1750:(NCC), set up by the British Government in Manchester. Initially, it was a very flexible, parameter-driven report generator with later versions allowing extensive file handling capabilities. The product was first known as NITA (Nineteen Hundred Tabulator) and later became known as TABN (Tabulator Nineteen Hundred). It would run on the ICL 1900 Series of machines, and later on both the 2900 Series and 3900 Series computers. TABN statements were either interpreted from punched cards at run-time, or they could be compiled to produce a program that could simply be executed. One of the attractions of writing programs in Filetab was its short development time.
2819:
2727:
2640:
2588:
1787:"About January 1965, there was a meeting in my office, while I was away abroad, discussing different ways of allotting functions between the proposed operating system and Executive. Scheme A was discussed and rejected. Scheme B ditto. And Schemes C, D, E and F were also discarded in quick succession. When Scheme G came up, everybody was happy, and it was decided to adopt it. The "
273:, comprising a 16K word 1902 with an 80-column 980-card/minute reader, a card punch, a 600 line/min printer and 4 x 20kchar/s tape drives. It was soon upgraded to a 32K word memory and a floating point unit to allow for some scientific work. The same company had also been the first to order ICT's first computer, the HEC4 (later ICT 1201), in 1955.
1236:, a simple operating system that allowed the operator using the system console to load programs from magnetic tape, cards or paper tape, allocate peripherals to programs and attribute priorities to running programs. Executive performed all the I/O operations on behalf of user programs, allowing allocation of different peripherals as needed.
1640:– Financial planning system (not the forerunner of today's spreadsheet programs that were originated by accountants more than one hundred years ago in the form of Analysis Ledgers). PROSPER (Profit Simulation, Planning and Evaluation of Risk) package extended the previous work contained in PROP (Profit Rating of Projects).
894:
integrated circuits in the new 1906A (which was based on the original 1906 rather than the dual processor 1904 of the 1906E/F). There was a proposal to build a multiprocessor version of the 1906A, the 1908A (known internally as
Project 51), which would allow ICL to compete with the large CDC and IBM
358:
The largest change between the original FP6000 and the 1900 series was the inclusion of the ICT standard interface for connection of peripherals. This allowed connection of any ICT peripheral to any processor of the series, and owners could upgrade their processors while keeping the same peripherals
1413:
The compilers were released in various versions, of increasing sophistication. Initially paper tape and cards were used for input and output; later magnetic tape and finally disk files. The first versions of the compilers ran in very limited space, starting around 4K words for PLAN and NICOL and as
652:
register, preventing one program interfering with another. The System/360 gave each process and every 2048-byte block of memory a four-bit key, and if a process key did not match the memory block key an exception would result. The 1900 system required programs to occupy a contiguous area of memory
376:
into the executive. The executive would then communicate with the appropriate peripheral via the
Standard Interface, using functions not available to user processes. The subsequent data transfers would then occur across this interface, autonomously without further program involvement. The conclusion
1347:
on disk or tape. The jobs were then run, writing output to disk or tape spool files, which were then written to the output peripherals. The input/processing/output stages were run in parallel, increasing machine utilisation. On larger machines it was possible to run multiple jobs simultaneously.
664:
The System/360 had the advantage of a larger word and character size; its 32-bit words were large enough for (low accuracy) floating point numbers whereas the 1900 needed at least two words. The eight-bit byte of the System/360 allowed manipulation of lowercase characters without the complex shift
246:
One major consideration was that the FP6000 was already running, while the RCA Spectra range would take some years to become available. In the end, the decision was made to go with a range of machines based on the FP6000. The centrepiece of the new range was the ICT 1904, a version of the FP6000
1290:. Disk based executives included features to simplify disk operations, handling file management (creation, renaming, deletion, resizing) on behalf of user programs. Files were identified by 12 character names and a user program did not need to know which physical disk was being used for a file.
346:
On the original models the address size was 15 bits, allowing up to 32K words of memory. Later models added 22-bit addressing, allowing a theoretical 4Mword maximum memory. Instructions contained a 12-bit operand, either fixed or offset from an index register. Branch instructions held a 15-bit
1056:
As the larger models of the new range were being introduced it was decided that the lower models of the 1900 range were becoming uncompetitive. To refresh the range new models were released. In each case the model was simply based on the next higher model of the previous range, the 1903T being
238:
series, a family of compatible machines spanning nearly the complete range of customer needs. It was immediately obvious that ICT would need a coherent response. Two paths were available: develop a range of machines based on the FP6000, using the flexibility of its design to produce smaller or
1118:
entry-level machine, which began to cut into sales of the ICL 1901 and 1902 models. To recapture the market, an ICL project known internally as PF73 was started, based on an ICL Stevenage-developed microprogrammed machine known as MICOS-1, which came to market in 1973 as the ICL 2903 and 2904.
653:
but allowed processes to be relocated during execution, simplifying the work of the operating system. The 1900 also allowed any process direct access to the first 4096 words of its address space. (Both the 1900 and 360 had a 12-bit operand field, but on the 360 addresses were
1270:
An extended version of the FP6000 executive was provided with the ICT 1904/1905, and new versions were written for the ICT 1906/7 and ICT 1901/2/3. An important task of these different versions was to hide the hardware differences between the different machines, providing
1084:
Delivery started in 1973. As the 1903T was based on the 1904S it was available with a paging unit and could run George 4. The processor clock and memory cycle time were slower than the 1904S, allowing the use of cheaper parts. The 1903T was built at the ICL West Gorton
693:). For compatibility with the other machines a 24-bit operation was performed by the processor as four 6-bit operations. Based on the PF183 developed by ICT Stevenage. The 1901 was announced and released after the other members of the initial range, in response to the
315:
The accumulators were addressable as if they were the first eight words of memory, giving the effect of register-to-register instructions with no extra operation codes being needed. The hardware registers were an optional feature, and if not fitted the accumulators
1355:
status that allowed them to control user programs). George 3 was a complete operating system in itself, it used a much reduced executive responsible only for handling low level hardware access. George 3 implemented both batch processing and
1279:. The concept was that applications, and later operating systems, were written to run on the combination of the hardware and the executive, and so would run on any member of the series, no matter how different the underlying hardware was.
1123:
numbering, these machines used the ICL 1900 instruction set and ran 1900 software, although a microprogram was available that provided an IBM-360 instruction set to allow them to run IBM software. The 2903/2904 were released with an
1266:
within programs (each program could be split into up to four sub-programs, sharing the same address space, which were also time shared. While one sub-program was waiting for peripheral activity another could continue processing).
387:
The hardware floating-point unit, if fitted, ran autonomously. After a floating-point operation was started, integer instructions could be run in parallel until the result of the floating-point operation was needed.
426:(branch on character indexing) instruction decremented the counter and incremented the character offset, incrementing the word address if the character offset overflowed, branching if the count had not reached zero.
774:
The execution time for an addition instruction ("add the contents of store location x to register y") ranged from 2.5 μs for a 1906 or 1907 with 1.1 μs core store, to 34 μs for a 1901 with 6 μs core store.
873:
In 1969 the 1900 A series was delivered, replacing the remaining machines from the initial series and the E/F machines. The original discrete germanium semiconductor implementations were replaced by
1199:
Second generation "S3E" (microcoded) versions of the larger New Range systems (such as the 2960/2966 from West Gorton, and the later 2940/50 from
Stevenage), could run 1900 series code under DME (
1304:
In
December 1964, ICT set up an Operating Systems Branch to develop a new operating system for the 1906/7. The branch was initially staffed with people being released by the end of work on the
1163:
In an effort to increase sales to ICL customers, and to profit from the difficulties ICL were having moving customers from the 1900 to the New Range, IBM introduced a microcode package for the
665:
sequences of the 1900. However, in the early days the smaller word size of the 1900 was seen as a cost advantage, as the memory could be 25% cheaper for the same number of words.
1581:
with the basic system, including the compilers and utility programs. Other software was available as paid options from ICT or other sources, including such exotic packages as
906:
With the A series a hardware floating point unit was made an optional feature of all machines, instead of having a different model number for floating point equipped machines.
384:
for example) were also implemented as extracodes. The combination of the executive and hardware provided the same interface to programs running on any model of the range.
768:
A machine similar to the 1905 but with a slow 6μs store comparable to the 1902. Designed for
Universities who needed floating point but found the 1905 too expensive.
2133:
1799:
nvironment' was also quickly formulated as the official expansion of the acronym. But the name 'GEORGE' was in any case a natural choice: it had echoes of aircraft
980:
In April 1971 ICL announced the S series of machines, replacing the core store of the earlier machines with semiconductor memory in most of the range and very fast
2202:
1305:
924:
operating system, GEORGE 4 which was compatible with GEORGE 3 but used paged virtual memory in place of the simple base/limit system of the earlier machines.
323:
A notable feature of the series was the hardware support for running multiple processes – every process ran in an independent address space, enforced by
1145:
910:
179:
752:
A new processor designed by ICT West Gorton with a 48-bit wide memory pathway and a 22-bit addressing mode. Delivered with up to 256Kwords of memory.
1240:
251:
unit (formerly part of
Ferranti). To meet the needs of smaller customers, smaller machines, the ICT 1901 and ICT 1902/3, were developed by the ICT
2927:
1141:
840:
The original 1906 had not been as fast as hoped, therefore the new top of the range machines were actually dual-processor versions of the 1904E.
411:
A 9-bit counter and a 15-bit modifier (address) field. A loop instruction decremented the counter and incremented the address either by 1 or 2.
2105:
1414:
little as 16K words for FORTRAN and ALGOL. Later versions for the George 3 and 4 operating systems expanded to sizes as large as 48K words.
433:
instruction incremented the character offset, incremented the word address if the character offset overflowed, and branched unconditionally.
247:
with the ICT standard peripheral interface. For higher-end machines, a new larger processor, the ICT 1906, was to be developed by the ICT
1211:
was developed, which allowed DME and VME to co-exist (and run) concurrently on the same platform, similar to the functionality offered by
456:
The first word held a 24-bit two's complement signed number, subsequent words held 23-bit extensions with the high bit used for internal
2295:
888:
277:
1336:, peripherals and magnetic tape files were dynamically allocated to the job which was then run, producing output on the line printer.
913:
addressing mode and extended branch mode introduced by the 1906 was extended to the 1902A and 1903A, but not the much smaller 1901A.
854:
Improvements to the memory subsystems of these machines, replacing the 1.8μs core with 0.75μs core, were introduced as the F series.
205:, to a design known as Harriac that had been initiated in Ferranti by Harry Johnson and fleshed out by Stanley Gill and John Iliffe.
429:
In 22-bit addressing mode the counter was unavailable, and the format was a two-bit character offset and a 22-bit word address. The
320:
the first eight words of memory. The large number of optional features in the FP6000 design gave ICT great flexibility in pricing.
1239:
Despite its simplicity executive was, for the time, quite powerful, allocating memory to programs as needed (rather than the fixed
239:
larger machines, or cooperate with RCA who were re-targeting their development to a System/360 compatible range to be known as the
1997:
1968:
1939:
1910:
2258:
1263:
312:, which could be used as four six-bit characters; instructions were provided for copying single characters to and from memory.
61:
27:
824:
Some improvements were made to the original 1904 and the new 22-bit addressing mode developed for the 1906 was made available.
414:
This format was only available in 15-bit addressing mode. In 22-bit mode the counter and address were kept in separate words.
1887:
1832:
1076:
Delivery started in 1974. The 1902T was based on the 1903S with an integrated disk controller and integrated VDU controller.
1553:
1020:
1262:
To allow more efficient use of peripherals, as well running multiple programs simultaneously, executive allowed a limited
2773:
2141:
2206:
34:(ICL) during the 1960s and 1970s. The 1900 series was notable for being one of the few non-American competitors to the
2822:
865:
on 9 July 1968. Thus although the E series had been designed by ICT many, if not all, were delivered with ICL badges).
545:
shift, indicating the next character was a control character. Thus the ASCII string "Hello World" would be encoded as "
1191:
between 1971 and 1978. By agreement with ICL the Odra machines ran standard ICL software (executive E6RM, George 3).
1857:
1259:
registers which made programs address independent and avoided one program accessing the memory allocated to another.
2932:
2922:
895:
machines in
Universities and research centers but it was eventually abandoned in favor of accelerating work on the
1516:
initially ported the CDC Pascal compiler to the 1900, then wrote a completely new and well-engineered replacement.
2534:
2267:
1103:
877:
862:
65:
31:
2768:
2730:
2529:
2866:
1513:
1509:
347:
offset, allowing access to all memory on the initial range. When the address size was increased to 22 bits,
212:. ICT considered using the FP6000 as their medium-sized processor in the 1965–1968 timeframe, replacing the
1782:
644:
provided hardware support for multi-programming. On the 1900, all user memory addresses were modified by a
2778:
2758:
2230:
1372:
506:
Since the ICT 1900 used a six-bit character it was largely limited to a 64-character repertoire, with only
1321:
881:
2881:
2876:
2591:
2251:
1200:
1155:, implying that the ME29 was faster than the original ICT 1904, approaching the speed of the ICT 1906.
858:
355:) and relative branches were added to the instruction set to allow access to the larger address space.
2059:
1526:
produced a FORTRAN 77 compiler for George 3. It was unusual in that it used 8-bit characters and the
736:
The ICT West Gorton processor derived from the FP6000 with the addition of the ICT standard interface.
2937:
2871:
2783:
2643:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2320:
2084:
1747:
1499:
1476:
1426:
1299:
921:
340:
122:
2080:
2861:
2846:
2830:
2109:
1874:
1565:
1472:
1179:
1300 series (Odra 1304, Odra 1305 and Odra 1325) were a range of 1900 compatible machines built by
1023:
logic used, giving a 30% performance increase. 500ns semiconductor store. Used by Brian Wyvill of
155:
2236:
1064:
Delivery started in 1974. The 1901T was based on the 1902S with an integrated disk controller and
728:
The same processor as the 1902, but with 2μs core in place of the 6μs core supplied with the 1902.
262:. The following week two working systems were demonstrated at the Business Equipment Exhibition,
1489:
1324:
computer. The initial versions, George 1 (for the ICT 1901, 1902 and 1903 machines) was a simple
1212:
1152:
1148:, the ME29 was sold as a replacement for the 2903 and 2904, still executing the 1900 order code.
1065:
694:
270:
228:
The initial 1900 range did not suffer from the many years of careful planning behind the IBM 360.
716:
or CCF was available to add hardware multiply and divide. An optional floating point unit, the
786:. The 1901 was operated from console switches, with a console available as an optional extra.
2175:
1151:
An EMMY processor emulating the IBM 360 order code was estimated to be around the speed of an
331:
registers. No user process could access the memory of any other process. Later models added
2310:
2305:
2244:
1523:
1283:
891:
690:
198:
90:
258:
On 29 September 1964 the ICT 1900 range was announced in a filmed presentation, scripted by
2813:
2798:
2539:
2036:
216:. Another plan being considered was to license a new range of machines being developed by
42:
495:
Handled in software on all but 1906/7 processors with the extended floating-point feature.
8:
442:
2277:
1452:
1042:
985:
565:
457:
377:
of the transfers (or error if any) would similarly be indicated back to the executive.
293:
148:
23:
1712:– Online data entry and enquiry system, capable of driving a large number of terminals
1883:
1853:
1828:
1531:
1395:
1248:
1098:
1024:
874:
779:
537:
shift and indicated subsequent characters were to be considered uppercase, #75 was a
511:
1316:, head of the Basic Programming Division, was based on ideas from the Orion and the
1282:
With the introduction of magnetic disk systems executive became more complex, using
422:
Two-bit character offset, seven-bit counter and 15-bit modifier (word address). The
2721:
1561:
1325:
1313:
1287:
554:
371:
362:
All I/O operations were initiated by a privileged supervisor process, known as the
209:
202:
175:
161:
75:
57:
561:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2466:
1743:
1176:
1120:
896:
352:
289:
263:
112:
2285:
1549:
1368:
1309:
641:
466:
381:
336:
305:
240:
193:
In early 1963, ICT was engaged in negotiations to buy the computer business of
169:
2106:"Equatorial orbit nailed: the story behind the computer animations of 'Alien'"
1096:
During and after the production of the 1900 series a number of compatible (or
2916:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2549:
806:
802:
445:
2886:
2891:
2711:
2582:
1449:
1329:
1207:(Virtual Machine Environment). Later CME (Concurrent Machine Environment)
1203:) as an emulation as well as the New Range instruction set under the newer
1029:
900:
798:
790:
541:
shift and indicated subsequent characters were in lower case, and #76 the
208:
The FP6000 was an advanced design, notably including hardware support for
2901:
2634:
2300:
1247:). This was possible because the FP6000 design contained hardware to aid
473:
248:
920:
unit to the higher end machines (1904A, 1906A) and a new version of the
2619:
1578:
1535:
1519:
1407:
1333:
1164:
794:
518:
507:
259:
235:
38:
1184:
255:
unit, based on the PF182 and PF183 processors already in development.
201:(FP6000) machine, which had been developed by its Canadian subsidiary
2624:
1800:
1495:
1208:
657:
addresses so a program could directly access the first 4096 bytes of
252:
1312:. The initial design of the new system, named George in part after
492:
Four words holding a 75-bit signed argument and a nine-bit exponent.
2803:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2290:
2266:
1503:
1399:
1343:. Jobs and input data were read in from cards or paper tape to an
1340:
1317:
1272:
1129:
1115:
885:
708:
Like the 1901 the 1902 performed multiply and divide operations as
484:
Two words holding a 38-bit signed argument and a nine-bit exponent.
221:
213:
194:
1132:. It was a commercial success and almost 3000 machines were sold.
197:. In order to sweeten the deal, Ferranti demonstrated to ICT the
2896:
2835:
2793:
2788:
2763:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2203:"George Operating Systems for the ICL 1900 Series Computer Range"
1738:
1557:
1539:
1445:
1384:
1204:
1125:
981:
899:
which was being designed to replace both the 1900 series and the
419:
Character counter modifier, also known as a character index word
958:
The 1904A had an optional paging unit and so could run GEORGE 4.
2034:
1803:; it was a bit of fun; and I certainly wasn't going to object".
1422:
1364:
1244:
1216:
1188:
917:
380:
On smaller members of the series, some expensive instructions (
332:
309:
1577:
Like many contemporary machines much application software was
848:
A 1906E with a special higher performance floating point unit.
2851:
2840:
1527:
1485:
1479:
1466:
1403:
1180:
705:
A small machine. Based on the ICT Stevenage PF182 processor.
530:
526:
1351:
George 1 and 2 ran as simple programs under executive (with
2856:
2706:
1615:
1545:
1462:
1458:
778:
All machines except the 1901 were operated from a modified
1068:
controller added to the processor cabinet to reduce space.
396:
The instruction set supported the following data formats:
1785:
George Felton explains the origin of the name as follows:
568:
character set, with differences in five character codes:
217:
35:
2132:
Hoevel, Lee W.; Wallach, Walter A. Jr. (November 1975).
366:. User processes communicated with the executive using
1465:, a conversational language similar in capabilities to
744:
A 1904 with an autonomous hardware floating point unit.
300:
registers. Three of the accumulators could be used as
969:
The 1906A had a paging unit and so could run GEORGE 4.
525:
could be used to represent the full 128 characters of
1444:
anguage. A simple report generation language in the
1421:
PLASYD – an alternative assembly language modeled on
1367:
hardware on the later machines and implemented paged
720:, SCF was also available as a super-set of the CCF.
41:, enjoying significant success in the European and
269:The first commercial sale was made in 1964 to the
1560:compiler to the 1900 architecture in mid-1969 at
1363:George 4 was introduced with the availability of
403:A 24-bit word could hold four six-bit characters.
2914:
2138:Stanford Electronics Laboratory Technical Report
2035:Proctor, Brian; Keith Crook; Virgilio Pasquali.
1398:and later the "big three" high-level languages:
789:A range of peripherals was available, including
2037:"Hardware technology in the ICT/ICL 1900 Range"
1969:"ICT 1900 Series Central Processors 1906, 1907"
1940:"ICT 1900 Series Central Processors 1904, 1905"
1911:"ICT 1900 Series Central Processors 1902, 1903"
1194:
276:The first system delivered was a 1904, for the
127:Comparison, carry, overflow, indexing, counting
1847:
817:In 1968 ICT introduced the E series machines:
648:(base address) register and checked against a
521:or from communications equipment, a system of
408:Counter modifier, also known as an index word
2252:
2176:"Counterfeit computers better than originals"
2131:
1822:
884:integrated circuits in most of the range and
635:
1448:vein, much used on the small 1901 replacing
1328:system. Job descriptions were read in from
1167:allowing execution of 1900 series programs.
472:Two words holding a 24-bit signed argument (
2231:Guide to running George 3 on a raspberry pi
1091:
2259:
2245:
1872:
1140:Based on a fully microprogrammed CPU, the
278:Northampton College of Advanced Technology
182:if the extended floating point is present)
2140:(Technical report No. 98). Archived from
1742:– A tool for generating reports based on
1492:, a stack-based list-processing language.
1998:"ICT 1900 Series Central Processor 1909"
1572:
1389:
1360:(MOP) – interactive use from terminals.
220:, probably compatible with the expected
2200:
685:A very small machine with a 6-bit wide
489:Quadruple-length floating-point number
2928:Computer-related introductions in 1964
2915:
1672:– Production control system (Acronym:
1646:– Production control system (Acronym:
1378:
812:
28:International Computers and Tabulators
2240:
1850:ICL: A Business and Technical History
832:The 1904E with a floating point unit.
801:. Data could be stored on half-inch
797:punches and readers and solid barrel
2057:
1873:Carmichael, Hamish (November 1998).
1772:20800 six bit characters per second.
1417:Other languages available included:
1232:The FP6000 ran under the control of
1222:
975:
481:Double-length floating-point number
135:1024 words (1904A/S, 1906A/S, 1903T)
16:Family of mainframe computers by ICT
1825:Pegasus: the Seminal Early Computer
1170:
1106:licensees, as well as competitors.
678:The initial range of machines was:
553:(ignore) character, similar to the
547:αHβELLO αWβORLD
296:-to-memory architecture with eight
13:
2007:. ICT. 1 September 1964. p. 4
1978:. ICT. 1 September 1964. p. 4
1949:. ICT. 1 September 1964. p. 4
1920:. ICT. 1 September 1964. p. 3
809:storage became available in 1966.
760:A 1906 with a floating point unit.
234:On 7 April 1964 IBM announced the
14:
2949:
2224:
2201:Goodman, H. P. (1 January 2004).
2060:"How the ICT 1900 Series evolved"
1592:– Stock control system (Acronym:
782:ASR used to give commands to the
501:
308:) registers. The word length was
143:extended floating point in 1906/7
2818:
2817:
2726:
2725:
2639:
2638:
2587:
2586:
2321:English Electric System 4 series
1394:ICT initially provided the PLAN
1128:compiler to better compete with
1057:based on the 1904S for example.
1051:
1041:First delivery in 1973. Nickel
988:for the top of the range 1906S.
868:
673:
2268:International Computers Limited
2194:
2168:
2159:
2125:
2116:
2098:
2073:
2051:
2028:
1848:Campbell-Kelly, Martin (1989).
1775:
1583:Storm Sewer Design and Analysis
1114:In 1969 IBM had introduced the
391:
283:
32:International Computers Limited
2019:
1990:
1961:
1932:
1903:
1866:
1841:
1816:
1766:
1746:. Filetab was marketed by the
1339:George 2 added the concept of
1158:
1027:for the computer animation in
517:In order to deal with data on
1:
1754:
1019:First delivery in 1972. New
793:punches and readers, 8 track
718:scientific computing facility
714:commercial computing facility
668:
370:, instructions that caused a
1823:McGregor-Ross, Hugh (2012).
1810:
1227:
1195:ICL 2900 (New Range) systems
1109:
1102:) machines were produced by
7:
2182:. 22 June 1972. p. 690
2134:"A TALE OF THREE EMULATORS"
1852:. Oxford University Press.
1734:ata (data analysis package)
1530:character set internally.
1358:Multiple online programming
1275:of missing instructions as
947:Deliveries started in 1969.
939:Deliveries started in 1969.
931:Deliveries started in 1969.
560:The 1900 used a variant of
280:, London, in January 1965.
10:
2954:
1514:Queen's University Belfast
1382:
1297:
1201:Direct Machine Environment
859:English Electric Computers
697:, and was a great success.
636:Comparison with System/360
476:) and a nine-bit exponent.
188:
2812:
2720:
2633:
2581:
2548:
2465:
2362:
2319:
2275:
2085:Atlas Computer Laboratory
1748:National Computing Centre
1702:– Company payroll program
1616:Project management system
1500:Royal Radar Establishment
1427:Atlas Computer Laboratory
1308:operating system for the
1300:GEORGE (operating system)
1293:
1045:with a 250ns cycle speed.
1011:1.5μs semiconductor store
966:First deliveries in 1970.
955:First deliveries in 1970.
640:Both the 1900 series and
168:
154:
147:
139:
131:
121:
111:
99:
89:
81:
71:
53:
2122:Campbell-Kelly, page 304
1759:
1564:. BCPL is antecedent of
1542:is a distant descendant.
1092:1900-compatible machines
335:hardware, allowing true
2933:Early British computers
2923:ICL mainframe computers
1783:"Another ICL Anthology"
1506:compilers for the 1900.
1502:wrote one of the first
1490:University of Edinburgh
1153:IBM System/360 Model 50
1135:
1003:3μs semiconductor store
995:4μs semiconductor store
695:IBM System/360 Model 20
549:". Character #77 was a
271:Morgan Crucible Company
164:(3 usable for indexing)
1371:instead of the simple
564:, known by ICT as the
533:74) was considered an
529:. Character #74 (i.e.
438:Single-length integer
232:
2814:Programming languages
2025:Cambell-Kelly, pp 238
1876:Another ICL Anthology
1573:Applications software
1524:University of Salford
1390:Programming languages
453:Multi-length integer
226:
199:Ferranti-Packard 6000
2165:Cambell-Kelly, p 326
2058:Pasquali, Virgilio.
557:in the 7-bit world.
230:-- Virgilio Pasquali
107:Memory–Memory (move)
43:British Commonwealth
2081:"ATLAS Replacement"
2039:. Virgilio Pasquali
1425:, much used by the
1379:Minimop and Maximop
1234:operators executive
813:The 1900 E/F series
288:The ICT 1900 was a
50:
24:mainframe computers
2112:on 23 August 2022.
1375:used by George 3.
1144:commercialised by
1043:plated wire memory
986:plated wire memory
512:control characters
343:operating system.
48:
2910:
2909:
2887:ApplicationMaster
2722:Operating systems
2005:ICT Press release
1976:ICT Press release
1947:ICT Press release
1918:ICT Press release
1889:978-0-9527389-2-3
1882:. Laidlaw Hicks.
1834:978-0-7552-1482-2
1532:Silverfrost FTN95
1396:assembly language
1249:multi-programming
1223:Operating systems
1215:software such as
1025:System Simulation
976:The 1900 S series
916:ICL introduced a
875:Texas Instruments
857:(ICT merged with
780:Teletype Model 33
633:
632:
186:
185:
103:Register–Register
2945:
2938:24-bit computers
2821:
2820:
2729:
2728:
2642:
2641:
2590:
2589:
2261:
2254:
2247:
2238:
2237:
2233:at rs-online.com
2219:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2205:. Archived from
2198:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2187:
2172:
2166:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2146:
2129:
2123:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2108:. Archived from
2102:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2066:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2032:
2026:
2023:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2002:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1973:
1965:
1959:
1958:
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1944:
1936:
1930:
1929:
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1900:
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1896:
1881:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1820:
1804:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1741:
1726:nterrogation of
1717:
1711:
1707:
1701:
1671:
1650:ineteen-hundred
1645:
1639:
1613:
1608:ineteen-hundred)
1591:
1562:Essex University
1326:batch processing
1314:George E. Felton
1288:memory footprint
1171:Odra 1300 series
1146:Palyn Associates
629:
624:
619:
614:
609:
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
571:
570:
555:rubout character
548:
443:two's complement
292:machine using a
210:multiprogramming
203:Ferranti-Packard
58:Ferranti-Packard
51:
47:
30:(ICT) and later
22:was a family of
2953:
2952:
2948:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2943:
2942:
2913:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2816:
2808:
2724:
2716:
2637:
2629:
2585:
2577:
2544:
2467:ICL 2900 Series
2461:
2364:ICT 1900 series
2358:
2315:
2271:
2270:(ICL) 1968-2002
2265:
2227:
2222:
2212:
2210:
2209:on 28 June 2011
2199:
2195:
2185:
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2174:
2173:
2169:
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2148:
2147:on 28 June 2011
2144:
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2056:
2052:
2042:
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2024:
2020:
2010:
2008:
2000:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1981:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1952:
1950:
1942:
1938:
1937:
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1923:
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1913:
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1817:
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1808:
1807:
1786:
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1776:
1771:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1744:decision tables
1737:
1730:ineteenhundred
1715:
1709:
1705:
1699:
1669:
1643:
1637:
1611:
1589:
1575:
1554:Martin Richards
1461:– a dialect of
1436:neteen Hundred
1392:
1387:
1381:
1302:
1296:
1264:multi-threading
1230:
1225:
1197:
1173:
1161:
1138:
1112:
1094:
1054:
978:
871:
815:
712:. An optional
691:arithmetic unit
676:
671:
638:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
597:
592:
587:
582:
577:
546:
510:letters and no
504:
394:
359:or vice versa.
290:word-addressing
286:
229:
191:
156:General-purpose
106:
105:Register–Memory
104:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2951:
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2930:
2925:
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2256:
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2235:
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2226:
2225:External links
2223:
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2158:
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2115:
2097:
2072:
2050:
2027:
2018:
1989:
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1833:
1827:. Bright Pen.
1814:
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1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1735:
1713:
1703:
1697:
1688:onitoring of
1684:rganising and
1667:
1641:
1635:
1626:valuation and
1609:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1550:Bernard Sufrin
1543:
1517:
1507:
1493:
1483:
1470:
1456:
1430:
1391:
1388:
1383:Main article:
1380:
1377:
1369:virtual memory
1320:system of the
1310:Ferranti Orion
1298:Main article:
1295:
1292:
1286:to reduce its
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1213:virtualisation
1196:
1193:
1172:
1169:
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1157:
1137:
1134:
1119:Despite their
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791:80-column card
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642:IBM System/360
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502:Character sets
500:
499:
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487:
486:
485:
479:
478:
477:
467:floating point
465:Single-length
463:
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382:floating point
337:virtual memory
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241:RCA Spectra 70
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170:Floating point
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2583:Minicomputers
2580:
2574:
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2569:
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2555:
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2551:
2550:ICL Series 39
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2180:New Scientist
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1859:0-19-853918-5
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1538:compiler for
1537:
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1518:
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1411:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1386:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1359:
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1342:
1337:
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1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
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1190:
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1168:
1166:
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1143:
1142:Stanford EMMY
1133:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1100:
1083:
1082:
1080:
1075:
1074:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1062:
1060:
1059:
1058:
1052:1900 T series
1044:
1040:
1039:
1037:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1021:Schottky STTL
1018:
1017:
1015:
1010:
1009:
1007:
1002:
1001:
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989:
987:
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869:1900 A series
866:
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807:Magnetic disk
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719:
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692:
688:
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683:
681:
680:
679:
674:Initial range
666:
662:
660:
656:
651:
647:
643:
626:
621:
616:
611:
606:
603:
602:
596:
591:
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581:
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573:
572:
569:
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563:
558:
556:
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532:
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520:
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494:
491:
490:
488:
483:
482:
480:
475:
471:
470:
468:
464:
459:
455:
454:
452:
447:
446:signed number
444:
440:
439:
437:
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2354:System 4/75
2349:System 4/72
2344:System 4/70
2339:System 4/50
2334:System 4/30
2329:System 4/10
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2186:13 February
2151:11 February
2090:11 February
2065:11 February
2043:11 February
2011:11 February
1982:11 February
1953:11 February
1924:11 February
1692:erformance
1604:nalysis on
1600:ontrol and
1488:– from the
1477:Southampton
1159:IBM 370/145
400:Characters
298:accumulator
249:West Gorton
2917:Categories
2620:System Ten
2278:mainframes
1895:18 October
1801:autopilots
1755:References
1696:echniques)
1676:roduction
1662:anagement
1654:ntegrated
1618:(Acronym:
1536:Fortran 95
1520:FORTRAN 77
1408:FORTRAN 66
1345:input well
1334:paper tape
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1277:extracodes
1241:partitions
1081:ICL 1903T
1073:ICL 1902T
1061:ICL 1901T
1038:ICL 1906S
1016:ICL 1904S
1008:ICL 1903S
1000:ICL 1902S
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963:ICL 1906A
952:ICL 1904A
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821:ICT 1904E
795:paper tape
710:extracodes
669:1900 range
519:paper tape
508:upper case
368:extracodes
260:Antony Jay
236:System/360
140:Extensions
82:Introduced
39:System/360
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1811:Citations
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1634:echnique)
1496:ALGOL 68R
1453:tabulator
1440:mmercial
1273:emulation
1228:Executive
1209:microcode
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1110:2903/2904
897:New Range
784:executive
765:ICT 1909
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441:A 24-bit
364:executive
339:with the
253:Stevenage
149:Registers
132:Page size
123:Branching
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2823:category
2804:MultiJob
2731:category
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2697:DRS 3000
2644:category
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2568:Level 60
2563:Level 50
2558:Level 30
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2291:ICT 1301
1710:DATAVIEW
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1455:systems.
1400:ALGOL 60
1373:swapping
1341:spooling
1318:spooling
1130:System/3
1116:System/3
889:MECL 10K
886:Motorola
861:to form
659:physical
655:physical
562:ASCII-63
474:mantissa
353:indirect
349:replaced
341:GEORGE 4
302:modifier
294:register
222:IBM 8000
214:ICT 1302
195:Ferranti
113:Encoding
54:Designer
49:ICT 1900
20:ICT 1900
2836:Fortran
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2789:MAXIMOP
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2687:DRS 400
2682:DRS 300
2677:DRS 200
2672:DRS 100
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1622:roject
1579:bundled
1558:IBM 360
1552:ported
1540:Windows
1482:System.
1385:MINIMOP
1353:trusted
1219:today.
1185:Wrocław
1165:370/145
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189:Origins
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333:paging
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91:Design
76:24-bit
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1644:NIMMS
1596:tock
1528:ASCII
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1480:BASIC
1467:BASIC
1404:COBOL
1330:cards
1322:Atlas
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