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studied recently. Existence of compensated pathogenic deviations can be explained by 'sign epistasis', in which the effects of a deleterious mutation can be compensated by the presence of an epistatic mutation in another loci. For a given protein, a deleterious mutation (D) and a compensatory mutation (C) can be considered, where C can be in the same protein as D or in a different interacting protein depending on the context. The fitness effect of C itself could be neutral or somewhat deleterious such that it can still exist in the population, and the effect of D is deleterious to the extent that it cannot exist in the population. However, when C and D co-occur together, the combined fitness effect becomes neutral or positive. Thus, compensatory mutations can bring novelty to proteins by forging new pathways of protein evolution : it allows individuals to travel from one fitness peak to another through the valleys of lower fitness.
1468:
2795:φ6 fitness declined rapidly and recovered in small steps . Viral nucleoproteins have been shown to avoid cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) through arginine-to glycine substitutions. This substitution mutations impacts the fitness of viral nucleoproteins, however compensatory co-mutations impede fitness declines and aid the virus to avoid recognition from CTLs. Mutations can have three different effects; mutations can have deleterious effects, some increase fitness through compensatory mutations, and lastly mutations can be counterbalancing resulting in compensatory neutral mutations.
591:
178:
2808:(NGS), all types of de novo mutations within the genome can be directly studied, the detection of which provides a magnitude of insight toward the causes of both rare and common genetic disorders. Currently, the best estimate of the average human germline SNV mutation rate is 1.18 x 10^-8, with an approximate ~78 novel mutations per generation. The ability to conduct whole genome sequencing of parents and offspring allows for the comparison of mutation rates between generations, narrowing down the origin possibilities of certain genetic disorders.
1245:
700:
cellular level, mutations can alter protein function and regulation. Unlike DNA damages, mutations are replicated when the cell replicates. At the level of cell populations, cells with mutations will increase or decrease in frequency according to the effects of the mutations on the ability of the cell to survive and reproduce. Although distinctly different from each other, DNA damages and mutations are related because DNA damages often cause errors of DNA synthesis during replication or repair and these errors are a major source of mutation.
2076:
2735:
mutation, then P can become fixed in the population. The second model of CPDs states that P and C are both deleterious mutations resulting in fitness valleys when mutations occur simultaneously. Using publicly available, Ferrer-Costa et al. 2007 obtained compensatory mutations and human pathogenic mutation datasets that were characterized to determine what causes CPDs. Results indicate that the structural constraints and the location in protein structure determine whether compensated mutations will occur.
142:
345:
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1237:
12137:
459:
1508:
12147:
1500:
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by stress responses and activated when cells/organisms are maladapted to their environments—when stressed—potentially accelerating adaptation." Since they are self-induced mutagenic mechanisms that increase the adaptation rate of organisms, they have some times been named as adaptive mutagenesis mechanisms, and include the SOS response in bacteria, ectopic intrachromosomal recombination and other chromosomal events such as duplications.
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43:
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with a decreased rate of genetic diversity. The position of a population relative to the critical effect population size is essential to determine the effect deleterious alleles will have on fitness. If the population is below the critical effective size fitness will decrease drastically, however if the population is above the critical effect size, fitness can increase regardless of deleterious mutations due to compensatory alleles.
12197:
2804:
shared by nearly 0.5% of the population. The typical human genome also contains 40,000 to 200,000 rare variants observed in less than 0.5% of the population that can only have occurred from at least one de novo germline mutation in the history of human evolution. De novo mutations have also been researched as playing a crucial role in the persistence of genetic disease in humans. With recents advancements in
2003:
2700:. For example, smaller populations with heavy mutational input (high rates of mutation) are prone to increases of genetic variation which lead to speciation in future generations. In contrast, larger populations tend to see lesser effects of newly introduced mutated traits. In these conditions, selective forces diminish the frequency of mutated alleles, which are most often deleterious, over time.
1985:
12185:
1434:(A) into a cytosine (C). Point mutations are modifications of single base pairs of DNA or other small base pairs within a gene. A point mutation can be reversed by another point mutation, in which the nucleotide is changed back to its original state (true reversion) or by second-site reversion (a complementary mutation elsewhere that results in regained gene functionality). As discussed
2418:. Many observations of de novo mutation rates have associated higher rates of mutation correlated to paternal age. In sexually reproducing organisms, the comparatively higher frequency of cell divisions in the parental sperm donor germline drive conclusions that rates of de novo mutation can be tracked along a common basis. The frequency of error during the DNA replication process of
2722:
can be considered as ' genotype' and the structure of the RNA can be considered as its 'phenotype'. Since RNAs have relatively simpler composition than proteins, the structure of RNA molecules can be computationally predicted with high degree of accuracy. Because of this convenience, compensatory mutations have been studied in computational simulations using RNA folding algorithms.
816:
2334:, a simple convention is used. For example, if the 100th base of a nucleotide sequence mutated from G to C, then it would be written as g.100G>C if the mutation occurred in genomic DNA, m.100G>C if the mutation occurred in mitochondrial DNA, or r.100g>c if the mutation occurred in RNA. Note that, for mutations in RNA, the nucleotide code is written in lower case.
2204:. However, they are passed down to all the progeny of a mutated cell within the same organism during mitosis. A major section of an organism therefore might carry the same mutation. These types of mutations are usually prompted by environmental causes, such as ultraviolet radiation or any exposure to certain harmful chemicals, and can cause diseases including cancer.
2787:
approximated the ancestral genotype. They found that 3 of the 39 substitutions significantly reduced the fitness of the ancestral background. Compensatory mutations are new mutations that arise and have a positive or neutral impact on a populations fitness. Previous research has shown that populations have can compensate detrimental mutations. Burch and Chao tested
1279:) or repetition of a chromosomal segment or presence of extra piece of a chromosome broken piece of a chromosome may become attached to a homologous or non-homologous chromosome so that some of the genes are present in more than two doses leading to multiple copies of all chromosomal regions, increasing the dosage of the genes located within them.
2492:, it can give rise to offspring that carries the mutation in all of its cells. This is the case in hereditary diseases. In particular, if there is a mutation in a DNA repair gene within a germ cell, humans carrying such germline mutations may have an increased risk of cancer. A list of 34 such germline mutations is given in the article
2039:. Out of all mutations, 39.6% were lethal, 31.2% were non-lethal deleterious, and 27.1% were neutral. Another example comes from a high throughput mutagenesis experiment with yeast. In this experiment it was shown that the overall DFE is bimodal, with a cluster of neutral mutations, and a broad distribution of deleterious mutations.
1893:
conditions will become relevant. Also, many traits are determined by hundreds of genes (or loci), so that each locus has only a minor effect. For instance, human height is determined by hundreds of genetic variants ("mutations") but each of them has a very minor effect on height, apart from the impact of
2803:
In the human genome, the frequency and characteristics of de novo mutations have been studied as important contextual factors to our evolution. Compared to the human reference genome, a typical human genome varies at approximately 4.1 to 5.0 million loci, and the majority of this genetic diversity is
2515:
DNA damage can cause an error when the DNA is replicated, and this error of replication can cause a gene mutation that, in turn, could cause a genetic disorder. DNA damages are repaired by the DNA repair system of the cell. Each cell has a number of pathways through which enzymes recognize and repair
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suggests that if a mutation does change a protein, the mutation will most likely be harmful, with an estimated 70 percent of amino acid polymorphisms having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial. Some mutations alter a gene's DNA base sequence but do not change
2426:
with short periods of time between cellular divisions that limit the efficiency of repair machinery. Rates of de novo mutations that affect an organism during its development can also increase with certain environmental factors. For example, certain intensities of exposure to radioactive elements can
2267:
mechanisms like transcriptional switches can create conditional mutations. For instance, association of
Steroid Binding Domain can create a transcriptional switch that can change the expression of a gene based on the presence of a steroid ligand. Conditional mutations have applications in research as
2252:
is a mutation that has wild-type (or less severe) phenotype under certain "permissive" environmental conditions and a mutant phenotype under certain "restrictive" conditions. For example, a temperature-sensitive mutation can cause cell death at high temperature (restrictive condition), but might have
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remove one or more nucleotides from the DNA. Like insertions, these mutations can alter the reading frame of the gene. In general, they are irreversible: Though exactly the same sequence might, in theory, be restored by an insertion, transposable elements able to revert a very short deletion (say 1–2
1222:
Whereas in former times mutations were assumed to occur by chance, or induced by mutagens, molecular mechanisms of mutation have been discovered in bacteria and across the tree of life. As S. Rosenberg states, "These mechanisms reveal a picture of highly regulated mutagenesis, up-regulated temporally
2712:
It is critical to understand the effects of compensatory mutations in the context of fixed deleterious mutations due to the population fitness decreasing because of fixation. Effective population size refers to a population that is reproducing. An increase in this population size has been correlated
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Compensated pathogenic deviations refer to amino acid residues in a protein sequence that are pathogenic in one species but are wild type residues in the functionally equivalent protein in another species. Although the amino acid residue is pathogenic in the first species, it is not so in the second
2058:
In general, it is accepted that the majority of mutations are neutral or deleterious, with advantageous mutations being rare; however, the proportion of types of mutations varies between species. This indicates two important points: first, the proportion of effectively neutral mutations is likely to
1561:
is caused by insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotides that is not evenly divisible by three from a DNA sequence. Due to the triplet nature of gene expression by codons, the insertion or deletion can disrupt the reading frame, or the grouping of the codons, resulting in a completely different
699:
may also be blocked and/or the cell may die. In contrast to a DNA damage, a mutation is an alteration of the base sequence of the DNA. Ordinarily, a mutation cannot be recognized by enzymes once the base change is present in both DNA strands, and thus a mutation is not ordinarily repaired. At the
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Changes in DNA caused by mutation in a coding region of DNA can cause errors in protein sequence that may result in partially or completely non-functional proteins. Each cell, in order to function correctly, depends on thousands of proteins to function in the right places at the right times. When a
2034:
model for the DFE, with modes centered around highly deleterious and neutral mutations. Both theories agree that the vast majority of novel mutations are neutral or deleterious and that advantageous mutations are rare, which has been supported by experimental results. One example is a study done on
2013:
technology, an enormous amount of DNA sequence data is available and even more is forthcoming in the future. Various methods have been developed to infer the DFE from DNA sequence data. By examining DNA sequence differences within and between species, we are able to infer various characteristics of
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from the original. The earlier in the sequence the deletion or insertion occurs, the more altered the protein produced is. (For example, the code CCU GAC UAC CUA codes for the amino acids proline, aspartic acid, tyrosine, and leucine. If the U in CCU was deleted, the resulting sequence would be CCG
2721:
As the function of a RNA molecule is dependent on its structure, the structure of RNA molecules is evolutionarily conserved. Therefore, any mutation that alters the stable structure of RNA molecules must be compensated by other compensatory mutations. In the context of RNA, the sequence of the RNA
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By introducing novel genetic qualities to a population of organisms, de novo mutations play a critical role in the combined forces of evolutionary change. However, the weight of genetic diversity generated by mutational change is often considered a generally "weak" evolutionary force. Although the
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The distinction between germline and somatic mutations is important in animals that have a dedicated germline to produce reproductive cells. However, it is of little value in understanding the effects of mutations in plants, which lack a dedicated germline. The distinction is also blurred in those
2042:
Though relatively few mutations are advantageous, those that are play an important role in evolutionary changes. Like neutral mutations, weakly selected advantageous mutations can be lost due to random genetic drift, but strongly selected advantageous mutations are more likely to be fixed. Knowing
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This classification is obviously relative and somewhat artificial: a harmful mutation can quickly turn into a beneficial mutations when conditions change. Also, there is a gradient from harmful/beneficial to neutral, as many mutations may have small and mostly neglectable effects but under certain
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was able to grow normally without the presence of lipoteichoic acid due to compensatory mutations. Whole genome sequencing results revealed that when Cyclic-di-AMP phosphodiesterase (GdpP) was disrupted in this bacterium, it compensated for the disappearance of the cell wall polymer, resulting in
2734:
DePristo et al. 2005 outlined two models to explain the dynamics of compensatory pathogenic deviations (CPD). In the first hypothesis P is a pathogenic amino acid mutation that and C is a neutral compensatory mutation. Under these conditions, if the pathogenic mutation arises after a compensatory
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Compensatory mutations can be explained by the genetic phenomenon epistasis whereby the phenotypic effect of one mutation is dependent upon mutation(s) at other loci. While epistasis was originally conceived in the context of interaction between different genes, intragenic epistasis has also been
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Cells with heterozygous loss-of-function mutations (one good copy of gene and one mutated copy) may function normally with the unmutated copy until the good copy has been spontaneously somatically mutated. This kind of mutation happens often in living organisms, but it is difficult to measure the
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Neomorphic mutations are a part of the gain-of-function mutations and are characterized by the control of new protein product synthesis. The newly synthesized gene normally contains a novel gene expression or molecular function. The result of the neomorphic mutation is the gene where the mutation
1777:
Suppressor mutations are a type of mutation that causes the double mutation to appear normally. In suppressor mutations the phenotypic activity of a different mutation is completely suppressed, thus causing the double mutation to look normal. There are two types of suppressor mutations, there are
844:
of one of the butterfly's offspring, making it harder (or easier) for predators to see. If this color change is advantageous, the chances of this butterfly's surviving and producing its own offspring are a little better, and over time the number of butterflies with this mutation may form a larger
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or so-called "consensus" sequence. This step requires a tremendous scientific effort. Once the consensus sequence is known, the mutations in a genome can be pinpointed, described, and classified. The committee of the Human Genome
Variation Society (HGVS) has developed the standard human sequence
1597:, but not all synonymous substitutions are silent. (There can also be silent mutations in nucleotides outside of the coding regions, such as the introns, because the exact nucleotide sequence is not as crucial as it is in the coding regions, but these are not considered synonymous substitutions.)
2281:
have been identified which splice only at certain permissive temperatures, leading to improper protein synthesis and thus, loss-of-function mutations at other temperatures. Conditional mutations may also be used in genetic studies associated with ageing, as the expression can be changed after a
2558:
Although mutations that cause changes in protein sequences can be harmful to an organism, on occasions the effect may be positive in a given environment. In this case, the mutation may enable the mutant organism to withstand particular environmental stresses better than wild-type organisms, or
2318:
Nucleotide substitution (e.g., 76A>T) – The number is the position of the nucleotide from the 5' end; the first letter represents the wild-type nucleotide, and the second letter represents the nucleotide that replaced the wild type. In the given example, the adenine at the 76th position was
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Gong et al. collected obtained genotype data of influenza nucleoprotein from different timelines and temporally ordered them according to their time of origin. Then they isolated 39 amino acid substitutions that occurred in different timelines and substituted them in a genetic background that
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they allow control over gene expression. This is especially useful studying diseases in adults by allowing expression after a certain period of growth, thus eliminating the deleterious effect of gene expression seen during stages of development in model organisms. DNA Recombinase systems like
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strains with rifampicin resistance have reduced fitness, however drug resistant clinical strains of this pathogenic bacteria do not have reduced fitness. Comas et al. 2012 used whole genome comparisons between clinical strains and lab derived mutants to determine the role and contribution of
1672:
A mutation becomes an effect on function mutation when the exactitude of functions between a mutated protein and its direct interactor undergoes change. The interactors can be other proteins, molecules, nucleic acids, etc. There are many mutations that fall under the category of by effect on
1429:
for a pyrimidine, (C ↔ T). A transition can be caused by nitrous acid, base mispairing, or mutagenic base analogs such as BrdU. Less common is a transversion, which exchanges a purine for a pyrimidine or a pyrimidine for a purine (C/T ↔ A/G). An example of a transversion is the conversion of
2413:
The rate of de novo mutations, whether germline or somatic, vary among organisms. Individuals within the same species can even express varying rates of mutation. Overall, rates of de novo mutations are low compared to those of inherited mutations, which categorizes them as rare forms of
2692:
random emergence of mutations alone provides the basis for genetic variation across all organic life, this force must be taken in consideration alongside all evolutionary forces at play. Spontaneous de novo mutations as cataclysmic events of speciation depend on factors introduced by
1975:
approach has been developed to generate high-quality systematic mutant libraries and measure fitness in high throughput. However, given that many mutations have effects too small to be detected and that mutagenesis experiments can detect only mutations of moderately large effect; DNA
1909:
experiments and theoretical models applied to molecular sequence data. DFE, as used to determine the relative abundance of different types of mutations (i.e., strongly deleterious, nearly neutral or advantageous), is relevant to many evolutionary questions, such as the maintenance of
1858:, neutral mutations provide genetic drift as the basis for most variation at the molecular level. In animals or plants, most mutations are neutral, given that the vast majority of their genomes is either non-coding or consists of repetitive sequences that have no obvious function ("
2663:: Practically all bacteria develop antibiotic resistance when exposed to antibiotics. In fact, bacterial populations already have such mutations that get selected under antibiotic selection. Obviously, such mutations are only beneficial for the bacteria but not for those infected.
2452:)—more important genes mutate less frequently than less important ones. They demonstrated that mutation is "non-random in a way that benefits the plant". Additionally, previous experiments typically used to demonstrate mutations being random with respect to fitness (such as the
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In order to categorize a mutation as such, the "normal" sequence must be obtained from the DNA of a "normal" or "healthy" organism (as opposed to a "mutant" or "sick" one), it should be identified and reported; ideally, it should be made publicly available for a straightforward
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no deleterious consequences at a lower temperature (permissive condition). These mutations are non-autonomous, as their manifestation depends upon presence of certain conditions, as opposed to other mutations which appear autonomously. The permissive conditions may be
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and extragenic suppressor mutations. Intragenic mutations occur in the gene where the first mutation occurs, while extragenic mutations occur in the gene that interacts with the product of the first mutation. A common disease that results from this type of mutation is
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The sequence of a gene can be altered in a number of ways. Gene mutations have varying effects on health depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. Mutations in the structure of genes can be classified into several types.
1717:
Dominant negative mutations (also called anti-morphic mutations) have an altered gene product that acts antagonistically to the wild-type allele. These mutations usually result in an altered molecular function (often inactive) and are characterized by a dominant or
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reproduce more quickly. In these cases a mutation will tend to become more common in a population through natural selection. That said, the same mutation can be beneficial in one condition and disadvantageous in another condition. Examples include the following:
2276:
that are activated under certain conditions can generate conditional mutations. Dual
Recombinase technology can be used to induce multiple conditional mutations to study the diseases which manifest as a result of simultaneous mutations in multiple genes. Certain
1628:. On the other hand, if a missense mutation occurs in an amino acid codon that results in the use of a different, but chemically similar, amino acid, then sometimes little or no change is rendered in the protein. For example, a change from AAA to AGA will encode
1125:(ENU). These agents can mutate both replicating and non-replicating DNA. In contrast, a base analog can mutate the DNA only when the analog is incorporated in replicating the DNA. Each of these classes of chemical mutagens has certain effects that then lead to
690:
adduct. DNA damages can be recognized by enzymes, and therefore can be correctly repaired using the complementary undamaged strand in DNA as a template or an undamaged sequence in a homologous chromosome if it is available. If DNA damage remains in a cell,
1937:. DFE can also be tracked by tracking the skewness of the distribution of mutations with putatively severe effects as compared to the distribution of mutations with putatively mild or absent effect. In summary, the DFE plays an important role in predicting
1769:
Null mutations, also known as
Amorphic mutations, are a form of loss-of-function mutations that completely prohibit the gene's function. The mutation leads to a complete loss of operation at the phenotypic level, also causing no gene product to be formed.
859:. It is believed that the overwhelming majority of mutations have no significant effect on an organism's fitness. Also, DNA repair mechanisms are able to mend most changes before they become permanent mutations, and many organisms have mechanisms, such as
2774:
compensatory mutations in drug resistance to rifampicin. Genome analysis reveal rifampicin resistant strains have a mutation in rpoA and rpoC. A similar study investigated the bacterial fitness associated with compensatory mutations in rifampin resistant
2530:
On the other hand, a mutation may occur in a somatic cell of an organism. Such mutations will be present in all descendants of this cell within the same organism. The accumulation of certain mutations over generations of somatic cells is part of cause of
2422:, especially amplified in the rapid production of sperm cells, can promote more opportunities for de novo mutations to replicate unregulated by DNA repair machinery. This claim combines the observed effects of increased probability for mutation in rapid
1425:, often caused by chemicals or malfunction of DNA replication, exchange a single nucleotide for another. These changes are classified as transitions or transversions. Most common is the transition that exchanges a purine for a purine (A ↔ G) or a
2014:
the DFE for neutral, deleterious and advantageous mutations. To be specific, the DNA sequence analysis approach allows us to estimate the effects of mutations with very small effects, which are hardly detectable through mutagenesis experiments.
1869:, in which thousands of millions of mutations are tested, invariably find that a larger fraction of mutations has harmful effects but always returns a number of beneficial mutations as well. For instance, in a screen of all gene deletions in
1705:
Gain-of-function mutations also called activating mutations, change the gene product such that its effect gets stronger (enhanced activation) or even is superseded by a different and abnormal function. When the new allele is created, a
681:
are the two major types of errors that occur in DNA, but they are fundamentally different. DNA damage is a physical alteration in the DNA structure, such as a single or double strand break, a modified guanosine residue in DNA such as
1761:
Lethal mutations result in rapid organismal death when occurring during development and cause significant reductions of life expectancy for developed organisms. An example of a disease that is caused by a dominant lethal mutation is
2474:
the protein made by the gene. Studies have shown that only 7% of point mutations in noncoding DNA of yeast are deleterious and 12% in coding DNA are deleterious. The rest of the mutations are either neutral or slightly beneficial.
2443:
There is a widespread assumption that mutations are (entirely) "random" with respect to their consequences (in terms of probability). This was shown to be wrong as mutation frequency can vary across regions of the genome, with such
2516:
damages in DNA. Because DNA can be damaged in many ways, the process of DNA repair is an important way in which the body protects itself from disease. Once DNA damage has given rise to a mutation, the mutation cannot be repaired.
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species because its pathogenicity is compensated by one or more amino acid substitutions in the second species. The compensatory mutation can occur in the same protein or in another protein with which it interacts.
2313:
centers to generate unambiguous mutation descriptions. In principle, this nomenclature can also be used to describe mutations in other organisms. The nomenclature specifies the type of mutation and base or amino acid changes.
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Research has shown that bacteria can gain drug resistance through compensatory mutations that do not impede or having little effect on fitness. Previous research from
Gagneux et al. 2006 has found that laboratory grown
919:
occur with non-zero probability even given a healthy, uncontaminated cell. Naturally occurring oxidative DNA damage is estimated to occur 10,000 times per cell per day in humans and 100,000 times per cell per day in
4186:
1604:
replaces a codon with another codon that codes for a different amino acid, so that the produced amino acid sequence is modified. Nonsynonymous substitutions can be classified as nonsense or missense mutations:
1677:
Loss-of-function mutations, also called inactivating mutations, result in the gene product having less or no function (being partially or wholly inactivated). When the allele has a complete loss of function
724:. Novel genes are produced by several methods, commonly through the duplication and mutation of an ancestral gene, or by recombining parts of different genes to form new combinations with new functions.
2114:
Diploid organisms (e.g., humans) contain two copies of each gene—a paternal and a maternal allele. Based on the occurrence of mutation on each chromosome, we may classify mutations into three types. A
2550:
or extreme heat, or chemical (molecules that misplace base pairs or disrupt the helical shape of DNA). Mutagens associated with cancers are often studied to learn about cancer and its prevention.
1996:
of each mutant was compared with the ancestral type. A fitness of zero, less than one, one, more than one, respectively, indicates that mutations are lethal, deleterious, neutral, and advantageous.
2354:) indicates a deletion. The letter refers to the amino acid present in the wild type and the number is the position from the N terminus of the amino acid were it to be present as in the wild type.
1336:
Interstitial deletions: an intra-chromosomal deletion that removes a segment of DNA from a single chromosome, thereby apposing previously distant genes. For example, cells isolated from a human
716:. These duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes, with tens to hundreds of genes duplicated in animal genomes every million years. Most genes belong to larger
2760:
genetic background. This demonstrated that identical amino acid states can result in different phenotypic states depending on the genetic background. Corrigan et al. 2011 demonstrated how
2542:
Point mutations may arise from spontaneous mutations that occur during DNA replication. The rate of mutation may be increased by mutagens. Mutagens can be physical, such as radiation from
4300:
7477:
Jónsson H, Sulem P, Kehr B, Kristmundsdottir S, Zink F, Hjartarson E, et al. (September 2017). "Parental influence on human germline de novo mutations in 1,548 trios from
Iceland".
751:; this allows one gene in the pair to acquire a new function while the other copy performs the original function. Other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously
9795:
1612:
changes a nucleotide to cause substitution of a different amino acid. This in turn can render the resulting protein nonfunctional. Such mutations are responsible for diseases such as
8018:
Ionov Y, Peinado MA, Malkhosyan S, Shibata D, Perucho M (June 1993). "Ubiquitous somatic mutations in simple repeated sequences reveal a new mechanism for colonic carcinogenesis".
1344:(FIG) gene and the receptor tyrosine kinase (ROS), producing a fusion protein (FIG-ROS). The abnormal FIG-ROS fusion protein has constitutively active kinase activity that causes
2391:
mutations per genome per generation, that is, each human accumulates about 50–90 novel mutations that were not present in his or her parents. This number has been established by
789:, make up a major fraction of the genetic material of plants and animals, and may have been important in the evolution of genomes. For example, more than a million copies of the
1945:
Mutagenesis experiment: The direct method to investigate the DFE is to induce mutations and then measure the mutational fitness effects, which has already been done in viruses,
2748:
Lunzer et al. tested the outcome of swapping divergent amino acids between two orthologous proteins of isopropymalate dehydrogenase (IMDH). They substituted 168 amino acids in
778:, and they retain these separate chromosomes. In evolution, the most important role of such chromosomal rearrangements may be to accelerate the divergence of a population into
7185:
Chadov BF, Fedorova NB, Chadova EV (1 July 2015). "Conditional mutations in
Drosophila melanogaster: On the occasion of the 150th anniversary of G. Mendel's report in Brünn".
2601:. People with this mutation were more likely to survive infection; thus its frequency in the population increased. This theory could explain why this mutation is not found in
2347:, and the second letter is the one letter code of the amino acid present in the mutation. Nonsense mutations are represented with an X for the second amino acid (e.g. D111X).
2043:
the DFE of advantageous mutations may lead to increased ability to predict the evolutionary dynamics. Theoretical work on the DFE for advantageous mutations has been done by
1044:
to allow somewhat inaccurate alignment of the two ends for rejoining followed by addition of nucleotides to fill in gaps. As a consequence, NHEJ often introduces mutations.
905:
One 2017 study claimed that 66% of cancer-causing mutations are random, 29% are due to the environment (the studied population spanned 69 countries), and 5% are inherited.
10105:
997:– Denaturation of the new strand from the template during replication, followed by renaturation in a different spot ("slipping"). This can lead to insertions or deletions.
731:
act as modules, each with a particular and independent function, that can be mixed together to produce genes encoding new proteins with novel properties. For example, the
4068:
1585:
replaces a codon with another codon that codes for the same amino acid, so that the produced amino acid sequence is not modified. Synonymous mutations occur due to the
2778:. Results obtained from this study demonstrate that drug resistance is linked to bacterial fitness as higher fitness costs are linked to greater transcription errors.
801:. Another effect of these mobile DNA sequences is that when they move within a genome, they can mutate or delete existing genes and thereby produce genetic diversity.
7377:"Temperature-sensitive mutations made easy: generating conditional mutations by using temperature-sensitive inteins that function within different temperature ranges"
908:
Humans on average pass 60 new mutations to their children but fathers pass more mutations depending on their age with every year adding two new mutations to a child.
9032:
Comas, Iñaki; Borrell, Sonia; Roetzer, Andreas; Rose, Graham; Malla, Bijaya; Kato-Maeda, Midori; Galagan, James; Niemann, Stefan; Gagneux, Sebastien (January 2012).
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mutation alters a protein that plays a critical role in the body, a medical condition can result. One study on the comparison of genes between different species of
1553:
Mutations that occur in coding regions of the genome are more likely to alter the protein product, and can be categorized by their effect on amino acid sequence:
11869:
1651:
in the transcribed mRNA, and possibly a truncated, and often nonfunctional protein product. This sort of mutation has been linked to different diseases, such as
1534:
of a gene, such as promoters, enhancers, and silencers, can alter levels of gene expression, but are less likely to alter the protein sequence. Mutations within
6834:
Rokyta DR, Joyce P, Caudle SB, Wichman HA (April 2005). "An empirical test of the mutational landscape model of adaptation using a single-stranded DNA virus".
2111:
mutations (also called acquired mutations), which involve cells outside the dedicated reproductive group and which are not usually transmitted to descendants.
10849:
6791:
Kassen R, Bataillon T (April 2006). "Distribution of fitness effects among beneficial mutations before selection in experimental populations of bacteria".
2460:) have been shown to only support the weaker claim that those mutations are random with respect to external selective constraints, not fitness as a whole.
1714:
phenotypes. Several of Muller's morphs correspond to the gain of function, including hypermorph (increased gene expression) and neomorph (novel function).
10829:
10825:
10063:
9458:"Full restoration of viral fitness by multiple compensatory co-mutations in the nucleoprotein of influenza A virus cytotoxic T-lymphocyte escape mutants"
2063:; second, the average effect of deleterious mutations varies dramatically between species. In addition, the DFE also differs between coding regions and
2055:
under a wide range of conditions, which, in general, has been supported by experimental studies, at least for strongly selected advantageous mutations.
747:
or night vision; all four arose from a single ancestral gene. Another advantage of duplicating a gene (or even an entire genome) is that this increases
2154:, or continue from a previous constitutional mutation in a parent. A germline mutation can be passed down through subsequent generations of organisms.
1295:
Mutations whose effect is to juxtapose previously separate pieces of DNA, potentially bringing together separate genes to form functionally distinct
5119:
4976:
2406:
rather than DNA. The RNA viral genome can be double-stranded (as in DNA) or single-stranded. In some of these viruses (such as the single-stranded
1735:
1059:
8183:
2410:), replication occurs quickly, and there are no mechanisms to check the genome for accuracy. This error-prone process often results in mutations.
2030:
proposes that most novel mutations will be highly deleterious, with a small fraction being neutral. A later proposal by
Hiroshi Akashi proposed a
9633:
9515:
4292:
3135:
Aminetzach YT, Macpherson JM, Petrov DA (July 2005). "Pesticide resistance via transposition-mediated adaptive gene truncation in
Drosophila".
9034:"Whole-genome sequencing of rifampicin-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains identifies compensatory mutations in RNA polymerase genes"
6969:
1018:, Kunz et al. found that more than 60% of the spontaneous single base pair substitutions and deletions were caused by translesion synthesis.
11618:
10918:
2376:
vary substantially across species, and the evolutionary forces that generally determine mutation are the subject of ongoing investigation.
1875:, 80% of mutations were negative, but 20% were positive, even though many had a very small effect on growth (depending on condition). Gene
8378:"Molecular signatures of resource competition: Clonal interference favors ecological diversification and can lead to incipient speciation"
6939:
1571:(where the x stands for the following nucleotide).) By contrast, any insertion or deletion that is evenly divisible by three is termed an
10632:
6449:, Hartl DL (August 2003). "Bayesian analysis suggests that most amino acid replacements in Drosophila are driven by positive selection".
2651:). Those with only one of the two alleles of the sickle-cell disease are more resistant to malaria, since the infestation of the malaria
2448:- and mutation-biases being associated with various factors. For instance, Monroe and colleagues demonstrated that—in the studied plant (
2006:
This figure shows a simplified version of loss-of-function, switch-of-function, gain-of-function, and conservation-of-function mutations.
1850:
A neutral mutation has no harmful or beneficial effect on the organism. Such mutations occur at a steady rate, forming the basis for the
4393:
2286:
1479:(red) can result in a change in the amino acid sequence. Mutations in other areas of the gene can have diverse effects. Changes within
490:
4719:
Pfohl-Leszkowicz A, Manderville RA (January 2007). "Ochratoxin A: An overview on toxicity and carcinogenicity in animals and humans".
4139:
762:
number may involve even larger mutations, where segments of the DNA within chromosomes break and then rearrange. For example, in the
7446:
7429:
4916:
Quinto-Alemany D, Canerina-Amaro A, Hernández-Abad LG, Machín F, Romesberg FE, Gil-Lamaignere C (31 July 2012). Sturtevant J (ed.).
1889:
insertions, 76% of insertion mutants were classified as neutral, 16% had a significantly reduced fitness, but 6% were advantageous.
12122:
11577:
4703:
1710:
containing the newly created allele as well as the original will express the new allele; genetically this defines the mutations as
9456:
Rimmelzwaan, G. F.; Berkhoff, E. G. M.; Nieuwkoop, N. J.; Smith, D. J.; Fouchier, R. A. M.; Osterhaus, A. D. M. E.YR 2005 (2005).
6312:
Davies EK, Peters AD, Keightley PD (September 1999). "High frequency of cryptic deleterious mutations in
Caenorhabditis elegans".
6111:"Mutational fitness effects in RNA and single-stranded DNA viruses: common patterns revealed by site-directed mutagenesis studies"
5095:
1036:
Although naturally occurring double-strand breaks occur at a relatively low frequency in DNA, their repair often causes mutation.
10056:
7045:
2340:
10928:
9092:
Gagneux, Sebastien; Long, Clara Davis; Small, Peter M.; Van, Tran; Schoolnik, Gary K.; Bohannan, Brendan J. M. (30 June 2006).
5402:
Ellis NA, Ciocci S, German J (February 2001). "Back mutation can produce phenotype reversion in Bloom syndrome somatic cells".
4107:
2236:
than humans. The disparity in mutation rate between the germline and somatic tissues likely reflects the greater importance of
2150:
in the offspring, that is, a mutation that is present in every cell. A constitutional mutation can also occur very soon after
894:(also called error-prone translesion synthesis), (3) errors introduced during DNA repair, and (4) induced mutations caused by
11885:
11645:
7084:
7003:
4196:
4153:
3393:
1855:
1522:
The effect of a mutation on protein sequence depends in part on where in the genome it occurs, especially whether it is in a
7920:
Bartlett, J. (2023). "Random with Respect to Fitness or External Selection? An Important but Often Overlooked Distinction".
11242:
4756:"UVA radiation is highly mutagenic in cells that are unable to repair 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine in Saccharomyces cerevisiae"
4315:
1369:
Small-scale mutations affect a gene in one or a few nucleotides. (If only a single nucleotide is affected, they are called
808:
and increase the amount of genetic variation. The abundance of some genetic changes within the gene pool can be reduced by
6623:
Akashi H (September 1999). "Within- and between-species DNA sequence variation and the 'footprint' of natural selection".
5153:
Boillée S, Vande Velde C, Cleveland DW (October 2006). "ALS: a disease of motor neurons and their nonneuronal neighbors".
1840:
are harmful (if a mutation does not change the amino acid sequence in an essential protein, it is harmless in most cases).
11968:
10888:
10745:
5840:"Refinement of evolutionary medicine predictions based on clinical evidence for the manifestations of Mendelian diseases"
5131:
2300:
nucleotide-by-nucleotide comparison, and agreed upon by the scientific community or by a group of expert geneticists and
1879:
involve removal of whole genes, so that point mutations almost always have a much smaller effect. In a similar screen in
8494:"Compensating for the meltdown: The critical effective size of a population with deleterious and compensatory mutations"
7224:
2512:
gene. Individuals with this disorder are more prone to many types of cancers, other disorders and have impaired vision.
1578:
A point substitution mutation results in a change in a single nucleotide and can be either synonymous or nonsynonymous.
1550:, having no effect on phenotype – though intron mutations could alter the protein product if they affect mRNA splicing.
11630:
11290:
10049:
9871:
1941:. A variety of approaches have been used to study the DFE, including theoretical, experimental and analytical methods.
568:
107:
8970:"c-di-AMP Is a New Second Messenger in Staphylococcus aureus with a Role in Controlling Cell Size and Envelope Stress"
1794:
A back mutation or reversion is a point mutation that restores the original sequence and hence the original phenotype.
1006:
There is increasing evidence that the majority of spontaneously arising mutations are due to error-prone replication (
12227:
10735:
7166:
5765:
4276:
4249:
2192:
A change in the genetic structure that is not inherited from a parent, and also not passed to offspring, is called a
1897:. Height (or size) itself may be more or less beneficial as the huge range of sizes in animal or plant groups shows.
1567:
ACU ACC UAx, which would instead code for proline, threonine, threonine, and part of another amino acid or perhaps a
126:
79:
17:
11697:
11702:
11300:
10318:
9814:
8968:
Corrigan, Rebecca M.; Abbott, James C.; Burhenne, Heike; Kaever, Volkhard; Gründling, Angelika (1 September 2011).
3289:
Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE (September 1985). "Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex".
1083:
Induced mutations are alterations in the gene after it has come in contact with mutagens and environmental causes.
1027:
891:
782:
by making populations less likely to interbreed, thereby preserving genetic differences between these populations.
678:
3503:
Long M, Betrán E, Thornton K, Wang W (November 2003). "The origin of new genes: glimpses from the young and old".
1843:
A beneficial, or advantageous mutation increases the fitness of the organism. Examples are mutations that lead to
1360:, either by a deletion or a genetic recombination event, in an organism that previously had two different alleles.
11947:
11937:
11861:
11136:
10717:
10660:
10250:
7863:
Monroe JG, Srikant T, Carbonell-Bejerano P, Becker C, Lensink M, Exposito-Alonso M, et al. (February 2022).
687:
7225:"High-frequency generation of conditional mutations affecting Drosophila melanogaster development and life span"
5912:
3552:"The evolutionary mechanics of domain organization in proteomes and the rise of modularity in the protein world"
1719:
86:
12075:
11942:
11722:
11466:
11264:
11168:
11057:
10711:
10650:
10588:
9787:
6062:"Distribution of fitness and virulence effects caused by single-nucleotide substitutions in Tobacco Etch virus"
2894:
2502:
2493:
1652:
483:
64:
8212:"Evaluating plague and smallpox as historical selective pressures for the CCR5-Delta 32 HIV-resistance allele"
7836:
1314:
that can lead to a decrease of fitness but also to speciation in isolated, inbred populations. These include:
363:
12222:
12140:
11727:
11471:
11210:
10205:
8696:
6512:"Estimating the distribution of fitness effects from DNA sequence data: implications for the molecular clock"
1727:
1625:
11672:
2791:
of adaptive evolution by testing whether bacteriophage φ6 evolves by small steps. Their results showed that
2209:
With plants, some somatic mutations can be propagated without the need for seed production, for example, by
1992:. In this experiment, random mutations were introduced into the virus by site-directed mutagenesis, and the
1194:
and thymine—are most vulnerable to radiation that can change their properties. UV light can induce adjacent
12232:
12080:
11582:
10654:
10646:
10602:
10294:
10234:
10169:
10147:
5547:"Tn-seq: high-throughput parallel sequencing for fitness and genetic interaction studies in microorganisms"
2879:
1774:
and dermatitis syndrome are common diseases caused by a null mutation of the gene that activates filaggrin.
1722:
phenotype. In humans, dominant negative mutations have been implicated in cancer (e.g., mutations in genes
1698:, or when the reduced dosage of a normal gene product is not enough for a normal phenotype (this is called
1340:, a type of brain tumor, were found to have a chromosomal deletion removing sequences between the Fused in
1175:
groups, altering their hydrogen bonding patterns, which leads to incorrect base pairing during replication.
1148:
8270:
6211:(March 1998). "Distribution of fitness effects caused by random insertion mutations in Escherichia coli".
1384:, or errors during replication of repeating elements. Insertions in the coding region of a gene may alter
93:
12201:
12150:
11744:
10845:
10833:
10213:
10100:
8112:"The coreceptor mutation CCR5Delta32 influences the dynamics of HIV epidemics and is selected for by HIV"
2889:
2788:
2166:, because the cells that give rise to the daughter organisms also give rise to that organism's germline.
2131:
mutations or a genetic compound consists of two different mutations in the paternal and maternal alleles.
1285:, duplication of entire sets of chromosomes, potentially resulting in a separate breeding population and
8169:
4984:
4425:"Quantum and classical effects in DNA point mutations: Watson-Crick tautomerism in AT and GC base pairs"
3429:(May 2002). "Studying genomes through the aeons: protein families, pseudogenes and proteome evolution".
12163:
11846:
11020:
10592:
10290:
10286:
10030:
9766:
5896:
4145:
2874:
2833:
2805:
2036:
1989:
1601:
1447:
1037:
252:
8860:
8535:
1915:
11640:
11437:
11247:
11015:
10908:
10759:
10721:
10520:
10355:
9980:
2060:
1954:
1317:
1311:
994:
476:
75:
60:
31:
11769:
5255:
Housden BE, Muhar M, Gemberling M, Gersbach CA, Stainier DY, Seydoux G, et al. (January 2017).
5167:
2427:
inflict damage to an organism's genome, heightening rates of mutation. In humans, the appearance of
1702:). A disease that is caused by a loss-of-function mutation is Gitelman syndrome and cystic fibrosis.
610:) of an organism. Mutations play a part in both normal and abnormal biological processes including:
12063:
11927:
11899:
11874:
11831:
11734:
11667:
11542:
11415:
11383:
11356:
11346:
10209:
3961:
Hurst GD, Werren JH (August 2001). "The role of selfish genetic elements in eukaryotic evolution".
2756:. They found that over one third of these substitutions compromised IMDH enzymatic activity in the
2532:
2232:
mutation rate for both species; mice have a higher rate of both somatic and germline mutations per
2213:
and stem cuttings. These type of mutation have led to new types of fruits, such as the "Delicious"
1881:
1844:
1484:
748:
270:
11547:
8861:"Characterization of Compensated Mutations in Terms of Structural and Physico-Chemical Properties"
6981:
2539:
rate. Measuring this rate is important in predicting the rate at which people may develop cancer.
840:
with new mutations. The majority of these mutations will have no effect; but one might change the
12068:
11998:
11907:
11635:
11517:
11285:
10881:
10775:
10767:
10753:
10739:
10697:
10618:
10330:
10025:
9753:
6471:
4555:"Mutation frequency and specificity with age in liver, bladder and brain of lacI transgenic mice"
3547:
2864:
2590:
2128:
2031:
1763:
1582:
1443:
1300:
692:
683:
584:
53:
5594:
Allen HL, Estrada K, Lettre G, Berndt SI, Weedon MN, Rivadeneira F, et al. (October 2010).
5257:"Loss-of-function genetic tools for animal models: cross-species and cross-platform differences"
2623:, a blood disorder in which the body produces an abnormal type of the oxygen-carrying substance
1673:
function, but depending on the specificity of the change the mutations listed below will occur.
12107:
11756:
11625:
11587:
11488:
11459:
11432:
11427:
11025:
10221:
10072:
9864:
6466:
6160:"Distribution of fitness effects caused by single-nucleotide substitutions in bacteriophage f1"
6003:"The distribution of fitness effects caused by single-nucleotide substitutions in an RNA virus"
5162:
4754:
Kozmin S, Slezak G, Reynaud-Angelin A, Elie C, de Rycke Y, Boiteux S, Sage E (September 2005).
2368:
2254:
2096:
1964:
1784:
1636:. In this latter case the mutation will have little or no effect on phenotype and therefore be
1353:
1262:
1187:
671:
11613:
9397:
7430:"Mutation nomenclature extensions and suggestions to describe complex mutations: a discussion"
7076:
7069:
4653:"The mechanism of double-strand DNA break repair by the nonhomologous DNA end-joining pathway"
4266:
4239:
2200:
Somatic mutations are not inherited by an organism's offspring because they do not affect the
674:
that have damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or marginally beneficial.
12048:
11922:
11841:
11836:
11821:
11806:
11796:
11712:
11687:
11522:
11478:
11442:
11410:
11351:
11329:
11310:
11173:
11126:
11077:
11072:
11030:
9985:
9949:
9912:
9627:
9509:
8712:
8069:
Araten DJ, Golde DW, Zhang RH, Thaler HT, Gargiulo L, Notaro R, Luzzatto L (September 2005).
7964:
7425:
5114:
3481:
3232:"Prevalence of positive selection among nearly neutral amino acid replacements in Drosophila"
2884:
2606:
2269:
2080:
1938:
1934:
1747:
1613:
1563:
1488:
1476:
1330:
1323:
1126:
1040:(NHEJ) is a major pathway for repairing double-strand breaks. NHEJ involves removal of a few
1007:
713:
572:
512:
443:
423:
388:
300:
295:
154:
6947:
5596:"Hundreds of variants clustered in genomic loci and biological pathways affect human height"
4401:
12022:
11917:
11851:
11652:
11567:
11483:
11395:
11378:
11305:
11295:
11005:
10913:
10897:
10576:
10501:
10440:
10246:
9894:
9589:
9105:
8641:
8223:
8123:
8027:
7876:
7795:
7486:
7113:
6890:
6581:
6523:
6458:
6446:
6266:
6014:
5851:
5651:
5607:
5022:
4929:
4818:"What is mutation? A chapter in the series: How microbes "jeopardize" the modern synthesis"
4767:
4511:
4436:
4346:
3915:
3426:
3243:
3144:
2159:
2018:
One of the earliest theoretical studies of the distribution of fitness effects was done by
1886:
1755:
1711:
1691:
1621:
1586:
1393:
1381:
1377:
786:
767:
645:, or prevent the gene from functioning properly or completely. Mutations can also occur in
623:
576:
528:
11657:
11527:
5709:"Quantifying the genomic decay paradox due to Muller's ratchet in human mitochondrial DNA"
4918:"Yeasts acquire resistance secondary to antifungal drug treatment by adaptive mutagenesis"
4668:
1758:. Marfan syndrome is also an example of dominant negative mutation and haploinsufficiency.
1292:
Deletions of large chromosomal regions, leading to loss of the genes within those regions.
590:
8:
12085:
12043:
11993:
11912:
11760:
11752:
11682:
11662:
11608:
11452:
11205:
11148:
11010:
10993:
10971:
10749:
10562:
10196:
9959:
9899:
9217:
Gong, Lizhi Ian; Suchard, Marc A; Bloom, Jesse D (14 May 2013). Pascual, Mercedes (ed.).
8174:
2844:
2667:
2620:
2273:
2125:
A homozygous mutation is an identical mutation of both the paternal and maternal alleles.
2027:
1922:
1617:
1558:
1531:
1480:
1411:
1401:
1158:
820:
771:
580:
418:
398:
333:
290:
284:
275:
247:
146:
11363:
9593:
9109:
8645:
8354:
8318:
8301:
8227:
8127:
8031:
7880:
7799:
7586:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
7490:
7117:
6894:
6585:
6527:
6462:
6270:
6115:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
6018:
5855:
5611:
5026:
4933:
4771:
4700:
4515:
4440:
4350:
3919:
3247:
3148:
2942:"Microhomology-Mediated End Joining: A Back-up Survival Mechanism or Dedicated Pathway?"
2914:
812:, while other "more favorable" mutations may accumulate and result in adaptive changes.
177:
12058:
12010:
12003:
11600:
11512:
11373:
11334:
11158:
11102:
11092:
11052:
10966:
10961:
10956:
10874:
10853:
10841:
10837:
10801:
10796:
10731:
10345:
10125:
9725:
9673:
9648:
9610:
9577:
9558:
9430:
9370:
9313:
9280:
9253:
9218:
9194:
9161:
9137:
9066:
9033:
9004:
8969:
8942:
8907:
8838:
8771:
8672:
8629:
8610:
8513:
8469:
8402:
8377:
8207:
8051:
7995:
7968:
7945:
7897:
7864:
7759:
7732:
7708:
7681:
7657:
7630:
7606:
7581:
7554:
7529:
7510:
7459:
7401:
7376:
7317:
7292:
7249:
7134:
7101:
6859:
6816:
6768:
6743:
6713:
6605:
6492:
6422:
6398:"The distribution of fitness effects of new deleterious amino acid mutations in humans"
6397:
6373:
6348:
6289:
6254:
6232:
6184:
6159:
6135:
6110:
6086:
6061:
5978:
5932:
5916:
5872:
5839:
5815:
5790:
5748:
Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE (1987). "The molecular basis of the evolution of sex".
5684:
5659:
5655:
5628:
5595:
5571:
5546:
5522:
5497:
5473:
5446:
5427:
5379:
5354:
5330:
5305:
5281:
5256:
5232:
5208:"Predicting the functional impact of protein mutations: application to cancer genomics"
5207:
5188:
4952:
4917:
4893:
4868:
4844:
4817:
4790:
4755:
4677:
4652:
4628:
4603:
4579:
4554:
4535:
4501:
4470:
4099:
4030:
4005:
3986:
3938:
3903:
3899:
3827:
3802:
3775:
3750:
3680:
3622:
3528:
3354:
3329:
3266:
3231:
3168:
3114:
3066:
3041:
3017:
2990:
2966:
2941:
2636:
2632:
1699:
1687:
1467:
1455:
1209:
606:
Mutations may or may not produce detectable changes in the observable characteristics (
413:
408:
383:
305:
8246:
8211:
7733:"New insights into the generation and role of de novo mutations in health and disease"
7037:
6636:
6546:
6511:
6037:
6002:
5757:
5496:
Nichols RJ, Sen S, Choo YJ, Beltrao P, Zietek M, Chaba R, et al. (January 2011).
5081:
5045:
5010:
3876:
3851:
3726:
3699:
3442:
3102:
1647:
is a point mutation in a sequence of DNA that results in a premature stop codon, or a
797:, and these sequences have now been recruited to perform functions such as regulating
571:), cause an error during other forms of repair, or cause an error during replication (
100:
12217:
12146:
12100:
11826:
11774:
11552:
11368:
11269:
11232:
11227:
11183:
11178:
11131:
11097:
10815:
10432:
10351:
10306:
10274:
10262:
9944:
9939:
9857:
9717:
9678:
9615:
9550:
9497:
9489:
9435:
9417:
9375:
9357:
9318:
9300:
9258:
9240:
9199:
9181:
9129:
9121:
9071:
9053:
9009:
8991:
8947:
8929:
8888:
8880:
8830:
8822:
8776:
8758:
8716:
8677:
8659:
8602:
8563:
8555:
8505:
8461:
8453:
8407:
8358:
8341:
Ségurel L, Bon C (August 2017). "On the Evolution of Lactase Persistence in Humans".
8323:
8251:
8151:
8146:
8111:
8092:
8043:
8000:
7949:
7937:
7902:
7811:
7764:
7713:
7662:
7611:
7559:
7514:
7502:
7451:
7406:
7357:
7353:
7322:
7254:
7202:
7162:
7139:
7080:
6918:
6913:
6878:
6851:
6808:
6773:
6721:
6693:
6675:
6640:
6597:
6551:
6484:
6427:
6378:
6329:
6294:
6224:
6189:
6140:
6091:
6042:
5970:
5936:
5924:
5877:
5820:
5771:
5761:
5730:
5689:
5633:
5576:
5527:
5478:
5419:
5384:
5335:
5286:
5237:
5180:
5123:
5068:
Freese E (June 1959). "The specific mutagenic effect of base analogues on Phage T4".
5050:
4957:
4898:
4849:
4795:
4736:
4682:
4633:
4584:
4539:
4527:
4489:
4474:
4462:
4454:
4374:
4369:
4334:
4272:
4245:
4192:
4167:
4159:
4149:
4091:
4035:
3978:
3943:
3881:
3832:
3780:
3731:
3672:
3644:
3614:
3573:
3520:
3485:
3446:
3407:
3399:
3389:
3359:
3306:
3271:
3209:
3160:
3106:
3071:
3022:
2971:
2828:
2693:
2648:
2543:
2415:
2327:
2141:
2108:
2104:
2084:
2052:
2044:
1993:
1977:
1911:
1804:
1771:
1695:
1644:
1609:
1451:
1244:
1105:
852:
809:
721:
695:
of a gene may be prevented and thus translation into a protein may also be blocked.
650:
631:
627:
544:
463:
348:
227:
9729:
8842:
7963:
Doniger SW, Kim HS, Swain D, Corcuera D, Williams M, Yang SP, Fay JC (August 2008).
7463:
6879:"Fitness effects of advantageous mutations in evolving Escherichia coli populations"
6863:
6496:
5431:
5192:
5011:"The Difference Between Spontaneous and Base-Analogue Induced Mutations of Phage T4"
4103:
3684:
3626:
3532:
3172:
3118:
890:
mutations (molecular decay), (2) mutations due to error-prone replication bypass of
11692:
11259:
11237:
11045:
10810:
10806:
10703:
10580:
10548:
10179:
10015:
9964:
9709:
9668:
9660:
9605:
9597:
9542:
9479:
9469:
9425:
9409:
9365:
9349:
9308:
9292:
9248:
9230:
9189:
9173:
9141:
9113:
9061:
9045:
8999:
8981:
8937:
8919:
8872:
8814:
8766:
8750:
8708:
8667:
8649:
8594:
8547:
8473:
8443:
8397:
8389:
8350:
8313:
8241:
8231:
8141:
8131:
8082:
8055:
8035:
7990:
7980:
7929:
7892:
7884:
7803:
7754:
7744:
7703:
7693:
7652:
7642:
7601:
7593:
7549:
7541:
7494:
7441:
7396:
7388:
7349:
7312:
7304:
7244:
7236:
7194:
7129:
7121:
6908:
6898:
6843:
6820:
6800:
6763:
6755:
6705:
6667:
6632:
6609:
6589:
6541:
6531:
6476:
6417:
6409:
6368:
6360:
6321:
6284:
6274:
6236:
6216:
6179:
6171:
6130:
6122:
6081:
6073:
6032:
6022:
5982:
5962:
5908:
5867:
5859:
5810:
5802:
5753:
5720:
5679:
5671:
5623:
5615:
5566:
5558:
5517:
5509:
5468:
5458:
5411:
5374:
5366:
5325:
5317:
5276:
5268:
5227:
5219:
5172:
5077:
5040:
5030:
4947:
4937:
4888:
4880:
4839:
4829:
4785:
4775:
4728:
4672:
4664:
4623:
4615:
4574:
4566:
4519:
4444:
4364:
4354:
4083:
4060:
4025:
4017:
3990:
3970:
3933:
3923:
3871:
3863:
3822:
3814:
3770:
3762:
3721:
3711:
3662:
3604:
3563:
3512:
3477:
3438:
3349:
3341:
3298:
3261:
3251:
3199:
3152:
3098:
3061:
3053:
3012:
3002:
2961:
2953:
2483:
2453:
2343:
of the wild-type amino acid, the number is the position of the amino acid from the
2187:
1959:
1871:
1637:
1547:
1276:
1199:
1163:
1152:
984:
940:
848:
709:
599:
560:
355:
150:
11537:
9562:
9177:
8614:
8087:
8070:
7240:
7015:
6759:
6325:
5806:
5675:
5306:"Map positions and specificities of suppressor mutations in Escherichia coli K-12"
4619:
4570:
556:
12189:
12053:
11677:
11504:
11493:
11447:
11390:
11339:
11119:
10923:
10820:
10409:
9954:
9757:
9697:
9413:
8986:
8924:
8803:"Missense meanderings in sequence space: a biophysical view of protein evolution"
8654:
7985:
6946:. Athens, Greece: Information Technology Associates. 30 June 2007. Archived from
5660:"The pattern of neutral molecular variation under the background selection model"
5176:
4942:
4834:
4707:
4064:
3716:
3653:
3640:
3385:
3377:
3325:
3204:
3187:
2680:
2602:
2457:
2423:
2310:
1972:
1905:
Attempts have been made to infer the distribution of fitness effects (DFE) using
1851:
1836:, mutation decreases the fitness of the organism. Many, but not all mutations in
1739:
1594:
1543:
1492:
1071:
935:
atom, altering the hydrogen bonding pattern of that base, resulting in incorrect
798:
696:
667:
produced by a gene, the result is likely to be harmful, with an estimated 70% of
637:
Mutation can result in many different types of change in sequences. Mutations in
540:
9647:
Lupski, James R.; Belmont, John W.; Boerwinkle, Eric; Gibbs, Richard A. (2011).
8628:
Cowperthwaite, Matthew C.; Bull, J. J.; Meyers, Lauren Ancel (20 October 2006).
8582:
7392:
7198:
6413:
6175:
5321:
4915:
2075:
1798:
1707:
1593:. If this mutation does not result in any phenotypic effects, then it is called
12177:
11893:
11765:
11707:
11067:
11062:
11000:
10978:
10494:
10460:
10455:
10130:
9931:
9664:
9353:
9219:"Stability-mediated epistasis constrains the evolution of an influenza protein"
8754:
8551:
8216:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
8116:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
7933:
7888:
6883:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6671:
6516:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6259:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6208:
6007:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5953:, Keightley PD (January 2002). "Understanding quantitative genetic variation".
5863:
5513:
5015:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4760:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4523:
4339:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3908:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3798:
3465:
3236:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2991:"Repair of naturally occurring mismatches can induce mutations in flanking DNA"
2957:
2628:
2605:, which remained untouched by bubonic plague. A newer theory suggests that the
2594:
2525:
2392:
2351:
2218:
2146:
A germline mutation in the reproductive cells of an individual gives rise to a
2010:
1859:
1837:
1527:
1422:
1370:
1345:
1063:
902:
sequences through DNA manipulation for the sake of scientific experimentation.
728:
646:
403:
328:
8876:
7749:
7698:
7647:
7592:(1544). Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London: 1153–1167.
6480:
6220:
5725:
5708:
5463:
5109:
4884:
4604:"DNA sequence analysis of spontaneous mutagenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae"
3568:
3551:
3468:(July 2005). "Protein families and their evolution-a structural perspective".
2118:
or homozygous non-mutated organism is one in which neither allele is mutated.
2107:, which can be passed on to descendants through their reproductive cells, and
1047:
1014:, the majority of mutations are caused by translesion synthesis. Likewise, in
141:
12211:
12095:
11973:
11932:
11778:
11532:
11200:
11195:
10689:
10489:
10450:
10445:
10373:
10359:
10335:
10323:
10311:
10299:
10279:
10184:
10162:
10157:
10135:
9554:
9493:
9421:
9361:
9337:
9336:
Azbukina, Nadezhda; Zharikova, Anastasia; Ramensky, Vasily (1 October 2022).
9304:
9244:
9185:
9125:
9094:"The competitive cost of antibiotic resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis"
9057:
8995:
8933:
8884:
8826:
8762:
8738:
8737:
Azbukina, Nadezhda; Zharikova, Anastasia; Ramensky, Vasily (1 October 2022).
8720:
8663:
8630:"From Bad to Good: Fitness Reversals and the Ascent of Deleterious Mutations"
8559:
8509:
8457:
7262:
4531:
4458:
2792:
2697:
2419:
2384:
2373:
2364:
2233:
2151:
2064:
1683:
1523:
1439:
1397:
1389:
1203:
1096:
856:
752:
619:
9810:
9761:
9117:
9093:
8859:
Ferrer-Costa, Carles; Orozco, Modesto; Cruz, Xavier de la (5 January 2007).
8802:
8801:
DePristo, Mark A.; Weinreich, Daniel M.; Hartl, Daniel L. (September 2005).
8236:
7783:
7102:"Differences between germline and somatic mutation rates in humans and mice"
6536:
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4780:
4359:
4213:
3928:
3411:
3382:
From DNA to Diversity: Molecular Genetics and the Evolution of Animal Design
3302:
3256:
3156:
2675:
after they are naturally weaned from breast milk, allowing adults to digest
12090:
12038:
11983:
11816:
11811:
11405:
11163:
10484:
10391:
10387:
10267:
10255:
10239:
10227:
10217:
10120:
10041:
9907:
9721:
9682:
9619:
9501:
9439:
9379:
9322:
9296:
9262:
9203:
9133:
9075:
9013:
8951:
8892:
8834:
8780:
8681:
8606:
8567:
8465:
8411:
8362:
8327:
8255:
8155:
8136:
8096:
8004:
7941:
7906:
7815:
7768:
7717:
7666:
7615:
7597:
7563:
7545:
7506:
7455:
7410:
7326:
7258:
7206:
7143:
6922:
6903:
6855:
6812:
6777:
6739:
6725:
6679:
6644:
6569:
6555:
6488:
6431:
6382:
6364:
6349:"Inferring the distribution of mutational effects on fitness in Drosophila"
6333:
6298:
6193:
6144:
6126:
6095:
6046:
5974:
5928:
5881:
5734:
5637:
5580:
5531:
5482:
5423:
5388:
5290:
5241:
5184:
5054:
5006:
4961:
4902:
4853:
4799:
4740:
4732:
4686:
4588:
4466:
4171:
4135:
4095:
4039:
3982:
3947:
3885:
3836:
3784:
3735:
3676:
3649:"The modulation of DNA content: proximate causes and ultimate consequences"
3577:
3524:
3489:
3450:
3363:
3275:
3213:
3164:
3110:
3075:
3026:
2975:
2432:
2339:
Amino acid substitution (e.g., D111E) – The first letter is the one letter
2225:
2193:
2067:, with the DFE of noncoding DNA containing more weakly selected mutations.
2051:. They proposed that the distribution for advantageous mutations should be
2048:
2019:
1847:
in bacteria (which are beneficial for bacteria but usually not for humans).
1751:
1590:
1512:
1405:
1385:
1380:
add one or more extra nucleotides into the DNA. They are usually caused by
1341:
1236:
1168:
1141:
1130:
980:
950:
864:
794:
740:
642:
393:
9474:
9457:
8047:
7361:
7308:
6601:
6228:
5824:
5775:
5693:
5415:
5339:
5035:
4637:
4378:
3852:"Testing the chromosomal speciation hypothesis for humans and chimpanzees"
3818:
3749:
Liu N, Okamura K, Tyler DM, Phillips MD, Chung WJ, Lai EC (October 2008).
3618:
3310:
2172:
1957:
to create point mutations and measure relative fitness of each mutant. In
12117:
11988:
11717:
11252:
11082:
10988:
10946:
10506:
10477:
10472:
10369:
9771:
8448:
8431:
6077:
5950:
5899:(March 2003). "Toward a realistic model of mutations affecting fitness".
5370:
5272:
5223:
4021:
3609:
3592:
2849:
2823:
2428:
2323:
1967:
to directly measure the fitness of a random insertion of a derivative of
1919:
1906:
1679:
1337:
1296:
1183:
1101:
964:
879:
790:
717:
564:
11557:
9601:
9235:
8517:
8493:
7498:
7125:
6658:
Eyre-Walker A (October 2006). "The genomic rate of adaptive evolution".
5619:
3766:
3007:
11978:
11879:
11801:
11788:
11422:
11222:
11109:
11087:
11040:
11035:
10983:
10951:
10866:
10626:
10622:
10428:
10174:
10152:
10142:
9546:
8492:
Whitlock, Michael C.; Griswold, Cortland K.; Peters, Andrew D. (2003).
7841:
7575:
7573:
7447:
10.1002/(SICI)1098-1004(200001)15:1<7::AID-HUMU4>3.0.CO;2-N
6717:
6696:(September 1984). "Molecular Evolution Over the Mutational Landscape".
5920:
5562:
4449:
4424:
3867:
3751:"The evolution and functional diversification of animal microRNA genes"
3667:
3648:
2869:
2854:
2818:
2653:
2624:
2445:
2395:
thousands of human trios, that is, two parents and at least one child.
2344:
2023:
1926:
1656:
1568:
1539:
1516:
1472:
1426:
1307:
1286:
1282:
1268:
1195:
1137:
1111:
1041:
1031:
968:
779:
759:
668:
659:
323:
237:
219:
194:
9338:"Intragenic compensation through the lens of deep mutational scanning"
8739:"Intragenic compensation through the lens of deep mutational scanning"
8393:
7807:
7680:
Mohiuddin, Mohiuddin; Kooy, R. Frank; Pearson, Christopher E. (2022).
7629:
Mohiuddin, Mohiuddin; Kooy, R. Frank; Pearson, Christopher E. (2022).
3057:
12112:
11963:
11572:
11190:
10938:
10467:
10423:
10115:
10110:
9843:
9530:
9484:
9281:"Compensatory mutations are repeatable and clustered within proteins"
8039:
7862:
7731:
Acuna-Hidalgo, Rocio; Veltman, Joris A.; Hoischen, Alexander (2016).
6593:
3974:
3188:"Shaping bacterial genomes with integrative and conjugative elements"
2644:
2489:
2399:
2301:
2169:
A new germline mutation not inherited from either parent is called a
2115:
1894:
1779:
1499:
1408:. Insertions can be reversed by excision of the transposable element.
1213:
936:
924:. Spontaneous mutations can be characterized by the specific change:
860:
837:
833:
805:
763:
736:
732:
611:
607:
280:
9713:
9398:"Evolution by Small Steps and Rugged Landscapes in the RNA Virus ϕ6"
9279:
Davis, Brad H.; Poon, Art F.Y.; Whitlock, Michael C. (22 May 2009).
9049:
8906:
Lunzer, Mark; Golding, G. Brian; Dean, Antony M. (21 October 2010).
8818:
7837:"Study challenges evolutionary theory that DNA mutations are random"
7570:
7340:
Spencer DM (May 1996). "Creating conditional mutations in mammals".
6709:
4087:
3516:
3345:
2570:
1507:
1419:
location either are highly unlikely to exist or do not exist at all.
1348:
transformation (a transformation from normal cells to cancer cells).
42:
12172:
12015:
10583:
10533:
10529:
10401:
10080:
9531:"The role of compensatory neutral mutations in molecular evolution"
8695:
Cowperthwaite, Matthew C.; Meyers, Lauren Ancel (1 December 2007).
8534:
Lanfear, Robert; Kokko, Hanna; Eyre-Walker, Adam (1 January 2014).
6847:
6804:
5966:
4506:
2859:
2610:
2586:
2578:
2497:
2229:
2210:
2201:
2088:
1946:
1810:
1629:
1511:
Selection of disease-causing mutations, in a standard table of the
1191:
1052:
944:
932:
928:
855:
of an individual. These can increase in frequency over time due to
744:
520:
339:
214:
169:
8697:"How Mutational Networks Shape Evolution: Lessons from RNA Models"
8598:
7865:"Mutation bias reflects natural selection in Arabidopsis thaliana"
7582:"The population genetics of mutations: good, bad, and indifferent"
7075:. Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. pp.
4869:"Mutation as a stress response and the regulation of evolvability"
4241:
Dear Mr. Darwin: Letters on the Evolution of Life and Human Nature
3403:
2738:
630:, providing the raw material on which evolutionary forces such as
567:
radiation), which then may undergo error-prone repair (especially
11400:
11114:
10636:
10419:
10092:
9455:
5447:"On causal roles and selected effects: our genome is mostly junk"
5094:
References for the image are found in Wikimedia Commons page at:
2679:, which is likely one of the most beneficial mutations in recent
2676:
2672:
2640:
2263:
2163:
1690:
schema. Phenotypes associated with such mutations are most often
1431:
1067:
988:
987:) → T, which is less likely to be detected as a mutation because
958:
895:
664:
654:
552:
548:
504:
7476:
7100:
Milholland B, Dong X, Zhang L, Hao X, Suh Y, Vijg J (May 2017).
6744:"The distribution of fitness effects among beneficial mutations"
4335:"Oxidants, antioxidants, and the degenerative diseases of aging"
4163:
1216:, can result in mutation, possibly resulting in cancer or death.
12196:
9796:
Huntington's Disease Outreach Project for Education at Stanford
9575:
9162:"Compensatory evolution in rifampin-resistant Escherichia coli"
8278:
8071:"A quantitative measurement of the human somatic mutation rate"
6444:
6158:
Peris JB, Davis P, Cuevas JM, Nebot MR, Sanjuán R (June 2010).
4753:
3089:
Bertram JS (December 2000). "The molecular biology of cancer".
2598:
2278:
2258:
2237:
2100:
1633:
1535:
1357:
1055:
972:
954:
899:
825:
735:
uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for
615:
516:
232:
209:
30:
This article is about the biological term. For other uses, see
5791:"Imperfect genes, Fisherian mutation and the evolution of sex"
5650:
5355:"Neomorphic mutations create therapeutic challenges in cancer"
5254:
4490:"An open quantum systems approach to proton tunnelling in DNA"
2322:
If it becomes necessary to differentiate between mutations in
2309:
variant nomenclature, which should be used by researchers and
2257:, certain chemicals, light or mutations in other parts of the
2002:
1320:: interchange of genetic parts from nonhomologous chromosomes.
1202:. UV radiation, in particular longer-wave UVA, can also cause
983:), which can be corrected by DNA repair mechanisms; and 5MeC (
11321:
10725:
10664:
10640:
10570:
9649:"Clan Genomics and the Complex Architecture of Human Disease"
8388:(11). International Journal of Organic Evolution: 2641–2657.
8017:
6977:
6572:(February 1968). "Evolutionary rate at the molecular level".
4214:"What Is Apoptosis? | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center"
2838:
2798:
2547:
2214:
1984:
1799:
By effect on fitness (harmful, beneficial, neutral mutations)
1731:
1172:
1015:
1011:
976:
841:
595:
524:
9646:
8967:
7969:"A catalog of neutral and deleterious polymorphism in yeast"
7730:
851:
are defined as mutations whose effects do not influence the
10771:
10763:
10707:
10693:
10668:
10596:
10566:
10556:
9849:
9832:. Leiden, the Netherlands: Leiden University Medical Center
7682:"De novo mutations, genetic mosaicism, and genetic disease"
7631:"DE novo mutations, genetic mosaicism, and genetic disease"
7530:"WHy do species very in their rate of molecular evolution?"
5913:
10.1554/0014-3820(2003)057[0683:tarmom]2.0.co;2
5152:
4718:
4316:"Older fathers pass on more genetic mutations, study shows"
3904:"Chromosome speciation: humans, Drosophila, and mosquitoes"
2582:
2566:
2508:
1968:
1743:
815:
638:
8109:
6059:
5353:
Takiar V, Ip CK, Gao M, Mills GB, Cheung LW (March 2017).
3323:
3134:
1988:
The distribution of fitness effects (DFE) of mutations in
10552:
9335:
8736:
8179:
7293:"Strategies to achieve conditional gene mutation in mice"
5118:. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition,
4867:
Galhardo RS, Hastings PJ, Rosenberg SM (1 January 2007).
4866:
3288:
2725:
2574:
2407:
2403:
2331:
2228:
have a mutation rate more than ten times higher than the
2122:
A heterozygous mutation is a mutation of only one allele.
1930:
1813:, it is sometimes useful to classify mutations as either
1723:
1115:
943:
is an important factor in the spontaneous creation of GC
921:
785:
Sequences of DNA that can move about the genome, such as
775:
536:
532:
204:
199:
9829:
6833:
6395:
5593:
4553:
Stuart GR, Oda Y, de Boer JG, Glickman BW (March 2000).
4552:
4487:
4422:
4188:
Fundamentals of Polymer Physics and Molecular Biophysics
3376:
2657:
is halted by the sickling of the cells that it infests.
2585:
onset in heterozygotes. One possible explanation of the
2350:
Amino acid deletion (e.g., ΔF508) – The Greek letter Δ (
2083:
plant to produce flowers of different colors. This is a
1900:
9285:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
9031:
8627:
8533:
7962:
6060:
Carrasco P, de la Iglesia F, Elena SF (December 2007).
5752:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–70.
3748:
2553:
2435:
that causes mutations in the cellular and skin genome.
2009:
Molecular sequence analysis: With rapid development of
1980:
can provide valuable information about these mutations.
1953:. For example, most studies of the DFE in viruses used
1538:
and in regions with no known biological function (e.g.
1198:
bases in a DNA strand to become covalently joined as a
971:
changes a normal base to an atypical base containing a
870:
Beneficial mutations can improve reproductive success.
9752:
8858:
8800:
8491:
8068:
7099:
5544:
4873:
Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
4601:
4069:"The distribution of fitness effects of new mutations"
3502:
3229:
1021:
12161:
9576:
1000 Genomes Project Consortium; et al. (2015).
8854:
8852:
8382:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
8110:
Sullivan AD, Wigginton J, Kirschner D (August 2001).
7423:
7184:
6311:
6206:
6157:
5901:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
5495:
4423:
Slocombe L, Al-Khalili JS, Sacchi M (February 2021).
3230:
Sawyer SA, Parsch J, Zhang Z, Hartl DL (April 2007).
1326:: reversing the orientation of a chromosomal segment.
939:
during replication. Theoretical results suggest that
9451:
9449:
8908:"Pervasive Cryptic Epistasis in Molecular Evolution"
8701:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
8430:
Barešić, Anja; Martin, Andrew C.R. (1 August 2011).
8302:"Evolutionary Trajectories to Antibiotic Resistance"
7679:
7628:
4059:
3700:"Gene duplication: the genomic trade in spare parts"
2703:
2589:
of the relatively high frequency of CCR5-Δ32 in the
2431:
during one's lifetime is induced by overexposure to
9091:
8694:
6509:
5747:
4815:
3803:"Darwinian alchemy: Human genes from noncoding DNA"
3545:
2059:vary between species, resulting from dependence on
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
8849:
7222:
7068:
6255:"Experimental illumination of a fitness landscape"
6252:
5545:van Opijnen T, Bodi KL, Camilli A (October 2009).
5303:
4811:
4809:
4333:Ames BN, Shigenaga MK, Hagen TM (September 1993).
4332:
4293:"Cancer Is Partly Caused By Bad Luck, Study Finds"
3130:
3128:
2671:. A mutation allowed humans to express the enzyme
2593:population is that it conferred resistance to the
2304:, who have the responsibility of establishing the
1450:, the latter of which in turn can be divided into
1435:
9446:
9278:
9155:
9153:
9151:
8963:
8961:
8905:
8796:
8794:
8792:
8790:
8732:
8730:
8487:
8485:
8483:
7290:
6346:
5837:
5401:
5205:
4602:Kunz BA, Ramachandran K, Vonarx EJ (April 1998).
4488:Slocombe L, Sacchi M, Al-Khalili J (5 May 2022).
1001:
27:Alteration in the nucleotide sequence of a genome
12209:
9578:"A global reference for human genetic variation"
9216:
9087:
9085:
8529:
8527:
8425:
8423:
8421:
7375:Tan G, Chen M, Foote C, Tan C (September 2009).
6876:
6396:Eyre-Walker A, Woolfit M, Phelps T (June 2006).
6000:
5788:
5352:
5120:National Council for Science and the Environment
4055:
4053:
4051:
4049:
3849:
3424:
3042:"Error-Prone Repair of DNA Double-Strand Breaks"
2988:
2716:
1632:, a chemically similar molecule to the intended
1462:
1438:, point mutations that occur within the protein
863:, for eliminating otherwise-permanently mutated
8299:
7374:
6934:
6932:
6790:
5949:
5444:
4806:
4006:"Alu elements as regulators of gene expression"
3125:
2739:Experimental evidence of compensatory mutations
2282:certain time period in the organism's lifespan.
1503:Point mutations classified by impact on protein
9695:
9396:Burch, Christina L; Chao, Lin (1 March 1999).
9391:
9389:
9274:
9272:
9148:
9027:
9025:
9023:
8958:
8787:
8727:
8480:
8205:
7286:
7284:
7282:
7280:
7223:Landis G, Bhole D, Lu L, Tower J (July 2001).
7218:
7216:
7187:Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research
7180:
7178:
5894:
5206:Reva B, Antipin Y, Sander C (September 2011).
4130:
4128:
3463:
2939:
2647:in carrying only a single sickle-cell allele (
2240:maintenance in the germline than in the soma.
931:– A base is changed by the repositioning of a
10882:
10811:46,XX testicular disorders of sex development
10057:
9865:
9082:
8524:
8429:
8418:
7291:Gierut JJ, Jacks TE, Haigis KM (April 2014).
5096:Commons:File:Notable mutations.svg#References
4977:"The clinical impact of DNA sequence changes"
4268:Genetics and Evolution of Infectious Diseases
4046:
3639:
1404:), both of which can significantly alter the
1010:) past DNA damage in the template strand. In
898:. Scientists may also deliberately introduce
598:exhibiting a partially yellow petal due to a
484:
10071:
9698:"De novo mutations in human genetic Disease"
8375:
8343:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
8271:"Frequently Asked Questions [FAQ's]"
7919:
7161:(6 ed.). Garland Science. p. 487.
6929:
6510:Piganeau G, Eyre-Walker A (September 2003).
6253:Hietpas RT, Jensen JD, Bolon DN (May 2011).
6248:
6246:
5996:
5994:
5992:
3898:
3225:
3223:
3185:
3039:
2609:on the CCR5 Delta 32 mutation was caused by
2565:: a specific 32 base pair deletion in human
1867:Large-scale quantitative mutagenesis screens
10633:Acute myeloblastic leukemia with maturation
9696:Veltman, Joris A.; Brunner, Han G. (2012).
9632:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
9514:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
9386:
9269:
9020:
8536:"Population size and the rate of evolution"
7277:
7213:
7175:
6657:
5789:Peck JR, Barreau G, Heath SC (April 1997).
4237:
4125:
4003:
3960:
3593:"Evolution of colour vision in vertebrates"
3033:
2989:Chen J, Miller BF, Furano AV (April 2014).
2982:
2087:mutation that may also be passed on in the
10889:
10875:
10064:
10050:
9872:
9858:
8340:
7781:
7580:Loewe, Laurence; Hill, William G. (2010).
7093:
7066:
6347:Loewe L, Charlesworth B (September 2006).
5498:"Phenotypic landscape of a bacterial cell"
4816:Fitzgerald DM, Rosenberg SM (April 2019).
3330:"Mechanisms of change in gene copy number"
2799:Application in human evolution and disease
2639:carry the allele, because, in areas where
2438:
2287:Replication timing quantitative trait loci
1226:
1212:. Exposure to ionizing radiation, such as
979:group. Examples include C → U and A → HX (
804:Nonlethal mutations accumulate within the
712:of large sections of DNA, usually through
491:
477:
10020:
10010:
10005:
9672:
9609:
9483:
9473:
9429:
9395:
9369:
9312:
9252:
9234:
9193:
9065:
9003:
8985:
8941:
8923:
8770:
8671:
8653:
8447:
8401:
8317:
8300:Hughes D, Andersson DI (September 2017).
8268:
8245:
8235:
8145:
8135:
8086:
7994:
7984:
7896:
7758:
7748:
7707:
7697:
7656:
7646:
7605:
7579:
7553:
7445:
7400:
7316:
7248:
7133:
6912:
6902:
6767:
6692:
6545:
6535:
6470:
6421:
6372:
6288:
6278:
6243:
6183:
6134:
6085:
6036:
6026:
6001:Sanjuán R, Moya A, Elena SF (June 2004).
5989:
5871:
5838:Simcikova D, Heneberg P (December 2019).
5814:
5724:
5683:
5627:
5570:
5521:
5472:
5462:
5445:Doolittle WF, Brunet TD (December 2017).
5378:
5329:
5304:Eggertsson G, Adelberg EA (August 1965).
5280:
5231:
5166:
5044:
5034:
4951:
4941:
4892:
4843:
4833:
4789:
4779:
4676:
4627:
4578:
4505:
4448:
4391:
4368:
4358:
4264:
4141:The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution
4029:
3937:
3927:
3875:
3826:
3774:
3725:
3715:
3666:
3608:
3567:
3353:
3265:
3255:
3220:
3203:
3065:
3016:
3006:
2965:
2752:IMDH that are wild type residues in IMDH
2743:
2519:
1791:occurs has a complete change in function.
1231:
1089:on the molecular level can be caused by:
766:, two chromosomes fused to produce human
626:. Mutation is the ultimate source of all
145:Three major single-chromosome mutations:
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
12123:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
10896:
9999:Mutation with respect to overall fitness
9159:
8713:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.38.091206.095507
8376:Amicone, Massimo; Gordo, Isabel (2021).
8178:. Season 3. Episode 2. 30 October 2002.
7782:Ikehata, Hironobu; Ono, Tetsuya (2011).
4981:Transforming Genetic Medicine Initiative
3590:
3482:10.1146/annurev.biochem.74.082803.133029
2074:
2022:, an influential theoretical population
2001:
1983:
1667:
1506:
1498:
1466:
1364:
1306:Large scale changes to the structure of
1256:
1243:
1235:
1046:
957:base (A or G) to form an apurinic site (
814:
720:of shared ancestry, detectable by their
663:suggested that, if a mutation changes a
589:
140:
8581:Doudna, Jennifer A. (1 November 2000).
7527:
7417:
7339:
7156:
6877:Imhof M, Schlotterer C (January 2001).
6207:Elena SF, Ekunwe L, Hajela N, Oden SA,
6108:
4721:Molecular Nutrition & Food Research
4211:
4184:
3850:Zhang J, Wang X, Podlaha O (May 2004).
3088:
2940:Sfeir A, Symington LS (November 2015).
1971:. In yeast, a combined mutagenesis and
1475:protein-coding gene. A mutation in the
911:
14:
12210:
9528:
8580:
6622:
6568:
5067:
5005:
4747:
4650:
4134:
3797:
3697:
3082:
2915:"mutation | Learn Science at Scitable"
2781:
2726:Evolutionary mechanism of compensation
2619:: An example of a harmful mutation is
2477:
1694:. Exceptions are when the organism is
539:. Mutations result from errors during
11886:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
10870:
10045:
9853:
5706:
5134:from the original on 14 November 2015
5107:
4669:10.1146/annurev.biochem.052308.093131
3328:, Rosenberg SM, Ira G (August 2009).
3179:
1901:Distribution of fitness effects (DFE)
1856:neutral theory of molecular evolution
9785:
8186:from the original on 12 October 2015
4394:"Mutation, Mutagens, and DNA Repair"
3380:, Grenier JK, Weatherbee SD (2005).
2686:
2554:Beneficial and conditional mutations
2463:
2135:
1171:converts amine groups on A and C to
65:adding citations to reliable sources
36:
10746:Desmoplastic small-round-cell tumor
9811:"Locus Specific Mutation Databases"
8432:"Compensated pathogenic deviations"
8355:10.1146/annurev-genom-091416-035340
8319:10.1146/annurev-micro-090816-093813
6738:
4429:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
4313:
4004:Häsler J, Strub K (November 2006).
3040:Rodgers K, McVey M (January 2016).
2535:, from normal cell to cancer cell.
2181:
2103:, mutations can be subdivided into
1240:Five types of chromosomal mutations
1078:
1022:Errors introduced during DNA repair
770:; this fusion did not occur in the
24:
11291:Evolutionary developmental biology
9924:Mutation with respect to structure
9830:"Welcome to the Mutalyzer website"
7784:"The mechanisms of UV mutagenesis"
7048:from the original on 31 March 2017
4974:
4303:from the original on 13 July 2017.
4244:. University of California Press.
2243:
1373:.) Small-scale mutations include:
884:Four classes of mutations are (1)
575:). Mutations may also result from
569:microhomology-mediated end joining
25:
12244:
9746:
9160:Reynolds, M. G. (December 2000).
8540:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
6660:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
5750:Molecular Genetics of Development
3186:Burrus V, Waldor MK (June 2004).
2704:Compensated pathogenic deviations
2358:
2070:
12195:
12183:
12171:
12145:
12136:
12135:
10319:22q11.2 distal deletion syndrome
9815:Leiden University Medical Center
9689:
9640:
9569:
9522:
9329:
9210:
8899:
8688:
8621:
8574:
8369:
8334:
8293:
8262:
8199:
8162:
8103:
8062:
8011:
7956:
7913:
7856:
7829:
7775:
7724:
7673:
7622:
7521:
7470:
7071:Genetics Principles and Analysis
2500:, a mutation that occurs in the
1028:DNA damage (naturally occurring)
602:in a cell that formed that petal
458:
457:
344:
343:
176:
41:
11948:Extended evolutionary synthesis
11137:Gene-centered view of evolution
10718:Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans
10661:Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia
10589:Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma
10251:Chromosome 5q deletion syndrome
7368:
7333:
7150:
7060:
7030:
6996:
6962:
6940:"Somatic cell genetic mutation"
6870:
6827:
6784:
6732:
6686:
6651:
6616:
6562:
6503:
6438:
6389:
6340:
6305:
6200:
6151:
6102:
6053:
5943:
5888:
5831:
5782:
5741:
5700:
5644:
5587:
5538:
5489:
5438:
5395:
5346:
5297:
5248:
5199:
5146:
5101:
5088:
5061:
4999:
4968:
4909:
4860:
4712:
4693:
4644:
4595:
4546:
4481:
4416:
4385:
4326:
4307:
4285:
4265:Tibayrenc M (12 January 2017).
4258:
4231:
4205:
4178:
3997:
3954:
3892:
3843:
3791:
3742:
3691:
3633:
3584:
3539:
3496:
3457:
3418:
3370:
3317:
2613:instead of the bubonic plague.
2294:
2035:the DFE of random mutations in
1750:, which encodes fibrillin-1, a
1442:of a gene may be classified as
1190:). Two nucleotide bases in DNA—
975:group in place of the original
688:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
531:. Viral genomes contain either
52:needs additional citations for
12076:Hologenome theory of evolution
11943:History of molecular evolution
11169:Evolutionarily stable strategy
11058:Last universal common ancestor
6980:. 14 June 2012. Archived from
6451:Journal of Molecular Evolution
5907:(3): 683–5, discussion 686–9.
4212:Grisham, Julie (16 May 2014).
4191:. Cambridge University Press.
3282:
3046:Journal of Cellular Physiology
2946:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
2933:
2907:
2895:Trinucleotide repeat expansion
2494:DNA repair-deficiency disorder
2488:If a mutation is present in a
1742:is caused by mutations in the
1653:congenital adrenal hyperplasia
1530:. Mutations in the non-coding
1248:Types of small-scale mutations
1002:Error-prone replication bypass
892:naturally occurring DNA damage
845:percentage of the population.
641:can have no effect, alter the
13:
1:
11870:Renaissance and Enlightenment
10441:Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY)
10206:1q21.1 copy number variations
9529:Kimura, Motoo (1 July 1985).
8306:Annual Review of Microbiology
8088:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-1198
7788:Journal of Radiation Research
7159:Molecular Biology of the Cell
7038:"somatic mutation | genetics"
6637:10.1016/S0378-1119(99)00294-2
6326:10.1126/science.285.5434.1748
5758:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7
5658:, Morgan MT (December 1995).
5082:10.1016/S0022-2836(59)80038-3
4657:Annual Review of Biochemistry
3470:Annual Review of Biochemistry
3443:10.1016/S0022-2836(02)00109-2
3103:10.1016/S0098-2997(00)00007-8
3091:Molecular Aspects of Medicine
2901:
2717:Compensatory mutations in RNA
1483:(yellow and blue) can effect
1463:By impact on protein sequence
618:, and the development of the
12081:Missing heritability problem
11708:Gamete differentiation/sexes
10647:Acute promyelocytic leukemia
10603:Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
10295:17q12 microdeletion syndrome
10170:22q11.2 duplication syndrome
10148:16p11.2 duplication syndrome
9879:
8987:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002217
8925:10.1371/journal.pgen.1001162
8865:Journal of Molecular Biology
8655:10.1371/journal.pcbi.0020141
8583:"Structural genomics of RNA"
8170:"Mystery of the Black Death"
7986:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000183
7794:(2). J Radiat Res: 115–125.
7354:10.1016/0168-9525(96)10013-5
7297:Cold Spring Harbor Protocols
7014:. Oxford, UK. Archived from
5177:10.1016/j.neuron.2006.09.018
5108:Hogan CM (12 October 2010).
5070:Journal of Molecular Biology
4943:10.1371/journal.pone.0042279
4835:10.1371/journal.pgen.1007995
3717:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020206
3431:Journal of Molecular Biology
3384:(2nd ed.). Malden, MA:
3205:10.1016/j.resmic.2004.01.012
2880:Signature-tagged mutagenesis
2408:human immunodeficiency virus
7:
10214:1q21.1 duplication syndrome
10101:1q21.1 duplication syndrome
9813:. Leiden, the Netherlands:
9462:Journal of General Virology
9178:10.1093/genetics/156.4.1471
7393:10.1534/genetics.109.104794
7241:10.1093/genetics/158.3.1167
7199:10.1016/j.mrrev.2015.06.001
6760:10.1093/genetics/163.4.1519
6414:10.1534/genetics.106.057570
6176:10.1534/genetics.110.115162
5807:10.1093/genetics/145.4.1171
5676:10.1093/genetics/141.4.1619
4620:10.1093/genetics/148.4.1491
4571:10.1093/genetics/154.3.1291
4238:Dover GA, Darwin C (2000).
4185:Bohidar HB (January 2015).
4144:. Cambridge, UK; New York:
2890:TILLING (molecular biology)
2811:
2217:and the "Washington" navel
2162:through mechanisms such as
2079:A mutation has caused this
1448:nonsynonymous substitutions
1396:), or cause a shift in the
703:
10:
12249:
11713:Life cycles/nuclear phases
11265:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
9981:Chromosomal translocations
9786:Liou S (5 February 2011).
9665:10.1016/j.cell.2011.09.008
9414:10.1093/genetics/151.3.921
9354:10.1007/s12551-022-01005-w
8755:10.1007/s12551-022-01005-w
8634:PLOS Computational Biology
8552:10.1016/j.tree.2013.09.009
7934:10.1007/s10441-023-09464-8
7889:10.1038/s41586-021-04269-6
7067:Hartl L, Jones EW (1998).
6672:10.1016/j.tree.2006.06.015
6445:Sawyer SA, Kulathinal RJ,
5864:10.1038/s41598-019-54976-4
5514:10.1016/j.cell.2010.11.052
4524:10.1038/s42005-022-00881-8
4146:Cambridge University Press
2958:10.1016/j.tibs.2015.08.006
2875:Robertsonian translocation
2834:Budgerigar colour genetics
2806:next-generation sequencing
2771:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
2523:
2481:
2362:
2185:
2139:
2037:vesicular stomatitis virus
1990:vesicular stomatitis virus
1802:
1602:nonsynonymous substitution
1318:Chromosomal translocations
1260:
1038:Non-homologous end joining
1025:
877:
708:Mutations can involve the
583:of segments of DNA due to
29:
12131:
12031:
11956:
11860:
11787:
11743:
11598:
11502:
11319:
11278:
11211:Parent–offspring conflict
11147:
11016:Earliest known life forms
10937:
10904:
10789:
10760:Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma
10682:
10611:
10541:
10528:
10519:
10495:XYYYY syndrome (49,XYYYY)
10461:XXXXY syndrome (49,XXXXY)
10456:XXXYY syndrome (49,XXXYY)
10418:
10400:
10386:
10195:
10088:
10079:
9998:
9973:
9930:
9923:
9887:
8877:10.1016/j.jmb.2006.09.053
8587:Nature Structural Biology
8498:Annales Zoologici Fennici
7750:10.1186/s13059-016-1110-1
7699:10.3389/fgene.2022.983668
7648:10.3389/fgene.2022.983668
7528:Bromham, Lindell (2009).
6481:10.1007/s00239-003-0022-3
6215:. 102–103 (1–6): 349–58.
5726:10.1017/S0016672306008123
5464:10.1186/s12915-017-0460-9
5322:10.1093/genetics/52.2.319
4885:10.1080/10409230701648502
3569:10.1016/j.str.2008.11.008
2272:used in association with
2061:effective population size
1955:site-directed mutagenesis
1682:), it is often called an
1312:chromosomal rearrangement
1267:Large-scale mutations in
995:Slipped strand mispairing
873:
32:Mutation (disambiguation)
12228:Radiation health effects
12064:Cultural group selection
11928:The eclipse of Darwinism
11900:On the Origin of Species
11875:Transmutation of species
10235:Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome
10210:1q21.1 deletion syndrome
10073:Chromosome abnormalities
8807:Nature Reviews. Genetics
5261:Nature Reviews. Genetics
4706:31 December 2015 at the
4314:Jha A (22 August 2012).
3902:, Coluzzi M (May 2005).
3591:Bowmaker JK (May 1998).
3505:Nature Reviews. Genetics
3334:Nature Reviews. Genetics
3192:Research in Microbiology
2789:Fisher's geometric model
2533:malignant transformation
2290:affects DNA replication.
2026:. His neutral theory of
1882:Streptococcus pneumoniae
1686:or amorphic mutation in
511:is an alteration in the
12069:Dual inheritance theory
11908:History of paleontology
10619:Philadelphia chromosome
10490:XYYY syndrome (48,XYYY)
10451:XXXY syndrome (48,XXXY)
10446:XXYY syndrome (48,XXYY)
10331:22q13 deletion syndrome
10106:2q31.1 microduplication
10021:Nearly neutral mutation
9702:Nature Reviews Genetics
9118:10.1126/science.1124410
8237:10.1073/pnas.2435085100
7042:Encyclopædia Britannica
7012:Daisy's Eye Cancer Fund
6970:"Compound heterozygote"
6537:10.1073/pnas.1833064100
6280:10.1073/pnas.1016024108
6221:10.1023/A:1017031008316
6109:Sanjuán R (June 2010).
6028:10.1073/pnas.0400146101
5955:Nature Reviews Genetics
5112:. In Monosson E (ed.).
4781:10.1073/pnas.0504497102
4651:Lieber MR (July 2010).
4360:10.1073/pnas.90.17.7915
4076:Nature Reviews Genetics
3963:Nature Reviews Genetics
3929:10.1073/pnas.0501847102
3303:10.1126/science.3898363
3257:10.1073/pnas.0701572104
3157:10.1126/science.1112699
2865:Human somatic variation
2496:. An example of one is
2439:Randomness of mutations
2319:replaced by a thymine.
2148:constitutional mutation
2097:multicellular organisms
1583:synonymous substitution
1227:Classification of types
1204:oxidative damage to DNA
684:8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine
585:mobile genetic elements
11757:Punctuated equilibrium
11078:Non-adaptive radiation
11026:Evolutionary arms race
10478:Pentasomy X (49,XXXXX)
10410:Turner syndrome (45,X)
10291:Smith–Magenis syndrome
10287:Miller–Dieker syndrome
10222:1p36 deletion syndrome
10031:Nonsynonymous mutation
9986:Chromosomal inversions
9888:Mechanisms of mutation
9297:10.1098/rspb.2008.1846
8137:10.1073/pnas.181325198
7598:10.1098/rstb.2009.0317
7546:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0136
6904:10.1073/pnas.98.3.1113
6365:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0481
6127:10.1098/rstb.2010.0063
5707:Loewe L (April 2006).
5212:Nucleic Acids Research
4733:10.1002/mnfr.200600137
4494:Communications Physics
4010:Nucleic Acids Research
3698:Hurles M (July 2004).
2754:Pseudomonas aeruginosa
2744:Experiment in bacteria
2643:is common, there is a
2520:Role in carcinogenesis
2369:Critical mutation rate
2092:
2007:
1997:
1965:transposon mutagenesis
1519:
1504:
1496:
1423:Substitution mutations
1354:Loss of heterozygosity
1324:Chromosomal inversions
1263:Chromosome abnormality
1249:
1241:
1232:By effect on structure
1188:non-ionizing radiation
1186:light (UV) (including
1075:
829:
749:engineering redundancy
603:
563:caused by exposure to
158:
12049:Evolutionary medicine
11923:Mendelian inheritance
11631:Biological complexity
11619:Programmed cell death
11311:Phenotypic plasticity
11031:Evolutionary pressure
11021:Evidence of evolution
10919:Timeline of evolution
10485:XYY syndrome (47,XYY)
10473:Tetrasomy X (48,XXXX)
10356:Prader–Willi syndrome
10011:Advantageous mutation
9950:Conservative mutation
9788:"All About Mutations"
9475:10.1099/vir.0.80867-0
8436:BioMolecular Concepts
7686:Frontiers in Genetics
7635:Frontiers in Genetics
7309:10.1101/pdb.top069807
7106:Nature Communications
5416:10.1007/s004390000447
5115:Encyclopedia of Earth
5036:10.1073/pnas.45.4.622
4392:Montelone BA (1998).
3819:10.1101/gr.098376.109
2885:Somatic hypermutation
2762:Staphylococcus aureus
2661:Antibiotic resistance
2363:Further information:
2270:Cre-Lox recombination
2140:Further information:
2129:Compound heterozygous
2078:
2005:
1987:
1939:evolutionary dynamics
1935:genetic recombination
1929:and the evolution of
1918:, the maintenance of
1885:, but this time with
1845:antibiotic resistance
1668:By effect on function
1614:Epidermolysis bullosa
1510:
1502:
1477:protein coding region
1470:
1382:transposable elements
1365:Small-scale mutations
1331:chromosomal crossover
1257:Large-scale mutations
1247:
1239:
1050:
1008:translesion synthesis
991:is a normal DNA base.
917:Spontaneous mutations
818:
714:genetic recombination
593:
573:translesion synthesis
513:nucleic acid sequence
444:Personalized medicine
438:Personalized medicine
301:Quantitative genetics
296:Mendelian inheritance
144:
12223:Evolutionary biology
12202:Evolutionary biology
12023:Teleology in biology
11918:Blending inheritance
11296:Genetic assimilation
11159:Artificial selection
10898:Evolutionary biology
10577:Mantle cell lymphoma
10247:Cri du chat syndrome
10006:Deleterious mutation
9974:Large-scale mutation
8449:10.1515/bmc.2011.025
6078:10.1128/JVI.00524-07
5371:10.1038/onc.2016.312
5273:10.1038/nrg.2016.118
4404:on 26 September 2015
4398:www-personal.ksu.edu
3914:(Suppl 1): 6535–42.
3610:10.1038/eye.1998.143
3386:Blackwell Publishing
2765:normal cell growth.
2696:, genetic flow, and
2597:in mid-14th century
2450:Arabidopsis thaliana
2250:Conditional mutation
1764:Huntington's disease
1756:extracellular matrix
1532:regulatory sequences
1481:regulatory sequences
1394:splice site mutation
912:Spontaneous mutation
624:junctional diversity
529:extrachromosomal DNA
364:Branches of genetics
61:improve this article
12233:Molecular evolution
12086:Molecular evolution
12044:Ecological genetics
11913:Transitional fossil
11703:Sexual reproduction
11543:endomembrane system
11472:pollinator-mediated
11428:dolphins and whales
11206:Parental investment
10563:Follicular lymphoma
10026:Synonymous mutation
9960:Frameshift mutation
9760:(6 December 2007).
9602:10.1038/nature15393
9594:2015Natur.526...68T
9535:Journal of Genetics
9342:Biophysical Reviews
9291:(1663): 1823–1827.
9236:10.7554/eLife.00631
9110:2006Sci...312.1944G
9104:(5782): 1944–1946.
8743:Biophysical Reviews
8646:2006PLSCB...2..141C
8228:2003PNAS..10015276G
8196:Episode background.
8175:Secrets of the Dead
8128:2001PNAS...9810214S
8032:1993Natur.363..558I
7881:2022Natur.602..101M
7800:2011JRadR..52..115I
7499:10.1038/nature24018
7491:2017Natur.549..519J
7126:10.1038/ncomms15183
7118:2017NatCo...815183M
7018:on 26 November 2011
6950:on 24 February 2010
6895:2001PNAS...98.1113I
6586:1968Natur.217..624K
6528:2003PNAS..10010335P
6463:2003JMolE..57S.154S
6271:2011PNAS..108.7896H
6066:Journal of Virology
6019:2004PNAS..101.8396S
5856:2019NatSR...918577S
5620:10.1038/nature09410
5612:2010Natur.467..832L
5027:1959PNAS...45..622F
4934:2012PLoSO...742279Q
4772:2005PNAS..10213538K
4516:2022CmPhy...5..109S
4441:2021PCCP...23.4141S
4351:1993PNAS...90.7915A
3920:2005PNAS..102.6535A
3767:10.1038/cr.2008.278
3248:2007PNAS..104.6504S
3149:2005Sci...309..764A
3008:10.7554/elife.02001
2845:Deletion (genetics)
2782:Experiment in virus
2668:Lactase persistence
2631:. One-third of all
2621:sickle-cell disease
2478:Inherited disorders
2160:reproduce asexually
2028:molecular evolution
1923:sexual reproduction
1785:Alzheimer's disease
1618:sickle-cell disease
1559:frameshift mutation
1471:The structure of a
1275:Amplifications (or
1271:structure include:
821:Prodryas persephone
793:are present in the
334:Genetic engineering
291:Population genetics
164:Part of a series on
12059:Cultural evolution
11174:Fisher's principle
11103:Handicap principle
11093:Parallel evolution
10957:Adaptive radiation
10802:Uniparental disomy
10797:Fragile X syndrome
10732:Myxoid liposarcoma
10584:t(11 CCND1:14 IGH)
10468:Trisomy X (47,XXX)
10346:genomic imprinting
10126:Distal trisomy 10q
9762:"Genetic Mutation"
9547:10.1007/BF02923549
7922:Acta Biotheoretica
7342:Trends in Genetics
7157:Alberts B (2014).
5844:Scientific Reports
5713:Genetical Research
5563:10.1038/nmeth.1377
5224:10.1093/nar/gkr407
4450:10.1039/D0CP05781A
4022:10.1093/nar/gkl706
3868:10.1101/gr.1891104
3668:10.1101/gr.9.4.317
2921:. Nature Education
2637:Sub-Saharan Africa
2617:Malaria resistance
2607:selective pressure
2105:germline mutations
2101:reproductive cells
2093:
2008:
1998:
1700:haploinsufficiency
1520:
1505:
1497:
1456:nonsense mutations
1250:
1242:
1210:Ionizing radiation
1076:
861:apoptotic pathways
830:
653:between different
651:genetic variations
649:. A 2007 study on
604:
555:or other types of
306:Molecular genetics
265:History and topics
159:
12159:
12158:
11775:Uniformitarianism
11728:Sex-determination
11233:Sexual dimorphism
11228:Natural selection
11132:Unit of selection
11098:Signalling theory
10864:
10863:
10816:Marker chromosome
10785:
10784:
10678:
10677:
10515:
10514:
10382:
10381:
10352:Angelman syndrome
10307:DiGeorge syndrome
10275:Jacobsen syndrome
10263:Williams syndrome
10039:
10038:
9994:
9993:
9945:Missense mutation
9940:Nonsense mutation
8394:10.1111/evo.14315
8269:Konotey-Ahulu F.
8210:(December 2003).
7875:(7895): 101–105.
7808:10.1269/jrr.10175
7485:(7673): 519–522.
7086:978-0-7637-0489-6
6944:Genome Dictionary
6320:(5434): 1748–51.
6121:(1548): 1975–82.
5365:(12): 1607–1618.
4198:978-1-316-09302-3
4155:978-0-521-23109-1
3548:Caetano-Anollés G
3395:978-1-4051-1950-4
3297:(4719): 1277–81.
3058:10.1002/jcp.25053
2829:Behavior mutation
2694:natural selection
2687:Role in evolution
2649:sickle cell trait
2464:Disease causation
2416:genetic variation
2328:mitochondrial DNA
2142:Germline mutation
2136:Germline mutation
2065:noncoding regions
2045:John H. Gillespie
1978:sequence analysis
1963:, one study used
1912:genetic variation
1805:Fitness (biology)
1754:component of the
1746:gene, located on
1645:nonsense mutation
1610:missense mutation
1573:in-frame mutation
1528:non-coding region
1277:gene duplications
1136:Agents that form
1112:Alkylating agents
1106:Bromodeoxyuridine
1087:Induced mutations
849:Neutral mutations
810:natural selection
722:sequence homology
647:non-genic regions
643:product of a gene
632:natural selection
628:genetic variation
561:pyrimidine dimers
545:viral replication
501:
500:
228:Genetic variation
137:
136:
129:
111:
18:In-frame deletion
16:(Redirected from
12240:
12200:
12199:
12188:
12187:
12186:
12176:
12175:
12167:
12149:
12139:
12138:
11938:Modern synthesis
11698:Multicellularity
11693:Mosaic evolution
11578:auditory ossicle
11260:Social selection
11243:Flowering plants
11238:Sexual selection
10891:
10884:
10877:
10868:
10867:
10807:XX male syndrome
10704:Synovial sarcoma
10581:Multiple myeloma
10549:Burkitt lymphoma
10539:
10538:
10526:
10525:
10429:other karyotypes
10398:
10397:
10180:Cat-eye syndrome
10086:
10085:
10066:
10059:
10052:
10043:
10042:
10016:Neutral mutation
9965:Dynamic mutation
9928:
9927:
9874:
9867:
9860:
9851:
9850:
9841:
9839:
9837:
9825:
9823:
9821:
9806:
9804:
9802:
9782:
9780:
9778:
9741:
9740:
9738:
9736:
9693:
9687:
9686:
9676:
9644:
9638:
9637:
9631:
9623:
9613:
9573:
9567:
9566:
9526:
9520:
9519:
9513:
9505:
9487:
9477:
9468:(6): 1801–1805.
9453:
9444:
9443:
9433:
9393:
9384:
9383:
9373:
9348:(5): 1161–1182.
9333:
9327:
9326:
9316:
9276:
9267:
9266:
9256:
9238:
9214:
9208:
9207:
9197:
9172:(4): 1471–1481.
9157:
9146:
9145:
9089:
9080:
9079:
9069:
9029:
9018:
9017:
9007:
8989:
8965:
8956:
8955:
8945:
8927:
8918:(10): e1001162.
8903:
8897:
8896:
8856:
8847:
8846:
8798:
8785:
8784:
8774:
8749:(5): 1161–1182.
8734:
8725:
8724:
8692:
8686:
8685:
8675:
8657:
8625:
8619:
8618:
8578:
8572:
8571:
8531:
8522:
8521:
8489:
8478:
8477:
8451:
8427:
8416:
8415:
8405:
8373:
8367:
8366:
8338:
8332:
8331:
8321:
8297:
8291:
8290:
8288:
8286:
8281:on 30 April 2011
8277:. Archived from
8266:
8260:
8259:
8249:
8239:
8203:
8197:
8195:
8193:
8191:
8166:
8160:
8159:
8149:
8139:
8107:
8101:
8100:
8090:
8066:
8060:
8059:
8040:10.1038/363558a0
8026:(6429): 558–61.
8015:
8009:
8008:
7998:
7988:
7960:
7954:
7953:
7917:
7911:
7910:
7900:
7860:
7854:
7853:
7851:
7849:
7833:
7827:
7826:
7824:
7822:
7779:
7773:
7772:
7762:
7752:
7728:
7722:
7721:
7711:
7701:
7677:
7671:
7670:
7660:
7650:
7626:
7620:
7619:
7609:
7577:
7568:
7567:
7557:
7525:
7519:
7518:
7474:
7468:
7467:
7449:
7428:(January 2000).
7421:
7415:
7414:
7404:
7372:
7366:
7365:
7337:
7331:
7330:
7320:
7288:
7275:
7274:
7272:
7270:
7265:on 22 March 2017
7261:. Archived from
7252:
7220:
7211:
7210:
7182:
7173:
7172:
7154:
7148:
7147:
7137:
7097:
7091:
7090:
7074:
7064:
7058:
7057:
7055:
7053:
7034:
7028:
7027:
7025:
7023:
7000:
6994:
6993:
6991:
6989:
6966:
6960:
6959:
6957:
6955:
6936:
6927:
6926:
6916:
6906:
6874:
6868:
6867:
6831:
6825:
6824:
6788:
6782:
6781:
6771:
6736:
6730:
6729:
6704:(5): 1116–1129.
6690:
6684:
6683:
6655:
6649:
6648:
6620:
6614:
6613:
6594:10.1038/217624a0
6566:
6560:
6559:
6549:
6539:
6522:(18): 10335–40.
6507:
6501:
6500:
6474:
6442:
6436:
6435:
6425:
6393:
6387:
6386:
6376:
6344:
6338:
6337:
6309:
6303:
6302:
6292:
6282:
6265:(19): 7896–901.
6250:
6241:
6240:
6204:
6198:
6197:
6187:
6155:
6149:
6148:
6138:
6106:
6100:
6099:
6089:
6072:(23): 12979–84.
6057:
6051:
6050:
6040:
6030:
6013:(22): 8396–401.
5998:
5987:
5986:
5947:
5941:
5940:
5892:
5886:
5885:
5875:
5835:
5829:
5828:
5818:
5786:
5780:
5779:
5745:
5739:
5738:
5728:
5704:
5698:
5697:
5687:
5648:
5642:
5641:
5631:
5591:
5585:
5584:
5574:
5542:
5536:
5535:
5525:
5493:
5487:
5486:
5476:
5466:
5442:
5436:
5435:
5399:
5393:
5392:
5382:
5350:
5344:
5343:
5333:
5301:
5295:
5294:
5284:
5252:
5246:
5245:
5235:
5203:
5197:
5196:
5170:
5150:
5144:
5143:
5141:
5139:
5105:
5099:
5092:
5086:
5085:
5065:
5059:
5058:
5048:
5038:
5003:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4992:
4987:on 4 August 2017
4983:. Archived from
4972:
4966:
4965:
4955:
4945:
4913:
4907:
4906:
4896:
4864:
4858:
4857:
4847:
4837:
4813:
4804:
4803:
4793:
4783:
4766:(38): 13538–43.
4751:
4745:
4744:
4716:
4710:
4697:
4691:
4690:
4680:
4648:
4642:
4641:
4631:
4599:
4593:
4592:
4582:
4550:
4544:
4543:
4509:
4485:
4479:
4478:
4452:
4435:(7): 4141–4150.
4420:
4414:
4413:
4411:
4409:
4400:. Archived from
4389:
4383:
4382:
4372:
4362:
4330:
4324:
4323:
4311:
4305:
4304:
4289:
4283:
4282:
4262:
4256:
4255:
4235:
4229:
4228:
4226:
4224:
4209:
4203:
4202:
4182:
4176:
4175:
4132:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4112:
4106:. Archived from
4073:
4057:
4044:
4043:
4033:
4001:
3995:
3994:
3975:10.1038/35084545
3958:
3952:
3951:
3941:
3931:
3896:
3890:
3889:
3879:
3847:
3841:
3840:
3830:
3801:(October 2009).
3795:
3789:
3788:
3778:
3746:
3740:
3739:
3729:
3719:
3695:
3689:
3688:
3670:
3637:
3631:
3630:
3612:
3603:(Pt 3b): 541–7.
3588:
3582:
3581:
3571:
3550:(January 2009).
3543:
3537:
3536:
3500:
3494:
3493:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3374:
3368:
3367:
3357:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3286:
3280:
3279:
3269:
3259:
3227:
3218:
3217:
3207:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3132:
3123:
3122:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3069:
3037:
3031:
3030:
3020:
3010:
2986:
2980:
2979:
2969:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2911:
2776:Escherichia coli
2758:Escherichia coli
2750:Escherichia coli
2484:Genetic disorder
2454:Fluctuation Test
2224:Human and mouse
2188:Somatic mutation
2182:Somatic mutation
1960:Escherichia coli
1835:
1834:
1819:
1818:
1546:) are generally
1544:retrotransposons
1200:pyrimidine dimer
1164:Oxidative damage
1159:DNA crosslinkers
1153:ethidium bromide
1079:Induced mutation
985:5-methylcytosine
941:proton tunneling
889:
888:
600:somatic mutation
559:to DNA (such as
493:
486:
479:
466:
461:
460:
356:Medical genetics
352:
347:
346:
180:
161:
160:
132:
125:
121:
118:
112:
110:
69:
45:
37:
21:
12248:
12247:
12243:
12242:
12241:
12239:
12238:
12237:
12208:
12207:
12206:
12194:
12184:
12182:
12170:
12162:
12160:
12155:
12127:
12054:Group selection
12027:
11952:
11856:
11783:
11745:Tempo and modes
11739:
11594:
11498:
11315:
11274:
11150:
11143:
11120:Species complex
10933:
10924:History of life
10900:
10895:
10865:
10860:
10821:Ring chromosome
10781:
10674:
10607:
10511:
10427:
10414:
10378:
10191:
10090:
10075:
10070:
10040:
10035:
9990:
9969:
9955:Silent mutation
9919:
9883:
9878:
9835:
9833:
9828:
9819:
9817:
9809:
9800:
9798:
9776:
9774:
9749:
9744:
9734:
9732:
9714:10.1038/nrg3241
9694:
9690:
9645:
9641:
9625:
9624:
9588:(7571): 68–74.
9574:
9570:
9527:
9523:
9507:
9506:
9454:
9447:
9394:
9387:
9334:
9330:
9277:
9270:
9215:
9211:
9158:
9149:
9090:
9083:
9050:10.1038/ng.1038
9038:Nature Genetics
9030:
9021:
8980:(9): e1002217.
8966:
8959:
8904:
8900:
8857:
8850:
8819:10.1038/nrg1672
8799:
8788:
8735:
8728:
8693:
8689:
8626:
8622:
8579:
8575:
8532:
8525:
8490:
8481:
8428:
8419:
8374:
8370:
8339:
8335:
8298:
8294:
8284:
8282:
8267:
8263:
8222:(25): 15276–9.
8204:
8200:
8189:
8187:
8168:
8167:
8163:
8122:(18): 10214–9.
8108:
8104:
8075:Cancer Research
8067:
8063:
8016:
8012:
7979:(8): e1000183.
7961:
7957:
7918:
7914:
7861:
7857:
7847:
7845:
7835:
7834:
7830:
7820:
7818:
7780:
7776:
7729:
7725:
7678:
7674:
7627:
7623:
7578:
7571:
7534:Biology Letters
7526:
7522:
7475:
7471:
7424:den Dunnen JT,
7422:
7418:
7373:
7369:
7338:
7334:
7289:
7278:
7268:
7266:
7221:
7214:
7183:
7176:
7169:
7155:
7151:
7098:
7094:
7087:
7065:
7061:
7051:
7049:
7036:
7035:
7031:
7021:
7019:
7002:
7001:
6997:
6987:
6985:
6984:on 4 March 2016
6968:
6967:
6963:
6953:
6951:
6938:
6937:
6930:
6875:
6871:
6836:Nature Genetics
6832:
6828:
6793:Nature Genetics
6789:
6785:
6737:
6733:
6710:10.2307/2408444
6691:
6687:
6656:
6652:
6621:
6617:
6580:(5129): 624–6.
6567:
6563:
6508:
6504:
6443:
6439:
6394:
6390:
6353:Biology Letters
6345:
6341:
6310:
6306:
6251:
6244:
6205:
6201:
6156:
6152:
6107:
6103:
6058:
6054:
5999:
5990:
5948:
5944:
5893:
5889:
5836:
5832:
5787:
5783:
5768:
5746:
5742:
5705:
5701:
5649:
5645:
5606:(7317): 832–8.
5592:
5588:
5543:
5539:
5494:
5490:
5443:
5439:
5400:
5396:
5351:
5347:
5302:
5298:
5253:
5249:
5204:
5200:
5168:10.1.1.325.7514
5151:
5147:
5137:
5135:
5106:
5102:
5093:
5089:
5066:
5062:
5004:
5000:
4990:
4988:
4973:
4969:
4914:
4910:
4865:
4861:
4828:(4): e1007995.
4814:
4807:
4752:
4748:
4717:
4713:
4708:Wayback Machine
4698:
4694:
4649:
4645:
4614:(4): 1491–505.
4600:
4596:
4565:(3): 1291–300.
4551:
4547:
4486:
4482:
4421:
4417:
4407:
4405:
4390:
4386:
4345:(17): 7915–22.
4331:
4327:
4312:
4308:
4291:
4290:
4286:
4279:
4263:
4259:
4252:
4236:
4232:
4222:
4220:
4210:
4206:
4199:
4183:
4179:
4156:
4133:
4126:
4116:
4114:
4113:on 4 March 2016
4110:
4088:10.1038/nrg2146
4071:
4067:(August 2007).
4058:
4047:
4002:
3998:
3959:
3955:
3897:
3893:
3856:Genome Research
3848:
3844:
3807:Genome Research
3796:
3792:
3747:
3743:
3696:
3692:
3654:Genome Research
3638:
3634:
3589:
3585:
3544:
3540:
3517:10.1038/nrg1204
3501:
3497:
3462:
3458:
3423:
3419:
3396:
3375:
3371:
3346:10.1038/nrg2593
3322:
3318:
3287:
3283:
3242:(16): 6504–10.
3228:
3221:
3184:
3180:
3143:(5735): 764–7.
3133:
3126:
3087:
3083:
3038:
3034:
2987:
2983:
2952:(11): 701–714.
2938:
2934:
2924:
2922:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2899:
2814:
2801:
2784:
2746:
2741:
2728:
2719:
2706:
2689:
2681:human evolution
2635:inhabitants of
2629:red blood cells
2603:Southern Africa
2556:
2528:
2522:
2486:
2480:
2466:
2458:Replica plating
2441:
2424:spermatogenesis
2398:The genomes of
2387:is about 50–90
2371:
2361:
2297:
2246:
2244:Special classes
2190:
2184:
2144:
2138:
2099:with dedicated
2073:
1973:deep sequencing
1903:
1852:molecular clock
1838:essential genes
1832:
1831:
1816:
1815:
1807:
1801:
1740:Marfan syndrome
1688:Muller's morphs
1670:
1493:gene expression
1485:transcriptional
1465:
1371:point mutations
1367:
1329:Non-homologous
1265:
1259:
1234:
1229:
1214:gamma radiation
1133:, or deletions.
1081:
1034:
1024:
1004:
914:
886:
885:
882:
876:
832:For example, a
799:gene expression
729:protein domains
706:
697:DNA replication
497:
456:
449:
448:
439:
431:
430:
429:
428:
377:
369:
368:
360:
338:
319:
311:
310:
266:
258:
257:
244:
243:
242:
188:
133:
122:
116:
113:
70:
68:
58:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
12246:
12236:
12235:
12230:
12225:
12220:
12205:
12204:
12192:
12180:
12157:
12156:
12154:
12153:
12143:
12132:
12129:
12128:
12126:
12125:
12120:
12115:
12110:
12105:
12104:
12103:
12093:
12088:
12083:
12078:
12073:
12072:
12071:
12066:
12061:
12051:
12046:
12041:
12035:
12033:
12029:
12028:
12026:
12025:
12020:
12019:
12018:
12013:
12008:
12007:
12006:
11996:
11991:
11986:
11981:
11976:
11966:
11960:
11958:
11954:
11953:
11951:
11950:
11945:
11940:
11935:
11930:
11925:
11920:
11915:
11910:
11905:
11904:
11903:
11894:Charles Darwin
11891:
11890:
11889:
11877:
11872:
11866:
11864:
11858:
11857:
11855:
11854:
11849:
11844:
11839:
11834:
11832:Non-ecological
11829:
11824:
11819:
11814:
11809:
11804:
11799:
11793:
11791:
11785:
11784:
11782:
11781:
11772:
11763:
11749:
11747:
11741:
11740:
11738:
11737:
11732:
11731:
11730:
11725:
11720:
11715:
11710:
11700:
11695:
11690:
11685:
11680:
11675:
11670:
11665:
11660:
11655:
11650:
11649:
11648:
11638:
11633:
11628:
11623:
11622:
11621:
11616:
11605:
11603:
11596:
11595:
11593:
11592:
11591:
11590:
11585:
11583:nervous system
11580:
11575:
11570:
11562:
11561:
11560:
11555:
11550:
11545:
11540:
11535:
11525:
11520:
11515:
11509:
11507:
11500:
11499:
11497:
11496:
11491:
11486:
11481:
11476:
11475:
11474:
11464:
11463:
11462:
11457:
11456:
11455:
11450:
11440:
11435:
11430:
11425:
11420:
11419:
11418:
11413:
11403:
11393:
11388:
11387:
11386:
11376:
11371:
11366:
11361:
11360:
11359:
11349:
11344:
11343:
11342:
11332:
11326:
11324:
11317:
11316:
11314:
11313:
11308:
11303:
11298:
11293:
11288:
11282:
11280:
11276:
11275:
11273:
11272:
11267:
11262:
11257:
11256:
11255:
11250:
11245:
11235:
11230:
11225:
11220:
11215:
11214:
11213:
11208:
11198:
11193:
11188:
11187:
11186:
11176:
11171:
11166:
11161:
11155:
11153:
11145:
11144:
11142:
11141:
11140:
11139:
11129:
11124:
11123:
11122:
11117:
11107:
11106:
11105:
11095:
11090:
11085:
11083:Origin of life
11080:
11075:
11070:
11068:Microevolution
11065:
11063:Macroevolution
11060:
11055:
11050:
11049:
11048:
11038:
11033:
11028:
11023:
11018:
11013:
11008:
11003:
11001:Common descent
10998:
10997:
10996:
10986:
10981:
10979:Baldwin effect
10976:
10975:
10974:
10969:
10959:
10954:
10949:
10943:
10941:
10935:
10934:
10932:
10931:
10926:
10921:
10916:
10911:
10905:
10902:
10901:
10894:
10893:
10886:
10879:
10871:
10862:
10861:
10859:
10858:
10857:
10856:
10818:
10813:
10804:
10799:
10793:
10791:
10787:
10786:
10783:
10782:
10780:
10779:
10757:
10743:
10729:
10715:
10701:
10686:
10684:
10680:
10679:
10676:
10675:
10673:
10672:
10658:
10644:
10630:
10615:
10613:
10609:
10608:
10606:
10605:
10600:
10586:
10574:
10560:
10545:
10543:
10536:
10523:
10521:Translocations
10517:
10516:
10513:
10512:
10510:
10509:
10504:
10498:
10497:
10492:
10487:
10481:
10480:
10475:
10470:
10464:
10463:
10458:
10453:
10448:
10443:
10437:
10435:
10416:
10415:
10413:
10412:
10406:
10404:
10395:
10384:
10383:
10380:
10379:
10377:
10376:
10366:
10365:
10364:
10363:
10341:
10340:
10339:
10338:
10328:
10327:
10326:
10316:
10315:
10314:
10304:
10303:
10302:
10284:
10283:
10282:
10272:
10271:
10270:
10260:
10259:
10258:
10244:
10243:
10242:
10232:
10231:
10230:
10201:
10199:
10193:
10192:
10190:
10189:
10188:
10187:
10177:
10172:
10167:
10166:
10165:
10155:
10150:
10145:
10140:
10139:
10138:
10131:Patau syndrome
10128:
10123:
10118:
10113:
10108:
10103:
10097:
10095:
10083:
10077:
10076:
10069:
10068:
10061:
10054:
10046:
10037:
10036:
10034:
10033:
10028:
10023:
10018:
10013:
10008:
10002:
10000:
9996:
9995:
9992:
9991:
9989:
9988:
9983:
9977:
9975:
9971:
9970:
9968:
9967:
9962:
9957:
9952:
9947:
9942:
9936:
9934:
9932:Point mutation
9925:
9921:
9920:
9918:
9917:
9916:
9915:
9910:
9902:
9897:
9891:
9889:
9885:
9884:
9877:
9876:
9869:
9862:
9854:
9848:
9847:
9826:
9807:
9783:
9756:, Woolfson A,
9748:
9747:External links
9745:
9743:
9742:
9708:(8): 565–575.
9688:
9639:
9568:
9521:
9445:
9408:(3): 921–927.
9385:
9328:
9268:
9209:
9147:
9081:
9044:(1): 106–110.
9019:
8974:PLOS Pathogens
8957:
8898:
8871:(1): 249–256.
8848:
8813:(9): 678–687.
8786:
8726:
8707:(1): 203–230.
8687:
8620:
8573:
8523:
8504:(2): 169–183.
8479:
8442:(4): 281–292.
8417:
8368:
8333:
8292:
8261:
8198:
8161:
8102:
8081:(18): 8111–7.
8061:
8010:
7955:
7912:
7855:
7828:
7774:
7737:Genome Biology
7723:
7672:
7621:
7569:
7540:(3): 401–404.
7520:
7469:
7434:Human Mutation
7426:Antonarakis SE
7416:
7367:
7332:
7276:
7235:(3): 1167–76.
7212:
7174:
7167:
7149:
7092:
7085:
7059:
7029:
6995:
6961:
6928:
6869:
6848:10.1038/ng1535
6826:
6805:10.1038/ng1751
6783:
6754:(4): 1519–26.
6742:(April 2003).
6731:
6685:
6666:(10): 569–75.
6650:
6615:
6561:
6502:
6457:(1): S154–64.
6437:
6408:(2): 891–900.
6388:
6339:
6304:
6242:
6199:
6150:
6101:
6052:
5988:
5967:10.1038/nrg700
5942:
5895:Keightley PD,
5887:
5830:
5801:(4): 1171–99.
5781:
5766:
5740:
5699:
5670:(4): 1619–32.
5656:Charlesworth B
5652:Charlesworth D
5643:
5586:
5557:(10): 767–72.
5551:Nature Methods
5537:
5488:
5437:
5404:Human Genetics
5394:
5345:
5316:(2): 319–340.
5296:
5247:
5198:
5145:
5100:
5087:
5060:
5009:(April 1959).
4998:
4967:
4908:
4879:(5): 399–435.
4859:
4805:
4746:
4711:
4692:
4643:
4594:
4545:
4480:
4415:
4384:
4325:
4306:
4284:
4277:
4257:
4250:
4230:
4204:
4197:
4177:
4154:
4124:
4045:
4016:(19): 5491–7.
3996:
3969:(8): 597–606.
3953:
3891:
3842:
3813:(10): 1693–5.
3790:
3761:(10): 985–96.
3741:
3690:
3647:(April 1999).
3632:
3583:
3538:
3511:(11): 865–75.
3495:
3456:
3437:(5): 1155–74.
3417:
3394:
3369:
3316:
3281:
3219:
3178:
3124:
3097:(6): 167–223.
3081:
3032:
2981:
2932:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2800:
2797:
2783:
2780:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2727:
2724:
2718:
2715:
2705:
2702:
2688:
2685:
2645:survival value
2595:bubonic plague
2577:resistance to
2563:HIV resistance
2555:
2552:
2526:Carcinogenesis
2521:
2518:
2479:
2476:
2465:
2462:
2440:
2437:
2374:Mutation rates
2360:
2359:Mutation rates
2357:
2356:
2355:
2348:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2311:DNA diagnostic
2296:
2293:
2292:
2291:
2283:
2245:
2242:
2186:Main article:
2183:
2180:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2126:
2123:
2072:
2071:By inheritance
2069:
2016:
2015:
2011:DNA sequencing
1982:
1981:
1925:as opposed to
1914:, the rate of
1902:
1899:
1864:
1863:
1848:
1841:
1830:A harmful, or
1800:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1775:
1767:
1759:
1715:
1703:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1662:
1661:
1660:
1649:nonsense codon
1641:
1598:
1589:nature of the
1576:
1491:regulation of
1464:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1420:
1409:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1361:
1356:: loss of one
1351:
1350:
1349:
1334:
1327:
1321:
1304:
1293:
1290:
1280:
1258:
1255:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1207:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1151:agents (e.g.,
1145:
1134:
1109:
1099:
1080:
1077:
1023:
1020:
1003:
1000:
999:
998:
992:
962:
948:
913:
910:
878:Main article:
875:
872:
705:
702:
499:
498:
496:
495:
488:
481:
473:
470:
469:
468:
467:
451:
450:
447:
446:
440:
437:
436:
433:
432:
427:
426:
421:
416:
411:
406:
404:Immunogenetics
401:
396:
391:
386:
380:
379:
378:
375:
374:
371:
370:
367:
366:
359:
358:
353:
336:
331:
329:DNA sequencing
326:
320:
317:
316:
313:
312:
309:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
278:
273:
267:
264:
263:
260:
259:
256:
255:
250:
241:
240:
235:
230:
225:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
191:
190:
189:
187:Key components
186:
185:
182:
181:
173:
172:
166:
165:
135:
134:
117:September 2023
49:
47:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12245:
12234:
12231:
12229:
12226:
12224:
12221:
12219:
12216:
12215:
12213:
12203:
12198:
12193:
12191:
12181:
12179:
12174:
12169:
12168:
12165:
12152:
12148:
12144:
12142:
12134:
12133:
12130:
12124:
12121:
12119:
12116:
12114:
12111:
12109:
12106:
12102:
12099:
12098:
12097:
12096:Phylogenetics
12094:
12092:
12089:
12087:
12084:
12082:
12079:
12077:
12074:
12070:
12067:
12065:
12062:
12060:
12057:
12056:
12055:
12052:
12050:
12047:
12045:
12042:
12040:
12037:
12036:
12034:
12030:
12024:
12021:
12017:
12014:
12012:
12009:
12005:
12002:
12001:
12000:
11999:Structuralism
11997:
11995:
11992:
11990:
11987:
11985:
11982:
11980:
11977:
11975:
11974:Catastrophism
11972:
11971:
11970:
11967:
11965:
11962:
11961:
11959:
11955:
11949:
11946:
11944:
11941:
11939:
11936:
11934:
11933:Neo-Darwinism
11931:
11929:
11926:
11924:
11921:
11919:
11916:
11914:
11911:
11909:
11906:
11902:
11901:
11897:
11896:
11895:
11892:
11888:
11887:
11883:
11882:
11881:
11878:
11876:
11873:
11871:
11868:
11867:
11865:
11863:
11859:
11853:
11850:
11848:
11847:Reinforcement
11845:
11843:
11840:
11838:
11835:
11833:
11830:
11828:
11825:
11823:
11820:
11818:
11815:
11813:
11810:
11808:
11805:
11803:
11800:
11798:
11795:
11794:
11792:
11790:
11786:
11780:
11779:Catastrophism
11776:
11773:
11771:
11770:Macromutation
11767:
11766:Micromutation
11764:
11762:
11758:
11754:
11751:
11750:
11748:
11746:
11742:
11736:
11733:
11729:
11726:
11724:
11721:
11719:
11716:
11714:
11711:
11709:
11706:
11705:
11704:
11701:
11699:
11696:
11694:
11691:
11689:
11686:
11684:
11681:
11679:
11676:
11674:
11673:Immune system
11671:
11669:
11666:
11664:
11661:
11659:
11656:
11654:
11651:
11647:
11644:
11643:
11642:
11639:
11637:
11634:
11632:
11629:
11627:
11624:
11620:
11617:
11615:
11612:
11611:
11610:
11607:
11606:
11604:
11602:
11597:
11589:
11586:
11584:
11581:
11579:
11576:
11574:
11571:
11569:
11566:
11565:
11563:
11559:
11556:
11554:
11551:
11549:
11546:
11544:
11541:
11539:
11536:
11534:
11533:symbiogenesis
11531:
11530:
11529:
11526:
11524:
11521:
11519:
11516:
11514:
11511:
11510:
11508:
11506:
11501:
11495:
11492:
11490:
11487:
11485:
11482:
11480:
11477:
11473:
11470:
11469:
11468:
11465:
11461:
11458:
11454:
11451:
11449:
11446:
11445:
11444:
11441:
11439:
11436:
11434:
11431:
11429:
11426:
11424:
11421:
11417:
11414:
11412:
11409:
11408:
11407:
11404:
11402:
11399:
11398:
11397:
11394:
11392:
11389:
11385:
11382:
11381:
11380:
11377:
11375:
11372:
11370:
11367:
11365:
11362:
11358:
11355:
11354:
11353:
11350:
11348:
11345:
11341:
11338:
11337:
11336:
11333:
11331:
11328:
11327:
11325:
11323:
11318:
11312:
11309:
11307:
11304:
11302:
11299:
11297:
11294:
11292:
11289:
11287:
11284:
11283:
11281:
11277:
11271:
11268:
11266:
11263:
11261:
11258:
11254:
11251:
11249:
11246:
11244:
11241:
11240:
11239:
11236:
11234:
11231:
11229:
11226:
11224:
11221:
11219:
11216:
11212:
11209:
11207:
11204:
11203:
11202:
11201:Kin selection
11199:
11197:
11196:Genetic drift
11194:
11192:
11189:
11185:
11182:
11181:
11180:
11177:
11175:
11172:
11170:
11167:
11165:
11162:
11160:
11157:
11156:
11154:
11152:
11146:
11138:
11135:
11134:
11133:
11130:
11128:
11125:
11121:
11118:
11116:
11113:
11112:
11111:
11108:
11104:
11101:
11100:
11099:
11096:
11094:
11091:
11089:
11086:
11084:
11081:
11079:
11076:
11074:
11071:
11069:
11066:
11064:
11061:
11059:
11056:
11054:
11051:
11047:
11044:
11043:
11042:
11039:
11037:
11034:
11032:
11029:
11027:
11024:
11022:
11019:
11017:
11014:
11012:
11009:
11007:
11004:
11002:
10999:
10995:
10992:
10991:
10990:
10987:
10985:
10982:
10980:
10977:
10973:
10970:
10968:
10965:
10964:
10963:
10960:
10958:
10955:
10953:
10950:
10948:
10945:
10944:
10942:
10940:
10936:
10930:
10927:
10925:
10922:
10920:
10917:
10915:
10912:
10910:
10907:
10906:
10903:
10899:
10892:
10887:
10885:
10880:
10878:
10873:
10872:
10869:
10855:
10851:
10847:
10843:
10839:
10835:
10831:
10827:
10824:
10823:
10822:
10819:
10817:
10814:
10812:
10808:
10805:
10803:
10800:
10798:
10795:
10794:
10792:
10788:
10777:
10773:
10769:
10765:
10761:
10758:
10755:
10751:
10747:
10744:
10741:
10737:
10733:
10730:
10727:
10723:
10719:
10716:
10713:
10709:
10705:
10702:
10699:
10695:
10691:
10690:Ewing sarcoma
10688:
10687:
10685:
10681:
10670:
10666:
10662:
10659:
10656:
10652:
10648:
10645:
10642:
10638:
10634:
10631:
10628:
10624:
10620:
10617:
10616:
10614:
10610:
10604:
10601:
10598:
10594:
10590:
10587:
10585:
10582:
10578:
10575:
10572:
10568:
10564:
10561:
10558:
10554:
10550:
10547:
10546:
10544:
10540:
10537:
10535:
10531:
10527:
10524:
10522:
10518:
10508:
10505:
10503:
10500:
10499:
10496:
10493:
10491:
10488:
10486:
10483:
10482:
10479:
10476:
10474:
10471:
10469:
10466:
10465:
10462:
10459:
10457:
10454:
10452:
10449:
10447:
10444:
10442:
10439:
10438:
10436:
10434:
10430:
10425:
10421:
10417:
10411:
10408:
10407:
10405:
10403:
10399:
10396:
10393:
10389:
10385:
10375:
10374:Proximal 18q-
10371:
10368:
10367:
10361:
10357:
10353:
10350:
10349:
10348:
10347:
10343:
10342:
10337:
10334:
10333:
10332:
10329:
10325:
10322:
10321:
10320:
10317:
10313:
10310:
10309:
10308:
10305:
10301:
10298:
10297:
10296:
10292:
10288:
10285:
10281:
10278:
10277:
10276:
10273:
10269:
10266:
10265:
10264:
10261:
10257:
10254:
10253:
10252:
10248:
10245:
10241:
10238:
10237:
10236:
10233:
10229:
10226:
10225:
10223:
10219:
10215:
10211:
10207:
10203:
10202:
10200:
10198:
10194:
10186:
10183:
10182:
10181:
10178:
10176:
10173:
10171:
10168:
10164:
10161:
10160:
10159:
10158:Down syndrome
10156:
10154:
10151:
10149:
10146:
10144:
10141:
10137:
10134:
10133:
10132:
10129:
10127:
10124:
10122:
10119:
10117:
10114:
10112:
10109:
10107:
10104:
10102:
10099:
10098:
10096:
10094:
10089:Duplications,
10087:
10084:
10082:
10078:
10074:
10067:
10062:
10060:
10055:
10053:
10048:
10047:
10044:
10032:
10029:
10027:
10024:
10022:
10019:
10017:
10014:
10012:
10009:
10007:
10004:
10003:
10001:
9997:
9987:
9984:
9982:
9979:
9978:
9976:
9972:
9966:
9963:
9961:
9958:
9956:
9953:
9951:
9948:
9946:
9943:
9941:
9938:
9937:
9935:
9933:
9929:
9926:
9922:
9914:
9911:
9909:
9906:
9905:
9904:Substitution
9903:
9901:
9898:
9896:
9893:
9892:
9890:
9886:
9882:
9875:
9870:
9868:
9863:
9861:
9856:
9855:
9852:
9845:
9831:
9827:
9816:
9812:
9808:
9797:
9793:
9789:
9784:
9773:
9769:
9768:
9763:
9759:
9755:
9751:
9750:
9731:
9727:
9723:
9719:
9715:
9711:
9707:
9703:
9699:
9692:
9684:
9680:
9675:
9670:
9666:
9662:
9658:
9654:
9650:
9643:
9635:
9629:
9621:
9617:
9612:
9607:
9603:
9599:
9595:
9591:
9587:
9583:
9579:
9572:
9564:
9560:
9556:
9552:
9548:
9544:
9540:
9536:
9532:
9525:
9517:
9511:
9503:
9499:
9495:
9491:
9486:
9481:
9476:
9471:
9467:
9463:
9459:
9452:
9450:
9441:
9437:
9432:
9427:
9423:
9419:
9415:
9411:
9407:
9403:
9399:
9392:
9390:
9381:
9377:
9372:
9367:
9363:
9359:
9355:
9351:
9347:
9343:
9339:
9332:
9324:
9320:
9315:
9310:
9306:
9302:
9298:
9294:
9290:
9286:
9282:
9275:
9273:
9264:
9260:
9255:
9250:
9246:
9242:
9237:
9232:
9228:
9224:
9220:
9213:
9205:
9201:
9196:
9191:
9187:
9183:
9179:
9175:
9171:
9167:
9163:
9156:
9154:
9152:
9143:
9139:
9135:
9131:
9127:
9123:
9119:
9115:
9111:
9107:
9103:
9099:
9095:
9088:
9086:
9077:
9073:
9068:
9063:
9059:
9055:
9051:
9047:
9043:
9039:
9035:
9028:
9026:
9024:
9015:
9011:
9006:
9001:
8997:
8993:
8988:
8983:
8979:
8975:
8971:
8964:
8962:
8953:
8949:
8944:
8939:
8935:
8931:
8926:
8921:
8917:
8913:
8912:PLOS Genetics
8909:
8902:
8894:
8890:
8886:
8882:
8878:
8874:
8870:
8866:
8862:
8855:
8853:
8844:
8840:
8836:
8832:
8828:
8824:
8820:
8816:
8812:
8808:
8804:
8797:
8795:
8793:
8791:
8782:
8778:
8773:
8768:
8764:
8760:
8756:
8752:
8748:
8744:
8740:
8733:
8731:
8722:
8718:
8714:
8710:
8706:
8702:
8698:
8691:
8683:
8679:
8674:
8669:
8665:
8661:
8656:
8651:
8647:
8643:
8639:
8635:
8631:
8624:
8616:
8612:
8608:
8604:
8600:
8599:10.1038/80729
8596:
8592:
8588:
8584:
8577:
8569:
8565:
8561:
8557:
8553:
8549:
8545:
8541:
8537:
8530:
8528:
8519:
8515:
8511:
8507:
8503:
8499:
8495:
8488:
8486:
8484:
8475:
8471:
8467:
8463:
8459:
8455:
8450:
8445:
8441:
8437:
8433:
8426:
8424:
8422:
8413:
8409:
8404:
8399:
8395:
8391:
8387:
8383:
8379:
8372:
8364:
8360:
8356:
8352:
8348:
8344:
8337:
8329:
8325:
8320:
8315:
8311:
8307:
8303:
8296:
8280:
8276:
8275:sicklecell.md
8272:
8265:
8257:
8253:
8248:
8243:
8238:
8233:
8229:
8225:
8221:
8217:
8213:
8209:
8202:
8185:
8181:
8177:
8176:
8171:
8165:
8157:
8153:
8148:
8143:
8138:
8133:
8129:
8125:
8121:
8117:
8113:
8106:
8098:
8094:
8089:
8084:
8080:
8076:
8072:
8065:
8057:
8053:
8049:
8045:
8041:
8037:
8033:
8029:
8025:
8021:
8014:
8006:
8002:
7997:
7992:
7987:
7982:
7978:
7974:
7973:PLOS Genetics
7970:
7966:
7959:
7951:
7947:
7943:
7939:
7935:
7931:
7927:
7923:
7916:
7908:
7904:
7899:
7894:
7890:
7886:
7882:
7878:
7874:
7870:
7866:
7859:
7844:
7843:
7838:
7832:
7817:
7813:
7809:
7805:
7801:
7797:
7793:
7789:
7785:
7778:
7770:
7766:
7761:
7756:
7751:
7746:
7742:
7738:
7734:
7727:
7719:
7715:
7710:
7705:
7700:
7695:
7691:
7687:
7683:
7676:
7668:
7664:
7659:
7654:
7649:
7644:
7640:
7636:
7632:
7625:
7617:
7613:
7608:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7591:
7587:
7583:
7576:
7574:
7565:
7561:
7556:
7551:
7547:
7543:
7539:
7535:
7531:
7524:
7516:
7512:
7508:
7504:
7500:
7496:
7492:
7488:
7484:
7480:
7473:
7465:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7448:
7443:
7439:
7435:
7431:
7427:
7420:
7412:
7408:
7403:
7398:
7394:
7390:
7386:
7382:
7378:
7371:
7363:
7359:
7355:
7351:
7347:
7343:
7336:
7328:
7324:
7319:
7314:
7310:
7306:
7303:(4): 339–49.
7302:
7298:
7294:
7287:
7285:
7283:
7281:
7264:
7260:
7256:
7251:
7246:
7242:
7238:
7234:
7230:
7226:
7219:
7217:
7208:
7204:
7200:
7196:
7192:
7188:
7181:
7179:
7170:
7168:9780815344322
7164:
7160:
7153:
7145:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7119:
7115:
7111:
7107:
7103:
7096:
7088:
7082:
7078:
7073:
7072:
7063:
7047:
7043:
7039:
7033:
7017:
7013:
7009:
7007:
6999:
6983:
6979:
6975:
6971:
6965:
6949:
6945:
6941:
6935:
6933:
6924:
6920:
6915:
6910:
6905:
6900:
6896:
6892:
6889:(3): 1113–7.
6888:
6884:
6880:
6873:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6837:
6830:
6822:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6794:
6787:
6779:
6775:
6770:
6765:
6761:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6735:
6727:
6723:
6719:
6715:
6711:
6707:
6703:
6699:
6695:
6689:
6681:
6677:
6673:
6669:
6665:
6661:
6654:
6646:
6642:
6638:
6634:
6630:
6626:
6619:
6611:
6607:
6603:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6587:
6583:
6579:
6575:
6571:
6565:
6557:
6553:
6548:
6543:
6538:
6533:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6517:
6513:
6506:
6498:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6482:
6478:
6473:
6468:
6464:
6460:
6456:
6452:
6448:
6447:Bustamante CD
6441:
6433:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6392:
6384:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6359:(3): 426–30.
6358:
6354:
6350:
6343:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6315:
6308:
6300:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6281:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6264:
6260:
6256:
6249:
6247:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6226:
6222:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6203:
6195:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6154:
6146:
6142:
6137:
6132:
6128:
6124:
6120:
6116:
6112:
6105:
6097:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6067:
6063:
6056:
6048:
6044:
6039:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
5997:
5995:
5993:
5984:
5980:
5976:
5972:
5968:
5964:
5960:
5956:
5952:
5946:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5906:
5902:
5898:
5891:
5883:
5879:
5874:
5869:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5834:
5826:
5822:
5817:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5800:
5796:
5792:
5785:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5767:9780120176243
5763:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5744:
5736:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5719:(2): 133–59.
5718:
5714:
5710:
5703:
5695:
5691:
5686:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5657:
5653:
5647:
5639:
5635:
5630:
5625:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5605:
5601:
5597:
5590:
5582:
5578:
5573:
5568:
5564:
5560:
5556:
5552:
5548:
5541:
5533:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5515:
5511:
5508:(1): 143–56.
5507:
5503:
5499:
5492:
5484:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5456:
5452:
5448:
5441:
5433:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5410:(2): 167–73.
5409:
5405:
5398:
5390:
5386:
5381:
5376:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5356:
5349:
5341:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5323:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5300:
5292:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5251:
5243:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5225:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5202:
5194:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5149:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5116:
5111:
5104:
5097:
5091:
5083:
5079:
5076:(2): 87–105.
5075:
5071:
5064:
5056:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5028:
5024:
5021:(4): 622–33.
5020:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5002:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4971:
4963:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4935:
4931:
4928:(7): e42279.
4927:
4923:
4919:
4912:
4904:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4863:
4855:
4851:
4846:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4827:
4823:
4822:PLOS Genetics
4819:
4812:
4810:
4801:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4750:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4715:
4709:
4705:
4702:
4699:Created from
4696:
4688:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4647:
4639:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4598:
4590:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4549:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4484:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4419:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4388:
4380:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4329:
4321:
4317:
4310:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4288:
4280:
4278:9780128001530
4274:
4270:
4269:
4261:
4253:
4251:9780520227903
4247:
4243:
4242:
4234:
4219:
4218:www.mskcc.org
4215:
4208:
4200:
4194:
4190:
4189:
4181:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4142:
4137:
4131:
4129:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4061:Eyre-Walker A
4056:
4054:
4052:
4050:
4041:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4000:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3957:
3949:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3895:
3887:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3862:(5): 845–51.
3861:
3857:
3853:
3846:
3838:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3794:
3786:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3755:Cell Research
3752:
3745:
3737:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3694:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3661:(4): 317–24.
3660:
3656:
3655:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3636:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3587:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3542:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3499:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3460:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3425:Harrison PM,
3421:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3373:
3365:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3340:(8): 551–64.
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3324:Hastings PJ,
3320:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3285:
3277:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3226:
3224:
3215:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3198:(5): 376–86.
3197:
3193:
3189:
3182:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3131:
3129:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3036:
3028:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2985:
2977:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2936:
2920:
2916:
2910:
2906:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2809:
2807:
2796:
2794:
2793:bacteriophage
2790:
2779:
2777:
2772:
2766:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2736:
2732:
2723:
2714:
2710:
2701:
2699:
2698:genetic drift
2695:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2662:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2540:
2536:
2534:
2527:
2517:
2513:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2485:
2475:
2472:
2461:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2436:
2434:
2430:
2425:
2421:
2420:gametogenesis
2417:
2411:
2409:
2405:
2402:are based on
2401:
2396:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2385:mutation rate
2382:
2377:
2375:
2370:
2366:
2365:Mutation rate
2353:
2349:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2320:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2265:
2260:
2256:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2234:cell division
2231:
2227:
2226:somatic cells
2222:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2206:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2189:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2174:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2158:animals that
2155:
2153:
2152:fertilisation
2149:
2143:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2117:
2112:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2012:
2004:
2000:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1949:, yeast, and
1948:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1917:
1916:genomic decay
1913:
1908:
1898:
1896:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1868:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1829:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1820:or beneficial
1812:
1806:
1793:
1789:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1773:
1772:Atopic eczema
1768:
1765:
1760:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1748:chromosome 15
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1720:semi-dominant
1716:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1675:
1674:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1606:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1501:
1494:
1490:
1489:translational
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1440:coding region
1437:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1398:reading frame
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1372:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1270:
1264:
1254:
1246:
1238:
1224:
1215:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1182:
1181:
1179:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1150:
1149:intercalating
1146:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1131:transversions
1128:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1097:Hydroxylamine
1095:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1073:
1072:tobacco smoke
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1033:
1029:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1009:
996:
993:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
963:
960:
956:
952:
949:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
927:
926:
925:
923:
918:
909:
906:
903:
901:
897:
893:
881:
871:
868:
866:
865:somatic cells
862:
858:
857:genetic drift
854:
850:
846:
843:
839:
835:
827:
823:
822:
817:
813:
811:
807:
802:
800:
796:
792:
788:
783:
781:
777:
774:of the other
773:
769:
765:
761:
756:
754:
753:noncoding DNA
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
725:
723:
719:
718:gene families
715:
711:
701:
698:
694:
693:transcription
689:
685:
680:
677:Mutation and
675:
673:
672:polymorphisms
670:
666:
662:
661:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
635:
633:
629:
625:
621:
620:immune system
617:
613:
609:
601:
597:
592:
588:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
494:
489:
487:
482:
480:
475:
474:
472:
471:
465:
455:
454:
453:
452:
445:
442:
441:
435:
434:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
381:
373:
372:
365:
362:
361:
357:
354:
350:
341:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
321:
315:
314:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
286:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
268:
262:
261:
254:
251:
249:
246:
245:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
192:
184:
183:
179:
175:
174:
171:
168:
167:
163:
162:
156:
152:
148:
143:
139:
131:
128:
120:
109:
106:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78: –
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
12108:Polymorphism
12091:Astrobiology
12039:Biogeography
11994:Saltationism
11984:Orthogenesis
11969:Alternatives
11898:
11884:
11817:Cospeciation
11812:Cladogenesis
11761:Saltationism
11718:Mating types
11641:Color vision
11626:Avian flight
11548:mitochondria
11286:Canalisation
11217:
11164:Biodiversity
10909:Introduction
10344:
10218:TAR syndrome
10121:Tetrasomy 9p
9908:Transversion
9880:
9834:. Retrieved
9818:. Retrieved
9799:. Retrieved
9791:
9775:. Retrieved
9765:
9733:. Retrieved
9705:
9701:
9691:
9659:(1): 32–43.
9656:
9652:
9642:
9628:cite journal
9585:
9581:
9571:
9538:
9534:
9524:
9510:cite journal
9465:
9461:
9405:
9401:
9345:
9341:
9331:
9288:
9284:
9226:
9222:
9212:
9169:
9165:
9101:
9097:
9041:
9037:
8977:
8973:
8915:
8911:
8901:
8868:
8864:
8810:
8806:
8746:
8742:
8704:
8700:
8690:
8640:(10): e141.
8637:
8633:
8623:
8590:
8586:
8576:
8546:(1): 33–41.
8543:
8539:
8501:
8497:
8439:
8435:
8385:
8381:
8371:
8346:
8342:
8336:
8309:
8305:
8295:
8283:. Retrieved
8279:the original
8274:
8264:
8219:
8215:
8206:Galvani AP,
8201:
8188:. Retrieved
8173:
8164:
8119:
8115:
8105:
8078:
8074:
8064:
8023:
8019:
8013:
7976:
7972:
7965:Pritchard JK
7958:
7925:
7921:
7915:
7872:
7868:
7858:
7846:. Retrieved
7840:
7831:
7819:. Retrieved
7791:
7787:
7777:
7740:
7736:
7726:
7689:
7685:
7675:
7638:
7634:
7624:
7589:
7585:
7537:
7533:
7523:
7482:
7478:
7472:
7437:
7433:
7419:
7387:(1): 13–22.
7384:
7380:
7370:
7348:(5): 181–7.
7345:
7341:
7335:
7300:
7296:
7267:. Retrieved
7263:the original
7232:
7228:
7190:
7186:
7158:
7152:
7109:
7105:
7095:
7070:
7062:
7050:. Retrieved
7041:
7032:
7020:. Retrieved
7016:the original
7011:
7005:
6998:
6986:. Retrieved
6982:the original
6976:. New York:
6973:
6964:
6952:. Retrieved
6948:the original
6943:
6886:
6882:
6872:
6842:(4): 441–4.
6839:
6835:
6829:
6799:(4): 484–8.
6796:
6792:
6786:
6751:
6747:
6734:
6701:
6697:
6694:Gillespie JH
6688:
6663:
6659:
6653:
6631:(1): 39–51.
6628:
6624:
6618:
6577:
6573:
6564:
6519:
6515:
6505:
6472:10.1.1.78.65
6454:
6450:
6440:
6405:
6401:
6391:
6356:
6352:
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6317:
6313:
6307:
6262:
6258:
6212:
6202:
6170:(2): 603–9.
6167:
6163:
6153:
6118:
6114:
6104:
6069:
6065:
6055:
6010:
6006:
5961:(1): 11–21.
5958:
5954:
5945:
5904:
5900:
5890:
5850:(1): 18577.
5847:
5843:
5833:
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5794:
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5712:
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5667:
5663:
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5313:
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5299:
5267:(1): 24–40.
5264:
5260:
5250:
5218:(17): e118.
5215:
5211:
5201:
5161:(1): 39–59.
5158:
5154:
5148:
5136:. Retrieved
5113:
5103:
5090:
5073:
5069:
5063:
5018:
5014:
5001:
4989:. Retrieved
4985:the original
4980:
4970:
4925:
4921:
4911:
4876:
4872:
4862:
4825:
4821:
4763:
4759:
4749:
4727:(1): 61–99.
4724:
4720:
4714:
4695:
4660:
4656:
4646:
4611:
4607:
4597:
4562:
4558:
4548:
4497:
4493:
4483:
4432:
4428:
4418:
4406:. Retrieved
4402:the original
4397:
4387:
4342:
4338:
4328:
4320:The Guardian
4319:
4309:
4296:
4287:
4271:. Elsevier.
4267:
4260:
4240:
4233:
4221:. Retrieved
4217:
4207:
4187:
4180:
4140:
4115:. Retrieved
4108:the original
4082:(8): 610–8.
4079:
4075:
4065:Keightley PD
4013:
4009:
3999:
3966:
3962:
3956:
3911:
3907:
3894:
3859:
3855:
3845:
3810:
3806:
3793:
3758:
3754:
3744:
3707:
3704:PLOS Biology
3703:
3693:
3658:
3652:
3635:
3600:
3596:
3586:
3562:(1): 66–78.
3559:
3555:
3541:
3508:
3504:
3498:
3473:
3469:
3459:
3434:
3430:
3420:
3381:
3372:
3337:
3333:
3319:
3294:
3290:
3284:
3239:
3235:
3195:
3191:
3181:
3140:
3136:
3094:
3090:
3084:
3052:(1): 15–24.
3049:
3045:
3035:
2998:
2994:
2984:
2949:
2945:
2935:
2925:24 September
2923:. Retrieved
2918:
2909:
2802:
2785:
2775:
2770:
2767:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2747:
2733:
2729:
2720:
2711:
2707:
2690:
2666:
2665:
2660:
2659:
2652:
2616:
2615:
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2561:
2557:
2541:
2537:
2529:
2514:
2507:
2501:
2487:
2470:
2467:
2449:
2442:
2433:UV radiation
2412:
2397:
2388:
2380:
2378:
2372:
2305:
2298:
2295:Nomenclature
2285:
2262:
2249:
2223:
2208:
2205:
2197:
2191:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2156:
2147:
2145:
2113:
2094:
2057:
2049:H. Allen Orr
2041:
2020:Motoo Kimura
2017:
1958:
1950:
1904:
1891:
1880:
1876:
1870:
1866:
1865:
1823:
1814:
1808:
1752:glycoprotein
1708:heterozygote
1671:
1648:
1591:genetic code
1572:
1552:
1521:
1513:genetic code
1416:
1406:gene product
1368:
1342:Glioblastoma
1297:fusion genes
1266:
1251:
1221:
1169:Nitrous acid
1142:ochratoxin A
1123:-nitrosourea
1120:
1116:
1102:Base analogs
1086:
1085:
1082:
1066:, the major
1058:between the
1035:
1005:
981:hypoxanthine
953:– Loss of a
951:Depurination
937:base pairing
916:
915:
907:
904:
883:
869:
847:
836:may produce
831:
819:
803:
795:human genome
791:Alu sequence
784:
768:chromosome 2
757:
743:and one for
741:color vision
726:
707:
676:
658:
636:
622:, including
605:
508:
502:
424:Quantitative
394:Cytogenetics
389:Conservation
271:Introduction
138:
123:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
12118:Systematics
11989:Mutationism
11807:Catagenesis
11735:Snake venom
11668:Eusociality
11646:in primates
11636:Cooperation
11564:In animals
11384:butterflies
11357:Cephalopods
11347:Brachiopods
11279:Development
11253:Mate choice
11006:Convergence
10989:Coevolution
10947:Abiogenesis
10507:46,XX/46,XY
10424:tetrasomies
10370:Distal 18q-
9772:BBC Radio 4
9767:In Our Time
9758:Partridge L
9541:(1): 7–19.
8593:: 954–956.
8349:: 297–319.
8312:: 579–596.
7848:12 February
7440:(1): 7–12.
5451:BMC Biology
4663:: 181–211.
4117:6 September
3710:(7): E206.
3476:: 867–900.
3466:Thornton JM
3464:Orengo CA,
2850:Ecogenetics
2824:Antioxidant
2581:and delays
2579:homozygotes
2429:skin cancer
2400:RNA viruses
2324:genomic DNA
2255:temperature
2053:exponential
1920:outcrossing
1907:mutagenesis
1833:deleterious
1680:null allele
1564:translation
1540:pseudogenes
1517:amino acids
1338:astrocytoma
1308:chromosomes
1269:chromosomal
1184:Ultraviolet
1138:DNA adducts
1127:transitions
1064:benzopyrene
1042:nucleotides
965:Deamination
929:Tautomerism
887:spontaneous
880:Mutagenesis
787:transposons
780:new species
758:Changes in
710:duplication
565:ultraviolet
151:duplication
12212:Categories
11979:Lamarckism
11957:Philosophy
11880:David Hume
11842:Peripatric
11837:Parapatric
11822:Ecological
11802:Anagenesis
11797:Allopatric
11789:Speciation
11753:Gradualism
11678:Metabolism
11538:chromosome
11528:Eukaryotes
11306:Modularity
11223:Population
11149:Population
11110:Speciation
11088:Panspermia
11041:Extinction
11036:Exaptation
11011:Divergence
10984:Cladistics
10972:Reciprocal
10952:Adaptation
10502:45,X/46,XY
10402:Monosomies
10175:Trisomy 22
10153:Trisomy 18
10143:Trisomy 16
10091:including
9913:Transition
9836:18 October
9820:18 October
9801:18 October
9777:18 October
9735:9 December
9229:: e00631.
8190:10 October
7842:U.C. Davis
7821:9 December
7743:(1): 241.
5457:(1): 116.
5110:"Mutation"
4975:Rahman N.
4507:2110.00113
4500:(1): 109.
3641:Gregory TR
3427:Gerstein M
3404:2003027991
3378:Carroll SB
3001:: e02001.
2902:References
2870:Polyploidy
2855:Embryology
2819:Aneuploidy
2654:Plasmodium
2633:indigenous
2625:hemoglobin
2573:) confers
2524:See also:
2482:See also:
2471:Drosophila
2446:DNA repair
2393:sequencing
2345:N-terminus
2302:biologists
2024:geneticist
1951:Drosophila
1927:inbreeding
1887:transposon
1803:See also:
1780:intragenic
1657:Stop codon
1624:-mediated
1587:degenerate
1569:stop codon
1473:eukaryotic
1444:synonymous
1427:pyrimidine
1415:bases) in
1402:frameshift
1378:Insertions
1287:speciation
1283:Polyploidy
1261:See also:
1196:pyrimidine
1180:Radiation
1093:Chemicals
1060:metabolite
1032:DNA repair
1026:See also:
969:Hydrolysis
760:chromosome
679:DNA damage
669:amino acid
660:Drosophila
419:Population
399:Ecological
324:Geneticist
238:Amino acid
220:Nucleotide
195:Chromosome
87:newspapers
76:"Mutation"
12113:Protocell
11964:Darwinism
11852:Sympatric
11601:processes
11489:Tetrapods
11438:Kangaroos
11364:Dinosaurs
11301:Inversion
11270:Variation
11191:Gene flow
11184:Inclusive
10994:Mutualism
10939:Evolution
10420:Trisomies
10197:Deletions
10116:Trisomy 9
10111:Trisomy 8
10093:trisomies
10081:Autosomal
9895:Insertion
9844:Mutalyzer
9555:0973-7731
9494:1465-2099
9485:1765/8466
9422:1943-2631
9362:1867-2469
9305:0962-8452
9245:2050-084X
9186:0016-6731
9126:1095-9203
9058:1546-1718
8996:1553-7366
8934:1553-7404
8885:0022-2836
8827:1471-0056
8763:1867-2469
8721:1543-592X
8664:1553-7358
8560:0169-5347
8510:0003-455X
8458:1868-503X
8208:Slatkin M
7950:257585761
7928:(2): 12.
7515:205260431
7193:: 40–55.
7112:: 15183.
7022:9 October
7008:Genetics"
6988:9 October
6698:Evolution
6467:CiteSeerX
6209:Lenski RE
5951:Barton NH
5937:198157678
5163:CiteSeerX
5138:8 October
4540:238253421
4532:2399-3650
4475:231788542
4459:1463-9076
4408:2 October
3645:Hebert PD
3556:Structure
3326:Lupski JR
2490:germ cell
2274:promoters
2116:wild type
2081:moss rose
1895:nutrition
1877:deletions
1854:. In the
1736:PPARgamma
1692:recessive
1412:Deletions
1346:oncogenic
1074:, and DNA
945:tautomers
838:offspring
834:butterfly
828:butterfly
824:, a Late
806:gene pool
764:Homininae
737:cone cell
733:human eye
634:can act.
612:evolution
608:phenotype
577:insertion
414:Molecular
409:Microbial
384:Classical
285:molecular
281:Evolution
155:inversion
12218:Mutation
12190:Medicine
12141:Category
12016:Vitalism
12011:Theistic
12004:Spandrel
11688:Morality
11683:Monogamy
11558:plastids
11523:Flagella
11479:Reptiles
11460:sea cows
11443:primates
11352:Molluscs
11330:Bacteria
11218:Mutation
11151:genetics
11127:Taxonomy
11073:Mismatch
11053:Homology
10967:Cheating
10962:Altruism
10542:Lymphoid
10534:lymphoma
10530:Leukemia
9900:Deletion
9881:Mutation
9846:website.
9730:21702926
9722:22805709
9683:21962505
9620:26432245
9502:15914859
9440:10049911
9402:Genetics
9380:36345285
9323:19324785
9263:23682315
9204:11102350
9166:Genetics
9134:16809538
9076:22179134
9014:21909268
8952:20975933
8893:17059831
8843:13236893
8835:16074985
8781:36345285
8682:17054393
8607:11103998
8568:24148292
8518:23736523
8466:25962036
8412:34341983
8363:28426286
8328:28697667
8285:16 April
8256:14645720
8184:Archived
8156:11517319
8097:16166284
8005:18769710
7942:36933070
7907:35022609
7816:21436607
7769:27894357
7718:36226191
7667:36226191
7616:20308090
7564:19364710
7507:28959963
7464:84706224
7456:10612815
7411:19596904
7381:Genetics
7327:24692485
7269:21 March
7259:11454765
7229:Genetics
7207:26281767
7144:28485371
7052:31 March
7046:Archived
6974:MedTerms
6923:11158603
6864:20296781
6856:15778707
6813:16550173
6778:12702694
6748:Genetics
6726:28555784
6680:16820244
6645:10570982
6570:Kimura M
6556:12925735
6497:18051307
6489:15008412
6432:16547091
6402:Genetics
6383:17148422
6334:10481013
6299:21464309
6213:Genetica
6194:20382832
6164:Genetics
6145:20478892
6096:17898073
6047:15159545
5975:11823787
5929:12703958
5882:31819097
5795:Genetics
5735:16709275
5664:Genetics
5638:20881960
5581:19767758
5532:21185072
5483:29207982
5432:22290041
5424:11281456
5389:27841866
5359:Oncogene
5310:Genetics
5291:27795562
5242:21727090
5193:12968143
5185:17015226
5132:Archived
5128:72808636
5055:16590424
5007:Freese E
4962:22860105
4922:PLOS ONE
4903:17917874
4854:30933985
4800:16157879
4741:17195275
4704:Archived
4701:PDB 1JDG
4687:20192759
4608:Genetics
4589:10757770
4559:Genetics
4467:33533770
4301:Archived
4164:82022225
4138:(1983).
4136:Kimura M
4104:10868777
4096:17637733
4040:17020921
3983:11483984
3948:15851677
3900:Ayala FJ
3886:15123584
3837:19797681
3799:Siepel A
3785:18711447
3736:15252449
3685:16791399
3677:10207154
3627:12851209
3578:19141283
3546:Wang M,
3533:33999892
3525:14634634
3490:15954844
3451:12083509
3412:53972564
3364:19597530
3276:17409186
3214:15207870
3173:11640993
3165:16051794
3119:24155688
3111:11173079
3076:26033759
3027:24843013
2976:26439531
2860:Homeobox
2812:See also
2611:smallpox
2591:European
2587:etiology
2571:CCR5-Δ32
2498:albinism
2306:standard
2230:germline
2211:grafting
2202:germline
2196:mutation
2176:mutation
2089:germline
1947:bacteria
1860:junk DNA
1811:genetics
1712:dominant
1630:arginine
1452:missense
1386:splicing
1192:cytosine
1053:covalent
933:hydrogen
896:mutagens
745:rod cell
704:Overview
581:deletion
521:organism
509:mutation
464:Category
349:template
340:Genomics
318:Research
224:Mutation
215:Heredity
170:Genetics
153:(2) and
147:deletion
12178:Biology
12164:Portals
12032:Related
11862:History
11723:Meiosis
11658:Empathy
11653:Emotion
11553:nucleus
11494:Viruses
11484:Spiders
11396:Mammals
11379:Insects
11179:Fitness
11115:Species
10914:Outline
10770:) t (1
10637:RUNX1T1
10612:Myeloid
10433:mosaics
9754:Jones S
9674:3656718
9611:4750478
9590:Bibcode
9431:1460516
9371:9636336
9314:2674493
9254:3654441
9195:1461348
9142:7454895
9106:Bibcode
9098:Science
9067:3246538
9005:3164647
8943:2958800
8772:9636336
8673:1617134
8642:Bibcode
8474:6540447
8403:9292366
8224:Bibcode
8124:Bibcode
8056:4254940
8048:8505985
8028:Bibcode
7996:2515631
7967:(ed.).
7898:8810380
7877:Bibcode
7796:Bibcode
7760:5125044
7709:9550265
7658:9550265
7607:2871823
7555:2679939
7487:Bibcode
7402:2746138
7362:8984733
7318:4142476
7250:1461716
7135:5436103
7114:Bibcode
6891:Bibcode
6821:6954765
6769:1462510
6718:2408444
6610:4161261
6602:5637732
6582:Bibcode
6524:Bibcode
6459:Bibcode
6423:1526495
6374:1686194
6314:Science
6290:3093508
6267:Bibcode
6237:2267064
6229:9720287
6185:2881140
6136:2880115
6087:2169111
6015:Bibcode
5983:8934412
5921:3094781
5897:Lynch M
5873:6901466
5852:Bibcode
5825:9093868
5816:1207886
5776:3324702
5694:8601499
5685:1206892
5629:2955183
5608:Bibcode
5572:2957483
5523:3060659
5474:5718017
5380:6609160
5340:5324068
5331:1210853
5282:5206767
5233:3177186
5023:Bibcode
4991:27 June
4953:3409178
4930:Bibcode
4894:3319127
4845:6443146
4791:1224634
4768:Bibcode
4678:3079308
4638:9560369
4629:1460101
4580:1460990
4512:Bibcode
4437:Bibcode
4379:8367443
4347:Bibcode
4297:NPR.org
4172:9081989
4031:1636486
3991:2715605
3939:1131864
3916:Bibcode
3828:2765273
3776:2712117
3619:9775215
3355:2864001
3311:3898363
3291:Science
3267:1871816
3244:Bibcode
3145:Bibcode
3137:Science
3067:4586358
3018:3999860
2967:4638128
2677:lactose
2673:lactase
2641:malaria
2627:in the
2544:UV rays
2389:de novo
2279:inteins
2264:In vivo
2194:somatic
2173:de novo
2164:budding
2109:somatic
2085:somatic
2032:bimodal
1994:fitness
1872:E. coli
1824:neutral
1817:harmful
1696:haploid
1655:. (See
1638:neutral
1548:neutral
1536:introns
1432:adenine
1388:of the
1310:called
1301:bcr-abl
1299:(e.g.,
1140:(e.g.,
1119:-ethyl-
1114:(e.g.,
1108:(BrdU))
1104:(e.g.,
1068:mutagen
989:thymine
959:AP site
853:fitness
772:lineage
686:, or a
665:protein
655:species
553:meiosis
549:mitosis
515:of the
505:biology
276:History
248:Outline
101:scholar
12151:Portal
11827:Hybrid
11663:Ethics
11505:organs
11467:Plants
11453:lemurs
11448:humans
11433:horses
11423:hyenas
11411:wolves
11406:canids
11340:origin
10722:COL1A1
10394:linked
9842:– The
9728:
9720:
9681:
9671:
9618:
9608:
9582:Nature
9563:129866
9561:
9553:
9500:
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9428:
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8247:299980
8244:
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8144:
8095:
8054:
8046:
8020:Nature
8003:
7993:
7948:
7940:
7905:
7895:
7869:Nature
7814:
7767:
7757:
7716:
7706:
7665:
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7614:
7604:
7562:
7552:
7513:
7505:
7479:Nature
7462:
7454:
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7399:
7360:
7325:
7315:
7257:
7247:
7205:
7165:
7142:
7132:
7083:
6954:6 June
6921:
6911:
6862:
6854:
6819:
6811:
6776:
6766:
6740:Orr HA
6724:
6716:
6678:
6643:
6608:
6600:
6574:Nature
6554:
6547:193562
6544:
6495:
6487:
6469:
6430:
6420:
6381:
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