7333:Intensive care medicine 7307:Mass gathering medicine 7152:Maternal–fetal medicine 6765:Technological evolution 6738:Exploratory engineering 6666:Whole genome sequencing 6070:10.1200/jop.2011.000448 5254:10.1196/annals.1322.050 5171:: 25–27. Archived from 4523:. Amgen. Archived from 3725:10.1111/1753-6405.12887 3223:10.1126/science.1110359 2820:10.1002/1878-0261.12521 2284:"Personalized medicine" 1944:10.1038/sj.clpt.6100204 1905:British Medical Journal 1567:artificial intelligence 1318:"Personalized medicine" 747:Artificial intelligence 700:predict a person's risk 694:Disease risk assessment 520:Precision medicine and 6925:Cardiothoracic surgery 6775:Technology forecasting 6770:Technological paradigm 6743:Proactionary principle 6627:Robot-assisted surgery 4316:Bioconjugate Chemistry 4269:Nature Reviews. Cancer 3424:10.1001/jama.2015.3595 2765:(1). CellPress: 6–10. 2665:10.1002/biot.201100297 1666:Reimbursement policies 1529:translational research 1246: 1230:Respiratory proteomics 1046:"forward" transfection 991: 551: 461:Development of concept 403:and/or products being 379:, also referred to as 7744:Personalized medicine 7576:Personalized medicine 7435:Reproductive medicine 7360:Occupational medicine 7314:Evolutionary medicine 6701:Disruptive innovation 6610:Regenerative medicine 6605:Personalized medicine 6467:Emerging technologies 5326:Clinical Biochemistry 4197:10.1002/cpt1974154424 3780:Ray A (20 May 2018). 3506:10.1056/NEJMoa1714458 2653:Biotechnology Journal 2563:10.1101/gr.193342.115 2514:10.1101/gr.155192.113 2239:Nature Reviews Cancer 1238:The preparation of a 1237: 1208:neuroendocrine tumors 1204:Lutetium-177 DOTATATE 1051:screening can entail 989: 981:companion diagnostics 890:An aspect of this is 546: 538:personalized medicine 515:molecular diagnostics 377:Personalized medicine 317:Personalized medicine 311:Personalized medicine 174:Quantitative genetics 169:Mendelian inheritance 7596:Traditional medicine 7556:Alternative medicine 7423:Addiction psychiatry 7237:Transfusion medicine 7232:Medical microbiology 7147:Gynecologic oncology 6999:Reproductive surgery 6748:Technological change 6691:Collingridge dilemma 6430:Canadian Drug Agency 6168:10.1056/NEJMp1713834 6119:10.1056/NEJMp1714229 4860:The Lancet. Oncology 4817:(Suppl 2): 13S–19S. 4607:10.1056/nejmp1006304 4419:10.3390/ijms18020308 4368:10.3390/ijms18040733 4245:10.1056/NEJMoa044503 4142:on 25 September 2019 3165:10.1038/onc.2013.244 2159:"Precision medicine" 1742:Phenotypic screening 1627:regulatory standards 1573:Regulatory oversight 1490:Population screening 1473:rational drug design 1459:(CML), in which the 1439:immunohistochemistry 1381:Over recent decades 1303:improve this article 1222:, using the isotope 1053:reverse transfection 1026:phenotypic screening 936:(T1 and T2 agents), 873:Human Genome Project 540:, the United States 531:Human Genome Project 493:, imaging analysis, 237:Branches of genetics 7618:History of medicine 7601:Veterinary medicine 7408:Preventive medicine 7260:Adolescent medicine 7102:Infectious diseases 6805:Technology scouting 6780:Accelerating change 6549:Genetic engineering 6207:2015PLoSO..1032321G 5998:(6 Suppl): S27-31. 5732:2020NatCo..11.3865W 5675:2020NatCo..11.1628M 5246:2004NYASA1028..423S 4116:on 19 December 2017 4068:The Washington Post 4023:"Longer-term Goals" 3459:10.1038/nrg.2016.86 3378:10.2147/PGPM.S49904 3214:2005Sci...308..419H 2620:10.1038/nature12223 2612:2013Natur.499...79W 2428:on 19 February 2019 1635:reference materials 1619:regulatory policies 1480:Foundation Medicine 1451:inhibitors such as 1428:monoclonal antibody 1391:tumor heterogeneity 1264:nasal lavage fluids 938:fluorescent markers 618:molecular pathology 611:targeted treatments 207:Genetic engineering 164:Population genetics 35:Part of a series on 7729:Chemical pathology 7566:Molecular oncology 7523:Doctor of Medicine 7513:Master of Medicine 7430:Radiation oncology 7302:Emergency medicine 7255:Addiction medicine 7222:Clinical chemistry 7217:Clinical pathology 7009:Transplant surgery 6967:Orthopedic surgery 6945:Colorectal surgery 6822:Technology roadmap 6642:Synthetic genomics 6632:Relational biology 6620:Tissue engineering 6544:Generative biology 5454:Cancer Informatics 4569:on 23 January 2014 3883:Data & Society 3647:. 18 October 2013. 3343:2022-11-13 at the 2808:Molecular Oncology 2759:Trends in Genetics 2311:(September 2008). 1806:on 9 November 2016 1775:on 27 October 2016 1660:research exemption 1466:(the product of a 1247: 1220:fluorodeoxyglucose 1214:. A commonly used 1176:radioactive iodine 1109:gold nanoparticles 992: 960:and often involve 467:diagnostic testing 413:predicted response 407:to the individual 381:precision medicine 179:Molecular genetics 138:History and topics 18:Precision medicine 7684: 7683: 7518:Master of Surgery 7482: 7481: 7467:Tropical medicine 7413:Prison healthcare 7328:Hospital medicine 7292:Disaster medicine 7282:Aviation medicine 7097:Hospital medicine 7004:Surgical oncology 6989:Pediatric surgery 6983: 6930:Endocrine surgery 6855: 6854: 6674: 6673: 6637:Synthetic biology 6615:Stem-cell therapy 6598:engineered uterus 6512:Artificial organs 5448:(February 2007). 5369:10.1159/000055405 5156:Carney W (2006). 5042:978-0-12-819178-1 4773:(10): 5584–5595. 4470:10.1111/pcn.12502 4328:10.1021/bc200151q 4049:National Archives 4005:"Near-term Goals" 3985:. 30 January 2015 3863:10.3390/a14050147 3815:(21): 2657–2664. 3665:. 30 August 2013. 3604:978-94-017-7199-3 3500:(22): 2131–2139. 3286:(9725): 1525–35. 3116:10.1586/erm.12.46 2700:Antiviral Therapy 2354:Los Angeles Times 2051:978-0-12-804795-8 1737:Personal genomics 1611: 1610: 1379: 1378: 1371: 1353: 1268:mass spectrometry 1244:mass spectrometry 1186:antibodies (e.g. 1168:electron emitters 1077:drug interactions 869:biological assays 801:mission statement 374: 373: 101:Genetic variation 16:(Redirected from 7751: 7701: 7700: 7699: 7692: 7674: 7673: 7664: 7654: 7653: 7644: 7643: 7634: 7633: 7338:Medical genetics 7323:General practice 7200:Nuclear medicine 7075:Gastroenterology 7031:Vascular surgery 6981: 6908: 6907: 6882: 6875: 6868: 6859: 6858: 6843: 6842: 6790:Horizon scanning 6706:Ephemeralization 6534:Brain transplant 6478: 6477: 6460: 6453: 6446: 6437: 6436: 6413: 6412: 6410: 6408: 6397: 6391: 6390: 6388: 6386: 6375: 6369: 6368: 6366: 6364: 6350: 6344: 6343: 6333: 6301: 6290: 6289: 6279: 6269: 6245: 6239: 6238: 6228: 6218: 6186: 6180: 6179: 6147: 6141: 6140: 6130: 6098: 6092: 6091: 6081: 6049: 6043: 6042: 6040: 6038: 6027: 6018: 6017: 6007: 5983: 5974: 5973: 5971: 5969: 5957: 5951: 5950: 5940: 5930: 5921:(11): e1002689. 5906: 5897: 5896: 5894: 5892: 5877: 5862: 5861: 5851: 5841: 5817: 5811: 5810: 5800: 5768: 5762: 5761: 5751: 5711: 5705: 5704: 5694: 5654: 5648: 5647: 5637: 5620:(9): 1219–1224. 5605: 5599: 5598: 5588: 5556: 5550: 5549: 5531: 5507: 5498: 5497: 5487: 5469: 5441: 5432: 5431: 5395: 5389: 5388: 5356: 5350: 5349: 5321: 5315: 5314: 5304: 5280: 5274: 5273: 5229: 5223: 5222: 5194: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5177: 5162: 5153: 5147: 5146: 5128: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5061: 5055: 5054: 5020: 5009: 5008: 4980: 4974: 4973: 4949: 4943: 4942: 4932: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4883: 4866:(3): e146–e156. 4851: 4845: 4844: 4826: 4802: 4791: 4790: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4735: 4726: 4725: 4715: 4692:Current Genomics 4683: 4677: 4676: 4666: 4655:10.1208/ps020104 4634: 4628: 4627: 4609: 4585: 4579: 4578: 4576: 4574: 4568: 4561: 4553: 4540: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4530:on 1 August 2014 4529: 4522: 4514: 4505: 4504: 4502: 4500: 4489: 4483: 4482: 4472: 4448: 4442: 4441: 4431: 4421: 4397: 4391: 4390: 4380: 4370: 4346: 4340: 4339: 4322:(10): 1879–903. 4307: 4301: 4300: 4264: 4258: 4257: 4247: 4223: 4217: 4216: 4180: 4174: 4173: 4171: 4169: 4158: 4152: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4123: 4121: 4106: 4087: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4037: 4031: 4030: 4019: 4013: 4012: 4001: 3995: 3994: 3992: 3990: 3975: 3969: 3968: 3965:weillcornell.org 3957: 3951: 3950: 3940: 3915:(8): 1915–1923. 3900: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3874: 3868: 3867: 3865: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3824: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3791: 3789: 3777: 3771: 3770: 3768: 3747:Mesko B (2017). 3744: 3738: 3737: 3727: 3703: 3697: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3683:. 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7687: 7685: 7680: 7622: 7611:Chief physician 7544: 7489: 7478: 7472:Travel medicine 7457:Sports medicine 7440:Sexual medicine 7380:Palliative care 7375:Pain management 7319:Family medicine 7297:Diving medicine 7243: 7171: 7133: 7126: 7042: 7035: 6994:Plastic surgery 6940:General surgery 6920:Cardiac surgery 6901: 6899: 6891: 6886: 6856: 6851: 6831: 6670: 6659:Oncolytic virus 6561:Head transplant 6469: 6464: 6422: 6417: 6416: 6406: 6404: 6399: 6398: 6394: 6384: 6382: 6377: 6376: 6372: 6362: 6360: 6352: 6351: 6347: 6302: 6293: 6246: 6242: 6201:(7): e0132321. 6187: 6183: 6162:(11): 979–981. 6148: 6144: 6113:(11): 981–983. 6099: 6095: 6050: 6046: 6036: 6034: 6029: 6028: 6021: 5992:Value in Health 5984: 5977: 5967: 5965: 5958: 5954: 5907: 5900: 5890: 5888: 5879: 5878: 5865: 5818: 5814: 5769: 5765: 5712: 5708: 5655: 5651: 5606: 5602: 5557: 5553: 5508: 5501: 5467:10.1.1.795.3458 5442: 5435: 5396: 5392: 5357: 5353: 5322: 5318: 5281: 5277: 5230: 5226: 5205:(23): 3525–33. 5195: 5191: 5181: 5179: 5178:on 4 March 2016 5175: 5160: 5154: 5150: 5105: 5101: 5062: 5058: 5043: 5021: 5012: 4981: 4977: 4950: 4946: 4901: 4897: 4852: 4848: 4803: 4794: 4763: 4759: 4736: 4729: 4684: 4680: 4635: 4631: 4586: 4582: 4572: 4570: 4566: 4559: 4555: 4554: 4543: 4533: 4531: 4527: 4520: 4516: 4515: 4508: 4498: 4496: 4491: 4490: 4486: 4449: 4445: 4398: 4394: 4347: 4343: 4308: 4304: 4281:10.1038/nrc3729 4265: 4261: 4238:(22): 2285–93. 4224: 4220: 4181: 4177: 4167: 4165: 4160: 4159: 4155: 4145: 4143: 4134: 4133: 4129: 4119: 4117: 4108: 4107: 4090: 4080: 4078: 4060: 4056: 4039: 4038: 4034: 4021: 4020: 4016: 4003: 4002: 3998: 3988: 3986: 3977: 3976: 3972: 3959: 3958: 3954: 3901: 3897: 3887: 3885: 3875: 3871: 3842: 3838: 3801: 3797: 3787: 3785: 3778: 3774: 3745: 3741: 3704: 3700: 3690: 3688: 3675: 3674: 3670: 3663:LiveScience.com 3657: 3656: 3652: 3639: 3638: 3634: 3618: 3617: 3605: 3582: 3576: 3572: 3535: 3531: 3486: 3482: 3443: 3439: 3418:(21): 2119–20. 3408: 3404: 3357: 3350: 3345:Wayback Machine 3335: 3331: 3326:. 13 June 2019. 3322: 3321: 3317: 3272: 3268: 3258: 3256: 3252: 3251: 3247: 3194: 3190: 3159:(23): 2949–55. 3145: 3141: 3096: 3092: 3047: 3043: 2996: 2992: 2945: 2941: 2898: 2894: 2849: 2845: 2800: 2796: 2751: 2747: 2736: 2692: 2688: 2649: 2645: 2606:(7456): 79–82. 2592: 2588: 2557:(11): 1610–21. 2551:Genome Research 2543: 2539: 2502:Genome Research 2494: 2490: 2445: 2441: 2431: 2429: 2420: 2419: 2412: 2401: 2390: 2381: 2379: 2365: 2361: 2346: 2342: 2332: 2330: 2329:on 10 June 2016 2326: 2320:The White House 2315: 2306: 2299: 2289: 2287: 2282: 2281: 2274: 2229: 2225: 2178: 2174: 2164: 2162: 2157: 2156: 2149: 2139: 2137: 2132: 2131: 2127: 2082: 2067: 2052: 2030: 2026: 2016: 2014: 2005: 2004: 1997: 1987: 1985: 1977: 1976: 1967: 1928: 1919: 1909: 1907: 1897: 1893: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1872: 1868: 1843:10.1370/afm.943 1823: 1819: 1809: 1807: 1798: 1797: 1788: 1778: 1776: 1765: 1764: 1755: 1750: 1733: 1712: 1699: 1686:genetic testing 1681: 1668: 1655: 1607: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1586: 1582: 1575: 1550:data processing 1537: 1498: 1492: 1449:Tyrosine kinase 1383:cancer research 1375: 1364: 1358: 1355: 1312: 1310: 1300: 1288: 1277: 1275:Cancer genomics 1232: 1212:prostate cancer 1200:bone metastases 1190:) for treating 1132: 1126: 1010:David Flockhart 997: 934:contrast agents 927:medical imaging 861: 852: 814: 795:of one million 770: 744: 713: 705:Type 2 Diabetes 696: 676: 607:systems biology 565: 560: 524:medicine (also 503: 487:personalization 473:or their other 463: 434:, particularly 417:risk of disease 411:based on their 370: 329: 322: 321: 312: 304: 303: 302: 301: 250: 242: 241: 233: 211: 192: 184: 183: 139: 131: 130: 117: 116: 115: 59: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7757: 7747: 7746: 7741: 7739:Medical models 7736: 7731: 7726: 7721: 7706: 7705: 7682: 7681: 7679: 7678: 7668: 7658: 7648: 7638: 7627: 7624: 7623: 7621: 7620: 7615: 7614: 7613: 7603: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7583: 7578: 7573: 7568: 7563: 7558: 7552: 7550: 7549:Related topics 7546: 7545: 7543: 7542: 7541: 7540: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7498:Medical school 7494: 7492: 7484: 7483: 7480: 7479: 7477: 7476: 7475: 7474: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7452:Sleep medicine 7449: 7448: 7447: 7437: 7432: 7427: 7426: 7425: 7415: 7410: 7405: 7399: 7394: 7393: 7392: 7382: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7325: 7316: 7311: 7310: 7309: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7278: 7277: 7272: 7265:Anesthesiology 7262: 7257: 7251: 7249: 7245: 7244: 7242: 7241: 7240: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7204: 7203: 7202: 7197: 7195:Neuroradiology 7192: 7181: 7179: 7173: 7172: 7170: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7138: 7136: 7132:Obstetrics and 7128: 7127: 7125: 7124: 7119: 7114: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7083: 7082: 7072: 7067: 7062: 7057: 7047: 7045: 7037: 7036: 7034: 7033: 7028: 7027: 7026: 7016: 7014:Trauma surgery 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6985: 6984: 6977:Otolaryngology 6974: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6953: 6952: 6947: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6916: 6914: 6905: 6903:subspecialties 6893: 6892: 6885: 6884: 6877: 6870: 6862: 6853: 6852: 6850: 6849: 6836: 6833: 6832: 6830: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6808: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6756: 6755: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6734: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6682: 6680: 6676: 6675: 6672: 6671: 6669: 6668: 6663: 6662: 6661: 6651: 6646: 6645: 6644: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6623: 6622: 6617: 6607: 6602: 6601: 6600: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6579: 6578: 6571:Life extension 6568: 6566:Isolated brain 6563: 6558: 6557: 6556: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6529:Biofabrication 6526: 6525: 6524: 6519: 6517:Organ printing 6509: 6504: 6499: 6498: 6497: 6490:3D bioprinting 6486: 6484: 6475: 6471: 6470: 6463: 6462: 6455: 6448: 6440: 6434: 6433: 6421: 6420:External links 6418: 6415: 6414: 6392: 6370: 6345: 6316:(13): 1741–8. 6310:Bioinformatics 6291: 6254:Genome Biology 6240: 6181: 6142: 6093: 6044: 6019: 5975: 5952: 5898: 5863: 5812: 5783:(4): 584–591. 5763: 5706: 5649: 5600: 5571:(3): 432–444. 5565:Am J Hum Genet 5551: 5522:(1): 389–411. 5499: 5433: 5406:(2): 189–231. 5390: 5351: 5316: 5295:(4): 452–468. 5275: 5224: 5189: 5148: 5099: 5072:(4): 373–386. 5056: 5041: 5010: 4975: 4944: 4915:(2): 388–400. 4895: 4846: 4792: 4757: 4746:(2): 108–121. 4727: 4678: 4629: 4580: 4541: 4506: 4484: 4463:(4): 215–237. 4443: 4392: 4341: 4302: 4259: 4218: 4175: 4153: 4127: 4088: 4054: 4045:whitehouse.gov 4032: 4014: 3996: 3970: 3952: 3895: 3869: 3836: 3795: 3772: 3759:(5): 239–241. 3739: 3718:(3): 204–206. 3698: 3687:on 10 May 2015 3668: 3650: 3632: 3603: 3570: 3529: 3480: 3437: 3402: 3348: 3329: 3315: 3266: 3245: 3188: 3139: 3110:(6): 621–628. 3090: 3041: 2990: 2939: 2892: 2863:(15): 1803–5. 2843: 2794: 2745: 2686: 2643: 2586: 2537: 2488: 2459:(9): a008581. 2439: 2410: 2388: 2359: 2340: 2297: 2272: 2245:(8): 420–438. 2223: 2192:(9): a008581. 2172: 2147: 2125: 2065: 2050: 2024: 2013:on 10 May 2019 1995: 1965: 1917: 1891: 1866: 1817: 1786: 1752: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1745: 1744: 1739: 1732: 1729: 1711: 1710:Implementation 1708: 1698: 1695: 1680: 1677: 1667: 1664: 1654: 1651: 1609: 1608: 1589: 1587: 1580: 1574: 1571: 1536: 1533: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1486: 1483: 1476: 1446: 1377: 1376: 1291: 1289: 1282: 1276: 1273: 1231: 1228: 1180:thyroid cancer 1128:Main article: 1125: 1122: 1040:. Alternative 1034:pharmaceutical 1030:drug discovery 996: 993: 958:DNA sequencing 944:and inorganic 860: 857: 851: 848: 847: 846: 843: 840: 837: 834: 831: 828: 825: 822: 813: 810: 778:U.S. President 769: 766: 743: 740: 712: 709: 695: 692: 675: 672: 592:RNA expression 564: 561: 559: 556: 526:individualized 502: 499: 462: 459: 391:—with medical 372: 371: 369: 368: 361: 354: 346: 343: 342: 341: 340: 324: 323: 320: 319: 313: 310: 309: 306: 305: 300: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 277:Immunogenetics 274: 269: 264: 259: 253: 252: 251: 248: 247: 244: 243: 240: 239: 232: 231: 226: 209: 204: 202:DNA sequencing 199: 193: 190: 189: 186: 185: 182: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 151: 146: 140: 137: 136: 133: 132: 129: 128: 123: 114: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 62: 61: 60: 58:Key components 57: 56: 53: 52: 44: 43: 37: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7756: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7737: 7735: 7734:Medical signs 7732: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7724:Biotechnology 7722: 7720: 7717: 7716: 7714: 7704: 7694: 7693: 7690: 7677: 7669: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7657: 7649: 7647: 7639: 7637: 7629: 7628: 7625: 7619: 7616: 7612: 7609: 7608: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7581:Public health 7579: 7577: 7574: 7572: 7569: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7561:Allied health 7559: 7557: 7554: 7553: 7551: 7547: 7539: 7536: 7535: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7495: 7493: 7491: 7485: 7473: 7470: 7469: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7446: 7443: 7442: 7441: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7428: 7424: 7421: 7420: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7391: 7388: 7387: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7370:Oral medicine 7368: 7366: 7365:Ophthalmology 7363: 7361: 7358: 7354: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7308: 7305: 7304: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7267: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7252: 7250: 7246: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7227:Cytopathology 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7209: 7208: 7205: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7187: 7186: 7183: 7182: 7180: 7178: 7174: 7168: 7167:Urogynecology 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7139: 7137: 7135: 7129: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7081: 7078: 7077: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7070:Endocrinology 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7052: 7049: 7048: 7046: 7044: 7038: 7032: 7029: 7025: 7022: 7021: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6980: 6979: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6942: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6917: 6915: 6913: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6883: 6878: 6876: 6871: 6869: 6864: 6863: 6860: 6848: 6847: 6838: 6837: 6834: 6828: 6827:Transhumanism 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6777: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6754: 6751: 6750: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6713: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6683: 6681: 6677: 6667: 6664: 6660: 6657: 6656: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6643: 6640: 6639: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6612: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6599: 6596: 6595: 6594: 6593:Organ culture 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6555: 6552: 6551: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6539:De-extinction 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6514: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6496: 6493: 6492: 6491: 6488: 6487: 6485: 6483: 6479: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6461: 6456: 6454: 6449: 6447: 6442: 6441: 6438: 6431: 6427: 6424: 6423: 6402: 6396: 6380: 6374: 6359: 6355: 6349: 6341: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6300: 6298: 6296: 6287: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6244: 6236: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6185: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6146: 6138: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6097: 6089: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6064:(4): e24-31. 6063: 6059: 6055: 6048: 6032: 6026: 6024: 6015: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5982: 5980: 5963: 5956: 5948: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5915:PLOS Medicine 5912: 5905: 5903: 5887:on 3 May 2014 5886: 5882: 5876: 5874: 5872: 5870: 5868: 5859: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5816: 5808: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5767: 5759: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5710: 5702: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5653: 5645: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5604: 5596: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5555: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5506: 5504: 5495: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5440: 5438: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5394: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5355: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5332:(5): 347–52. 5331: 5327: 5320: 5312: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5289:Nature Cancer 5286: 5279: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5240:(1): 423–31. 5239: 5235: 5228: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5193: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5159: 5152: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5103: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5060: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5019: 5017: 5015: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4979: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4948: 4940: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4899: 4891: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4850: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4801: 4799: 4797: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4767:Nano Research 4761: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4734: 4732: 4723: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4698:(3): 146–61. 4697: 4693: 4689: 4682: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4643:AAPS PharmSci 4640: 4633: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4584: 4565: 4558: 4552: 4550: 4548: 4546: 4526: 4519: 4513: 4511: 4494: 4488: 4480: 4476: 4471: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4447: 4439: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4396: 4388: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4345: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4306: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4263: 4255: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4222: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4191:(4): 424–30. 4190: 4186: 4179: 4163: 4157: 4141: 4137: 4131: 4115: 4111: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4093: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4058: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4036: 4028: 4024: 4018: 4010: 4006: 4000: 3984: 3980: 3974: 3966: 3962: 3956: 3948: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3899: 3884: 3880: 3873: 3864: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3799: 3783: 3776: 3767: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3743: 3735: 3731: 3726: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3702: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3672: 3664: 3660: 3654: 3646: 3642: 3636: 3628: 3622: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3581: 3574: 3566: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3533: 3525: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3484: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3453:(9): 507–22. 3452: 3448: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3406: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3384: 3379: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3355: 3353: 3346: 3342: 3339: 3333: 3325: 3319: 3311: 3307: 3302: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3270: 3255: 3249: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3224: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3192: 3184: 3180: 3175: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3143: 3135: 3131: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3094: 3086: 3082: 3077: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3061:(4): 465–84. 3060: 3056: 3052: 3045: 3037: 3033: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2994: 2986: 2982: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2943: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2912:(2): 109–18. 2911: 2907: 2903: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2798: 2790: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2749: 2741: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2706:(2): 169–78. 2705: 2701: 2697: 2690: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2647: 2639: 2635: 2630: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2590: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2541: 2533: 2529: 2524: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2492: 2484: 2480: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2443: 2427: 2423: 2417: 2415: 2406: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2393: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2363: 2355: 2351: 2344: 2325: 2321: 2314: 2310: 2304: 2302: 2285: 2279: 2277: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2235: 2227: 2219: 2215: 2210: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2176: 2160: 2154: 2152: 2135: 2129: 2121: 2117: 2112: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2080: 2078: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2028: 2012: 2008: 2002: 2000: 1984: 1980: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1938:(6): 807–16. 1937: 1933: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1906: 1902: 1895: 1876: 1870: 1862: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1821: 1805: 1801: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1774: 1770: 1769: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1753: 1743: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1734: 1728: 1725: 1721: 1716: 1707: 1703: 1694: 1690: 1687: 1676: 1674: 1663: 1661: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1643:effectiveness 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1605: 1593: 1588: 1579: 1578: 1570: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1517: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1497: 1484: 1481: 1477: 1474: 1469: 1465: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1447: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1422: 1421: 1420: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1373: 1370: 1362: 1351: 1348: 1344: 1341: 1337: 1334: 1330: 1327: 1323: 1320: – 1319: 1315: 1314:Find sources: 1308: 1304: 1298: 1297: 1292:This section 1290: 1286: 1281: 1280: 1272: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1245: 1241: 1236: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1206:for treating 1205: 1201: 1198:for treating 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1156:radionuclides 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1131: 1121: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1093:drug delivery 1090: 1084: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1058: 1057:chemogenomics 1054: 1050: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1018: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1001: 988: 984: 982: 977: 975: 969: 967: 963: 962:deep learning 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 932: 928: 924: 919: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 900:anticoagulant 897: 893: 888: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 856: 844: 841: 838: 835: 832: 829: 826: 823: 820: 819: 818: 809: 807: 802: 798: 794: 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