198:, one of Humboldt's future partners, became interested in the study of vegetation as an essential way of understanding nature and its relationship with human society. Proceeding Forster, Karl Willdenow examined floristic plant geography, the distribution of plants and regionality as a whole. All of these pieces in the history before Humboldt help to shape what is defined as Humboldtian science. Humboldt took into account both the outward appearance and inward meaning of plant species. His attention to natural aesthetics and empirical data and evidence is what set his scientific work apart from ecologists before him. Nicolson so aptly puts it as: "Humboldt effortlessly combined a commitment to empiricism and the experimental elucidation of the laws of nature with an equally strong commitment to holism and to a view of nature which was intended to be aesthetically and spiritually satisfactory". It was through this holistic approach to science and the study of nature that Humboldt was able to find a web of interconnectedness despite a multitude of extensive differences between different species of organisms.
157:, an important trend emerged through his techniques of observation, scientific instruments used and unique perspective on nature. Humboldt's novel style has been defined as Humboldtian Science. Humboldt had the ability to combine the study of empirical data with a holistic view of nature and its aesthetically pleasing characteristics, which is now held to be the true definition of the study of vegetation and plant geography. Humboldtian science is one of the first techniques for studying both organic and inorganic branches of science. Examining the interconnectedness of vegetation and its respective environment is one of the new and important aspects of Humboldt's work, an idea labeled as "terrestrial physics," something that scientists who preceded him, such as Linnaeus, failed to do. Humboldtian science is founded on a principle of "general equilibrium of forces." General equilibrium was the idea that there are infinite
241:
traditional "descriptive" natural history when he stated, " have neglected to track the great and constant laws of nature manifested in the rapid flux of phenomena…and to trace the reciprocal interaction of the divided physical forces." Humboldt did not consider himself an explorer, but rather a scientific traveler, who accurately measured what explorers had reported inaccurately. According to
Humboldt, the goal of the terrestrial physicist was to investigate the confluence and interweaving of all physical forces. An incredibly extensive array of precise instrumentation had to be readily available for Humboldt's terrestrial physicist. The expansive amount of scientific resources that characterized the Humboldtian scientist is best described in the book
27:
89:
233:
171:
271:("Physical Profile of the Andes), which aimed at capturing his voyage to the Americas in a single graphic table. Humboldt meant to capture all of the physical forces, from organisms to electricity, in this single table. Among many other complex empirical recordings of elevation-specific data, the table included a detailed biodistribution. This biodistribution mapped the specific distributions of flora and fauna at every elevation level on the mountain.
289:
represent this continuity
Humboldt developed isothermal lines. These isothermal lines functioned in the general balancing of forces in that isothermal lines preserved local peculiarities within a general regularity. According to Humboldtian science, nature's order and equilibrium emerged "gradually and progressively from laborious observing, averaging, and mapping over increasingly extended areas."
264:
Equilibrium is derived from an infinite number of forces acting simultaneously and varying globally. In other words, the lawfulness of nature, according to
Humboldt, is a result of infinity and complexity. Humboldtian science promotes the idea that the more forces that are accurately measured over more of the earth's surface results in a greater understanding of the order of nature.
304:
developing a comprehensive science that joined the separate branches of natural philosophy under a model of natural order founded on the concept of dynamic equilibrium. Humboldt's work reached far beyond his personal expeditions and discoveries. Figures from all across the globe participated on his work. Some such participants included French naval officers,
202:
instrumentation to observe and measure physical variables, while attending to all possible sources of error. Humboldtian science revolved around understanding the relationship between accurate measurement, sources of error and mathematical laws. Cannon identifies four distinctive features that marked
Humboldtian science out from previous versions of science:
113:, toting all of his tools and books. The purpose of the voyage was steeped in Romanticism; Humboldt intended to investigate how the forces of nature interact with one another and find out about the unity of nature. Humboldt returned to Europe in 1804 and was acclaimed as a public hero. The details and findings of Humboldt's journey were published in his
275:
features of plants, he was largely focused on the investigation of underlying connections and relations among plant organisms. Humboldt worked for years on developing an understanding of plant distributions and geography. The link between the balancing equilibrium of natural forces and organism distribution is evident when
Humboldt states:
186:. According to Cannon, Humboldtian science is, "the accurate, measured study of widespread but interconnected real phenomena in order to find a definite law and a dynamical cause." Humboldtian science is used now in place of the traditional, "Baconianism," as a more appropriate and less vague term for the themes of 19th century science.
279:
As in all other phenomena of the physical universe, so in the distribution of organic beings: amidst the apparent disorder which seems to result from the influence of a multitude of local causes, the unchanging law of nature become evident as soon as one surveys an extensive territory, or uses a mass
263:
One concept that is central to
Humboldtian science is that of a general equilibrium of forces. Humboldt explains: "The general equilibrium which reigns amongst disturbances and apparent turmoil, is the result of infinite number of mechanical forces and chemical attractions balancing each other out."
274:
Humboldt's study of plants provides an example of the movement of
Humboldtian science away from traditional science. Humboldt's botany also further illustrates the concept of equilibrium and the Humboldtian ideas of the interrelationship of nature's elements. Although he was concerned with physical
303:
When
Humboldt first began his studies of organisms and the environment he claimed that he wanted to "reorganize the general connections that link organic beings and to study the great harmonies of Nature". He is often considered one of the world's first genuine ecologists. Humboldt succeeded in
201:
According to
Malcolm Nicholson, "Susan Cannon characterized Humboldtian science as synthetic, empirical, quantitative and impossible to fit into any one of our twentieth century disciplinary boundaries." A central element of Humboldtian science was its use of the latest advances in scientific
288:
Humboldtian science applied the idea of general equilibrium of forces to the continuities in the history of the generation of the planet. Humboldt saw the history of the earth as a continuous global distribution of such things as heat, vegetation, and rock formations. In order to graphically
254:
Just some of such instruments included chronometers, telescopes, sextants, microscopes, magnetic compasses, thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, electrometers, and eudiometers. Furthermore, it was necessary to have multiple makes and models of each specific instrument to compare errors and
240:
Humboldt was committed to what he called 'terrestrial physics.' Essentially
Humboldt's new scientific approach required a new type of scientist: Humboldtian science demanded a transition from the naturalist to the physicist. Humboldt described how his idea of terrestrial physics differs from
193:
was preoccupied with fitting all nature into taxonomy, fixated on only what was visible. Towards the turn of the eighteenth century, Immanuel Kant became interested in understanding where species derived from, and was less concerned with an organism's physical attributes. Next,
333:
The promotion and development of terrestrial physics under Humboldtian science produced not only useful maps and statistics, but offered both European and Creole societies tools for essentially 're-imaging' America. The lasting impact of Humboldtian science is described in
284:
The study of vegetation and plant geography arose out of new concerns that emerged with Humboldtian science. These new areas of concern in science included integrative processes, invisible connections, historical development, and natural wholes.
325:
depended heavily on abstract mathematical measurement to deal with error in a precision instrument, certainly Humboldtian science. Maybe the most prominent figure whose work can be considered representative of Humboldtian science is geologist
316:
aboard H.M.S. Beagle. Humboldt's projects, particularly those related to natural philosophy, played a significant role in the influx of European money and travelers to Spanish America in increasing numbers in the early 19th century.
161:
in nature that are in constant conflict, yet all forces balance each other out. Humboldt laid the groundwork for future scientific endeavors by establishing the importance of studying organisms and their environment in conjunction .
65:
in 1978. The example of Humboldt's life and his writings allowed him to reach out beyond the academic community with his natural history and address a wider audience with popular science aspects. It has supplanted the older
100:
in 1769 and worked as a Prussian mining official in the 1790s until 1797 when he quit and began collecting scientific knowledge and equipment. His extensive wealth aided his infatuation with the spirit of
249:
Thus the complete Humboldtian traveller, in order to make satisfactory observations, should be able to cope with everything from the revolution of the satellites of Jupiter to the carelessness of clumsy
129:. Humboldt spent the rest of his life mainly in Europe, although he did embark on a short expedition to Siberia and the Russian steppes in 1829. Humboldt's last works were contained in his book,
338:, "Humboldtian science illuminates the reorganization of knowledge and disciplines in the early nineteenth century that defined the emergence of natural history out of natural philosophy."
135:("Cosmos. Sketch for a Physical Description of the Universe"). The book mainly described the development of a life-force from the cosmos, but also included the formation of
267:
The voyage to the Americas produced many discoveries and developments that help to illustrate Humboldt's ideas about this equilibrium of forces. Humboldt produced the
53:. It maintained a certain ethics of precision and observation, which combined scientific field work with the sensitivity and aesthetic ideals of the age of
105:; he amassed an extensive collection of scientific instruments and tools as well as a sizeable library. In 1799 Humboldt, under the protection of King
131:
458:
Nicolson, Malcolm. 1987. "Alexander von Humboldt, Humboldtian science, and the origins of the study of vegetation." History of Science. 25: 167-194.
300:
once dubbed Humboldt to be "one of those wonders of the world… who appear from time to time, as if to show us the possibilities of the human mind."
140:
532:
Nicolson, Malcolm. 1987. "Alexander von Humboldt, Humboldtian science, and the origins of the study of vegetation." History of Science. 25: 180.
523:
Nicolson, Malcolm. 1987. "Alexander von Humboldt, Humboldtian science, and the origins of the study of vegetation." History of Science. 25: 169.
223:
the application of accuracy, mental sophistication, and tools not to isolated science in laboratories, but to greatly variable real phenomena.
178:
Humboldtian science includes both the extensive work of Alexander von Humboldt, as well as many of the works of 19th century scientists.
330:. Despite a lack of emphasis on precise measurement in geology at the time, Lyell insisted on precision in a Humboldtian manner.
308:
physicians, Russian provincial administrators, Spanish military commanders, and German diplomats. As was mentioned previously,
321:, a British scientist, worked on terrestrial magnetism in a manner that was certainly Humboldtian. Also, British scientist
19:
This article is about the ideals related to Alexander von Humboldt. For Wilhelm von Humboldts university concept, see
809:
467:
Home, Roderick Weir. 1995. "Humboldtian Science revisited: an Australian case study." History of Science. 33: 1-22.
541:
Home, Roderick Weir. 1995. "Humboldtian Science revisited: an Australian case study." History of Science. 33: 17.
143:
as well as the geography of planets. Alexander von Humboldt died in 1859, while working on the fifth volume of
787:
Nicolson, Malcolm. "Alexander von Humboldt, Humboldtian science, and the origins of the study of vegetation."
49:
in the 19th century closely connected to the work and writings of German scientist, naturalist, and explorer
31:
659:
Nicolson, "Alexander von Humboldt, Humboldtian science, and the origins of the study of vegetation," p. 176
634:
Nicolson, "Alexander von Humboldt, Humboldtian science, and the origins of the study of vegetation," p. 175
488:
Nicolson, "Alexander von Humboldt, Humboldtian science, and the origins of the study of vegetation," p. 167
213:
814:
26:
20:
209:
a mental sophistication in which theoretical mechanisms and entities of past science were taken lightly;
88:
804:
195:
232:
372:
83:
58:
50:
36:
322:
412:
Dettelbach, Michael: "Humboldtian Science", in: Jardine, N./Secord, J./Sparry, E. C.(eds):
357:
476:
Cannon, Susan Faye. 1978. Science in culture: the early Victorian period. Kent, Eng:Dawon.
8:
297:
106:
362:
352:
347:
305:
236:
Scientific travelers depicted on Humboldt's (and Caspar David Friedrich's) role model
152:
62:
217:
67:
309:
189:
Natural history in the eighteenth century was the "nomination of the visible".
122:
798:
390:
Böhme, Hartmut: Ästhetische Wissenschaft, in: Matices, Nr. 23, 1999, S. 37-41
327:
318:
190:
71:
115:
Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equatorial Regions of the New Continent
179:
126:
170:
367:
102:
54:
147:. Through his travels to South America and his observational records in
206:
insistence on accuracy for all scientific instruments and observations;
110:
61:, it was rather popular in the 19th century. The term was coined by
280:
of facts in which the partial disturbances compensate one another.
46:
696:
Sachs, Aaron. The Humboldt Current. New York: Viking, 2008, p.2
684:
Sachs, Aaron. The Humboldt Current. New York: Viking, 2008, p.4
227:
97:
158:
136:
692:
690:
16:
Movement in science emphasizing precision and sensitivity
292:
687:
212:a new set of conceptual tools, including isomaps,
784:. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, NY. 1996
667:
665:
642:
640:
604:
602:
562:
560:
484:
482:
132:Kosmos: Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung
796:
428:
426:
424:
422:
775:Science in Culture: The Early Victorian Period
662:
637:
599:
557:
479:
401:Science in Culture: The Early Victorian Period
165:
419:
416:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1996
258:
777:. Science History Publications. NY. 1978
231:
169:
87:
25:
797:
780:Jardine, N; Secord, J.A.; Spary, E.C.
70:, related as well to a single person,
293:Transformation of Humboldtian science
182:is attributed with coining the term
149:An Essay on the Geography of Plants
13:
228:Humboldt's "terrestrial physicist"
77:
14:
826:
751:
738:
725:
712:
699:
678:
653:
628:
615:
586:
573:
544:
535:
526:
517:
504:
491:
470:
461:
452:
439:
406:
393:
384:
1:
767:
312:carried a copy of Humboldt's
109:, left for South America and
32:Wanderer above the Sea of Fog
7:
782:Cultures of Natural History
759:Cultures of Natural History
746:Cultures of Natural History
720:Cultures of Natural History
707:Cultures of Natural History
673:Cultures of Natural History
648:Cultures of Natural History
623:Cultures of Natural History
610:Cultures of Natural History
568:Cultures of Natural History
512:Cultures of Natural History
434:Cultures of Natural History
414:Cultures of Natural History
341:
336:Cultures of Natural History
255:constancy among each type.
166:Humboldtian science defined
21:Humboldtian education ideal
10:
831:
269:Tableau physique des Andes
81:
18:
810:History of Earth science
378:
125:on his famous voyage on
45:refers to a movement in
196:Johann Reinhold Forster
373:Romanticism in science
282:
259:Humboldt's equilibrium
252:
237:
175:
93:
92:Alexander von Humboldt
84:Alexander von Humboldt
59:Romanticism in science
51:Alexander von Humboldt
39:
37:Caspar David Friedrich
323:George Gabriel Stokes
277:
247:
235:
173:
96:Humboldt was born in
91:
29:
773:Cannon, Susan Faye.
399:Cannon, Susan Faye:
358:History of geography
174:Chimborazo Map, 1807
298:Ralph Waldo Emerson
184:Humboldtian science
117:(30 volumes). This
107:Charles IV of Spain
43:Humboldtian science
815:History of biology
789:History of Science
733:Science in Culture
594:Science in Culture
581:Science in Culture
552:Science in Culture
499:Science in Culture
447:Science in Culture
363:History of geology
353:History of ecology
348:History of biology
314:Personal Narrative
306:East India Company
243:Science in Culture
238:
176:
119:Personal Narrative
94:
40:
791:, 25:2. June 1987
319:Sir Edward Sabine
63:Susan Faye Cannon
822:
762:
757:Jardine et al.,
755:
749:
744:Jardine et al.,
742:
736:
729:
723:
718:Jardine et al.,
716:
710:
705:Jardine et al.,
703:
697:
694:
685:
682:
676:
671:Jardine et al.,
669:
660:
657:
651:
646:Jardine et al.,
644:
635:
632:
626:
621:Jardine et al.,
619:
613:
608:Jardine et al.,
606:
597:
590:
584:
577:
571:
566:Jardine et al.,
564:
555:
548:
542:
539:
533:
530:
524:
521:
515:
510:Jardine et al.,
508:
502:
495:
489:
486:
477:
474:
468:
465:
459:
456:
450:
443:
437:
432:Jardine et al.,
430:
417:
410:
404:
397:
391:
388:
218:theory of errors
830:
829:
825:
824:
823:
821:
820:
819:
805:Natural history
795:
794:
770:
765:
756:
752:
743:
739:
730:
726:
717:
713:
704:
700:
695:
688:
683:
679:
670:
663:
658:
654:
645:
638:
633:
629:
620:
616:
607:
600:
591:
587:
578:
574:
565:
558:
549:
545:
540:
536:
531:
527:
522:
518:
509:
505:
496:
492:
487:
480:
475:
471:
466:
462:
457:
453:
444:
440:
431:
420:
411:
407:
403:, New York 1978
398:
394:
389:
385:
381:
344:
295:
261:
230:
168:
86:
80:
78:Brief biography
68:Baconian method
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
828:
818:
817:
812:
807:
793:
792:
785:
778:
769:
766:
764:
763:
750:
737:
724:
711:
698:
686:
677:
661:
652:
636:
627:
614:
598:
585:
572:
556:
543:
534:
525:
516:
503:
490:
478:
469:
460:
451:
438:
418:
405:
392:
382:
380:
377:
376:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
343:
340:
310:Charles Darwin
294:
291:
260:
257:
229:
226:
225:
224:
221:
210:
207:
167:
164:
141:nebular clouds
123:Charles Darwin
82:Main article:
79:
76:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
827:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
802:
800:
790:
786:
783:
779:
776:
772:
771:
760:
754:
747:
741:
734:
728:
721:
715:
708:
702:
693:
691:
681:
674:
668:
666:
656:
649:
643:
641:
631:
624:
618:
611:
605:
603:
595:
589:
582:
576:
569:
563:
561:
553:
547:
538:
529:
520:
513:
507:
500:
494:
485:
483:
473:
464:
455:
448:
442:
435:
429:
427:
425:
423:
415:
409:
402:
396:
387:
383:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
345:
339:
337:
331:
329:
328:Charles Lyell
324:
320:
315:
311:
307:
301:
299:
290:
286:
281:
276:
272:
270:
265:
256:
251:
246:
244:
234:
222:
219:
215:
211:
208:
205:
204:
203:
199:
197:
192:
191:Carl Linnaeus
187:
185:
181:
172:
163:
160:
156:
155:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
133:
128:
124:
121:was taken by
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
99:
90:
85:
75:
73:
72:Francis Bacon
69:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
38:
34:
33:
28:
22:
788:
781:
774:
758:
753:
745:
740:
732:
727:
719:
714:
706:
701:
680:
672:
655:
647:
630:
622:
617:
609:
593:
588:
580:
575:
567:
551:
546:
537:
528:
519:
511:
506:
498:
493:
472:
463:
454:
446:
441:
433:
413:
408:
400:
395:
386:
335:
332:
313:
302:
296:
287:
283:
278:
273:
268:
266:
262:
253:
248:
242:
239:
200:
188:
183:
180:Susan Cannon
177:
153:
148:
144:
130:
127:H.M.S Beagle
118:
114:
95:
42:
41:
30:
368:Romanticism
151:as well as
103:Romanticism
55:Romanticism
799:Categories
768:References
111:New Spain
761:, p. 304
748:, p. 302
731:Cannon,
722:, p. 301
709:, p. 300
675:, p. 295
650:, p. 298
625:, p. 291
612:, p. 290
592:Cannon,
579:Cannon,
570:, p. 289
554:, p. 104
550:Cannon,
514:, p. 287
501:, p. 105
497:Cannon,
445:Cannon,
436:, p. 288
342:See also
250:donkeys.
216:, and a
57:. Like
735:, p. 83
596:, p. 76
583:, p. 75
449:, p. 86
47:science
214:graphs
159:forces
154:Kosmos
145:Kosmos
98:Berlin
379:Notes
139:from
137:stars
35:of
801::
689:^
664:^
639:^
601:^
559:^
481:^
421:^
245:,
74:.
220:;
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.