1173:
1368:
very likely some of the coastal groups such as the
Waccamaw and Cape Fears. It is not improbable that a few families or small groups of Algonquian or Iroquoian may have cast their lot with this body of people, but contributions from such sources are relatively insignificant. Although there is some reason to think that the Keyauwee tribe actually contributed more blood to the Robeson County Indians than any other, the name is not widely known, whereas that of the Cheraw has been familiar to historians, geographers and ethnologists in one form or another since the time of De Soto and has a firm position in the cartography of the region. The Cheraws, too, seem to have taken a leading part in opposing the colonists during and immediately after the Yamasee uprising. Therefore, if the name of any tribe is to be used in connection with this body of six or eight thousand people, that of the Cheraw would, in my opinion, be most appropriate.
439:
421:
381:
343:
1227:", also known as "the Klan Rout", made national news. Cole had predicted more than 5,000 Klansmen would show up for the rally, but fewer than 100 and possibly as few as three dozen attended. Approximately 500 Lumbee, armed with guns and sticks, gathered in a nearby swamp, and when they realized they possessed an overwhelming numerical advantage, attacked the Klansmen. The Lumbee encircled the Klansmen, opening fire and wounding four Klansmen in the first volley, none seriously. The remaining Klansmen panicked and fled. Cole was found in the swamps, arrested and tried for inciting a riot. The Lumbee celebrated the victory by burning Klan regalia and dancing around the open flames.
363:
1482:
from applying through the BARS, the BIA administrative process to gain recognition. This restriction as to eligibility for services was a condition which tribal representatives agreed to at the time in order to achieve status as a recognized tribe and have the Lumbee name recognized. The Lumbee had essentially assimilated into early colonial life prior to the formation of the United States. They lived as individuals, as did any other colonial and U.S. citizens. Lumbee spokesmen repeatedly testified at these hearings that they were not seeking federal financial benefits; they said they only wanted a name designation as Lumbee people.
305:
334:
2007:
basically self-governing. One form of self-governance in the early 20th century was exhibited by a fraternal organization known as the Red Men's Lodge. By 1914, lodges existed in
Prospect, Magnolia, Pembroke, Saddletree, Oxendine, and Union Chapel. Lodge members maintained social order, carried out ceremonies, marched in parades, and conducted funerals. The 1987 Lumbee Petition states that, "ith so many prominent leaders it is easy to understand how the lodges could maintain order and, at the same time, protect the tribal members from organized violence from whites in the area".
168:
1834:
1156:
responded to
Congress and the Croatan Indians, writing that, "so long as the immediate wards of the Government are so insufficiently provided for, I do not see how I can consistently render any assistance to the Croatans or any other civilized tribes." Those Indians in the Southeast and elsewhere who were not on reservations, such as those in Robeson County, were considered to be United States citizens and thus the responsibility of state governments. The federal government funded Indian education only for Indians on reservations.
314:
352:
1499:
1978:
977:, was convicted of being in illegal possession of firearms. In 1857, William Chavers from Robeson County was arrested and charged as a free person of color for carrying a shotgun without a license. Chavers, like Locklear, was convicted. Chavers promptly appealed, arguing that the law restricted only "free Negroes," not "persons of color from Indian blood." The appeals court reversed the lower court, finding that "free persons of color may be, then, for all we can see, persons colored by Indian blood".
4632:
1086:/white. More than 150 years before, a large number of the Tuscarora people, who spoke an Iroquoian language, migrated north to New York to join their Iroquois cousins. The Tuscarora tribe in New York considers the migration complete by the year 1722; all the Tuscarora who remained in North Carolina are not considered under the same council fire, or tribal fraction. The large migration of Tuscarora people was a result of their defeat by the Carolina colonists and their Indian allies in the
1557:). On June 3, 2009, the United States House of Representatives voted 240 to 179 for federal recognition for the Lumbee tribe, acknowledging that they are descendants of the historic Cheraw tribe. The bill went to the United States Senate. On October 22, 2009, the United States Senate Committee on Indian Affairs approved a bill for federal recognition of the Lumbee that also included a no-gaming clause. The Senate adjourned for 2010 without taking action on the bill.
928:
south of
Robeson County North Carolina, into present-day Marlboro County South Carolina. In 1771, a convicted felon, by the name of Winsler Driggers, captured "near Drowning Creek, in the Charraw settlement," was reported as hanged under the Negro Act. That mention, along with no evidence that a new settlement was established or the old settlement was abandoned, is not sufficient to confirm that the settlement on Drowning Creek in 1754 was a Cheraw settlement.
430:
323:
401:
1527:), some of the North Carolina Congressional delegation, and some representatives from other states with federally recognized tribes. Some of the North Carolina delegation separately recommended an amendment to the 1956 Act that would enable the Lumbee to apply to the Department of Interior under the regular administrative process for recognition. In 2004 and 2006 the tribe made renewed bids for full recognition, to include financial benefits.
2047:
863:] is all living upon the Kings Land without title." A later colonial military survey described "50 families a mixt crew, a lawless People possess the Lands without Patent or paying quit Rents." The surnames of some of the families are the same as modern-day Lumbees, but each family must be traced separately to identify individual ancestors, particularly since extensive intermarriage took place. The families were classified then as "
1244:
758:
66:
372:
1101:, North Carolina where a dwindling Tuscarora community resided until it was sold in 1828. In the intervening time between the establishment and sale of this reservation, the remaining Tuscarora grew tired of their treatment by the whites, and began to rejoin their cousins the hostile Tuscarora who had relocated to New York, while others moved off the reservation and "scattered, as the wind scatters the smoke" throughout the colony.
410:
392:
25:
1136:
230:
1429:
supported the Cheraw theory of ancestry. The other faction believed they were descended from the
Cherokee, although the tribe had historically occupied territory in the mountains and western part of the state rather than the area of Robeson County. North Carolina's politicians abandoned support for the federal recognition effort until the tribal factions agreed on their identity.
1322:
organization. He thought that, as state-recognized
Indians, they were eligible to attend federal Indian schools. But, as they were highly assimilated, spoke English, and already worked in the common state culture, he doubted that the federal Indian schools could meet their needs. Congress did not provide any additional funding to support education for Indians in North Carolina.
1346:. The Indian Office sent Charles F. Pierce, the Supervisor of Indian Schools, to Robeson County to conduct a study of the tribe. Pierce reported that the state and county were providing funds to educate the 1,976 school-age Indian children. He also stated in his report that "one would readily class a large majority as being at least three-fourths Indian.
811:
of
Robeson County (artifacts from Paleo-Indian, Archaic, Woodland, and Mississippian cultures). All modern vicinities of Lumbee occupation contain numerous archaeological sites as recent as the Late Woodland period (mid-1700s), and oral traditions about the history of some Lumbee families extend back as far in Robeson County as the mid-1700s.
1425:, and the Indian Agent Fred Baker to evaluate the claim of the Indians of Robeson County to historical continuity as an identified Indian community. In 1934, the future Lumbee revived their claim to Cherokee identity, joining the National Congress of American Indians under the name, "Cherokee Indians of Robeson County."
1059:. The gang consisted of Henry Lowrie, his brothers Stephen and Thomas, cousins Calvin and Henderson Oxendine, two of Lowrie's brothers-in-law, two escaped slaves who had joined the Lowries, a white man of unknown identity who was likely a Confederate deserter, and two other men of unknown relation and identity.
1588:
also announced his support for federal recognition of the tribe via the same legislation. The following weekend, Trump held a rally in
Robeson County to shore up support among Native Americans. During the rally, Trump stated that " Lumbee Nation is forgotten no more!" Trump's rally was significant in
1367:
The evidence available thus seems to indicate that the
Indians of Robeson County who have been called Croatan and Cherokee are descended mainly from certain Siouan tribes of which the most prominent were the Cheraw and Keyauwee, but they probably included as well remnants of the Eno, and Shakori, and
1354:
While these
Indians are essentially an agricultural people, I believe them to be as capable of learning the mechanical trades as the average white youth. The foregoing facts suggest the character of the educational institution that should be established for them, in case Congress sees fit to make the
1069:
declared Lowrie and his men outlaws in 1869, and offered a $ 12,000 reward for their capture: dead or alive. Lowrie responded with more revenge killings. Eluding capture, the Lowrie gang persisted after Reconstruction ended and conservative white Democrats gained control of North Carolina government,
810:
Archaeological evidence reveals that the area now known as Robeson County (central to modern Lumbee territory) has been continuously occupied by Native people for at least 14,000 years. Every named era found elsewhere in pre-European-contact North Carolina is also present in the archaeological record
1956:
as a verb form (e.g. "it bes really crowded"). There is a variation in the use of these elements among Lumbee people; some frequently use most of the vernacular's unique characteristics, while others use few of them but easily understand their meaning. The vernacular has also evolved over time, with
1621:
By the early 1900s, Robeson County whites used "Cro" as a racial epithet to describe their "Indian" neighbors. The Lost Colony theory of origins fell out of favor in the early twentieth century. "Croatan" was dropped from their tribal name and replaced by "Indians of Robeson County", although Lumbee
1126:
state representative Hamilton MacMillan proposed to have the state recognize these Indian people of Robeson County as the "Croatan Indians" and to create a separate system of Croatan Indian schools. By the end of the 19th century, the "Indians of Robeson County" (as they then identified) established
1104:
In February 1872, shortly after a raid in which he robbed the local sheriff's safe of more than $ 28,000, Henry Berry Lowrie disappeared. It is claimed he accidentally shot himself while cleaning his double-barrel shotgun. As with many folk heroes, the death of Lowrie was disputed. He was reportedly
1047:
The Lowrie gang, as it became known, resorted to crime and conducting personal feuds, committing robberies and murders against white Robeson County residents and skirmishing with the Confederate Home Guard. They grew bolder as the war turned against the Confederacy. In December 1864, the Lowrie gang
902:
noted in the late 20th century that no land grants were issued during these years in North Carolina. The first documented land grants made to individuals claimed to be Lumbee ancestors did not take place until the 1750s, more than a decade later. None of the various petitions for federal recognition
833:
When this area was first surveyed by the English in the 1750s, they reported that "No Indians" lived in Bladen County, which then included parts of present-day Robeson County. Colonial Welsh timber survey parties of the same areas also reported, "No Hostile Indians, in fact No Indians to be found at
2128:
According to its constitution, adopted in 2000, the Lumbee tribal government is organized into three branches: the tribal chairperson (executive), the 21-member Tribal Council (legislative), and Supreme Court (judicial). The tribal chairperson and the Tribal Council are elected to three-year terms.
2082:
Today the Lumbee primarily practice Protestantism, and attending church is an important social activity. Churches have Sunday schools, youth organizations, senior citizens' programs, Bible study programs, and choir practices. Gospel songs are popular. Ministers are highly respected. When a sizeable
1775:
Due to their lack of an obvious single ancestor tribe and other conventional indigenous cultural markers such as a unique language, Lumbee people are often confronted with doubts concerning the sincerity and genuineness of their claims to indigenous status. Some white and black residents of Robeson
1317:
in the 1830s, and were assigned to reservations in Oklahoma. Those Indians remaining in the state were considered state and federal citizens; there were no Indian reservations in the state. The legislature was chiefly reviewing issues related to the state's treatment of the Cherokee descendants who
1762:
By the 1770s, remnant Indians from the once distinct tribal communities of the Cheraw, Keyauwee, Hatteras, Waxhaw, Sugaree, Eno and Shakori gathered along the Lumbee River, near the border that now divides North and South Carolina. Some of these Indians moved further southward to join with the few
1634:
The proto Lumbee first began identifying as Cherokee Indians in 1915, when they changed their name to the "Cherokee Indians of Robeson County." Four years earlier, they had changed their name from the "Croatan Indians" to the generic "Indians of Robeson County." But the Cherokee occupied territory
1481:
It provided further, "as requested by the Lumbee HR 4656 stipulated that 'othing in this Act shall make such Indians eligible for any services performed by the United States for Indians because of their status as Indians.'" It also forbids a Government relationship with the Lumbee and forbids them
1081:
The Lowrie gang gained the sympathy of local Indian families and even some poor whites, who refused to cooperate with efforts to stop them. Records of the pursuit of the Lowrie gang provide the first documentation of the local people's claims on mixed Indian ancestry. These early accounts refer to
1009:
Some Lumbee ancestors are believed to have been forced to aid the Confederacy as laborers. Others are documented as drawing Confederate pensions for their service. Nearly 150 Lumbee ancestors enlisted in the Confederate Infantry. The community says that many men tried to avoid such forced labor by
927:
documented in land records between 1737 and 1739." The location of the Cheraw Old Fields is documented in the Lumbee petition for recognition based on Siouan descent, prepared by Lumbee River Legal Services in the 1980s. Other researchers have noted that the Cheraw Old Fields were only a few miles
886:
state representative Hamilton McMillan supported an effort to gain separate schools for the Indian children in the state since they and their ancestors had always been free and refused to send their children to black schools. In making his case, McMillan wrote that Lumbee ancestor James Lowrie had
841:
In 1754, colonial authorities organized the territory: everything north of the Lumber River was made part of Bladen County, and everything south of the Lumber River was made part of Anson County. Anson County's border stretched west to known Cherokee territory. Historical records are unclear as to
1384:
I find that the sense of racial solidarity is growing stronger and that the members of this tribe are cooperating more and more with each other with the object in view of promoting the mutual benefit of all the members. It is clear to my mind that sooner of later government action will have to be
1113:
During Reconstruction, the legislature established public education for the first time, providing for white and black schools. All children of color were assigned to black schools, which were dominated by the children of freedmen (freed slaves). The Indian people of Robeson County had always been
940:
in Robeson County listed men with surnames later associated with Lumbee families, such as Samuel Bell, Jacob Locklear, John Brooks, Berry Hunt, Thomas Jacobs, Thomas Cummings, and Michael Revels. In 1790, other men with surnames since associated with Lumbee-identified descendants, such as Barnes,
4441:
Thomas, Robert K. "A Report on Research of Lumbee Origins."; Lumbee River Legal Services. The Lumbee petition. Prepared in cooperation with the Lumbee Tribal Enrollment Office. Julian T. Pierce and Cynthia Hunt-Locklear, authors. Jack Campisi and Wesley White, consultants. Pembroke: Lumbee River
1653:
The Oxendine theory of Cherokee origin has been uniformly rejected by mainstream scholars. First, no Cherokee warriors are listed in the record of Barnwell's company. Second, the Lumbee do not speak Cherokee or any other Indian language. Third, Oxendine's claims of oral traditions are completely
1494:
for full federal recognition. This is a prerequisite to receive the financial benefits accorded federally recognized Native American tribes. The latter have generally been those tribes who had signed treaties with the federal government and had reservations established, and a history of a tribal
1325:
In 1924, the Cherokee Indians of North Carolina petitioned for federal recognition as "Siouan Indians"; their request was rejected by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Congressional committees continued to refuse to have the federal government assume educational responsibility for the Indians of
2158:
identify as being Lumbee. One, the United Lumbee Nation of North Carolina and America, based in Exeter, California, petitioned for federal recognition in 1980. The final determination was that the group "does not exist as an Indian tribe" and that they did not descend from any Lumbee community.
2006:
Lumbee communities were linked together by their extensive kinship ties, church affiliations, their sense of themselves as Indians, and their control of their educational system, all of which served as a mechanism for defining tribal membership and maintaining tribal boundaries. Communities are
1349:
On April 28, 1914, the Senate called for an investigation into the status and conditions of the Indians of Robeson and adjoining counties. The Indian Office sent Special Indian Agent O.M. McPherson to the county to obtain information regarding the educational system of the tribe. In his report,
1155:
In 1899, North Carolina Congressional representatives introduced the first bill in Congress to appropriate federal funds to educate the Indian children of Robeson County. They introduced another bill a decade later, and yet another in 1911. The Commissioner of Indian Affairs, T. J. Morgan,
1147:
to train Indian teachers for the county's Indian schools. With state permission, they raised the requisite funds, along with some state assistance, which proved inadequate. Several tribal leaders donated money and privately held land for schools. Robeson County's Indian Normal School eventually
1393:, came to Robeson County in 1936 to collect affidavits and other data from people registering as Indian under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. McNickle stated, "there are reasons for believing that until comparatively recently some remnant of language still persisted among these people."
1005:
of the South". As the state's slave owners resisted sending more slaves to Fort Fisher, the Confederate Home Guard intensified efforts to conscript able-bodied free persons of color as laborers. There does not appear to be documentation of conscription among the free people of color in Robeson
1428:
Swanton speculated that the group were more likely descended in part from Cheraw and other eastern Siouan tribes, as these were the predominant Native American peoples historically in that area. The Indians of Robeson County split in terms of how they identified as Native Americans: one group
1321:
In 1915, the report of Special Indian Agent O.M. McPherson of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, was sent to the North Carolina legislature. He primarily reported on the Cherokee in the state. He noted that the Indians of Robeson County had developed an extensive system of schools and a political
1048:
killed James P. Barnes after he had drafted workers, including the Lowries, for work on local defenses. Barnes had earlier accused Henry's father, Allen Lowrie, of stealing hogs. Next, the gang killed James Brantley Harris, a Confederate conscription officer who had killed a Lowrie relative.
1309:
tribes in Oklahoma, the North Carolina legislators, based on a petition lobbied for and created by the Croatans, added "Cherokee" to the name of the Robeson County tribe. The tribe petitioned for federal recognition as "Cherokee" Indians, but it was denied. From 1913 to 1932, North Carolina
915:, another term used for a wide variety of non-White people, including non-reservation American Indians, mixed race American Indian/European, and mixed race African/European. In 1800 and 1810, the families were classified as "all other free persons" in the census (after "white" and "black").
1304:
The people achieved state recognition as "Croatan Indians" in 1885. They first petitioned the federal government for recognition in 1888, but were rejected due to the Bureau of Indian Affairs' lack of funding. In 1911, at the request of the tribe, the North Carolina General Assembly passed
1159:
By the first decade of the 20th century, a North Carolina Representative introduced a federal bill to establish "a normal school for the Indians of Robeson County, North Carolina," to be paid for by the federal government. Charles F. Pierce, U.S. Supervisor of Indian Schools in the
1617:
MacMillan's theory was part of a Reconstruction era effort to woo the proto Lumbee to the Democratic Party by creating an "Indian" school system that would free these new "Croatan Indians" from sending their children to school with the children of the recently emancipated slaves.
965:
which they had enjoyed for almost two generations. They could no longer vote or serve on juries, bear arms without a license from the state, or serve in the state militia. As these were obligations traditionally associated with citizenship, they were made second-class citizens.
1051:
A surprise search by the Home Guard of Allen Lowrie's home in March 1865 uncovered a stash of forbidden firearms. The Home Guard convened a summary court-martial, convicted Allen Lowrie and his son William of illegally possessing firearms as men of color, and executed them.
1342:, and historians. They reflect changing concepts of what constituted Indian identity. In 1912, legislation was introduced to the US Senate to establish a school for the Indians of Robeson County. When the bill was sent to committee, it requested information from the
1021:
Despite the widespread sympathies among the Indian community for the plight of the participants in this guerilla warfare, nearly 150 Lumbee ancestors voluntarily enlisted in the Confederate Infantry, including the nephew-in-law of Henry Berry Lowry described below.
1888:
sometime before the early 1700s. Lumbee people encountered English-speaking European settlers and adopted their language much earlier than other Native American groups. The Lumbee Act of 1956 specifically mentioned the dialect as a defining attribute of the people.
1172:
1788:
which has not demonstrated indigenous ancestry. Historian Malinda Maynor Lowery, a member of the Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina, criticized the usefulness of such tests, stating that the testing companies lack base samples of the Lumbee's indigenous ancestors'
4363:
Sir Walter Raleigh's Lost Colony: An Historical Sketch of the Attempts of Sir Walter Raleigh to Establish a Colony in Virginia, with the Traditions of an Indian Tribe in North Carolina. Indicating the Fate of the Colony of Englishmen Left on Roanoke Island in
918:
Land records show that in the second half of the 18th century, persons since identified as ancestral Lumbees began to take titles to land near Drowning Creek (Lumber River) and prominent swamps such as Ashpole, Long, and Back. According to James Campisi, the
1614:", who intermarried with what he described as the "Croatan Indians." The Roanoke colony disappeared during a difficult winter, but the colonists reportedly left the word "Croatan" carved into a tree, hence the name MacMillan gave to the proto Lumbee.
941:
Braveboy (or Brayboy), Bullard, Chavers (Chavis), Cumbo, Hammonds, Lowrie (Lowry/Lowery), Oxendine, Strickland, and Wilkins, were listed as inhabitants of the Fayetteville District; they were all "Free Persons of Color" in the first federal census.
2116:
is one of eight state-recognized Native American tribes in North Carolina. They participate at the state level in many ways, including in the North Carolina Commission of Indian Affairs. They also participate in such national organizations as the
1413:
in 1934 was chiefly directed at Native American tribes on reservations. It encouraged them to re-establish self-government, which had been diminished since the founding of reservations and the supervision by the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs.
1985:
Lumbee Homecoming is a celebration held annually in Pembroke since 1968. Homecoming is important in bringing together members of families, many from great distances, for a weeklong celebration of Lumbee culture. Festivities include a parade, a
1697: ... They are mentioned as with the Catawba but speaking their own distinct dialect as late as 1743 (Adair). The last notice of them in 1768, when their remnant, reduced by war and disease to 50 or 60, were still living with the Catawba.
1400:
ethnologists William Sturtevant and Samuel Stanley described the Lumbee as "larger than any other Indian group in the United States except the Navajo", and estimated their population as 31,380 Lumbee (from North and South Carolina) in 1960.
910:
during that period show that individuals who claimed to be Lumbee ancestors migrated from southern parts of Virginia and northern parts of North Carolina. In the first federal census of 1790, the ancestors of the Lumbee were enumerated as
1743:
and the Woccon likely lived in the central coastal region of North Carolina. In the 21st century, these tribes are extinct as groups, except for a small band of Waccamaw that live on Lake Waccamaw and have been recognized by the state.
2083:
number of Lumbee people move to a city, they tend to settle in a particular section or neighborhood and establish a church. This took place in Lumbee communities in Baltimore, Greensboro, Fayetteville, Charlotte, and Claxton, Georgia.
1114:
free and did not socially associate or interact with Blacks. They refused to send their children to school with the free Blacks and demanded for separate Indian schools. In the 1880s, as the Democratic Party was struggling against the
1164:, opposed the legislation since, "t the present time it is the avowed policy of the government to require states having an Indian population to assume the burden and responsibility for their education, so far as is possible."
1597:. In 2020, his margin of victory increased dramatically to an 18 point victory over Biden. Many attribute this swing in Trump's favor to his visit and explicit support for recognition of the tribe by the federal government.
1372:
In 1935, Indian Agent Fred Baker was sent to Robeson County in response to a proposed resettlement project for the Cherokee Indians of Robeson County. At the time, the people were attempting to organize as a tribe under the
1669:
Shortly after abandoning the Croatan label and changing their name to the generic "Indians of Robeson County", the proto Lumbee seized on the speculations of Indian agent McPherson that they may be related to the defunct
1518:
Congress, testifying in 1988, 1989, 1991 and 1993 in efforts to gain full federal recognition by congressional action. All of these attempts failed in the face of opposition by the Department of Interior, the recognized
4377:, 63rd Congress, 3rd session, January 5, 1915. Senate Document 677 (This was submitted to the legislature of North Carolina, as they were considering issues related especially to the Cherokee and other tribal groups).
1727:. This petition was rejected largely on the grounds that Siouan was a language, not a tribe. Moreover, there was no record of the Lumbee or their ancestors having ever spoken the Siouan or any other Indian language.
2332:... Archibald McKissack, Bladen County Justice of the Peace, to the governor of North Carolina titled, "A list of the rogues: a list of the mob raitously assembled together in Bladen County, October 13th 1773."
1705:
are a federally recognized tribe. The McPherson Report does not explain how or when the remaining four or five dozen Cheraw identified in 1768 separated from the Catawba and became the ancestors of the Lumbee.
1432:
In 1952, under the leadership of D.F. Lowrie, the tribe voted to adopt the name "Lumbee." The North Carolina legislature recognized the name change in 1953. The tribe petitioned again for federal recognition.
1892:
By 1730 English settlers were surprised at the presence of a large English speaking Native American tribe. The Lumbee's lack of a traditional language led to extra difficulty in gaining federal recognition.
1592:
Historically most of Robeson County had trended Democratic, voting for Barack Obama by an 18 point margin in 2012. However, Donald Trump carried the county narrowly in 2016, winning by a 5 point margin over
1714:
After repeated rejections under the Croatan, Cherokee and Cheraw labels, the proto Lumbee petitioned the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1924 for recognition as "Siouan" Indians. This refers to
2098:
in 1900. In 1984 Bruce Barton documented 104 Lumbee churches. Prospect Community Church , with 1,008 members in 2017, has purportedly the largest congregation of Native Americans in the United States.
878:, white-dominated legislatures in the South imposed legal racial segregation. They required all non-white people or people of color to attend black schools in which most students were the children of
2038:. The dress featured a pinecone patchwork pattern inspired by Maggie Lowry Locklear's quilt. Since then, Lumbee women have adopted this pinecone patchwork dress style as the signature Lumbee dress.
2024:
4149:
735:
The Lumbee Tribe was recognized by North Carolina in 1885. In 1956, the U.S. Congress passed the Lumbee Act which recognized the Lumbees as being American Indians but denied them benefits of a
4195:
Eliades, David K., Oxendine, Linda E., and Locklear, Lawrence T. "Hail to UNCP! A 125-Year History of the University of North Carolina at Pembroke". Chapel Hill, NC: Chapel Hill Press, 2014.
1584:
announced, on October 8, 2020, his support for federal recognition of the Lumbee tribe by pledging his backing to the Lumbee Recognition Act. Two weeks later, on October 21, 2020, President
1739:
were the most likely Indian ancestors of the people known from 1885 to 1912 as Croatan Indians and later as the Indians of Robeson County. He suggested that surviving descendants of the
3405:
Sir Walter Raleigh's Lost Colony: An Historical Sketch of the Attempts of Sir Walter Raleigh to Establish a Colony in Virginia, with the Traditions of an Indian Tribe in North Carolina
895:
claimed that another Lumbee ancestor, John Brooks, held the title to over 1,000 acres (400 ha) in 1735 and that Robert Lowrie gained possession of almost 700 acres (280 ha).
5028:
4620:
1466:, designated the Lumbee as an Indian people. It withheld full recognition as a "Tribe", as had been agreed to by the Lumbee leaders. The Lumbee Act designated the Indians of Robeson,
1313:
In the early 20th century, North Carolina requested federal assistance to collect information related to the status of Indians in the state. The Southeast tribes had been subject to
3584:
1650:
of South Carolina in the Tuscarora campaign of 1711–1713. He said the Cherokee settled in the swamps of Robeson County when the campaign ended, along with some Tuscarora captives.
1055:
After the Civil War, the Lowrie gang continued their insurgency, committing robberies and murders. The authorities' raids and attempts to capture gang members became known as the
1310:
legislators introduced bills in Congress as petitioned for by the Croatan faction to change the name of the people to Cherokee and gain federal recognition, but did not succeed.
973:
upheld the constitutionality of the state's restrictions to prevent free people of color from bearing arms without a license. Noel Locklear, identified as a free man of color in
3455:
3164:
1549:
introduced legislation (H.R. 31) to grant the Lumbee full federal recognition. The bill gained support of more than 180 co-sponsors, including both North Carolina US Senators (
4598:
830:, Scavano, and Wacoma. Modern-day Lumbees claim connection to those settlements, but none of the four tribes is located within the boundaries of present-day Robeson County.
1044:
and several of his relatives took to the swamps where Indians resorted to "lying out" to avoid being rounded up by the Home Guard and forced to work as impressed laborers.
3871:
1105:
seen at a funeral several years later. Without his leadership, all but two members of the Lowrie gang were subsequently hunted down, and either captured or killed.
3379:
2095:
1872:
was retired from use, as it was determined that no separate Lumbee language has ever existed. Linguists have speculated that the ancestors of the Lumbees had been
1776:
County have expressed doubts about their origins, asserting that the Lumbee are descendants of white and black people who do not want to be viewed as black due to
1784:. Several tribes from the western United States also promulgate the belief that the Lumbee are a mixed, mostly African-descent group. Some Lumbee have undergone
3128:
2034:
In 1993, Hayes Alan Locklear (Lumbee) designed a dress, which was sewn by Kat Littleturtle (Lumbee) for Miss Lumbee Natascha Wagoner, who was chosen as the 8th
4613:
1793:
with which the results can be compared. Some Lumbee report that the doubts about their status have caused emotional and psychological harm in their community.
1036:
Early in the Civil War, North Carolina turned to forced labor to construct her defenses. Several Lowrie cousins had been conscripted as laborers to help build
1661:
categorically rejects any connection to the Lumbee, dismissing the Oxendine claims as "absurd" and disputing even that the Lumbee qualify as Native American.
251:
1747:
Swanton traced the migration of Southeast tribes. In addition to the Keyauwee, Cheraw, Bear River, Waccamaw, and Woccon already mentioned, he noted that the
4803:
3694:
4636:
4265:
Knick, Stanley G. 1988 Robeson Trails Archaeological Survey: Reconnaissance in Robeson County; Native American Resource Center Publications; UNC Pembroke.
3234:
1805:
on the southern border of the state. Over the years, the Lumbee have migrated to other areas primarily for employment. Sizeable Lumbee settlements are in
1780:. Some federally-recognized tribes have endorsed the extension of recognition to the Lumbee, while others have opposed it, accusing the Lumbee of making
857:
Assembled together," apparently defying the efforts of colonial officials to collect taxes. The proclamation declared the "Above list of Rogus [
2667:
Fries, Adelaide Lisetta Records of the Moravians in North Carolina. Volume I: 1752-1771 (1922). Raleigh: Edwards & Broughton Print. Co. p. 53.
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In 1885, the Democratic politician Hamilton MacMillan proposed the theory that the Native inhabitants of Robeson County were descendants of England's "
2412:
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introduced legislation to grant the Lumbee full federal recognition (H.R. 2758) and the bill passed the House of Representatives on November 1, 2021.
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4737:
4606:
1062:
On December 7, 1865, Henry Lowrie married Rhoda Strong. Arrested at his wedding, Lowrie escaped from jail by filing his way through the jail's bars.
1657:
The Lumbee have abandoned this theory in their documentation supporting their effort to obtain federal tribal recognition. The federally recognized
853:— derived from a report by his agent, Colonel Rutherford, head of a Bladen County militia — listed the names of inhabitants who took part in a "Mob
4380:
Miller, Mark Edwin. ‘’Claiming Tribal Identity: The Five Tribes and the Politics of Tribal Recognition. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013.
1763:
surviving Catawba, but the majority settled near the pines, web of wetlands, and river that bear the name of the Lumbee. Over time in a process of
1646:. Citing "oral traditions," Oxendine suggested that the Lumbee were the descendants of Cherokee warriors who fought with the British under Colonel
1539:
1212:
South. After giving a series of speeches denouncing the "loose morals" of Lumbee women, Cole burned a cross in the front yard of a Lumbee woman in
1990:, pageants, and other cultural events. 2018 marked the 50th anniversary of the homecoming and saw crowds of over 20,000 spectators, including the
2692:
923:
hired by the Lumbee tribe to support their petition for federal recognition, the area "is located in the heart of the so-called old field of the
438:
420:
4527:
4268:
Knick, Stanley G. 1993 Robeson Crossroads Archaeological Survey: Intensive Testing; Native American Resource Center Publications; UNC Pembroke.
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At this time, the Indians of Robeson County renewed their petition for federal recognition as a tribe. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) sent
4628:
4007:
3353:
3266:
3292:
1689:
Their numbers in 1715, according to Rivers, was 510, but this estimate probably included the Keyauwee. Being still subject to attack by the
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4746:
1542:
in September 2007 to lobby for federal recognition of the tribe. Goins testified on the Lumbee's decades-long efforts to gain recognition.
1355:
necessary appropriation, namely the establishment of an agricultural and mechanical school, in which domestic science shall also be taught.
706:
3254:
2390:
1873:
871:
persons of African-European ancestry. However, at the time, the term was also used across the South to describe any non-white individual.
4361:
3635:
3498:
3019:
2926:
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4459:
2960:
4048:
3037:
957:
for free people of color. This was one of a series of laws passed by North Carolina whites from 1826 to the 1850s which the historian
238:
4324:
Locklear, Lawrence T. (2010). "Down by the Ol' Lumbee: An Investigation into the Origin and Use of the Word "Lumbee" Prior to 1952".
3044:
2615:
1755:
migrated from Piedmont South Carolina northeast to the north-central part of North Carolina, then back south again to a point on the
732:
report, 89% of the population of the town of Pembroke identified as Lumbee; 40% of Robeson County's population identified as Lumbee.
4122:
3875:
380:
3332:
2028:
1777:
1577:
1491:
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887:
received sizable land grants early in the century and, by 1738, possessed combined estates of more than 2,000 acres (810 ha).
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legislation changing their name to "Indians of Robeson County." In 1913, over the objections of the existing federally recognized
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4252:
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4189:
4172:
2122:
2118:
2055:
1724:
675:
4123:"Final Determination That the United Lumbee Nation of North Carolina and American, Inc., Does Not Exist as an Indian Tribes"
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4868:
4788:
4694:
961:
characterized as the "Free Negro Code", creating restrictions on that class. Free people of color were stripped of various
342:
2190:
5010:
4995:
4763:
2264:
3695:
https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/ling-487-spring2012-dch52/files/2012/04/schilling-estes-constructing-ethnicity1.pdf
4898:
4674:
4590:
4585:
3312:
3214:
1216:, as a "warning" against "race mixing". Emboldened, Cole called for a Klan rally on January 18, 1958, near the town of
1230:
The Battle of Hayes Pond, which marked the end of Klan activity in Robeson County, is celebrated as a Lumbee holiday.
5005:
4475:
3142:
3100:
2832:
2543:
2325:
1806:
1475:
1291:
1119:
797:
687:
276:
211:
189:
149:
130:
52:
3070:
1854:
Lumbee people speak both mainstream varieties of English and a vernacular form, Lumbee English. The latter is not a
1638:
In his unpublished 1934 master's thesis, graduate student Clifton Oxendine theorized that the Lumbee descended from
1273:
182:
4768:
4723:
4656:
3927:
1658:
1524:
1123:
883:
102:
4448:
The Swamp Outlaws, or, The North Carolina Bandits: Being a Complete History of the Modern Rob Roys and Robin Hoods
3819:
3683:
2560:
The Swamp Outlaws: or, The North Carolina Bandits; Being a Complete History of the Modern Rob Roys and Robin Hoods
818:
is a map prepared in 1725 by John Herbert, the English commissioner of Indian trade for the Wineau Factory on the
4813:
1822:
1818:
1471:
1455:
950:
691:
4913:
4684:
4534:
Cameron, Jno. D. "The Croatan Indians of Robeson", North Carolina: The Fayetteville Observer, February 12, 1885
2113:
2107:
1810:
1802:
1269:
1194:
779:
702:
679:
481:
87:
4456:
The First Census of the U.S.: 1790. Heads of Families at the First Census of the United States: North Carolina
3418:
1674:, a band of Siouan-speaking Indians that had been reduced by war and disease to 50 or 60 individuals by 1768.
109:
4818:
2880:
4179:
2409:
4783:
4773:
4164:
2706:
1422:
970:
835:
819:
594:
3609:
3558:
1958:
1917:
1913:
1363:
reported on possible origins of the Indians of Robeson County in his work on Southeast Indians. He wrote:
3774:
1814:
1467:
1115:
683:
4537:
Gorman, C. John "Gorman Papers", State archives, c. 1875 and with the Gorman family, Durham N.C. c. 1917
4374:
Report on Condition and Tribal Rights of the Indians of Robeson and Adjoining Counties of North Carolina
3045:"H.R. 31 - To provide for the recognition of the Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina, and for other purposes"
2685:
116:
4950:
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4873:
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1991:
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from North Carolina introduced the Lumbee Recognition Bill. It was not enacted. Lumbee Tribal Chairman
1442:
998:
962:
937:
846:
736:
4945:
2195:
1462:), passed by Congress in late May 1956 as a concession to political lobbying and signed by President
1410:
1374:
1334:
In the 20th century, numerous federally commissioned studies related to the Lumbee were conducted by
1213:
729:
2090:
back to 1787. Lumbees created two church conferences of Indian congregations — the Burnt Swamp
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4838:
4004:
1855:
1736:
1647:
1390:
1254:
1161:
725:
362:
176:
98:
2970:
1846:
Locklear, Oxendine, Lowry, Hunt, Chavis, Brayboy, Freeman and Bullard are common Lumbee surnames.
4935:
4704:
3105:
2223:"Lumbee Language and the Lumbee Indian Culture (Croatan, Croatoan, Pamlico, Carolina Algonquian)"
1881:
1859:
1397:
1265:
1258:
775:
768:
581:
243:
83:
76:
38:
3901:
906:
Land patents and deeds filed with the colonial administrations of Virginia, North Carolina, and
867:," a term that then had several different meanings. Today, it is most commonly used to describe
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4888:
3770:
3727:
3190:
3133:
2387:
2240:
1901:
1564:
of Hawaii sought a hearing on Lumbee federal recognition. On April 22, 2021, US Representative
1217:
953:
of 1831, the state legislature passed amendments to its original 1776 constitution, abolishing
662:
193:
3728:"Do You Speak American . Sea to Shining Sea . American Varieties . Lumbee . Papers | PBS"
1930:(e.g. "she weren't here"). Lumbee dialect also makes use of several unique words and phrases:
1377:
of 1934, which largely applied to Indians on reservations to encourage their self-government.
1093:
Those friendly Tuscarora who remained in North Carolina after the war under the leadership of
4920:
4823:
4689:
3495:
3239:
3023:
2933:
2059:
1589:
that it was the first official visit to Robeson County by a sitting US President in history.
1495:
relationship with the federal government. The petition was denied because of the Lumbee Act.
487:
333:
4221:
Hauptman, Laurence M. "River Pilots and Swamp Guerillas: Pamunkey and Lumbee Unionists", in
1326:
Robeson County, as they were state citizens and part of that jurisdiction's responsibility.
4980:
4648:
4392:
The Lowrie History, As Acted in Part by Henry Berry Lowrie, the Great North Carolina Bandit
4045:
4028:
1498:
1463:
1224:
1181:
1066:
912:
3048:
2619:
8:
4858:
4793:
4150:"Bad medicine for the Klan: North Carolina Indians break up Kluxers' anti-Indian meeting"
2641:
2455:
Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware
2155:
2035:
1654:
unsubstantiated; no such oral traditions survive or are documented by any other scholar.
1639:
304:
1186:
During the 1950s, the Lumbee made nationwide news when they came into conflict with the
1065:
Lowrie's gang continued its activities into the Reconstruction Era. Republican governor
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4341:
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3317:
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2965:
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In 1887, the Indians of Robeson County petitioned the state legislature to establish a
1071:
1041:
958:
875:
658:
586:
503:
3707:"Dialect Identity in a Tri-Ethnic Context: The Case of Lumbee American Indian English"
1833:
4843:
4509:
4490:
4471:
4446:
4431:
4416:
4345:
4313:
4293:
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4226:
4211:
4196:
4185:
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3706:
2828:
2539:
2321:
2016:
1565:
1220:. The Lumbee, led by veterans of the Second World War, decided to disrupt the rally.
1011:
654:
650:
462:
2887:. Washington, D.C.: Committee on Indian Affairs, United States Senate. July 12, 2006
123:
4666:
4333:
4281:
3138:
2910:
2071:
2070:—is a popular dish among the Lumbee in Robeson County. It is sometimes served with
1451:
1094:
1083:
1010:
hiding in the swamps. During that period, some men from Robeson County operated as
842:
which parts of Anson County were occupied by Indians in the early colonial period.
823:
630:
618:
576:
313:
2292:
Robeson Crossroads Archaeological Survey: Phase II Testing in Robeson County.
1896:
Lumbee dialectal English descends from the English spoken by the British English,
814:
The earliest European document referring to Indian communities in the area of the
351:
5049:
4371:
4052:
4011:
3502:
3354:"Lumbees show appreciation after President Trump supports Lumbee recognition act"
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2394:
2168:
1977:
1785:
1716:
1594:
1418:
1360:
1306:
1075:
879:
626:
590:
495:
475:
2707:"LUMBEE-L Archives: Henry Berry Lowry and the Physician who pronounced him dead"
2536:
Lumbee Indians in the Jim Crow South: race, identity, and the making of a nation
1952:(a serving of chicken and rice). Grammatically, Lumbee dialect employs the word
1735:
In 1933, John Swanton wrote that the Siouan-speaking Keyauwee and Cheraw of the
4640:
4631:
3684:
https://iso639-3.sil.org/sites/iso639-3/files/change_requests/2019/2019-025.pdf
3337:
3297:
3235:"President Trump backs recognition bill for the Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina"
2825:
The History of Discrimination in U.S. Education: Marginality, Agency, and Power
2398:
Legislative hearing on S. 660. 12 July 2006. p. 3 3 (retrieved 8 November 2009)
2200:
1897:
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1702:
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1531:
1503:
1314:
920:
907:
721:
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695:
638:
546:
542:
467:
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1197:. Cole began a campaign of harassment against the Lumbee, claiming they were "
854:
5043:
4579:
4399:
A Social and Economic History of the Indians of Robeson County North Carolina
3979:
3953:"Lumbee Living : A new cookbook crystallizes a culture through its food"
3253:"Trump Fights to Keep North Carolina Red", New York Times, November 5, 2020
2906:
2222:
2020:
1866:
1756:
1752:
1546:
1507:
1209:
1144:
1098:
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892:
537:
457:
4208:
To Die Game: The Story of the Lowry Band: Indian Guerillas of Reconstruction
3062:
1940:
4828:
4574:
4513:
4349:
4297:
3012:
1764:
1585:
1561:
1550:
1335:
1191:
1187:
986:
850:
827:
815:
717:
606:
4715:
4466:
Wolfram, Walt; Dannenberg, Clare; Knick, Stanley; Oxendine, Linda (2002).
4337:
3952:
2066:. The collard sandwich—consisting of fried cornbread, collard greens, and
1922:
903:
by the Lumbee people has relied on the McMillan, Dial, or Eliades claims.
4245:
Colony of North Carolina (1735–1764), Abstracts of Land Patents, Volume I
3078:
1909:
1623:
1535:
1510:
testifying at a congressional hearing on federal Lumbee recognition, 2003
1037:
994:
888:
44:
3636:"Convolutions of Race and Identity: The Lumbee Struggle for Sovereignty"
2388:"Testimony before the Committee on Indian Affairs United States Senate."
4487:
Talkin' Tar Heel : How Our Voices Tell the Story of North Carolina
4285:
2280:
Robeson Trails Archaeological Survey: Reconnaissance in Robeson County.
1995:
1945:
1905:
1781:
1748:
1635:
much further to the west and in the mountains during the colonial era.
1459:
1205:" whose "race mixing" threatened to upset the established order of the
1202:
1135:
1015:
868:
782: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
429:
4428:
Living Indian Histories: Lumbee and Tuscarora People in North Carolina
4353:
4301:
2452:
2015:
In the late 19th century, Maggie Lowry Locklear (Lumbee), daughter of
1018:, sabotaging the efforts of the Confederacy and robbing local whites.
728:, is their economic, cultural, and political center. According to the
5000:
4401:, unpublished M.A. thesis, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1934.
3293:"Trump support for Lumbee recognition a big part of talk about rally"
3165:"Key Senate leader seeks hearing on Lumbee Tribe federal recognition"
2269:. US Congress, House Committee on Natural Resources. 2009. p. 5.
2087:
2063:
2046:
1863:
1581:
1554:
1339:
1056:
1031:
1002:
899:
642:
562:
400:
322:
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1243:
757:
65:
4878:
4430:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003 (reprint).
2648:. NC Department of Natural and Cultural Resources. 30 November 2023
2091:
1740:
1690:
1643:
1520:
1515:
954:
622:
558:
554:
550:
371:
5029:
List of organizations that self-identify as Native American tribes
4568:
2996:"Former Lumbee Tribal Chairman Jimmy Goins killed in car accident"
1969:
has been retained and strengthened in use among younger speakers.
1693:, they finally—between 1726 and 1739—became incorporated with the
409:
4930:
4699:
3380:"How Trump Won One of America's Most Diverse Counties — By a Lot"
2999:
2587:
2318:
Strangers in Their Own Land: South Carolina's State Indian Tribes
2067:
1987:
1904:. Probably due to this heritage, it shares similarities with the
1198:
990:
864:
391:
3526:
2538:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 286.
2185:
2183:
229:
4005:"North Carolina's Lumbee Indians in Literature, Art, and Music"
3191:"H.R.2758 - 117th Congress (2021-2022): Lumbee Recognition Act"
2437:
1877:
1671:
1148:
developed as Pembroke State University and subsequently as the
1082:
the Lowries and the other local Indian families as being mixed
924:
646:
634:
4555:
4413:
American Indians in North Carolina: Geographic Interpretations
4094:"Petitioner #070: United Lumbee Nation of NC and America, CA"
3267:"Trump adds support to Lumbee Tribe federal recognition bill"
2180:
2096:
Lumbee River Conference of the Holiness Methodist Association
1720:
1190:, a white supremacist terrorist organization, then headed by
3750:
3665:
3653:
3538:
3129:"Time runs out for Lumbee tribal recognition bill in Senate"
2795:
1233:
4161:
The Lumbee Problem: The Making of an American Indian People
3800:
3788:
3333:"Election shows Robeson County has shifted red politically"
1485:
1097:
were ceded 53,000 acres in 1717 along the Roanoke River in
3738:
2306:. Native American Resource Center Publications; 2000
3215:"Biden Backs Lumbee Tribe's Push for Federal Recognition"
1790:
859:
4387:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1940.
2881:"Senate Hearing 109-610: Lumbee Recognition Act, S. 660"
2609:
2607:
2605:
4489:. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
4258:
Houghton, Richard H., III. "The Lumbee: 'Not a Tribe,'
4210:. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977.
2142:
Administration assistant to the chairman: Camera Brewer
4240:. Vol. I. Fayetteville, NC: E.J. Hale & Son, 1858.
3928:"A taste of home for Baltimore's Lumbee tribe members"
1385:
taken in the name of justice and humanity to aid them.
1350:
submitted to the Senate on January 4, 1915, he wrote:
931:
4181:
The Only Land I Know: A History of the Lumbee Indians
2909:, Cynthia Hunt-Locklear, Wes White, Jack Campisi and
2602:
1770:
1176:
Lumbees fighting Klansmen at the Battle of Hayes Pond
4468:
Fine in the World: Lumbee Language in Time and Place
4223:
Between Two Fires: American Indians in the Civil War
3456:"North Carolina Tribes Clash on Recognizing Lumbees"
3313:"7 rural NC counties flip 'bloodshot red' for Trump"
2574:
Between Two Fires: American Indians in the Civil War
1478:
counties as the "Lumbee Indians of North Carolina."
4312:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1967.
3980:"The Collard Sandwich is a Robeson County Delicacy"
3846:"Lumbee Homecoming enters final day on a high note"
2846:
2844:
2054:Traditional Lumbee cuisine heavily intersects with
2019:, created a unique patchwork quilt inspired by the
1626:continued to advocate for the theory in the 1980s.
90:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4247:. Roanoke Rapids, NC: Roanoke News Company, 1982.
2618:. North Carolina Museum of History. Archived from
2294:Native American Resource Center Publications; 1993
2282:Native American Resource Center Publications; 1988
1443:
1127:schools in eleven of their principal settlements.
2101:
1329:
713:numbering approximately 55,000 enrolled members.
5041:
2955:
2953:
2841:
2050:Collard sandwiches served at a Lumbee Homecoming
1540:United States Senate Committee on Indian Affairs
1122:and Democrats) and blacks (mostly Republicans),
4586:"The Lumbee Indians": An annotated bibliography
4580:"Lumbee Language and the Lumbee Indian Culture"
2461:
1965:-prefixing verbs, while the grammatical use of
1759:just south of the border of the two Carolinas.
1108:
838:was identified as "a frontier to the Indians".
4562:Native American Resource Center, UNC Pembroke
4272:Knick, Stanley (2008). "Because It Is Right".
3071:"Hagan pledges support for Lumbee recognition"
2772:Jefferson, NC: McFarland (1994), pages 179-186
2304:The Lumbee In Context: Toward An Understanding
747:
514:Unidentified Lumbee girl, Seltzer Report, 1936
4731:
4614:
4484:
4465:
4394:. Weldon, NC: Harrell's Printing House, 1895.
3806:
3794:
3756:
3744:
3671:
3659:
3544:
3532:
3508:
3020:"McIntyre Introduces Lumbee Recognition Bill"
2950:
2801:
2149:
1681:said in reference to the Cheraw (quoting the
1571:
508:Unidentified Lumbee boy, Seltzer Report, 1936
4849:Piscataway Indian Nation and Tayac Territory
4470:. Raleigh: North Carolina State University.
2315:
4745:
4564:The Museum of the Southeast American Indian
4415:, Southern Pines: Karo Hollow Press, 1999.
3505:, Red Hearts website (retrieved 8 Nov 2009)
3188:
3077:. Lumberton, North Carolina. Archived from
1926:('to mess up'), and the grammatical use of
1272:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1139:Three "Croatans" of Robeson County, c. 1909
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
4976:Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation
4738:
4724:
4621:
4607:
4526:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3557:NoiseCat, Julian Brave (October 4, 2022).
2875:
2873:
2500:
2094:Association, founded around 1880, and the
1130:
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3893:
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3488:
2590:. Lumbee Regional Development Association
2337:
1828:
1605:
1441:The Lumbee Act, also known as H.R. 4656 (
1292:Learn how and when to remove this message
1234:Early efforts to gain federal recognition
1116:biracial Populist movement which combined
798:Learn how and when to remove this message
277:Learn how and when to remove this message
212:Learn how and when to remove this message
150:Learn how and when to remove this message
5055:Native American tribes in North Carolina
4503:
4323:
3997:
3977:
3820:"Lumbee Homecoming Celebrates 50th year"
3556:
3453:
3416:
2921:
2919:
2691:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2565:
2045:
2029:University of North Carolina at Pembroke
2023:. Her quilt is in the collection of the
1976:
1832:
1796:
1782:fraudulent claims to indigenous ancestry
1578:2020 United States presidential election
1497:
1492:United States Department of the Interior
1486:Petitioning for full federal recognition
1171:
1167:
1150:University of North Carolina at Pembroke
1134:
254:of all important aspects of the article.
175:This article includes a list of general
4485:Wolfram, Walt; Reaser, Jeffrey (2014).
4156:, 44 (27 January 1958), pp. 26–28.
3926:Tkacik, Christina (November 15, 2016).
3768:
3419:"VIRGINIA DARE'S 400TH YEAR OF MYSTERY"
3255:Trump Fights to Keep North Carolina Red
2989:
2987:
2870:
2784:
2782:
2780:
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2446:
2025:Museum of the Southeast American Indian
1916:sound where other English speakers use
1837:Lumbees at a pow wow in Lumberton, 2015
1801:The Lumbee are heavily concentrated in
16:Native American tribe in North Carolina
5042:
4961:Wassamasaw Tribe of Varnertown Indians
4178:Dial, Adolph L. and David K. Eliades.
3925:
3890:
3633:
3485:
3351:
3068:
2822:
2816:
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1767:, they identified as a common people.
1600:
1545:On January 6, 2009, US Representative
250:Please consider expanding the lead to
4719:
4602:
4408:. Winston-Salem: John F. Blair, 1957.
4406:The American Indian in North Carolina
4271:
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3722:
3720:
3585:"What Makes Someone Native American?"
3377:
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2993:
2916:
2745:H.R.19036, 61st Congress, 2nd Session
2666:
2344:Colonial Records: North Carolina 1890
2132:The current administration includes:
2123:National Indian Education Association
2119:National Congress of American Indians
1981:Vendors at the 2016 Lumbee Homecoming
1725:Indigenous people of the Great Plains
4926:Occaneechi Band of the Saponi Nation
4869:Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Tribal Nation
4789:Golden Hill Paugussett Indian Nation
2984:
2852:"History & Culture: Recognition"
2775:
2571:
2402:
2145:Enrollment director: Reena Locklear.
2062:is a mainstay of Lumbee food, as is
1972:
1957:older speakers frequently using the
1270:adding citations to reliable sources
1237:
936:Pension records for veterans of the
826:-speaking communities as the Saraw,
780:adding citations to reliable sources
751:
716:The Lumbee take their name from the
532:Regions with significant populations
223:
161:
88:adding citations to reliable sources
59:
18:
5011:Patawomeck Indian Tribe of Virginia
4996:Cheroenhaka (Nottoway) Indian Tribe
4764:Cherokee Tribe of Northeast Alabama
4451:, New York: Robert M. DeWitt, 1872.
4184:, Syracuse University Press, 1996.
3582:
3576:
3417:Nieuwsma, Milton (18 August 1987).
3378:Kruse, Michael (10 December 2020).
2010:
1730:
1629:
1523:tribes (including North Carolina's
1490:In 1987, the Lumbee petitioned the
932:American Revolution and federal era
472:Rosetta Brooks and Preston Locklear
13:
4899:Coharie Intra-tribal Council, Inc.
4844:Piscataway Conoy Tribe of Maryland
4367:, Wilson, NC: Advance Press, 1888.
3978:Shestack, Elizabeth (March 2015).
3717:
3634:Warren, Debby (October 29, 2019).
3352:Flores, Carlos (24 October 2020).
3101:"Lumbee recognition clears hurdle"
2827:(Illustrated ed.). Springer.
2754:S.3258, 62nd Congress, 1st Session
2613:
1771:Authenticity and doubts of origins
1448:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1404:
989:epidemic in 1862–1863 killed many
181:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
5071:
5006:Nottoway Indian Tribe of Virginia
4569:Tuscarora Nation One Fire Council
4547:
3899:
3454:MCDONALD, THOMASI (12 May 2021).
3407:(Wilson, NC: Advance Press, 1888)
3189:Butterfield, G. K. (2021-11-01).
2616:"Henry Berry Lowry Lives Forever"
2576:. Simon and Schuster. p. 81.
1778:discrimination based on skin tone
1709:
1664:
34:This article has multiple issues.
4769:Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama
4657:Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians
4630:
4121:Fritz, John W. (19 April 1985).
4114:
4086:
4061:
4056:State Library of North Carolina.
4039:
2858:. Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina
2558:Townsend, George Alfred (1872).
2458:, 1995-2005, accessed 9 Mar 2008
1659:Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians
1525:Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians
1242:
756:
437:
428:
419:
408:
399:
390:
379:
370:
361:
350:
341:
332:
321:
312:
303:
228:
166:
64:
23:
4814:Adai Caddo Indians of Louisiana
4101:US Department of Indian Affairs
4073:NC Department of Administration
4021:
3971:
3945:
3919:
3864:
3838:
3812:
3762:
3699:
3688:
3677:
3627:
3602:
3550:
3517:
3473:
3447:
3438:
3429:
3410:
3397:
3371:
3345:
3325:
3305:
3285:
3259:
3247:
3227:
3207:
3182:
3156:
3121:
3093:
2899:
2807:
2766:
2757:
2748:
2739:
2730:
2721:
2699:
2660:
2634:
2580:
2552:
2534:Lowery, Malinda Maynor (2010).
2527:
2518:
2509:
2488:
2479:
2470:
2443:U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1790
2425:
2380:
2371:
2362:
2353:
2191:"Lumbee bill passes House vote"
993:working on the construction of
767:needs additional citations for
242:may be too short to adequately
75:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
5060:Robeson County, North Carolina
4914:Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina
4225:. New York: Free Press, 1995.
3069:Shiles, Bob (March 27, 2009).
2642:"Indian Woods (A-2) | NC DNCR"
2309:
2297:
2285:
2273:
2257:
2233:
2215:
2199:. June 3, 2009. Archived from
2114:Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina
2108:Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina
2102:Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina
2086:A study has documented Lumbee
2001:
1876:who had originally spoken the
1803:Robeson County, North Carolina
1330:Federally commissioned reports
822:. Herbert identified the four
703:Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina
252:provide an accessible overview
1:
4819:Choctaw-Apache Tribe of Ebarb
4575:The Center for Lumbee Studies
4143:
4003:Stilling, Glenn Ellen Starr.
3583:Rab, Lisa (August 20, 2018).
2994:Futch, Michael (2015-06-07).
2788:"Bad Medicine for the Klan",
1436:
1421:, an anthropologist from the
1118:the strength of poor whites (
1001:, then considered to be the "
944:
448:From top left to bottom right
4889:Unkechague Poosepatuck Tribe
4784:Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation
4774:MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians
4504:Lawrence, Robert C. (1939).
4165:University of Nebraska Press
3480:Handbook of American Indians
3141:. 2010-12-25. Archived from
2969:. 2008-11-25. Archived from
2905:The petition's authors were
2709:. RootsWeb. November 9, 2007
2562:, New York: Robert M. DeWitt
2515:Dial and Eliades, pp. 46–47.
2497:50 N.C. (5 Jones) 11 (1857).
2359:Dial and Eliades, pp. 28–29.
1683:Handbook of American Indians
1423:Bureau of American Ethnology
1109:State recognition as Indians
1025:
980:
971:North Carolina Supreme Court
951:Nat Turner's slave rebellion
595:Carolina Algonquian language
7:
4543:Alexander Gregg (1819-1893)
4541:History of the Old Cheraws,
4454:U.S. Bureau of the Census.
4262:. 257.21 (20 December 1993)
4046:"Native American Heritage."
3902:"Lumbee Pinecone Patchwork"
3775:Public Broadcasting Service
3163:Agoyo, Acee (12 May 2021).
2316:S. Pony Hill (2009-12-31).
2162:
2139:Administrator: Tammy Maynor
2077:
1849:
1841:
1188:Knights of the Ku Klux Klan
845:A 1772 proclamation by the
748:Early historical references
10:
5078:
4951:Santee Indian Organization
4904:Haliwa-Saponi Indian Tribe
4874:Ramapough Mountain Indians
4804:Lower Muskogee Creek Tribe
4794:Schaghticoke Tribal Nation
4460:Government Printing Office
2736:Ross, pp. 115-116; 124-125
2727:Ross, pp.115-116; 124-125.
2320:. Backintyme. p. 31.
2156:unrecognized organizations
2150:Unrecognized organizations
2105:
2041:
1992:Governor of North Carolina
1719:-speaking groups, not the
1572:2020 presidential election
1389:D'Arcy McNickle, from the
1344:Department of the Interior
1179:
1029:
999:Wilmington, North Carolina
963:civil and political rights
938:American Revolutionary War
847:governor of North Carolina
742:
737:federally recognized tribe
5021:
4946:Beaver Creek Indian Tribe
4753:
4665:
4647:
4445:Townsend, George Alfred.
4238:History of North Carolina
3824:The Fayetteville Observer
3757:Wolfram & Reaser 2014
3660:Wolfram & Reaser 2014
3545:Wolfram & Reaser 2014
3533:Wolfram & Reaser 2014
2802:Wolfram & Reaser 2014
2196:The Fayetteville Observer
1938:('in the neighborhood');
1580:campaign, then-candidate
1411:Indian Reorganization Act
1375:Indian Reorganization Act
1214:St. Pauls, North Carolina
730:2000 United States census
617:
612:
605:
600:
574:
569:
536:
531:
526:
521:
297:
4986:Missisquoi Abenaki Tribe
4839:Accohannock Indian Tribe
4310:A New Voyage to Carolina
3403:See Hamilton MacMillan,
2823:Tamura, E., ed. (2008).
2410:North Carolina, General.
2227:www.native-languages.org
2174:
1856:Native American language
1391:Bureau of Indian Affairs
1162:Bureau of Indian Affairs
726:Pembroke, North Carolina
4936:Waccamaw Siouan Indians
4747:State-recognized tribes
4069:"NC Tribal Communities"
3610:"Malinda Maynor Lowery"
3134:The News & Observer
3106:Asheville Citizen-Times
1912:, namely in use of the
1882:Eastern Siouan language
1860:American Indian English
1858:, but rather a form of
1195:James W. "Catfish" Cole
1131:An Indian school system
582:American Indian English
196:more precise citations.
4956:Waccamaw Indian People
4879:Powhatan Renape Nation
4637:Native American tribes
4206:Evans, William McKee.
3887:, Lumbee Tribe website
3769:Wolfram, Walt (2005).
2467:Dial and Eliades, p.45
2432:South Carolina Gazette
2422:(retrieved 8 Nov 2009)
2266:Lumbee Recognition Act
2169:List of notable Lumbee
2051:
1982:
1920:, the use of the word
1838:
1829:Culture and traditions
1699:
1612:Lost Colony of Roanoke
1606:Lost Colony of Roanoke
1511:
1387:
1370:
1357:
1177:
1140:
720:, which winds through
707:state-recognized tribe
678:primarily centered in
676:Native American people
663:Scotch-Irish Americans
484:chairman Harvey Godwin
4921:Meherrin Indian Tribe
4824:Pointe-au-Chien Tribe
4442:Legal Services, 1987.
4338:10.1353/nso.2010.0004
4243:Hoffman, Margaret M.
4058:Retrieved 8 Nov 2009.
4018:Retrieved 1 July 2013
3240:Fayetteville Observer
2622:on September 29, 2011
2136:Chairman: John Lowery
2049:
1980:
1836:
1797:Geographic dispersion
1687:
1501:
1382:
1365:
1352:
1175:
1168:Ku Klux Klan conflict
1138:
913:Free Persons of Color
613:Related ethnic groups
4981:Koasek Abenaki Tribe
4649:Federally recognized
4506:The State of Robeson
4383:Milling, Chapman J.
4360:McMillan, Hamilton.
3559:"Who's Your People?"
3321:. November 12, 2016.
2763:Dial and Eliades, 93
2588:"Henry Berry Lowrie"
2572:Hauptman, Laurence.
2524:Hauptman, pp. 78–80.
1908:accent found in the
1538:appeared before the
1530:In 2007, US Senator
1464:Dwight D. Eisenhower
1318:lived in the state.
1266:improve this section
1225:Battle of Hayes Pond
1182:Battle of Hayes Pond
1067:William Woods Holden
776:improve this article
511:Willie French Lowery
454:Arren Spencer Lockee
84:improve this article
4859:Hassanamisco Nipmuc
4829:United Houma Nation
4404:Rights, Douglas L.
4397:Oxendine, Clifton.
3640:Nonprofit Quarterly
3589:The Washington Post
3535:, pp. 221–223.
3341:. November 4, 2020.
3318:News & Observer
3243:. October 21, 2020.
3220:News & Observer
2614:Currie, Jefferson.
2386:Campisi, Dr. Jack.
2350:; 161, respectively
2348:North Carolina 1887
2203:on December 4, 2017
1601:Theories of origins
1514:The Lumbee resumed
1506:and Representative
1040:, near Wilmington.
834:all." The adjacent
294:
4971:Elnu Abenaki Tribe
4592:Strike at the Wind
4582:, Native Languages
4571:, Official Website
4458:. Washington, DC:
4286:10.1353/nso.0.0002
4051:2012-05-15 at the
4010:2013-06-03 at the
3807:Wolfram et al 2002
3795:Wolfram et al 2002
3745:Wolfram et al 2002
3672:Wolfram et al 2002
3501:2010-05-23 at the
3496:"The Lumbee Story"
3423:chicagotribune.com
3223:. October 8, 2020.
3109:. October 23, 2009
2966:The Daily Tar Heel
2415:2009-03-30 at the
2393:2010-01-07 at the
2060:Chicken and pastry
2052:
1983:
1839:
1512:
1178:
1141:
1042:Henry Berry Lowrie
959:John Hope Franklin
876:Reconstruction Era
659:Scottish Americans
500:Henderson Oxendine
292:
5037:
5036:
4713:
4712:
4496:978-1-4696-1437-3
4436:978-0-8078-5506-5
4426:Sider, Gerald M.
4421:978-1-891026-01-0
4390:Norment, Mary C.
4350:Project MUSE
4318:978-0-8078-4126-6
4298:Project MUSE
4253:978-1-85471-282-0
4231:978-0-684-82668-4
4216:978-0-8071-0379-1
4201:978-1-59715-098-9
4190:978-0-8156-0360-3
4173:978-0-8032-6197-6
3932:The Baltimore Sun
3614:history.emory.edu
3444:Rights, pp. 54-55
3273:. 22 October 2020
2961:"A steadfast few"
2680:Missing or empty
2495:State v. Chavers,
2434:. October 3, 1771
2017:Henry Berry Lowry
1973:Lumbee Homecoming
1934:('embarrassed');
1737:Carolina Piedmont
1566:G. K. Butterfield
1560:In 2021, Senator
1302:
1301:
1294:
975:State v. Locklear
898:However, a state
808:
807:
800:
668:
667:
655:English Americans
651:African Americans
463:Henry Berry Lowry
287:
286:
279:
269:
268:
222:
221:
214:
160:
159:
152:
134:
57:
5067:
4740:
4733:
4726:
4717:
4716:
4667:State-recognized
4635:
4634:
4623:
4616:
4609:
4600:
4599:
4559:
4558:
4556:Official website
4531:
4525:
4517:
4500:
4481:
4411:Ross, Thomas E.
4370:McPherson, O.M.
4357:
4305:
4236:Hawks, Francis.
4138:
4137:
4130:Federal Register
4127:
4118:
4112:
4111:
4109:
4107:
4098:
4090:
4084:
4083:
4081:
4079:
4065:
4059:
4043:
4037:
4036:
4029:"Church Profile"
4025:
4019:
4001:
3995:
3994:
3992:
3990:
3975:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3964:
3949:
3943:
3942:
3940:
3938:
3923:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3912:
3900:Labry, Suzanne.
3897:
3888:
3886:
3884:
3883:
3874:. Archived from
3868:
3862:
3861:
3859:
3857:
3842:
3836:
3835:
3833:
3831:
3816:
3810:
3804:
3798:
3792:
3786:
3785:
3783:
3781:
3771:"Lumbee Dialect"
3766:
3760:
3754:
3748:
3742:
3736:
3735:
3724:
3715:
3714:
3703:
3697:
3692:
3686:
3681:
3675:
3669:
3663:
3657:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3646:
3631:
3625:
3624:
3622:
3620:
3606:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3595:
3580:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3569:
3554:
3548:
3542:
3536:
3530:
3524:
3521:
3515:
3512:
3506:
3492:
3483:
3477:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3451:
3445:
3442:
3436:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3414:
3408:
3401:
3395:
3394:
3392:
3390:
3375:
3369:
3368:
3366:
3364:
3349:
3343:
3342:
3329:
3323:
3322:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3289:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3278:
3263:
3257:
3251:
3245:
3244:
3231:
3225:
3224:
3211:
3205:
3204:
3202:
3201:
3195:www.congress.gov
3186:
3180:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3150:
3139:Associated Press
3125:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3114:
3097:
3091:
3090:
3088:
3086:
3081:on April 9, 2009
3066:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3056:
3047:. Archived from
3041:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3031:
3022:. Archived from
3016:
3010:
3009:
3007:
3006:
2991:
2982:
2981:
2979:
2978:
2957:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2944:
2938:
2932:. Archived from
2931:
2923:
2914:
2911:Arlinda Locklear
2903:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2877:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2848:
2839:
2838:
2820:
2814:
2811:
2805:
2799:
2793:
2786:
2773:
2770:
2764:
2761:
2755:
2752:
2746:
2743:
2737:
2734:
2728:
2725:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2714:
2703:
2697:
2696:
2689:
2683:
2678:
2676:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2638:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2611:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2569:
2563:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2531:
2525:
2522:
2516:
2513:
2507:
2506:Evans, pp. 3–18.
2504:
2498:
2492:
2486:
2485:Hauptman, p. 77.
2483:
2477:
2474:
2468:
2465:
2459:
2450:
2444:
2441:
2435:
2429:
2423:
2406:
2400:
2384:
2378:
2375:
2369:
2366:
2360:
2357:
2351:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2313:
2307:
2301:
2295:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2251:
2241:"Lumbee Dialect"
2237:
2231:
2230:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2208:
2187:
2056:Southern cuisine
2011:Lumbee patchwork
1960:
1919:
1915:
1886:adopting English
1731:Keyauwee descent
1679:McPherson Report
1630:Cherokee descent
1449:
1445:
1380:Baker reported:
1297:
1290:
1286:
1283:
1277:
1246:
1238:
1095:Chief Tom Blount
803:
796:
792:
789:
783:
760:
752:
631:Hatteras Indians
527:More than 60,000
522:Total population
441:
432:
423:
412:
403:
394:
383:
374:
365:
354:
345:
336:
325:
316:
307:
295:
291:
282:
275:
264:
261:
255:
232:
224:
217:
210:
206:
203:
197:
192:this article by
183:inline citations
170:
169:
162:
155:
148:
144:
141:
135:
133:
92:
68:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
5077:
5076:
5070:
5069:
5068:
5066:
5065:
5064:
5040:
5039:
5038:
5033:
5017:
4942:South Carolina
4895:North Carolina
4749:
4744:
4714:
4709:
4661:
4643:
4629:
4627:
4554:
4553:
4550:
4519:
4518:
4497:
4478:
4385:Red Carolinians
4146:
4141:
4125:
4119:
4115:
4105:
4103:
4096:
4092:
4091:
4087:
4077:
4075:
4067:
4066:
4062:
4053:Wayback Machine
4044:
4040:
4027:
4026:
4022:
4016:Lumbee Indians.
4012:Wayback Machine
4002:
3998:
3988:
3986:
3976:
3972:
3962:
3960:
3959:. December 2011
3951:
3950:
3946:
3936:
3934:
3924:
3920:
3910:
3908:
3898:
3891:
3881:
3879:
3870:
3869:
3865:
3855:
3853:
3844:
3843:
3839:
3829:
3827:
3818:
3817:
3813:
3805:
3801:
3793:
3789:
3779:
3777:
3767:
3763:
3755:
3751:
3743:
3739:
3726:
3725:
3718:
3705:
3704:
3700:
3693:
3689:
3682:
3678:
3674:, pp. 1–2.
3670:
3666:
3658:
3654:
3644:
3642:
3632:
3628:
3618:
3616:
3608:
3607:
3603:
3593:
3591:
3581:
3577:
3567:
3565:
3555:
3551:
3543:
3539:
3531:
3527:
3522:
3518:
3513:
3509:
3503:Wayback Machine
3493:
3486:
3478:
3474:
3464:
3462:
3452:
3448:
3443:
3439:
3434:
3430:
3415:
3411:
3402:
3398:
3388:
3386:
3376:
3372:
3362:
3360:
3350:
3346:
3331:
3330:
3326:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3301:. October 2020.
3291:
3290:
3286:
3276:
3274:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3252:
3248:
3233:
3232:
3228:
3213:
3212:
3208:
3199:
3197:
3187:
3183:
3173:
3171:
3161:
3157:
3148:
3146:
3127:
3126:
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3084:
3082:
3075:The Robensonian
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2856:LumbeeTribe.com
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2417:Wayback Machine
2407:
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2395:Wayback Machine
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2204:
2189:
2188:
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2177:
2165:
2152:
2110:
2104:
2080:
2044:
2036:Miss Indian USA
2013:
2004:
1975:
1880:dialect of the
1862:. In 2020, the
1852:
1844:
1831:
1799:
1786:genetic testing
1773:
1733:
1717:Siouan language
1712:
1667:
1632:
1608:
1603:
1595:Hillary Clinton
1574:
1488:
1447:
1439:
1419:John R. Swanton
1407:
1405:Indian New Deal
1361:John R. Swanton
1359:Anthropologist
1336:anthropologists
1332:
1307:Cherokee Nation
1298:
1287:
1281:
1278:
1263:
1247:
1236:
1184:
1170:
1133:
1111:
1076:white supremacy
1034:
1028:
983:
947:
934:
804:
793:
787:
784:
773:
761:
750:
745:
627:Nottoway people
584:
580:
540:
517:
496:Ryan Van Natten
492:Lawrence Maynor
476:Ashton Locklear
446:
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237:This article's
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188:Please help to
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93:
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4855:Massachusetts
4853:
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4645:
4644:
4641:North Carolina
4626:
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4611:
4603:
4597:
4596:
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4583:
4577:
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4549:
4548:External links
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4332:(1): 103–117.
4321:
4308:Lawson, John.
4306:
4269:
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4256:
4241:
4234:
4219:
4204:
4193:
4176:
4159:Blu, Karen I.
4157:
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4085:
4060:
4038:
4033:www.umdata.org
4020:
3996:
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3918:
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3863:
3852:. July 6, 2018
3850:The Robesonian
3837:
3826:. July 7, 2018
3811:
3799:
3787:
3761:
3759:, p. 223.
3749:
3737:
3716:
3698:
3687:
3676:
3664:
3662:, p. 220.
3652:
3626:
3601:
3575:
3549:
3547:, p. 221.
3537:
3525:
3516:
3507:
3494:Chavis, Dean.
3484:
3472:
3446:
3437:
3435:Oxendine, p. 4
3428:
3409:
3396:
3370:
3344:
3338:The Robesonian
3324:
3304:
3298:The Robesonian
3284:
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3206:
3181:
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3120:
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3011:
2983:
2949:
2915:
2898:
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2833:
2815:
2806:
2804:, p. 222.
2794:
2792:magazine, 1958
2774:
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2579:
2564:
2551:
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2517:
2508:
2499:
2487:
2478:
2469:
2460:
2453:Paul Heinegg,
2445:
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2401:
2379:
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2296:
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2151:
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2147:
2146:
2143:
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2137:
2106:Main article:
2103:
2100:
2079:
2076:
2043:
2040:
2012:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1974:
1971:
1898:Highland Scots
1874:native peoples
1851:
1848:
1843:
1840:
1830:
1827:
1798:
1795:
1772:
1769:
1732:
1729:
1711:
1710:Siouan descent
1708:
1666:
1665:Cheraw descent
1663:
1631:
1628:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1573:
1570:
1532:Elizabeth Dole
1504:Elizabeth Dole
1487:
1484:
1438:
1435:
1406:
1403:
1396:In the 1960s,
1331:
1328:
1315:Indian removal
1300:
1299:
1250:
1248:
1241:
1235:
1232:
1180:Main article:
1169:
1166:
1132:
1129:
1110:
1107:
1030:Main article:
1027:
1024:
982:
979:
946:
943:
933:
930:
921:anthropologist
908:South Carolina
874:Following the
806:
805:
764:
762:
755:
749:
746:
744:
741:
722:Robeson County
711:North Carolina
696:North Carolina
666:
665:
615:
614:
610:
609:
603:
602:
598:
597:
572:
571:
567:
566:
547:South Carolina
543:North Carolina
534:
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519:
518:
516:
515:
512:
509:
506:
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498:
493:
490:
485:
478:
473:
470:
468:Kelvin Sampson
465:
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267:
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260:September 2023
246:the key points
236:
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174:
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165:
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157:
72:
70:
63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
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4:
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2:
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4706:
4703:
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4698:
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4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4680:Haliwa-Saponi
4678:
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4668:
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4605:
4604:
4601:
4595:
4594:Outdoor Drama
4593:
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4557:
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4515:
4511:
4508:. Lumberton.
4507:
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4483:
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4477:1-885647-53-0
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4017:
4013:
4009:
4006:
4000:
3985:
3981:
3974:
3958:
3954:
3948:
3933:
3929:
3922:
3907:
3903:
3896:
3894:
3878:on 2013-06-15
3877:
3873:
3872:"Communities"
3867:
3851:
3847:
3841:
3825:
3821:
3815:
3809:, p. 14.
3808:
3803:
3797:, p. 13.
3796:
3791:
3776:
3772:
3765:
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3753:
3746:
3741:
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3590:
3586:
3579:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3546:
3541:
3534:
3529:
3520:
3514:Rights, p. 59
3511:
3504:
3500:
3497:
3491:
3489:
3481:
3476:
3461:
3457:
3450:
3441:
3432:
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3385:
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3374:
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3328:
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3308:
3300:
3299:
3294:
3288:
3272:
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3262:
3256:
3250:
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3236:
3230:
3222:
3221:
3216:
3210:
3196:
3192:
3185:
3170:
3166:
3159:
3145:on 2012-10-01
3144:
3140:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3124:
3108:
3107:
3102:
3096:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3065:
3051:on 2012-12-15
3050:
3046:
3040:
3026:on 2009-03-28
3025:
3021:
3015:
3001:
2997:
2990:
2988:
2973:on 2009-04-08
2972:
2968:
2967:
2962:
2956:
2954:
2939:on 2008-05-29
2935:
2928:
2922:
2920:
2912:
2908:
2907:Julian Pierce
2902:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2874:
2857:
2853:
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2836:
2834:9780230611030
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2610:
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2589:
2583:
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2568:
2561:
2555:
2547:
2545:9780807833681
2541:
2537:
2530:
2521:
2512:
2503:
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2329:
2327:9780939479344
2323:
2319:
2312:
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2276:
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2109:
2099:
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2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
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2030:
2026:
2022:
2021:longleaf pine
2018:
2008:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1979:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
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1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1867:language code
1865:
1861:
1857:
1847:
1835:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1794:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1768:
1766:
1760:
1758:
1757:Pee Dee River
1754:
1750:
1745:
1742:
1738:
1728:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1707:
1704:
1698:
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1680:
1675:
1673:
1662:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1649:
1648:John Barnwell
1645:
1641:
1636:
1627:
1625:
1619:
1615:
1613:
1598:
1596:
1590:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1547:Mike McIntyre
1543:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1509:
1508:Mike McIntyre
1505:
1500:
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1479:
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1337:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1316:
1311:
1308:
1296:
1293:
1285:
1282:November 2011
1275:
1271:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1251:This section
1249:
1245:
1240:
1239:
1231:
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1624:Adolph Dial
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1536:Jimmy Goins
1398:Smithsonian
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1072:segregation
1038:Fort Fisher
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4695:Occaneechi
4260:The Nation
4144:References
3882:2013-04-13
3619:3 December
3389:18 January
3363:18 January
3277:18 January
3200:2021-11-02
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