3839:
to the Bantu speakers of South Africa (the Venda and Xhosa) and corresponds to the distribution of the Niger-Kordofanian language family, possibly reflecting the spread of Bantu-speaking populations from near the
Nigerian/Cameroon highlands across eastern and southern Africa within the past 5000 to 3000 years (26,27). Another inferred cluster includes the Pygmy and SAK populations (green), with a noncontiguous geographic distribution in central and southeastern Africa, consistent with the STRUCTURE (Fig. 3) and phylogenetic analyses (Fig. 1). Another geographically contiguous cluster extends across northern Africa (blue) into Mali (the Dogon), Ethiopia, and northern Kenya. With the exception of the Dogon, these populations speak an Afroasiatic language. Chadic-speaking and Nilo-Saharan–speaking populations from Nigeria, Cameroon, and central Chad, as well as several Nilo-Saharan–speaking populations from southern Sudan, constitute another cluster (red). Nilo-Saharan and Cushitic speakers from the Sudan, Kenya, and Tanzania, as well as some of the Bantu speakers from Kenya, Tanzania, and Rwanda (Hutu/Tutsi), constitute another cluster (purple), reflecting linguistic evidence for gene flow among these populations over the past ~5000 years (28,29). Finally, the Hadza are the sole constituents of a sixth cluster (yellow), consistent with their distinctive genetic structure identified by PCA and STRUCTURE.
633:
925:) as a way of measuring genetic differences between populations. This statistic is often used in taxonomy to compare differences between any two given populations by measuring the genetic differences among and between populations for individual genes, or for many genes simultaneously. It is often stated that the fixation index for humans is about 0.15. This translates to an estimated 85% of the variation measured in the overall human population is found within individuals of the same population, and about 15% of the variation occurs between populations. These estimates imply that any two individuals from different populations may be more similar to each other than either is to a member of their own group. "The shared evolutionary history of living humans has resulted in a high relatedness among all living people, as indicated for example by the very low fixation index (F
982:, with much of the diversity that existed in Africa not being carried out of Africa by the emigrating groups. Under this scenario, human populations do not have equal amounts of local variability, but rather diminished amounts of diversity the further from Africa any population lives. Long and Kittles find that rather than 85% of human genetic diversity existing in all human populations, about 100% of human diversity exists in a single African population, whereas only about 70% of human genetic diversity exists in a population derived from New Guinea. Long and Kittles argued that this still produces a global human population that is genetically homogeneous compared to other mammalian populations.
829:
782:
621:
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51:
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aspects of gene expression including chromatin states, translation, and protein levels. A study published in 2007 found that 25% of genes showed different levels of gene expression between populations of
European and Asian descent. The primary cause of this difference in gene expression was thought to be SNPs in gene regulatory regions of DNA. Another study published in 2007 found that approximately 83% of genes were expressed at different levels among individuals and about 17% between populations of European and African descent.
1260:
1424:'s group makes a similar claim: "The structure of human populations is relevant in various epidemiological contexts. As a result of variation in frequencies of both genetic and nongenetic risk factors, rates of disease and of such phenotypes as adverse drug response vary across populations. Further, information about a patient's population of origin might provide health care practitioners with information about risk when direct causes of disease are unknown." However, in 2018
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somewhat more probable that our early progenitors lived on the
African continent than elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject, for an ape nearly as large as a man, namely the Dryopithecus of Lartet, which was closely allied to the anthropomorphous Hylobates, existed in Europe during the Upper Miocene period; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale.
8753:
40:
774:
269:, which sequenced one thousand individuals from 26 human populations, found that "a typical genome differs from the reference human genome at 4.1 million to 5.0 million sites … affecting 20 million bases of sequence"; the latter figure corresponds to 0.6% of total number of base pairs. Nearly all (>99.9%) of these sites are small differences, either single nucleotide polymorphisms or brief insertions or deletions (
1402:
1048:
1097:(AIMs) nevertheless can be used to reliably situate many individuals within broad, geographically based groupings. For example, computer analyses of hundreds of polymorphic loci sampled in globally distributed populations have revealed the existence of genetic clustering that roughly is associated with groups that historically have occupied large continental and subcontinental regions (Rosenberg
886:. Approximately 10% of the variance in skin color occurs within groups, and ~90% occurs between groups (Relethford 2002). This distribution of skin color and its geographic patterning – with people whose ancestors lived predominantly near the equator having darker skin than those with ancestors who lived predominantly in higher latitudes – indicate that this attribute has been under strong
289:
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871:. Genetic diversity decreases smoothly with migratory distance from that region, which many scientists believe to be the origin of modern humans, and that decrease is mirrored by a decrease in phenotypic variation. Skull measurements are an example of a physical attribute whose within-population variation decreases with distance from Africa.
511:, populations, varieties, or forms of organisms that exhibit gradual phenotypic and/or genetic differences over a geographical area, typically as a result of environmental heterogeneity. In the scientific study of human genetic variation, a gene cline can be rigorously defined and subjected to quantitative metrics.
841:. Populations with a greater distance between them are more dissimilar (as measured by the Fst statistic) than those which are geographically close to one another. The horizontal axis of both charts is geographic distance as measured along likely routes of human migration. (Chart from Kanitz et al. 2018)
3838:
We incorporated geographic data into a
Bayesian clustering analysis, assuming no admixture (TESS software) (25) and distinguished six clusters within continental Africa (Fig. 5A). The most geographically widespread cluster (orange) extends from far Western Africa (the Mandinka) through central Africa
1216:
Genetic data can be used to infer population structure and assign individuals to groups that often correspond with their self-identified geographical ancestry. Jorde and
Wooding (2004) argued that "Analysis of many loci now yields reasonably accurate estimates of genetic similarity among individuals,
439:
A copy-number variation (CNV) is a difference in the genome due to deleting or duplicating large regions of DNA on some chromosome. It is estimated that 0.4% of the genomes of unrelated humans differ with respect to copy number. When copy number variation is included, human-to-human genetic variation
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In each great region of the world the living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It is, therefore, probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these two species are now man's nearest allies, it is
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Racial categories are also undermined by findings that genetic variants which are limited to one region tend to be rare within that region, variants that are common within a region tend to be shared across the globe, and most differences between individuals, whether they come from the same region or
310:
had 84.7 million SNPs among them. SNPs are the most common type of sequence variation, estimated in 1998 to account for 90% of all sequence variants. Other sequence variations are single base exchanges, deletions and insertions. SNPs occur on average about every 100 to 300 bases and so are the major
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populations than between them. Despite this, modern genetic studies have found substantial average genetic differences across human populations in traits such as skin colour, bodily dimensions, lactose and starch digestion, high altitude adaptions, drug response, taste receptors, and predisposition
106:
Comparatively speaking, humans are a genetically homogeneous species. Although a small number of genetic variants are found more frequently in certain geographic regions or in people with ancestry from those regions, this variation accounts for a small portion (~15%) of human genome variability. The
685:
According to a 2000 study of Y-chromosome sequence variation, human Y-chromosomes trace ancestry to Africa, and the descendants of the derived lineage left Africa and eventually were replaced by archaic human Y-chromosomes in
Eurasia. The study also shows that a minority of contemporary populations
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2002). Other observers disagree, saying that the same data undercut traditional notions of racial groups (King and
Motulsky 2002; Calafell 2003; Tishkoff and Kidd 2004). They point out, for example, that major populations considered races or subgroups within races do not necessarily form their own
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In a study published in 2013, Jeffrey Wall from
University of California studied whole sequence-genome data and found higher rates of introgression in Asians compared to Europeans. Hammer et al. tested the hypothesis that contemporary African genomes have signatures of gene flow with archaic human
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The distribution of genetic variants within and among human populations are impossible to describe succinctly because of the difficulty of defining a "population," the clinal nature of variation, and heterogeneity across the genome (Long and
Kittles 2003). In general, however, an average of 85% of
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are the descendants of the most ancestral patrilineages of anatomically modern humans that left Africa 35,000 to 89,000 years ago. Other evidence supporting the theory is that variations in skull measurements decrease with distance from Africa at the same rate as the decrease in genetic diversity.
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2000). However, in none of these cases has allelic variation in a susceptibility gene been shown to account for a significant fraction of the difference in disease prevalence among groups, and the role of genetic factors in generating these differences remains uncertain (Mountain and Risch 2004).
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Furthermore, because human genetic variation is clinal, many individuals affiliate with two or more continental groups. Thus, the genetically based "biogeographical ancestry" assigned to any given person generally will be broadly distributed and will be accompanied by sizable uncertainties (Pfaff
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theory the human population in Africa is paraphyletic to all other human groups because it represents the ancestral group from which all non-African populations derive, but more than that, non-African groups only derive from a small non-representative sample of this
African population. This means
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than do populations outside Africa, partly because of the larger size of human populations in Africa over the course of human history and partly because the number of modern humans who left Africa to colonize the rest of the world appears to have been relatively low. In contrast, populations that
111:
exhibit 2.5-fold greater DNA sequence diversity compared to humans. These rates differ depending on what macromolecules are being analyzed. Chimpanzees have more genetic variance than humans when examining nuclear DNA, but humans have more genetic variance when examining at the level of proteins.
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Admixture mapping is a technique used to study how genetic variants cause differences in disease rates between population. Recent admixture populations that trace their ancestry to multiple continents are well suited for identifying genes for traits and diseases that differ in prevalence between
1281:
Gene flow between two populations reduces the average genetic distance between the populations, only totally isolated human populations experience no gene flow and most populations have continuous gene flow with other neighboring populations which create the clinal distribution observed for most
136:
The study of human genetic variation has evolutionary significance and medical applications. It can help scientists reconstruct and understand patterns of past human migration. In medicine, study of human genetic variation may be important because some disease-causing alleles occur more often in
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An analysis of phenotypic and genetic variation including skin color and socio-economic status was carried out in the population of Cape Verde which has a well documented history of contact between Europeans and Africans. The studies showed that pattern of admixture in this population has been
1073:
New data on human genetic variation has reignited the debate about a possible biological basis for categorization of humans into races. Most of the controversy surrounds the question of how to interpret the genetic data and whether conclusions based on it are sound. Some researchers argue that
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to human populations in their 2003 paper "Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races". They find that the figure of 85% is misleading because it implies that all human populations contain on average 85% of all genetic diversity. They argue the underlying statistical model
901:
Understanding how genetic diversity in the human population impacts various levels of gene expression is an active area of research. While earlier studies focused on the relationship between DNA variation and RNA expression, more recent efforts are characterizing the genetic control of various
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populations), or geographical (hemoglobinopathies among people with ancestors who lived in malarial regions). To the extent that ancestry corresponds with racial or ethnic groups or subgroups, the incidence of monogenic diseases can differ between groups categorized by race or ethnicity, and
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may shape the human genome much more slowly than previously thought, with factors such as migration within and among continents more heavily influencing the distribution of genetic variations. A similar study published in 2010 found strong genome-wide evidence for selection due to changes in
1181:
In many parts of the world, groups have mixed in such a way that many individuals have relatively recent ancestors from widely separated regions. Although genetic analyses of large numbers of loci can produce estimates of the percentage of a person's ancestors coming from various continental
1038:
populations of West Africa derive between 2% and 19% of their genome from an as-yet unidentified archaic hominin population that likely diverged before the split of modern humans and the ancestors of Neanderthals and Denisovans, potentially making these groups the most archaic-admixed human
1020:– a previously unknown hominin which is more closely related to Neanderthals than to Sapiens. It was possibly introduced during the early migration of the ancestors of Melanesians into Southeast Asia. This history of interaction suggests that Denisovans once ranged widely over eastern Asia.
800:
occurs when founder populations bring only a subset of the genetic variation from their ancestral population. Second, as founders become more geographically separated, the probability that two individuals from different founder populations will mate becomes smaller. The effect of this
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can assess the ancestry of skeletal remains by analyzing skeletal morphology as well as using genetic and chemical markers, when possible. While these assessments are never certain, the accuracy of skeletal morphology analyses in determining true ancestry has been estimated at 90%.
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loci taken from 1484 individuals in 78 human populations. The upper graph illustrates that as populations are further from East Africa, they have declining genetic diversity as measured in average number of microsatellite repeats at each of the loci. The bottom chart illustrates
115:
The lack of discontinuities in genetic distances between human populations, absence of discrete branches in the human species, and striking homogeneity of human beings globally, imply that there is no scientific basis for inferring races or subspecies in humans, and for most
754:
In May 2023, scientists reported, based on genetic studies, a more complicated pathway of human evolution than previously understood. According to the studies, humans evolved from different places and times in Africa, instead of from a single location and period of time.
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Because of the common ancestry of all humans, only a small number of variants have large differences in frequency between populations. However, some rare variants in the world's human population are much more frequent in at least one population (more than 5%).
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may confer an adaptive advantage to individuals in a specific environment if an allele provides a competitive advantage. Alleles under selection are likely to occur only in those geographic regions where they confer an advantage. A second important process is
1409:
Apart from mutations, many genes that may have aided humans in ancient times plague humans today. For example, it is suspected that genes that allow humans to more efficiently process food are those that make people susceptible to obesity and diabetes today.
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1996; Keita and Kittles 1997). For example, ~90% of the variation in human head shapes occurs within continental groups, and ~10% separates groups, with a greater variability of head shape among individuals with recent African ancestors (Relethford 2002).
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parental populations. African-American populations have been the focus of numerous population genetic and admixture mapping studies, including studies of complex genetic traits such as white cell count, body-mass index, prostate cancer and renal disease.
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Even with common diseases involving numerous genetic variants and environmental factors, investigators point to evidence suggesting the involvement of differentially distributed alleles with small to moderate effects. Frequently cited examples include
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rather than populations. Clustering of individuals is correlated with geographic origin or ancestry." However, identification by geographic origin may quickly break down when considering historical ancestry shared between individuals back in time.
1385:
viruses to grab on and bind into. Therefore, the mutation on CCR5 gene decreases the chance of an individual's risk with AIDS. The mutation in CCR5 is also quite common in certain areas, with more than 14% of the population carry the mutation in
1108:
Some commentators have argued that these patterns of variation provide a biological justification for the use of traditional racial categories. They argue that the continental clusterings correspond roughly with the division of human beings into
789:
It is commonly assumed that early humans left Africa, and thus must have passed through a population bottleneck before their African-Eurasian divergence around 100,000 years ago (ca. 3,000 generations). The rapid expansion of a previously
195:– from the overall populations where they originated; when these migrants settle new areas, their descendant population typically differs from their population of origin: different genes predominate and it is less genetically diverse.
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206:
and past small population size (increasing the likelihood of genetic drift) may have had an important influence in neutral differences between populations. The second main cause of genetic variation is due to the high degree of
99:. In 2015, the typical difference between an individual's genome and the reference genome was estimated at 20 million base pairs (or 0.6% of the total). As of 2017, there were a total of 324 million known variants from sequenced
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sex-biased (involving mostly matings between European men and African women) and there is a significant interaction between socioeconomic status and skin color, independent of ancestry. Another study shows an increased risk of
1027:
ancestors and found evidence of archaic admixture in the genomes of some African groups, suggesting that modest amounts of gene flow were widespread throughout time and space during the evolution of anatomically modern humans.
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incorrectly assumes equal and independent histories of variation for each large human population. A more realistic approach is to understand that some human groups are parental to other groups and that these groups represent
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Wohns, Anthony Wilder; Wong, Yan; Jeffery, Ben; Akbari, Ali; Mallick, Swapan; Pinhasi, Ron; Patterson, Nick; Reich, David; Kelleher, Jerome; McVean, Gil (15 April 2021). "A unified genealogy of modern and ancient genomes".
698:
A 2009 genetic clustering study, which genotyped 1327 polymorphic markers in various African populations, identified six ancestral clusters. The clustering corresponded closely with ethnicity, culture and language. A 2018
6127:
Limborska SA, Balanovsky OP, Balanovskaya EV, Slominsky PA, Schadrina MI, Livshits LA, et al. (2002). "Analysis of CCR5Delta32 geographic distribution and its correlation with some climatic and geographic factors".
1316:, and they may contribute to differences in the incidence of some common diseases. For the monogenic diseases, the frequency of causative alleles usually correlates best with ancestry, whether familial (for example,
6882:
Gabriel SB, Schaffner SF, Nguyen H, Moore JM, Roy J, Blumenstiel B, Higgins J, DeFelice M, Lochner A, Faggart M, Liu-Cordero SN, Rotimi C, Adeyemo A, Cooper R, Ward R, Lander ES, Daly MJ, Altshuler D (June 2002).
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after 70,000 years ago. Dispersal within Africa occurred significantly earlier, at least 130,000 years ago. The "out of Africa" theory originates in the 19th century, as a tentative suggestion in Charles Darwin's
950:
values between continental groups of humans (or races) of as low as 0.1 (or possibly lower) have been found in some studies, suggesting more moderate levels of genetic variation. Graves (1996) has countered that
141:
is more often found in people with ancestry from certain sub-Saharan African, south European, Arabian, and Indian populations, due to the evolutionary pressure from mosquitos carrying malaria in these regions.
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in 103 genes. This corresponds to 0.5% of coding SNPs. They occur due to segmental duplication in the genome. These SNPs result in loss of protein, yet all these SNP alleles are common and are not purified in
1725:
Xue, Cheng; Raveendran, Muthuswamy; Harris, R. Alan; Fawcett, Gloria L.; Liu, Xiaoming; White, Simon; Dahdouli, Mahmoud; Deiros, David Rio; Below, Jennifer E.; Salerno, William; Cox, Laura (1 December 2016).
820:
have undergone dramatic size reductions or rapid expansions in the past and populations formed by the mixture of previously separate ancestral groups can have unusually high levels of linkage disequilibrium
458:
and affect how genes get read. The tags, "called epigenetic markings, act as switches that control how genes can be read." At some alleles, the epigenetic state of the DNA, and associated phenotype, can be
1266:
showing average admixture of five North American ethnic groups. Individuals that self-identify with each group can be found at many locations on the map, but on average groups tend to cluster differently.
978:
that all non-African groups are more closely related to each other and to some African groups (probably east Africans) than they are to others, and further that the migration out of Africa represented a
1008:
took place and that a small but significant portion, around 2–4%, of Neanderthal admixture is present in the DNA of modern Eurasians and Oceanians, and nearly absent in sub-Saharan African populations.
846:
genetic variation exists within local populations, ~7% is between local populations within the same continent, and ~8% of variation occurs between large groups living on different continents. The
1190:
2004), these estimates may assume a false distinctiveness of the parental populations, since human groups have exchanged mates from local to continental scales throughout history (Cavalli-Sforza
4976:
Wall, Jeffrey D.; Yang, Melinda A.; Jay, Flora; Kim, Sung K.; Durand, Eric Y.; Stevison, Laurie S.; Gignoux, Christopher; Woerner, August; Hammer, Michael F.; Slatkin, Montgomery (May 2013).
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because of increased fluctuations in neutral polymorphisms. Second, new polymorphisms that arose in one group were less likely to be transmitted to other groups as gene flow was restricted.
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850:
theory for humans would predict that in Africa there exists a great deal more diversity than elsewhere and that diversity should decrease the further from Africa a population is sampled.
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1994; Hoerder 2002). Even with large numbers of markers, information for estimating admixture proportions of individuals or groups is limited, and estimates typically will have wide
1244:
of genome-wide data was capable of recovering previously-known targets for positive selection (without prior definition of populations) as well as a number of new candidate genes.
413:
According to the 1000 Genomes Project, a typical human has 2,100 to 2,500 structural variations, which include approximately 1,000 large deletions, 160 copy-number variants, 915
1373:
Some other variations on the other hand are beneficial to human, as they prevent certain diseases and increase the chance to adapt to the environment. For example, mutation in
191:(that is, they do not appear to have any positive or negative selective effect on the organism). Finally, small migrant populations have statistical differences – called the
958:
should not be used as a marker of subspecies status, as the statistic is used to measure the degree of differentiation between populations, although see also Wright (1978).
4655:
7956:
Ramachandran S, Tang H, Gutenkunst RN, Bustamante CD (2010). "Genetics and Genomics of Human Population Structure". In Speicher MR, Antonarakis SE, Motulsky AG (eds.).
1235:
Human Genome Diversity Panel samples was published in 2009. The study of 53 populations taken from the HapMap and CEPH data (1138 unrelated individuals) suggested that
3405:
Pratas D, Hosseini M, Silva R, Pinho A, Ferreira P (20–23 June 2017). "Visualization of Distinct DNA Regions of the Modern Human Relatively to a Neanderthal Genome".
485:, which is the amount of variation seen in a particular population. The variability of a trait is how much that trait tends to vary in response to environmental and
306:(SNP) is a difference in a single nucleotide between members of one species that occurs in at least 1% of the population. The 2,504 individuals characterized by the
1420:
has proposed that self-identified race/ethnic group could be a valid means of categorization in the US for public health and policy considerations. A 2002 paper by
443:
A visual map with the regions with high genomic variation of the modern-human reference assembly relatively to a Neanderthal of 50k has been built by Pratas et al.
3912:"Study Offers New Twist in How the First Humans Evolved – A new genetic analysis of 290 people suggests that humans emerged at various times and places in Africa"
1059:
Individuals mostly have genetic variants which are found in multiple regions of the world. Based on data from "A unified genealogy of modern and ancient genomes".
211:. A small, but significant number of genes appear to have undergone recent natural selection, and these selective pressures are sometimes specific to one region.
1428:
released a study arguing against genetically essentialist ideas of health disparities between populations stating environmental variants are a more likely cause
867:
has the most human genetic diversity and the same has been shown to hold true for phenotypic variation in skull form. Phenotype is connected to genotype through
3654:
Underhill PA, Shen P, Lin AA, Jin L, Passarino G, Yang WH, et al. (November 2000). "Y chromosome sequence variation and the history of human populations".
808:
The expansion of humans from Africa affected the distribution of genetic variation in two other ways. First, smaller (founder) populations experience greater
632:
8716:
8581:
7875:
Zietkiewicz E, Yotova V, Gehl D, Wambach T, Arrieta I, Batzer M, Cole DE, Hechtman P, Kaplan F, Modiano D, Moisan JP, Michalski R, Labuda D (November 2003).
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ecoregion, diet, and subsistence particularly in connection with polar ecoregions, with foraging, and with a diet rich in roots and tubers. In a 2016 study,
261:
is the average proportion of nucleotides that differ between two individuals. As of 2004, the human nucleotide diversity was estimated to be 0.1% to 0.4% of
7312:
Kaessmann H, Heissig F, von Haeseler A, Pääbo S (May 1999). "DNA sequence variation in a non-coding region of low recombination on the human X chromosome".
5975:"Human leukocyte antigen profiles of Latin American populations: differential admixture and its potential impact on hematopoietic stem cell transplantation"
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1512:
2010:
8013:
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4268:
Manica, Andrea, William Amos, François Balloux, and Tsunehiko Hanihara. "The Effect of Ancient Population Bottlenecks on Human Phenotypic Variation".
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genetic variation. When gene flow takes place between well-differentiated genetic populations the result is referred to as "genetic admixture".
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2122:
2070:
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Rosenberg NA, Pritchard JK, Weber JL, Cann HM, Kidd KK, Zhivotovsky LA, Feldman MW (December 2002). "Genetic structure of human populations".
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study of the world's populations observed similar clusters among the populations in Africa. At K=9, distinct ancestral components defined the
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674:, but remained speculative until the 1980s when it was supported by the study of present-day mitochondrial DNA, combined with evidence from
933:, who affirmed these ratios, thus concluded neither "race" nor "subspecies" were appropriate or useful ways to describe human populations.
9117:
7516:"Support from the relationship of genetic and geographic distance in human populations for a serial founder effect originating in Africa"
7349:
Kaessmann H, Wiebe V, Weiss G, Pääbo S (February 2001). "Great ape DNA sequences reveal a reduced diversity and an expansion in humans".
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991:
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of 0.15–0.25 represented great variation. However, about 5% of human variation occurs between populations within continents, therefore
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232:
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Harding RM, Healy E, Ray AJ, Ellis NS, Flanagan N, Todd C, Dixon C, Sajantila A, Jackson IJ, Birch-Machin MA, Rees JL (April 2000).
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9528:
8518:
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5916:"The admixture structure and genetic variation of the archipelago of Cape Verde and its implications for admixture mapping studies"
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Foster MW, Sharp RR (October 2004). "Beyond race: towards a whole-genome perspective on human populations and genetic variation".
383:, account for much more human genetic variation than single nucleotide diversity. This was concluded in 2007 from analysis of the
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8201:
8006:
6171:
Tishkoff SA, Verrelli BC (2003). "Patterns of human genetic diversity: implications for human evolutionary history and disease".
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is estimated to be at least 0.5% (99.5% similarity). Copy number variations are inherited but can also arise during development.
17:
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Ingman M, Kaessmann H, Pääbo S, Gyllensten U (December 2000). "Mitochondrial genome variation and the origin of modern humans".
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Thus, Melanesians emerge as one of the most archaic-admixed populations, having Denisovan/Neanderthal-related admixture of ~8%.
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9310:
9084:
8942:
7275:
Jorde LB, Watkins WS, Kere J, Nyman D, Eriksson AW (2000). "Gene mapping in isolated populations: new roles for old friends?".
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Cavalli-Sforza LL, Feldman MW (March 2003). "The application of molecular genetic approaches to the study of human evolution".
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The distribution of many physical traits resembles the distribution of genetic variation within and between human populations (
656:
343:
130:
4179:
Lewontin RC (1972). "The Apportionment of Human Diversity". In Theodosius Dobzhansky, Max K. Hecht, William C. Steere (eds.).
4002:
Auton A, Brooks LD, Durbin RM, Garrison EP, Kang HM, Korbel JO, et al. (1000 Genomes Project Consortium) (October 2015).
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Human genetic diversity decreases in native populations with migratory distance from Africa, and this is thought to be due to
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4824:
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4196:
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208:
188:
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Bamshad M, Wooding S, Salisbury BA, Stephens JC (August 2004). "Deconstructing the relationship between genetics and race".
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5637:"Detecting Genomic Signatures of Natural Selection with Principal Component Analysis: Application to the 1000 Genomes Data"
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1549:
2247:"AFRICAN GENETIC DIVERSITY: Implications for Human Demographic History, Modern Human Origins, and Complex Disease Mapping"
2195:"African Genetic Diversity: Implications for Human Demographic History, Modern Human Origins, and Complex Disease Mapping"
273:) in the genetic sequence, but structural variations account for a greater number of base-pairs than the SNPs and indels.
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549:
80:(who develop from one zygote) have infrequent genetic differences due to mutations occurring during development and gene
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Lee, Jun-Ki; Aini, Rahmi Qurota; Sya’bandari, Yustika; Rusmana, Ai Nurlaelasari; Ha, Minsu; Shin, Sein (1 April 2021).
1146:
641:
593:, so they are used for personal or parental identification. Their analysis is useful in genetics and biology research,
545:
7567:
Relethford JH (August 2002). "Apportionment of global human genetic diversity based on craniometrics and skin color".
5578:"Colloquium paper: human adaptations to diet, subsistence, and ecoregion are due to subtle shifts in allele frequency"
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541:(SNP) mutation. The study of haplogroups provides information about ancestral origins dating back thousands of years.
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8784:
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8445:
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4865:. Vol. 4, Variability Within and Among Natural Populations. Chicago, Illinois: Univ. Chicago Press. p. 438.
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Witherspoon, D. J.; Wooding, S.; Rogers, A. R.; Marchani, E. E.; Watkins, W. S.; Batzer, M. A.; Jorde, L. B. (2007).
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1381:. CCR5 gene is absent on the surface of cell due to mutation. Without CCR5 gene on the surface, there is nothing for
1081:
Although the genetic differences among human groups are relatively small, these differences in certain genes such as
9630:
8206:
8148:
8109:
8036:
1294:
complications after transplantation due to genetic variants in human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and non-HLA proteins.
4376:"Integrative analysis of RNA, translation, and protein levels reveals distinct regulatory variation across humans"
9181:
9110:
8879:
8535:
8486:
8430:
8173:
8136:
8084:
2838:"Challenges in the association of human single nucleotide polymorphism mentions with unique database identifiers"
2303:"We are all mutants: First direct whole-genome measure of human mutation predicts 60 new mutations in each of us"
1583:"Phenotypically concordant and discordant monozygotic twins display different DNA copy-number-variation profiles"
1507:
560:
line, from mother to both daughter or son. The Y-DNA and mtDNA may change by chance mutation at each generation.
9284:
8884:
8711:
8547:
8435:
8126:
1437:
1317:
1224:
1167:
538:
303:
297:
7234:"The distribution of human genetic diversity: a comparison of mitochondrial, autosomal, and Y-chromosome data"
9457:
9243:
8621:
8256:
8183:
8140:
8119:
8104:
7774:
4563:
3115:
1544:
890:. Darker skin appears to be strongly selected for in equatorial regions to prevent sunburn, skin cancer, the
569:
460:
331:
6408:
Aoki K (2002). "Sexual selection as a cause of human skin colour variation: Darwin's hypothesis revisited".
5484:
Coop G, Pickrell JK, Novembre J, Kudaravalli S, Li J, Absher D, et al. (June 2009). Schierup MH (ed.).
5260:
Rosenberg NA, Mahajan S, Gonzalez-Quevedo C, Blum MG, Nino-Rosales L, Ninis V, et al. (December 2006).
785:
Genetic variation of Eurasian populations showing different frequency of West- and East-Eurasian components.
9585:
9274:
8814:
8777:
8726:
8696:
8681:
8631:
8297:
8239:
8153:
8076:
8048:
8041:
1241:
1228:
337:
A coding SNP is one that occurs inside a gene. There are 105 Human Reference SNPs that result in premature
327:
31:
5262:"Low levels of genetic divergence across geographically and linguistically diverse populations from India"
3195:"A DNA replication mechanism for generating nonrecurrent rearrangements associated with genomic disorders"
1581:
Bruder CE, Piotrowski A, Gijsbers AA, Andersson R, Erickson S, Diaz de Ståhl T, et al. (March 2008).
9396:
8859:
8636:
8616:
8361:
8339:
8094:
8072:
1529:
1482:
1094:
1064:
6638:"What we do and don't know about 'race', 'ethnicity', genetics and health at the dawn of the genome era"
6208:"Genetic structure, self-identified race/ethnicity, and confounding in case-control association studies"
3788:
882:
A prominent exception to the common distribution of physical characteristics within and among groups is
805:
is to reduce gene flow between geographical groups and to increase the genetic distance between groups.
9594:
9103:
8653:
8569:
8354:
8168:
4876:
Long JC, Kittles RA (August 2003). "Human genetic diversity and the nonexistence of biological races".
3911:
3446:
1938:
1819:
1001:
664:
84:. Differences between individuals, even closely related individuals, are the key to techniques such as
7514:
Ramachandran S, Deshpande O, Roseman CC, Rosenberg NA, Feldman MW, Cavalli-Sforza LL (November 2005).
5576:
Hancock AM, Witonsky DB, Ehler E, Alkorta-Aranburu G, Beall C, Gebremedhin A, et al. (May 2010).
1853:
8980:
8854:
8626:
8498:
8425:
8405:
8178:
8158:
8099:
8022:
7386:
Keita SO, Kittles RA (1997). "The Persistence of Racial Thinking and the Myth of Racial Divergence".
3519:
3034:
2551:
By these criteria, 1.6% of Perlegen SNPs were found to exhibit the genetic architecture of selection.
1534:
1291:
828:
605:
280:), which lists SNP and other variants, listed 324 million variants found in sequenced human genomes.
7795:
Weiss KM, Terwilliger JD (October 2000). "How many diseases does it take to map a gene with SNPs?".
7581:
4846:
4766:
Keita SO, Kittles RA, Royal CD, Bonney GE, Furbert-Harris P, Dunston GM, Rotimi CN (November 2004).
3167:
9326:
9032:
8676:
8671:
8646:
8523:
8491:
8234:
5857:"Genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture in West Africans and African Americans"
5753:"Accuracy Rates of Ancestry Estimation by Forensic Anthropologists Using Identified Forensic Cases"
4491:
4486:
2928:
Ng PC, Levy S, Huang J, Stockwell TB, Walenz BP, Li K, et al. (August 2008). Schork NJ (ed.).
1492:
1211:
781:
228:
125:
to developing particular diseases. The greatest diversity is found within and among populations in
4737:"What We Know and What We Don't Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race"
4327:"Genetic Control of Chromatin States in Humans Involves Local and Distal Chromosomal Interactions"
129:, and gradually declines with increasing distance from the African continent, consistent with the
9384:
9238:
8844:
8757:
8658:
8641:
8552:
8528:
8508:
8479:
8290:
7749:
7388:
5914:
Beleza S, Campos J, Lopes J, Araújo II, Hoppfer Almada A, Correia e Silva A, et al. (2012).
5549:
3700:
3543:
3141:
2444:
Guo J, Wu Y, Zhu Z, Zheng Z, Trzaskowski M, Zeng J, Robinson MR, Visscher PM, Yang J (May 2018).
2302:
1252:
700:
30:"Human biodiversity" redirects here. For the far-right movement promoting scientific racism, see
7832:
Yu N, Jensen-Seaman MI, Chemnick L, Kidd JR, Deinard AS, Ryder O, Kidd KK, Li WH (August 2003).
936:
Wright himself believed that values >0.25 represent very great genetic variation and that an
9603:
9553:
8829:
8557:
8540:
8503:
8393:
7576:
3787:
Tishkoff SA, Reed FA, Friedlaender FR, Ehret C, Ranciaro A, Froment A, et al. (May 2009).
3299:
Dumas L, Kim YH, Karimpour-Fard A, Cox M, Hopkins J, Pollack JR, et al. (September 2007).
816:
716:
645:
292:
DNA molecule 1 differs from DNA molecule 2 at a single base-pair location (a C/T polymorphism).
160:
154:
85:
70:
9440:
7438:"Assessing genetic contributions to phenotypic differences among 'racial' and 'ethnic' groups"
6485:
Bamshad M, Wooding SP (February 2003). "Signatures of natural selection in the human genome".
3348:
Prüfer K, Racimo F, Patterson N, Jay F, Sankararaman S, Sawyer S, et al. (January 2014).
1166:
different regions, are due to global variants. No genetic variants have been found which are
9207:
9071:
8965:
8960:
8864:
8611:
8378:
7877:"Haplotypes in the dystrophin DNA segment point to a mosaic origin of modern human diversity"
7232:
Jorde LB, Watkins WS, Bamshad MJ, Dixon ME, Ricker CE, Seielstad MT, Batzer MA (March 2000).
7213:
5855:
Bryc K, Auton A, Nelson MR, Oksenberg JR, Hauser SL, Williams S, et al. (January 2010).
5036:
Reich D, Green RE, Kircher M, Krause J, Patterson N, Durand EY, et al. (December 2010).
4119:
Gabriel SB, Schaffner SF, Nguyen H, Moore JM, Roy J, Blumenstiel B, et al. (June 2002).
3031:"First Individual Diploid Human Genome Published By Researchers at J. Craig Venter Institute"
1728:"The population genomics of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) based on whole-genome sequences"
1561:
1487:
1477:
1325:
974:
847:
838:
791:
728:
704:
692:
675:
660:
434:
372:
164:
145:
New findings show that each human has on average 60 new mutations compared to their parents.
81:
7120:
Lander ES, Linton LM, Birren B, Nusbaum C, Zody MC, Baldwin J, et al. (February 2001).
6206:
Tang H, Quertermous T, Rodriguez B, Kardia SL, Zhu X, Brown A, et al. (February 2005).
4374:
Cenik C, Cenik ES, Byeon GW, Grubert F, Candille SI, Spacek D, et al. (November 2015).
3536:
2328:
Conrad DF, Keebler JE, DePristo MA, Lindsay SJ, Zhang Y, Casals F, et al. (June 2011).
1969:
1639:
Auton A, Brooks LD, Durbin RM, Garrison EP, Kang HM, Korbel JO, et al. (October 2015).
620:
552:, both of which can be used to define genetic populations. Y-DNA is passed solely along the
326:
difference between members of the species. About 3% to 5% of human SNPs are functional (see
9509:
9501:
9466:
9279:
9269:
9217:
8917:
8574:
8349:
8332:
7961:
7527:
7484:
7133:
7031:
6986:
6896:
6692:
6531:
6264:
5927:
5868:
5589:
5313:
5214:
5155:
5049:
4436:
4132:
4015:
3958:
3803:
3743:
3481:
3361:
3255:
2576:
2514:
2457:
2390:
1965:
1652:
1524:
1455:
1110:
1082:
481:
in a population to vary (become different) from one another. Variability is different from
403:
360:
355:
307:
266:
258:
7657:
Sankar P, Cho MK, Condit CM, Hunt LM, Koenig B, Marshall P, Lee SS, Spicer P (June 2004).
6841:"The role of community review in evaluating the risks of human genetic variation research"
6305:
6184:
5434:
5335:"A variant-centric perspective on geographic patterns of human allele frequency variation"
4325:
Grubert F, Zaugg JB, Kasowski M, Ursu O, Spacek DV, Martin AR, et al. (August 2015).
3242:
Redon R, Ishikawa S, Fitch KR, Feuk L, Perry GH, Andrews TD, et al. (November 2006).
2620:
Driscoll DA, Gross S (June 2009). "Clinical practice. Prenatal screening for aneuploidy".
2262:
2210:
1333:
health-care professionals typically take these patterns into account in making diagnoses.
859:
219:
Genetic variation among humans occurs on many scales, from gross alterations in the human
107:
majority of variation exists within the members of each human population. For comparison,
8:
9544:
9520:
9212:
9186:
9161:
9145:
9061:
8937:
8824:
8800:
8598:
8398:
8261:
7022:
The International Hapmap Consortium (December 2003). "The International HapMap Project".
5534:
4816:
4568:
4423:
Wu L, Candille SI, Choi Y, Xie D, Jiang L, Li-Pook-Than J, Tang H, Snyder M (July 2013).
2889:"Singleton SNPs in the human genome and implications for genome-wide association studies"
1417:
1195:
1075:
1055:
794:
has two important effects on the distribution of genetic variation. First, the so-called
764:
679:
579:
526:
472:
368:
179:
7531:
7488:
7137:
7035:
6990:
6900:
6696:
6535:
6268:
5931:
5872:
5823:
5593:
5218:
5159:
5053:
4515:"Common genetic variants account for differences in gene expression among ethnic groups"
4440:
4136:
4019:
3979:
3962:
3944:
3869:
3807:
3747:
3485:
3365:
3259:
2580:
2518:
2461:
2446:"Global genetic differentiation of complex traits shaped by natural selection in humans"
2394:
1656:
1016:(represented by the Papua New Guinean and Bougainville Islander) appears to derive from
402:
sequences which were amalgamations of sequences from many individuals, published by the
50:
9532:
9051:
9047:
8907:
7901:
7876:
7858:
7833:
7820:
7683:
7658:
7640:
7615:
7602:
7550:
7515:
7418:
7411:
7374:
7337:
7300:
7258:
7233:
7205:
7103:
7078:
7065:
7010:
6960:
6935:
6922:
6865:
6840:
6827:
6718:
6667:
6624:
6555:
6510:
6470:
6433:
6391:
6366:
6348:
6323:
6288:
6232:
6207:
6153:
6104:
6079:
6001:
5974:
5950:
5915:
5891:
5856:
5832:
5788:
5728:
5695:
5671:
5648:
5636:
5612:
5577:
5512:
5485:
5461:
5410:
5386:"Insights into human genetic variation and population history from 929 diverse genomes"
5385:
5361:
5334:
5288:
5261:
5237:
5202:
5178:
5143:
5119:
5094:
5070:
5037:
5010:
4977:
4953:
4920:
4901:
4834:
4707:
4682:
4605:
4539:
4514:
4457:
4424:
4400:
4375:
4351:
4326:
4307:
4246:
4221:
4202:
4158:
4098:
4085:
4060:
4036:
4003:
3916:
3882:
3824:
3764:
3731:
3679:
3382:
3349:
3325:
3300:
3276:
3243:
3224:
3088:
3061:
3007:
2980:
2956:
2929:
2864:
2837:
2769:
2744:
2597:
2564:
2563:
Kidd JM, Cooper GM, Donahue WF, Hayden HS, Sampas N, Graves T, et al. (May 2008).
2537:
2502:
2478:
2445:
2354:
2329:
2279:
2246:
2219:
2194:
2170:
2137:
2116:
2064:
1991:
1932:
1760:
1673:
1640:
1607:
1582:
1472:
1313:
1309:
997:
979:
887:
864:
802:
598:
138:
7726:
7701:
6756:
6731:
6587:
6055:
6028:
3494:
3469:
3060:
Levy S, Sutton G, Ng PC, Feuk L, Halpern AL, Walenz BP, et al. (September 2007).
2421:
2378:
1869:
95:(bp) across 46 chromosomes of DNA as well as slightly under 17,000 bp DNA in cellular
9338:
9166:
9126:
9042:
9037:
8975:
8902:
8894:
8869:
8586:
8562:
8467:
8388:
8383:
8251:
7965:
7944:
7918:
7906:
7863:
7812:
7731:
7688:
7645:
7594:
7555:
7502:
7459:
7422:
7366:
7329:
7292:
7263:
7197:
7161:
7108:
7057:
7002:
6965:
6914:
6870:
6819:
6790:
6761:
6722:
6710:
6659:
6616:
6591:
6547:
6502:
6462:
6425:
6396:
6353:
6306:
Interpreting polygenic scores, polygenic adaptation, and human phenotypic differences
6280:
6237:
6188:
6145:
6109:
6060:
6006:
5955:
5896:
5837:
5780:
5772:
5733:
5715:
5676:
5617:
5517:
5466:
5415:
5366:
5293:
5242:
5183:
5124:
5075:
5015:
4997:
4958:
4940:
4893:
4820:
4789:
4712:
4544:
4462:
4405:
4356:
4297:
4251:
4192:
4150:
4090:
4041:
3984:
3874:
3829:
3769:
3671:
3576:
3547:
3499:
3418:
3387:
3330:
3301:"Gene copy number variation spanning 60 million years of human and primate evolution"
3281:
3216:
3093:
3012:
2961:
2910:
2869:
2818:
2774:
2725:
2681:
2637:
2602:
2542:
2483:
2426:
2408:
2359:
2284:
2266:
2224:
2175:
2157:
2104:
2094:
2052:
2042:
1995:
1983:
1920:
1910:
1881:
1873:
1827:
1800:
1783:
Curnoe, Darren (2003). "Number of ancestral human species: a molecular perspective".
1765:
1747:
1678:
1612:
1502:
1236:
1068:
891:
625:
482:
376:
96:
77:
9295:
7787:
7378:
7304:
7209:
7014:
6926:
6831:
6671:
6514:
6474:
6437:
6045:
5384:
Bergström A, McCarthy SA, Hui R, Almarri MA, Ayub Q, Danecek P, et al. (2020).
4905:
4609:
4513:
Spielman RS, Bastone LA, Burdick JT, Morley M, Ewens WJ, Cheung VG (February 2007).
4206:
4162:
4102:
3886:
3683:
1074:
self-identified race can be used as an indicator of geographic ancestry for certain
9572:
9404:
9222:
9191:
9001:
8912:
7934:
7896:
7888:
7853:
7845:
7804:
7783:
7758:
7721:
7713:
7678:
7670:
7635:
7627:
7606:
7586:
7545:
7535:
7492:
7449:
7397:
7358:
7341:
7321:
7284:
7253:
7245:
7189:
7151:
7141:
7098:
7090:
7069:
7047:
7039:
6994:
6955:
6947:
6904:
6860:
6852:
6811:
6782:
6751:
6743:
6700:
6649:
6628:
6608:
6583:
6559:
6539:
6494:
6454:
6417:
6386:
6378:
6343:
6335:
6292:
6272:
6227:
6219:
6180:
6157:
6137:
6099:
6091:
6050:
6040:
5996:
5986:
5945:
5935:
5886:
5876:
5827:
5819:
5792:
5764:
5723:
5707:
5666:
5658:
5607:
5597:
5507:
5497:
5456:
5446:
5405:
5397:
5356:
5346:
5283:
5273:
5232:
5222:
5173:
5163:
5114:
5106:
5065:
5057:
5005:
4989:
4948:
4932:
4885:
4812:
4779:
4702:
4694:
4597:
4534:
4526:
4452:
4444:
4395:
4387:
4346:
4338:
4311:
4290:
Jablonski NG (10 January 2014). "The Biological and Social Meaning of Skin Color".
4273:
4241:
4233:
4184:
4140:
4080:
4072:
4031:
4023:
3974:
3966:
3949:
3864:
3819:
3811:
3759:
3751:
3727:
3663:
3489:
3410:
3377:
3369:
3320:
3312:
3271:
3263:
3228:
3206:
3083:
3073:
3002:
2992:
2951:
2941:
2900:
2859:
2849:
2808:
2764:
2756:
2715:
2671:
2629:
2592:
2584:
2532:
2522:
2473:
2465:
2416:
2398:
2349:
2341:
2274:
2258:
2214:
2206:
2165:
2149:
1973:
1865:
1792:
1755:
1739:
1668:
1660:
1602:
1594:
1005:
930:
712:
387:
380:
178:
There are at least three reasons why genetic variation exists between populations.
117:
7939:
7922:
7849:
7824:
5711:
695:
during human migration, which are events that temporarily reduce population size.
9475:
9253:
9176:
8819:
8415:
8216:
6522:
Cann RL, Stoneking M, Wilson AC (1987). "Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution".
5940:
5502:
5435:"Dating genomic variants and shared ancestry in population-scale sequencing data"
5278:
5093:
Wall JD, Yang MA, Jay F, Kim SK, Durand EY, Stevison LS, et al. (May 2013).
4291:
4188:
3572:
3414:
3119:
3078:
2997:
2946:
2090:
Who we are and how we got here: ancient DNA and the new science of the human past
1467:
1443:
1362:
1303:
1138:
1130:
868:
740:
736:
534:
498:
407:
395:
187:, which is the effect of random changes in the gene pool, under conditions where
6421:
6324:"The use of racial, ethnic, and ancestral categories in human genetics research"
6095:
5110:
4993:
4936:
4220:
Bamshad MJ, Wooding S, Watkins WS, Ostler CT, Batzer MA, Jorde LB (March 2003).
2153:
9420:
9066:
9056:
8970:
8849:
8313:
7702:"Evidence for gradients of human genetic diversity within and among continents"
7520:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5861:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5582:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5148:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4342:
4076:
3970:
3211:
3194:
2854:
2797:"A DNA polymorphism discovery resource for research on human genetic variation"
2507:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2469:
1978:
1953:
1598:
1497:
1425:
1421:
1329:
1126:
915:
833:
796:
744:
670:
203:
192:
108:
7763:
7744:
5318:
2921:
2108:
2056:
1727:
9619:
9392:
9360:
9006:
8996:
8952:
7674:
7401:
6839:
Foster MW, Sharp RR, Freeman WL, Chino M, Bernsten D, Carter TH (June 1999).
5776:
5719:
5553:
5001:
4944:
3704:
3145:
2412:
2306:
2270:
2161:
1987:
1877:
1831:
1751:
1122:
1118:
1031:
911:
809:
724:
609:
575:
334:, because of their sheer number and the stable inheritance over generations.
319:
315:
314:
A functional, or non-synonymous, SNP is one that affects some factor such as
252:
248:
244:
199:
184:
7991:
7631:
7540:
7175:"Using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers to reconstruct human evolution"
6909:
6884:
6276:
5881:
5768:
5752:
5662:
5602:
5401:
5168:
4145:
4120:
3815:
3732:"The effect of ancient population bottlenecks on human phenotypic variation"
2905:
2888:
2527:
2403:
1924:
1796:
65:. There may be multiple variants of any given gene in the human population (
9022:
8874:
8327:
7948:
7910:
7867:
7816:
7735:
7692:
7649:
7598:
7559:
7506:
7463:
7370:
7333:
7296:
7267:
7165:
7112:
7061:
7006:
6969:
6918:
6874:
6823:
6794:
6765:
6714:
6663:
6620:
6595:
6506:
6466:
6429:
6400:
6357:
6284:
6241:
6192:
6149:
6113:
6064:
6010:
5959:
5900:
5841:
5784:
5737:
5680:
5621:
5521:
5470:
5419:
5370:
5297:
5246:
5227:
5187:
5128:
5079:
5038:"Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia"
5019:
4962:
4897:
4793:
4716:
4632:
4548:
4466:
4409:
4360:
4255:
4154:
4094:
4045:
3988:
3878:
3833:
3773:
3675:
3503:
3391:
3334:
3285:
3220:
3097:
3016:
2965:
2914:
2873:
2778:
2729:
2704:"Implications of biogeography of human populations for 'race' and medicine"
2685:
2641:
2606:
2546:
2487:
2430:
2363:
2330:"Variation in genome-wide mutation rates within and between human families"
2288:
2228:
2179:
2088:
2036:
1804:
1769:
1682:
1616:
1451:
1395:
1338:
1263:
1154:
1134:
1035:
708:
418:
391:
100:
7201:
6551:
6367:"Genomewide scans of complex human diseases: true linkage is hard to find"
6029:"Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease"
5991:
5203:"Recovering signals of ghost archaic introgression in African populations"
4889:
4744:
4681:
Storey JD, Madeoy J, Strout JL, Wurfel M, Ronald J, Akey JM (March 2007).
4391:
2836:
Thomas PE, Klinger R, Furlong LI, Hofmann-Apitius M, Friedrich CM (2011).
2822:
2633:
2503:"Global landscape of recent inferred Darwinian selection for Homo sapiens"
1885:
1860:. Special Issue: Interface Between Molecular and Behavioral Epidemiology.
1743:
1259:
9492:
9412:
8188:
7194:
10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(199802)20:2<126::AID-BIES5>3.0.CO;2-R
7156:
7052:
6773:
Edwards AW (August 2003). "Human genetic diversity: Lewontin's fallacy".
4601:
4592:
3907:
3171:
2813:
2796:
2760:
2565:"Mapping and sequencing of structural variation from eight human genomes"
1900:
1142:
1013:
961:
Jeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of
732:
720:
583:
557:
553:
451:
414:
236:
7497:
7472:
7043:
6705:
6680:
6126:
5351:
5142:
Hammer MF, Woerner AE, Mendez FL, Watkins JC, Wall JD (September 2011).
5095:"Higher levels of neanderthal ancestry in East Asians than in Europeans"
5061:
4978:"Higher Levels of Neanderthal Ancestry in East Asians than in Europeans"
4448:
4277:
4027:
3755:
3409:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 10255. pp. 235–242.
3373:
3350:"The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains"
3267:
3142:"First Diploid Human Genome Sequence Shows We're Surprisingly Different"
2588:
1664:
9564:
9561:
7717:
7590:
6786:
6732:"Genomewide comparison of DNA sequences between humans and chimpanzees"
3626:"The descent of man Chapter 6 – On the Affinities and Genealogy of Man"
3316:
2981:"A new human genome sequence paves the way for individualized genomics"
1906:
1447:
1413:
883:
586:, and their length varies between individuals. Each variant acts as an
574:
A variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) is the variation of length of a
520:
364:
338:
323:
224:
62:
8769:
7288:
6141:
6022:
6020:
5696:"Evaluation of ancestry from human skeletal remains: a concise review"
4222:"Human population genetic structure and inference of group membership"
832:
Human genetic variation calculated from genetic data representing 346
330:). Neutral, or synonymous SNPs are still useful as genetic markers in
9581:
9431:
9376:
9248:
9027:
7513:
7146:
7121:
6998:
6543:
6365:
Altmüller J, Palmer LJ, Fischer G, Scherb H, Wjst M (November 2001).
3789:"The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans"
1276:
1017:
970:
594:
530:
262:
220:
92:
44:
9095:
7955:
7094:
7079:"Integrating ethics and science in the International HapMap Project"
6815:
6458:
5807:
5751:
Thomas, Richard M.; Parks, Connie L.; Richard, Adam H. (July 2017).
5575:
5259:
4590:
Check E (2007). "Genetic expression speaks as loudly as gene type".
773:
235:, most cases of aneuploidy result in death of the developing fetus (
9540:
9483:
7892:
7454:
7437:
7249:
7076:
7021:
6951:
6856:
6747:
6654:
6637:
6612:
6498:
6382:
6339:
6223:
6017:
5653:
5635:
Duforet-Frebourg N, Luu K, Laval G, Bazin E, Blum MG (April 2016).
5451:
4809:
Significance of Neandertal and Denisovan Genomes in Human Evolution
4784:
4767:
4698:
4530:
4237:
4183:. Vol. 6. New York: Appleton–Century–Crofts. pp. 381–97.
2835:
2720:
2703:
2676:
2659:
2345:
1701:"dbSNP's human build 150 has doubled the amount of RefSNP records!"
1346:
1221:
587:
486:
478:
240:
172:
7808:
7362:
3667:
996:
Anatomically modern humans interbred with Neanderthals during the
905:
39:
9140:
8282:
7325:
7311:
1580:
1401:
1354:
1150:
1090:
748:
687:
508:
504:
399:
384:
168:
91:
The human genome has a total length of approximately 3.2 billion
2135:
1820:"Opinion | How Genetics Is Changing Our Understanding of 'Race'"
1047:
6444:
5483:
3596:
1387:
1114:
1086:
895:
590:
477:
Genetic variability is a measure of the tendency of individual
126:
66:
7616:"Genetics. Toward a new vocabulary of human genetic variation"
6976:
6729:
6205:
4683:"Gene-expression variation within and among human populations"
4425:"Variation and genetic control of protein abundance in humans"
3853:"Tales of Human Migration, Admixture, and Selection in Africa"
624:
Map of the migration of modern humans out of Africa, based on
5634:
4293:
Living Color: The Biological and Social Meaning of Skin Color
3786:
2743:
Mullaney JM, Mills RE, Pittard WS, Devine SE (October 2010).
2379:"Detecting genetic drift versus selection in human evolution"
1321:
277:
270:
7958:
Vogel and Motulsky's Human Genetics: Problems and Approaches
7874:
6679:
Collins FS, Green ED, Guttmacher AE, Guyer MS (April 2003).
6364:
4512:
2327:
7831:
6881:
6678:
6254:
6077:
5972:
5550:"Geography And History Shape Genetic Differences in Humans"
5383:
4219:
4118:
3852:
2138:"Genetic Similarities Within and Between Human Populations"
2011:"There's No Scientific Basis for Race—It's a Made-Up Label"
1391:
1378:
1374:
1170:
within a continent or major region and found nowhere else.
454:
variation is variation in the chemical tags that attach to
422:
367:. Structural variations, such as copy-number variation and
6730:
Ebersberger I, Metzler D, Schwarz C, Pääbo S (June 2002).
5141:
4656:"Differences of gene expression between human populations"
4625:"Variable gene expression seen in different ethnic groups"
2745:"Small insertions and deletions (INDELs) in human genomes"
2742:
1724:
288:
137:
certain population groups. For instance, the mutation for
9351:
7772:
Weiss KM (1998). "Coming to Terms with Human Variation".
7119:
6078:
Lu YF, Goldstein DB, Angrist M, Cavalleri G (July 2014).
5694:
Cunha, Eugénia; Ubelaker, Douglas H. (23 December 2019).
4061:"Genetic landscape of Eurasia and "admixture" in Uyghurs"
4001:
3725:
3298:
3168:"Copy number variation may stem from replication misstep"
1951:
1638:
1382:
1312:
contribute to group differences in the incidence of some
1042:
650:
556:
line, from father to son, while mtDNA is passed down the
455:
276:
As of 2017, the Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Database (
8063:
7348:
7231:
6569:"Using haplotype blocks to map human complex trait loci"
5854:
4680:
4324:
3404:
3347:
2794:
578:. A tandem repeat is the adjacent repetition of a short
7986:
6885:"The structure of haplotype blocks in the human genome"
6838:
5913:
5035:
4765:
4564:"Ethnic Differences Traced to Variable Gene Expression"
4121:"The structure of haplotype blocks in the human genome"
3701:"New Research Proves Single Origin of Humans in Africa"
2562:
2093:(First ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom. p. 255.
1854:"Race and health: Basic questions, emerging directions"
1450:
endeavors that determine or study the structure of the
973:
groups to their descent groups. For example, under the
628:. Colored rings indicate thousand years before present.
231:
are detected in 1 of 160 live human births. Apart from
5310:
4373:
3945:"A weakly structured stem for human origins in Africa"
3533:
3241:
2795:
Collins FS, Brooks LD, Chakravarti A (December 1998).
2501:
Wang ET, Kodama G, Baldi P, Moyzis RK (January 2006).
2377:
Ackermann, R. R.; Cheverud, J. M. (16 December 2004).
615:
9325:
7834:"Low nucleotide diversity in chimpanzees and bonobos"
7745:"Human Races: A Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective"
7274:
7122:"Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome"
6602:
5433:
Albers, Patrick K.; McVean, Gil (13 September 2018).
5200:
3534:
King RC, Stansfield WD, Mulligan PK (2006). "Cline".
3244:"Global variation in copy number in the human genome"
3112:"Understanding Genetics: Human Health and the Genome"
2500:
1540:
Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
604:
Short tandem repeats (about 5 base pairs) are called
6933:
6026:
5332:
3062:"The diploid genome sequence of an individual human"
2927:
1513:
Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world
815:
Populations in Africa tend to have lower amounts of
7923:"Breakthrough of the year. Human genetic variation"
7656:
6936:"Evidence for variable selective pressures at MC1R"
6521:
6080:"Personalized medicine and human genetic diversity"
3850:
3695:
3693:
3653:
3566:
165:
exchange of genes (crossing over and recombination)
7410:
7172:
5805:
5750:
5144:"Genetic evidence for archaic admixture in Africa"
3942:
3535:
283:
159:Causes of differences between individuals include
7077:The International Hapmap Consortium (June 2004).
4811:. Vol. 42. Annual Reviews. pp. 433–49.
4800:
4743:. Social Science Research Council. Archived from
4422:
3649:
3647:
3192:
2376:
2245:Campbell, Michael C.; Tishkoff, Sarah A. (2008).
563:
9617:
7794:
7173:Jorde LB, Bamshad M, Rogers AR (February 1998).
6170:
6027:Risch N, Burchard E, Ziv E, Tang H (July 2002).
5973:Arrieta-Bolaños E, Madrigal JA, Shaw BE (2012).
4059:Li, Hui; Cho, Kelly; Kidd, J.; Kidd, K. (2009).
4004:"A global reference for human genetic variation"
3690:
3193:Lee JA, Carvalho CM, Lupski JR (December 2007).
3059:
2930:"Genetic variation in an individual human exome"
2244:
1641:"A global reference for human genetic variation"
876:American Association of Physical Anthropologists
642:Human evolutionary genetics § Modern humans
544:The most commonly studied human haplogroups are
43:A graphical representation of the typical human
5031:
5029:
4921:"The Genetic Cost of Neanderthal Introgression"
3943:Ragsdale, Aaron P.; et al. (17 May 2023).
2790:
2788:
2383:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1909:. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. 2000.
906:Wright's fixation index as measure of variation
636:Genetic distance map by Magalhães et al. (2012)
363:is the variation in structure of an organism's
6681:"A vision for the future of genomics research"
6566:
6484:
5092:
4975:
4730:
4728:
4726:
3644:
3467:
3443:National Institute of General Medical Sciences
2886:
2660:"Genetic variation, classification and 'race'"
731:-speaking populations in West-Central Africa,
719:-speaking populations in Northeast Africa and
76:No two humans are genetically identical. Even
9311:
9111:
8785:
8298:
8021:
8007:
7435:
5966:
5907:
5693:
5201:Durvasula A, Sankararaman S (February 2020).
4919:Harris, Kelley; Nielsen, Rasmus (June 2016).
4918:
4114:
4112:
4058:
2880:
2697:
2695:
2619:
2443:
2240:
2238:
7413:Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History
7385:
6173:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
5812:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
5799:
5530:"Among Many Peoples, Little Genomic Variety"
5432:
5377:
5326:
5026:
3995:
3936:
3900:
3857:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
2785:
2701:
2657:
2251:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
2082:
2080:
823:
6801:
6084:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine
5569:
5486:"The role of geography in human adaptation"
4875:
4869:
4853:
4723:
4561:
4174:
4172:
2829:
461:inherited across generations of individuals
9318:
9304:
9118:
9104:
8792:
8778:
8305:
8291:
8014:
8000:
7699:
7566:
4109:
3851:Schlebusch CM, Jakobsson M (August 2018).
3605:International Society of Genetic Genealogy
3470:"Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance"
3341:
2692:
2653:
2651:
2235:
2121:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2069:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1270:
992:Archaic human admixture with modern humans
7938:
7900:
7857:
7762:
7742:
7725:
7682:
7659:"Genetic research and health disparities"
7639:
7613:
7580:
7569:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
7549:
7539:
7496:
7453:
7257:
7155:
7145:
7102:
7051:
6959:
6908:
6864:
6755:
6704:
6653:
6390:
6347:
6231:
6103:
6054:
6044:
6000:
5990:
5949:
5939:
5890:
5880:
5848:
5831:
5727:
5670:
5652:
5611:
5601:
5511:
5501:
5460:
5450:
5409:
5360:
5350:
5317:
5287:
5277:
5236:
5226:
5194:
5177:
5167:
5118:
5069:
5009:
4952:
4863:Evolution and the Genetics of Populations
4783:
4759:
4706:
4538:
4456:
4399:
4350:
4289:
4245:
4144:
4084:
4035:
3978:
3868:
3823:
3763:
3493:
3381:
3324:
3275:
3210:
3087:
3077:
3006:
2996:
2955:
2945:
2904:
2887:Ke X, Taylor MS, Cardon LR (April 2008).
2863:
2853:
2812:
2768:
2719:
2675:
2596:
2536:
2526:
2477:
2420:
2402:
2353:
2278:
2218:
2169:
2077:
2034:
1977:
1759:
1672:
1606:
1030:A study published in 2020 found that the
5806:Winkler CA, Nelson GW, Smith MW (2010).
5477:
5333:Biddanda A, Rice DP, Novembre J (2020).
4479:
4178:
4169:
3567:Begon M, Townsend CR, Harper JL (2006).
2199:Annual Review of Genomics Human Genetics
2192:
1851:
1694:
1692:
1400:
1258:
1247:
1054:
1046:
827:
780:
772:
631:
619:
428:
287:
214:
61:is the genetic differences in and among
49:
38:
8799:
7917:
6772:
6635:
4653:
3569:Ecology: From individuals to ecosystems
2648:
2008:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1626:
853:
349:
14:
9618:
9085:Index of evolutionary biology articles
7436:Mountain JL, Risch N (November 2004).
5135:
4860:
4734:
3906:
3407:Pattern Recognition and Image Analysis
2702:Tishkoff SA, Kidd KK (November 2004).
2658:Jorde LB, Wooding SP (November 2004).
2038:Human Population Genetics and Genomics
1954:"Biological Conceptualization of Race"
1902:Race and racism in theory and practice
1782:
1051:Chart showing human genetic clustering
1043:Categorization of the world population
758:
657:recent African origin of modern humans
651:Recent African origin of modern humans
466:
148:
27:Genetic diversity in human populations
9299:
9125:
9099:
8773:
8286:
7995:
7771:
7470:
7408:
6567:Cardon LR, Abecasis GR (March 2003).
6185:10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110226
5527:
4806:
4589:
3468:Rakyan V, Whitelaw E (January 2003).
2978:
2263:10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164258
2211:10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164258
2086:
1817:
1689:
1205:
860:Phenotype § Phenotypic variation
727:populations in Northeast Africa; the
550:mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups
529:, a haplogroup is a group of similar
6407:
6321:
5086:
4817:10.1146/annurev-anthro-092412-155548
4622:
3439:"Human Genetic Variation Fact Sheet"
3398:
1698:
1623:
1550:Genetic history of the British Isles
1157:& Australian Aborigines) (Risch
985:
7700:Serre D, Pääbo S (September 2004).
5824:10.1146/annurev-genom-082509-141523
4482:"Ethnicity tied to gene expression"
4272:448, no. 7151 (July 2007): 346–48.
3870:10.1146/annurev-genom-083117-021759
2622:The New England Journal of Medicine
2009:Kolbert, Elizabeth (4 April 2018).
1012:Between 4% and 6% of the genome of
929:) among living human populations."
616:History and geographic distribution
24:
8374:Blood type distribution by country
8312:
7881:American Journal of Human Genetics
7614:Sankar P, Cho MK (November 2002).
7238:American Journal of Human Genetics
6940:American Journal of Human Genetics
6845:American Journal of Human Genetics
6736:American Journal of Human Genetics
6371:American Journal of Human Genetics
6328:American Journal of Human Genetics
6314:
6212:American Journal of Human Genetics
4687:American Journal of Human Genetics
4658:. Anthropology.net. Archived from
4296:. University of California Press.
4226:American Journal of Human Genetics
4065:American Journal of Human Genetics
3037:. 3 September 2007. Archived from
2893:European Journal of Human Genetics
1852:Williams, David R. (1 July 1997).
1587:American Journal of Human Genetics
1431:
243:chromosomes among live births are
25:
9647:
7980:
4768:"Conceptualizing human variation"
3118:. 24 January 2008. Archived from
707:-speaking populations inhabiting
421:insertions, 51 SVA insertions, 4
8752:
8751:
8062:
6322:Race, Ethnicity (October 2005).
6299:
6248:
6199:
6164:
5808:"Admixture mapping comes of age"
4562:Swaminathan N (9 January 2007).
3924:from the original on 17 May 2023
3445:. 19 August 2011. Archived from
1004:presented genetic evidence that
751:populations in Southern Africa.
546:Y-chromosome (Y-DNA) haplogroups
9636:Single-nucleotide polymorphisms
9182:Single-nucleotide polymorphisms
7788:10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.273
7473:"The mosaic that is our genome"
6120:
6071:
6046:10.1186/gb-2002-3-7-comment2007
5744:
5687:
5641:Molecular Biology and Evolution
5628:
5426:
5304:
5253:
4969:
4912:
4674:
4647:
4616:
4583:
4555:
4506:
4473:
4416:
4367:
4318:
4283:
4262:
4213:
4052:
3844:
3780:
3719:
3618:
3589:
3560:
3527:
3510:
3461:
3431:
3292:
3235:
3186:
3160:
3134:
3104:
3053:
3023:
2972:
2736:
2613:
2556:
2494:
2437:
2370:
2321:
2295:
2186:
2129:
2035:Templeton, Alan Robert (2018).
2028:
2002:
1508:Recent single origin hypothesis
1458:was a landmark genome project.
608:, while longer ones are called
582:. Tandem repeats exist on many
332:genome-wide association studies
284:Single nucleotide polymorphisms
120:, there is much more variation
9285:Human Genome Diversity Project
8885:Constructive neutral evolution
8197:Age disparity in relationships
7987:Human Genome Variation Society
4654:Kamrani K (28 February 2008).
4480:Phillips ML (9 January 2007).
1945:
1892:
1845:
1818:Reich, David (23 March 2018).
1811:
1776:
1718:
1574:
1438:Category:Human genome projects
898:, and damage to sweat glands.
663:of non-African populations of
564:Variable number tandem repeats
539:single nucleotide polymorphism
514:
446:
390:of the genomes of two humans:
304:single nucleotide polymorphism
298:Single nucleotide polymorphism
13:
1:
9244:Genome-wide association study
7940:10.1126/science.318.5858.1842
7775:Annual Review of Anthropology
6588:10.1016/S0168-9525(03)00022-2
5712:10.1080/20961790.2019.1697060
3495:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01377-5
3116:The Tech Museum of Innovation
1870:10.1016/S1047-2797(97)00051-3
1567:
1545:Genetic history of South Asia
570:Variable number tandem repeat
198:In humans, the main cause is
167:during reproduction (through
9521:CRISPR genome-editing method
9275:International HapMap Project
8835:Fisher's fundamental theorem
6636:Collins FS (November 2004).
5941:10.1371/journal.pone.0051103
5757:Journal of Forensic Sciences
5503:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000500
5279:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215
4189:10.1007/978-1-4684-9063-3_14
3415:10.1007/978-3-319-58838-4_26
3079:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050254
2998:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050266
2947:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000160
2041:. London. pp. 445–446.
1242:principal component analysis
1229:International HapMap Project
1095:ancestry-informative markers
1076:health risks and medications
1039:populations identified yet.
507:, a cline is a continuum of
328:International HapMap Project
209:neutrality of most mutations
32:Human Biodiversity Institute
7:
8860:Coefficient of relationship
7850:10.1093/genetics/164.4.1511
6422:10.1080/0301446021000019144
6096:10.1101/cshperspect.a008581
5111:10.1534/genetics.112.148213
4994:10.1534/genetics.112.148213
4937:10.1534/genetics.116.186890
2154:10.1534/genetics.106.067355
1555:
1530:African admixture in Europe
1518:
1483:Human evolutionary genetics
1461:
1377:gene that protects against
1149:; and other inhabitants of
1065:Race (human classification)
54:The human mitochondrial DNA
10:
9652:
9595:James Webb Space Telescope
8355:Neanderthal genome project
5700:Forensic Sciences Research
4623:Bell L (15 January 2007).
4343:10.1016/j.cell.2015.07.048
4077:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.024
3971:10.1038/s41586-023-06055-y
3730:, Hanihara T (July 2007).
3212:10.1016/j.cell.2007.11.037
2855:10.1186/1471-2105-12-S4-S4
2470:10.1038/s41467-018-04191-y
2193:Campbell, Michael (2008).
1979:10.1007/s11191-020-00178-8
1599:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.12.011
1435:
1318:Ellis–Van Creveld syndrome
1301:
1274:
1209:
1062:
1002:Neanderthal Genome Project
989:
910:The population geneticist
857:
762:
665:anatomically modern humans
639:
567:
518:
496:
470:
432:
353:
295:
189:most mutations are neutral
152:
29:
9626:Human population genetics
9575:developed at record speed
9336:
9330:Breakthroughs of the Year
9262:
9231:
9200:
9154:
9133:
9080:
9015:
8989:
8951:
8926:
8893:
8855:Coefficient of inbreeding
8807:
8747:
8597:
8414:
8320:
8227:
8135:
8071:
8060:
8029:
8023:Sex differences in humans
7764:10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.632
6607:. 33 Suppl (3s): 266–75.
5319:10.1101/2021.02.16.431497
3520:Microsoft Encarta Premium
3035:J. Craig Venter Institute
1535:Genetic history of Europe
1297:
1292:graft-versus-host disease
824:Distribution of variation
492:
311:source of heterogeneity.
239:); the most common extra
133:theory of human origins.
9033:Evolutionary game theory
8815:Hardy–Weinberg principle
8492:Caucasus hunter-gatherer
7675:10.1001/jama.291.24.2985
7471:Pääbo S (January 2003).
7402:10.1525/aa.1997.99.3.534
7083:Nature Reviews. Genetics
6804:Nature Reviews. Genetics
6487:Nature Reviews. Genetics
6447:Nature Reviews. Genetics
5528:Brown D (22 June 2009).
3538:A dictionary of genetics
2979:Gross L (October 2007).
2749:Human Molecular Genetics
1493:Multiregional hypothesis
1253:Forensic anthropologists
1212:Human genetic clustering
398:. This added to the two
233:sex chromosome disorders
229:Chromosome abnormalities
9631:Biological anthropology
9450:Human genetic variation
9385:Whole genome sequencing
9239:Whole genome sequencing
9172:Human genetic variation
8845:Shifting balance theory
8553:Ancient Northeast Asian
8529:Eastern hunter-gatherer
8509:Western hunter-gatherer
8480:Early Anatolian farmers
7750:American Anthropologist
7632:10.1126/science.1074447
7541:10.1073/pnas.0507611102
7389:American Anthropologist
6910:10.1126/science.1069424
6410:Annals of Human Biology
6277:10.1126/science.1078311
5882:10.1073/pnas.0909559107
5769:10.1111/1556-4029.13361
5603:10.1073/pnas.0914625107
5402:10.1126/science.aay5012
5169:10.1073/pnas.1109300108
4146:10.1126/science.1069424
3816:10.1126/science.1172257
3544:Oxford University Press
2906:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201987
2528:10.1073/pnas.0509691102
2404:10.1073/pnas.0405919102
1970:2021Sc&Ed..30..293L
1958:Science & Education
1797:10.1078/0018-442x-00051
1320:among the Pennsylvania
1271:Gene flow and admixture
701:whole genome sequencing
686:in East Africa and the
59:Human genetic variation
18:Human genetic diversity
9554:Single-cell sequencing
9458:Cellular reprogramming
8830:Linkage disequilibrium
8558:Ancient Paleo-Siberian
8541:Ancient North Eurasian
8504:Early European Farmers
8164:Emotional intelligence
8037:Sexual differentiation
5228:10.1126/sciadv.aax5097
3628:. Darwin-online.org.uk
1937:: CS1 maint: others (
1858:Annals of Epidemiology
1406:
1267:
1060:
1052:
918:(often abbreviated to
842:
817:linkage disequilibrium
786:
778:
646:Recent human evolution
637:
629:
293:
161:independent assortment
155:Recent human evolution
86:genetic fingerprinting
69:), a situation called
55:
47:
9369:Accelerating universe
9208:Personalized medicine
9072:Quantitative genetics
8981:Balding–Nichols model
8966:Population bottleneck
8961:Small population size
8865:Selection coefficient
8379:Genealogical DNA test
8340:Evolutionary genetics
7743:Templeton AR (1998).
5663:10.1093/molbev/msv334
4890:10.1353/hub.2003.0058
4392:10.1101/gr.193342.115
2634:10.1056/NEJMcp0900134
2450:Nature Communications
2087:Reich, David (2018).
1744:10.1101/gr.204255.116
1562:Human Variome Project
1488:Isolation by distance
1478:Genealogical DNA test
1436:Further information:
1404:
1262:
1248:Forensic anthropology
1182:populations (Shriver
1058:
1050:
975:recent African origin
858:Further information:
848:recent African origin
839:isolation by distance
831:
784:
776:
676:physical anthropology
659:paradigm assumes the
635:
623:
435:Copy number variation
429:Copy number variation
425:, and 10 inversions.
291:
215:Measures of variation
153:Further information:
82:copy-number variation
53:
42:
9502:Cancer immunotherapy
9467:Ardipithecus ramidus
9280:1000 Genomes Project
9270:Human Genome Project
9218:Genetic epidemiology
8943:Background selection
8930:on genomic variation
8928:Effects of selection
8880:Population structure
8350:Neanderthal genetics
8333:Human Genome Project
7448:(11 Suppl): S48–53.
6648:(11 Suppl): S13–15.
5979:Bone Marrow Research
5588:(Suppl 2): 8924–30.
4778:(11 Suppl): S17–20.
4662:on 30 September 2011
4602:10.1038/news070101-8
4181:Evolutionary Biology
3449:on 16 September 2008
2814:10.1101/gr.8.12.1229
2670:(11 Suppl): S28–33.
1525:1000 Genomes Project
1456:Human Genome Project
1196:confidence intervals
1111:sub-Saharan Africans
854:Phenotypic variation
404:Human Genome Project
361:Structural variation
356:Structural variation
350:Structural variation
308:1000 Genomes Project
267:1000 Genomes Project
259:Nucleotide diversity
9545:neutron star merger
9533:gravitational waves
9441:Poincaré conjecture
9232:Analysis techniques
9213:Predictive medicine
9187:Identity by descent
9162:Biological specimen
9146:Biological database
9062:Population genomics
8938:Genetic hitchhiking
8825:Identity by descent
8801:Population genetics
8733:Sub-Saharan Africa
8702:Tamils (Sri Lankan)
8599:Population genetics
8406:Genetic enhancement
8399:Surname DNA project
7532:2005PNAS..10215942R
7498:10.1038/nature01400
7489:2003Natur.421..409P
7219:on 28 November 2007
7138:2001Natur.409..860L
7044:10.1038/nature02168
7036:2003Natur.426..789G
6991:2000Natur.408..708I
6901:2002Sci...296.2225G
6706:10.1038/nature01626
6697:2003Natur.422..835C
6536:1987Natur.325...31C
6269:2002Sci...298.2381R
5992:10.1155/2012/136087
5932:2012PLoSO...751103B
5873:2010PNAS..107..786B
5594:2010PNAS..107.8924H
5535:The Washington Post
5352:10.7554/eLife.60107
5219:2020SciA....6.5097D
5160:2011PNAS..10815123H
5062:10.1038/nature09710
5054:2010Natur.468.1053R
4569:Scientific American
4449:10.1038/nature12223
4441:2013Natur.499...79W
4312:10.1525/j.ctt1pn64b
4278:10.1038/nature05951
4137:2002Sci...296.2225G
4028:10.1038/nature15393
4020:2015Natur.526...68T
3963:2023Natur.617..755R
3808:2009Sci...324.1035T
3756:10.1038/nature05951
3748:2007Natur.448..346M
3601:DNA-Newbie Glossary
3486:2003CBio...13...R6R
3374:10.1038/nature12886
3366:2014Natur.505...43P
3268:10.1038/nature05329
3260:2006Natur.444..444R
2714:(11 Suppl): S21–7.
2589:10.1038/nature06862
2581:2008Natur.453...56K
2519:2006PNAS..103..135W
2462:2018NatCo...9.1865G
2395:2004PNAS..10117946A
2389:(52): 17946–17951.
2015:National Geographic
1699:NCBI (8 May 2017).
1665:10.1038/nature15393
1657:2015Natur.526...68T
1418:Stanford University
1390:and about 6–10% in
1000:. In May 2010, the
765:Population genetics
759:Population genetics
580:nucleotide sequence
527:molecular evolution
473:Genetic variability
467:Genetic variability
149:Causes of variation
9586:protein structures
9048:Landscape genetics
7718:10.1101/gr.2529604
7591:10.1002/ajpa.10079
7419:Aldine Transaction
6787:10.1002/bies.10315
6576:Trends in Genetics
6039:(7): comment2007.
4735:Graves JL (2006).
3917:The New York Times
3726:Manica A, Amos W,
3317:10.1101/gr.6557307
3174:. 27 December 2007
3148:. 4 September 2007
2842:BMC Bioinformatics
2761:10.1093/hmg/ddq400
1824:The New York Times
1473:Chimera (genetics)
1407:
1314:monogenic diseases
1310:allele frequencies
1268:
1206:Genetic clustering
1061:
1053:
998:Middle Paleolithic
980:genetic bottleneck
888:selective pressure
865:Sub-Saharan Africa
843:
803:assortative mating
787:
779:
735:, East Africa and
638:
630:
599:DNA fingerprinting
344:negative selection
322:, and so causes a
294:
139:sickle-cell anemia
56:
48:
9613:
9612:
9573:COVID-19 vaccines
9529:First observation
9397:Molecular circuit
9293:
9292:
9167:De-identification
9127:Personal genomics
9093:
9092:
9043:Genetic genealogy
9038:Fitness landscape
8767:
8766:
8587:Ancient Beringian
8389:Race and genetics
8384:Genetic genealogy
8369:Genetic variation
8280:
8279:
8252:Gender inequality
7971:978-3-540-37653-8
7933:(5858): 1842–43.
7921:(December 2007).
7626:(5597): 1337–38.
7428:978-0-202-02033-4
7289:10.1159/000022891
7132:(6822): 860–921.
6895:(5576): 2225–29.
6142:10.1159/000048605
5048:(7327): 1053–60.
4861:Wright S (1978).
4826:978-0-8243-1942-7
4303:978-0-520-28386-2
4198:978-1-4684-9065-7
3957:(7962): 755–763.
3802:(5930): 1035–44.
3424:978-3-319-58837-7
2100:978-0-19-882125-0
2048:978-0-12-386026-2
1738:(12): 1651–1662.
1503:Race and genetics
1326:Tay–Sachs disease
1237:natural selection
1131:Northern Africans
1069:Race and genetics
986:Archaic admixture
777:Genetic variation
626:mitochondrial DNA
483:genetic diversity
180:Natural selection
78:monozygotic twins
16:(Redirected from
9643:
9606:
9598:
9589:
9576:
9567:
9556:
9548:
9535:
9523:
9515:
9504:
9496:
9487:
9478:
9470:
9460:
9452:
9444:
9435:
9426:
9415:
9407:
9405:RNA interference
9399:
9387:
9379:
9371:
9363:
9355:
9320:
9313:
9306:
9297:
9296:
9223:Pharmacogenomics
9192:Genetic disorder
9120:
9113:
9106:
9097:
9096:
9002:J. B. S. Haldane
8794:
8787:
8780:
8771:
8770:
8755:
8754:
8456:African diaspora
8446:Eastern Africa
8394:Recent evolution
8345:Human-chimp MRCA
8307:
8300:
8293:
8284:
8283:
8095:Mental disorders
8066:
8016:
8009:
8002:
7993:
7992:
7975:
7960:(4th ed.).
7952:
7942:
7914:
7904:
7871:
7861:
7828:
7791:
7768:
7766:
7739:
7729:
7696:
7686:
7653:
7643:
7610:
7584:
7563:
7553:
7543:
7526:(44): 15942–47.
7510:
7500:
7483:(6921): 409–12.
7467:
7457:
7432:
7416:
7409:Marks J (1995).
7405:
7382:
7345:
7308:
7271:
7261:
7228:
7226:
7224:
7218:
7212:. Archived from
7179:
7169:
7159:
7149:
7147:10.1038/35057062
7116:
7106:
7073:
7055:
7030:(6968): 789–96.
7018:
6999:10.1038/35047064
6985:(6813): 708–13.
6973:
6963:
6930:
6912:
6878:
6868:
6835:
6798:
6769:
6759:
6726:
6708:
6691:(6934): 835–47.
6675:
6657:
6632:
6599:
6573:
6563:
6544:10.1038/325031a0
6518:
6478:
6441:
6404:
6394:
6361:
6351:
6308:
6303:
6297:
6296:
6263:(5602): 2381–5.
6252:
6246:
6245:
6235:
6203:
6197:
6196:
6168:
6162:
6161:
6124:
6118:
6117:
6107:
6075:
6069:
6068:
6058:
6048:
6024:
6015:
6014:
6004:
5994:
5970:
5964:
5963:
5953:
5943:
5911:
5905:
5904:
5894:
5884:
5852:
5846:
5845:
5835:
5803:
5797:
5796:
5748:
5742:
5741:
5731:
5691:
5685:
5684:
5674:
5656:
5632:
5626:
5625:
5615:
5605:
5573:
5567:
5565:
5563:
5561:
5546:
5544:
5542:
5525:
5515:
5505:
5481:
5475:
5474:
5464:
5454:
5430:
5424:
5423:
5413:
5381:
5375:
5374:
5364:
5354:
5330:
5324:
5323:
5321:
5308:
5302:
5301:
5291:
5281:
5257:
5251:
5250:
5240:
5230:
5207:Science Advances
5198:
5192:
5191:
5181:
5171:
5139:
5133:
5132:
5122:
5090:
5084:
5083:
5073:
5033:
5024:
5023:
5013:
4973:
4967:
4966:
4956:
4916:
4910:
4909:
4873:
4867:
4866:
4857:
4851:
4850:
4844:
4840:
4838:
4830:
4807:Hawks J (2013).
4804:
4798:
4797:
4787:
4763:
4757:
4756:
4754:
4752:
4732:
4721:
4720:
4710:
4678:
4672:
4671:
4669:
4667:
4651:
4645:
4644:
4642:
4640:
4635:on 26 March 2016
4631:. Archived from
4620:
4614:
4613:
4587:
4581:
4580:
4578:
4576:
4559:
4553:
4552:
4542:
4510:
4504:
4503:
4501:
4499:
4490:. Archived from
4477:
4471:
4470:
4460:
4420:
4414:
4413:
4403:
4371:
4365:
4364:
4354:
4322:
4316:
4315:
4287:
4281:
4266:
4260:
4259:
4249:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4176:
4167:
4166:
4148:
4131:(5576): 2225–9.
4116:
4107:
4106:
4088:
4056:
4050:
4049:
4039:
3999:
3993:
3992:
3982:
3940:
3934:
3933:
3931:
3929:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3893:
3872:
3848:
3842:
3841:
3827:
3793:
3784:
3778:
3777:
3767:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3712:
3697:
3688:
3687:
3651:
3642:
3641:
3635:
3633:
3622:
3616:
3615:
3613:
3611:
3593:
3587:
3586:
3571:(4th ed.).
3564:
3558:
3557:
3542:(7th ed.).
3541:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3514:
3508:
3507:
3497:
3465:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3435:
3429:
3428:
3402:
3396:
3395:
3385:
3345:
3339:
3338:
3328:
3296:
3290:
3289:
3279:
3254:(7118): 444–54.
3239:
3233:
3232:
3214:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3153:
3138:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3122:on 29 April 2012
3108:
3102:
3101:
3091:
3081:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3046:
3027:
3021:
3020:
3010:
3000:
2976:
2970:
2969:
2959:
2949:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2908:
2884:
2878:
2877:
2867:
2857:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2816:
2792:
2783:
2782:
2772:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2723:
2699:
2690:
2689:
2679:
2655:
2646:
2645:
2617:
2611:
2610:
2600:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2540:
2530:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2481:
2441:
2435:
2434:
2424:
2406:
2374:
2368:
2367:
2357:
2325:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2299:
2293:
2292:
2282:
2242:
2233:
2232:
2222:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2120:
2112:
2084:
2075:
2074:
2068:
2060:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1981:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1936:
1928:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1763:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1696:
1687:
1686:
1676:
1636:
1621:
1620:
1610:
1578:
1330:Ashkenazi Jewish
1147:Native Americans
1139:Southeast Asians
931:Richard Lewontin
792:small population
713:Northeast Africa
525:In the study of
417:insertions, 128
21:
9651:
9650:
9646:
9645:
9644:
9642:
9641:
9640:
9616:
9615:
9614:
9609:
9601:
9592:
9579:
9570:
9559:
9551:
9538:
9526:
9518:
9507:
9499:
9490:
9481:
9476:quantum machine
9473:
9463:
9455:
9447:
9438:
9429:
9418:
9410:
9402:
9390:
9382:
9374:
9366:
9361:Dolly the sheep
9358:
9349:
9342:
9332:
9324:
9294:
9289:
9258:
9254:Genetic testing
9227:
9196:
9177:Genetic linkage
9150:
9134:Data collection
9129:
9124:
9094:
9089:
9076:
9011:
8985:
8947:
8931:
8929:
8922:
8889:
8820:Genetic linkage
8803:
8798:
8768:
8763:
8743:
8723:Southeast Asia
8601:
8593:
8451:Southern Africa
8418:
8416:Genetic history
8410:
8316:
8311:
8281:
8276:
8223:
8131:
8115:Substance abuse
8090:Life expectancy
8067:
8058:
8025:
8020:
7983:
7978:
7972:
7887:(5): 994–1015.
7797:Nature Genetics
7706:Genome Research
7669:(24): 2985–89.
7582:10.1.1.473.5972
7442:Nature Genetics
7429:
7351:Nature Genetics
7314:Nature Genetics
7222:
7220:
7216:
7177:
7095:10.1038/nrg1351
6816:10.1038/nrg1452
6642:Nature Genetics
6605:Nature Genetics
6571:
6530:(6099): 31–36.
6459:10.1038/nrg1401
6317:
6315:Further reading
6312:
6311:
6304:
6300:
6253:
6249:
6204:
6200:
6169:
6165:
6125:
6121:
6076:
6072:
6025:
6018:
5971:
5967:
5912:
5908:
5853:
5849:
5804:
5800:
5749:
5745:
5692:
5688:
5633:
5629:
5574:
5570:
5559:
5557:
5548:
5540:
5538:
5496:(6): e1000500.
5482:
5478:
5431:
5427:
5382:
5378:
5331:
5327:
5309:
5305:
5258:
5254:
5213:(7): eaax5097.
5199:
5195:
5154:(37): 15123–8.
5140:
5136:
5091:
5087:
5034:
5027:
4974:
4970:
4917:
4913:
4874:
4870:
4858:
4854:
4842:
4841:
4832:
4831:
4827:
4805:
4801:
4772:Nature Genetics
4764:
4760:
4750:
4748:
4741:Is Race "Real"?
4733:
4724:
4679:
4675:
4665:
4663:
4652:
4648:
4638:
4636:
4621:
4617:
4588:
4584:
4574:
4572:
4560:
4556:
4519:Nature Genetics
4511:
4507:
4497:
4495:
4478:
4474:
4435:(7456): 79–82.
4421:
4417:
4386:(11): 1610–21.
4380:Genome Research
4372:
4368:
4323:
4319:
4304:
4288:
4284:
4267:
4263:
4218:
4214:
4199:
4177:
4170:
4117:
4110:
4057:
4053:
4014:(7571): 68–74.
4000:
3996:
3941:
3937:
3927:
3925:
3910:(17 May 2023).
3905:
3901:
3891:
3889:
3849:
3845:
3791:
3785:
3781:
3742:(7151): 346–8.
3724:
3720:
3710:
3708:
3699:
3698:
3691:
3656:Nature Genetics
3652:
3645:
3631:
3629:
3624:
3623:
3619:
3609:
3607:
3595:
3594:
3590:
3583:
3573:Wiley-Blackwell
3565:
3561:
3554:
3532:
3528:
3516:
3515:
3511:
3474:Current Biology
3466:
3462:
3452:
3450:
3437:
3436:
3432:
3425:
3403:
3399:
3346:
3342:
3305:Genome Research
3297:
3293:
3240:
3236:
3191:
3187:
3177:
3175:
3166:
3165:
3161:
3151:
3149:
3140:
3139:
3135:
3125:
3123:
3110:
3109:
3105:
3058:
3054:
3044:
3042:
3041:on 16 July 2011
3029:
3028:
3024:
2977:
2973:
2940:(8): e1000160.
2926:
2922:
2885:
2881:
2848:(Suppl 4): S4.
2834:
2830:
2807:(12): 1229–31.
2801:Genome Research
2793:
2786:
2741:
2737:
2708:Nature Genetics
2700:
2693:
2664:Nature Genetics
2656:
2649:
2628:(24): 2556–62.
2618:
2614:
2575:(7191): 56–64.
2561:
2557:
2499:
2495:
2442:
2438:
2375:
2371:
2334:Nature Genetics
2326:
2322:
2312:
2310:
2301:
2300:
2296:
2243:
2236:
2191:
2187:
2134:
2130:
2114:
2113:
2101:
2085:
2078:
2062:
2061:
2049:
2033:
2029:
2019:
2017:
2007:
2003:
1950:
1946:
1930:
1929:
1917:
1898:
1897:
1893:
1850:
1846:
1836:
1834:
1816:
1812:
1781:
1777:
1732:Genome Research
1723:
1719:
1709:
1707:
1697:
1690:
1651:(7571): 68–74.
1637:
1624:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1558:
1521:
1468:Archaeogenetics
1464:
1444:genome projects
1440:
1434:
1432:Genome projects
1363:prostate cancer
1308:Differences in
1306:
1304:Race and health
1300:
1279:
1273:
1250:
1231:(Phase II) and
1220:An analysis of
1214:
1208:
1127:Southern Asians
1071:
1045:
994:
988:
967:
957:
949:
942:
928:
924:
908:
869:gene expression
862:
856:
826:
767:
761:
743:populations in
737:Southern Africa
653:
648:
618:
606:microsatellites
572:
566:
535:common ancestor
523:
517:
501:
499:Cline (biology)
495:
475:
469:
449:
437:
431:
408:Celera Genomics
396:James D. Watson
358:
352:
300:
286:
265:. In 2015, the
217:
204:founder effects
157:
151:
109:rhesus macaques
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9649:
9639:
9638:
9633:
9628:
9611:
9610:
9608:
9607:
9599:
9590:
9577:
9568:
9557:
9549:
9536:
9524:
9516:
9505:
9497:
9488:
9486:clinical trial
9479:
9471:
9461:
9453:
9445:
9436:
9427:
9416:
9408:
9400:
9388:
9380:
9372:
9364:
9356:
9346:
9344:
9334:
9333:
9323:
9322:
9315:
9308:
9300:
9291:
9290:
9288:
9287:
9282:
9277:
9272:
9266:
9264:
9263:Major projects
9260:
9259:
9257:
9256:
9251:
9246:
9241:
9235:
9233:
9229:
9228:
9226:
9225:
9220:
9215:
9210:
9204:
9202:
9198:
9197:
9195:
9194:
9189:
9184:
9179:
9174:
9169:
9164:
9158:
9156:
9155:Field concepts
9152:
9151:
9149:
9148:
9143:
9137:
9135:
9131:
9130:
9123:
9122:
9115:
9108:
9100:
9091:
9090:
9088:
9087:
9081:
9078:
9077:
9075:
9074:
9069:
9067:Phylogeography
9064:
9059:
9057:Microevolution
9054:
9045:
9040:
9035:
9030:
9025:
9019:
9017:
9016:Related topics
9013:
9012:
9010:
9009:
9004:
8999:
8993:
8991:
8987:
8986:
8984:
8983:
8978:
8973:
8971:Founder effect
8968:
8963:
8957:
8955:
8949:
8948:
8946:
8945:
8940:
8934:
8932:
8927:
8924:
8923:
8921:
8920:
8915:
8910:
8905:
8899:
8897:
8891:
8890:
8888:
8887:
8882:
8877:
8872:
8867:
8862:
8857:
8852:
8850:Price equation
8847:
8842:
8840:Neutral theory
8837:
8832:
8827:
8822:
8817:
8811:
8809:
8805:
8804:
8797:
8796:
8789:
8782:
8774:
8765:
8764:
8762:
8761:
8748:
8745:
8744:
8742:
8741:
8740:
8739:
8731:
8730:
8729:
8721:
8720:
8719:
8714:
8706:
8705:
8704:
8699:
8694:
8686:
8685:
8684:
8679:
8674:
8666:
8661:
8656:
8651:
8650:
8649:
8644:
8639:
8634:
8629:
8624:
8619:
8614:
8605:
8603:
8595:
8594:
8592:
8591:
8590:
8589:
8579:
8578:
8577:
8570:Southeast Asia
8567:
8566:
8565:
8560:
8555:
8545:
8544:
8543:
8533:
8532:
8531:
8526:
8521:
8516:
8511:
8506:
8496:
8495:
8494:
8484:
8483:
8482:
8472:
8471:
8470:
8460:
8459:
8458:
8453:
8448:
8443:
8441:Central Africa
8438:
8433:
8422:
8420:
8412:
8411:
8409:
8408:
8403:
8402:
8401:
8396:
8391:
8386:
8381:
8376:
8366:
8365:
8364:
8359:
8358:
8357:
8347:
8337:
8336:
8335:
8324:
8322:
8318:
8317:
8314:Human genetics
8310:
8309:
8302:
8295:
8287:
8278:
8277:
8275:
8274:
8272:Social support
8269:
8267:Social capital
8264:
8259:
8254:
8249:
8248:
8247:
8237:
8231:
8229:
8225:
8224:
8222:
8221:
8220:
8219:
8214:
8209:
8204:
8199:
8191:
8186:
8181:
8176:
8171:
8166:
8161:
8156:
8151:
8145:
8143:
8133:
8132:
8130:
8129:
8124:
8123:
8122:
8117:
8112:
8107:
8102:
8092:
8087:
8081:
8079:
8069:
8068:
8061:
8059:
8057:
8056:
8051:
8046:
8045:
8044:
8033:
8031:
8027:
8026:
8019:
8018:
8011:
8004:
7996:
7990:
7989:
7982:
7981:External links
7979:
7977:
7976:
7970:
7953:
7915:
7893:10.1086/378777
7872:
7844:(4): 1511–18.
7829:
7792:
7769:
7740:
7712:(9): 1679–85.
7697:
7654:
7611:
7564:
7511:
7468:
7455:10.1038/ng1456
7433:
7427:
7406:
7383:
7346:
7309:
7277:Human Heredity
7272:
7250:10.1086/302825
7229:
7170:
7117:
7074:
7019:
6974:
6952:10.1086/302863
6946:(4): 1351–61.
6931:
6879:
6857:10.1086/302415
6851:(6): 1719–27.
6836:
6810:(10): 790–96.
6799:
6781:(8): 798–801.
6770:
6748:10.1086/340787
6742:(6): 1490–97.
6727:
6676:
6655:10.1038/ng1436
6633:
6613:10.1038/ng1113
6600:
6564:
6519:
6499:10.1038/nrg999
6482:
6453:(8): 598–609.
6442:
6416:(6): 589–608.
6405:
6383:10.1086/324069
6362:
6340:10.1086/491747
6318:
6316:
6313:
6310:
6309:
6298:
6247:
6224:10.1086/427888
6198:
6179:(1): 293–340.
6163:
6130:Human Heredity
6119:
6090:(9): a008581.
6070:
6033:Genome Biology
6016:
5965:
5926:(11): e51103.
5906:
5847:
5798:
5763:(4): 971–974.
5743:
5686:
5647:(4): 1082–93.
5627:
5568:
5476:
5452:10.1101/416610
5425:
5376:
5325:
5303:
5252:
5193:
5134:
5105:(1): 199–209.
5085:
5025:
4988:(1): 199–209.
4968:
4931:(2): 881–891.
4911:
4868:
4852:
4843:|journal=
4825:
4799:
4785:10.1038/ng1455
4758:
4747:on 3 June 2019
4722:
4699:10.1086/512017
4673:
4646:
4615:
4582:
4554:
4531:10.1038/ng1955
4505:
4472:
4415:
4366:
4337:(5): 1051–65.
4317:
4302:
4282:
4261:
4238:10.1086/368061
4212:
4197:
4168:
4108:
4071:(6): 934–937.
4051:
3994:
3935:
3899:
3843:
3779:
3718:
3707:. 19 July 2007
3689:
3643:
3617:
3588:
3582:978-1405111171
3581:
3575:. p. 10.
3559:
3553:978-0195307610
3552:
3526:
3509:
3460:
3430:
3423:
3397:
3360:(7481): 43–9.
3340:
3311:(9): 1266–77.
3291:
3234:
3205:(7): 1235–47.
3185:
3159:
3133:
3103:
3052:
3022:
2971:
2920:
2879:
2828:
2784:
2755:(R2): R131–6.
2735:
2721:10.1038/ng1438
2691:
2677:10.1038/ng1435
2647:
2612:
2555:
2493:
2436:
2369:
2346:10.1038/ng.862
2320:
2309:. 13 June 2011
2294:
2234:
2185:
2148:(1): 351–359.
2128:
2099:
2076:
2047:
2027:
2001:
1964:(2): 293–316.
1944:
1915:
1891:
1864:(5): 322–333.
1844:
1810:
1791:(3): 208–209.
1775:
1717:
1688:
1622:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1498:Neurodiversity
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1463:
1460:
1433:
1430:
1426:Noah Rosenberg
1422:Noah Rosenberg
1405:HIV attachment
1299:
1296:
1275:Main article:
1272:
1269:
1249:
1246:
1227:data from the
1210:Main article:
1207:
1204:
1186:2003; Bamshad
1153:(Melanesians,
1135:Eastern Asians
1123:Central Asians
1119:Western Asians
1101:2002; Bamshad
1044:
1041:
990:Main article:
987:
984:
965:
955:
947:
940:
926:
922:
916:fixation index
914:developed the
907:
904:
855:
852:
834:microsatellite
825:
822:
797:founder effect
760:
757:
745:Central Africa
671:Descent of Man
652:
649:
617:
614:
610:minisatellites
568:Main article:
565:
562:
519:Main article:
516:
513:
497:Main article:
494:
491:
471:Main article:
468:
465:
448:
445:
433:Main article:
430:
427:
410:respectively.
388:full sequences
354:Main article:
351:
348:
296:Main article:
285:
282:
216:
213:
193:founder effect
171:) and various
150:
147:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9648:
9637:
9634:
9632:
9629:
9627:
9624:
9623:
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9605:
9600:
9596:
9591:
9587:
9583:
9578:
9574:
9569:
9566:
9563:
9558:
9555:
9550:
9546:
9542:
9537:
9534:
9530:
9525:
9522:
9517:
9514:
9513:comet mission
9512:
9506:
9503:
9498:
9494:
9489:
9485:
9480:
9477:
9472:
9469:
9468:
9462:
9459:
9454:
9451:
9446:
9442:
9437:
9433:
9428:
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9423:
9417:
9414:
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9406:
9401:
9398:
9394:
9389:
9386:
9381:
9378:
9373:
9370:
9365:
9362:
9357:
9354:understanding
9353:
9348:
9347:
9345:
9341:
9340:
9335:
9331:
9329:
9321:
9316:
9314:
9309:
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9301:
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9286:
9283:
9281:
9278:
9276:
9273:
9271:
9268:
9267:
9265:
9261:
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9252:
9250:
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9242:
9240:
9237:
9236:
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9230:
9224:
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9219:
9216:
9214:
9211:
9209:
9206:
9205:
9203:
9199:
9193:
9190:
9188:
9185:
9183:
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9178:
9175:
9173:
9170:
9168:
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9159:
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9147:
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9142:
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9138:
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9128:
9121:
9116:
9114:
9109:
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9102:
9101:
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9086:
9083:
9082:
9079:
9073:
9070:
9068:
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9063:
9060:
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9049:
9046:
9044:
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9039:
9036:
9034:
9031:
9029:
9026:
9024:
9021:
9020:
9018:
9014:
9008:
9007:Sewall Wright
9005:
9003:
9000:
8998:
8995:
8994:
8992:
8988:
8982:
8979:
8977:
8974:
8972:
8969:
8967:
8964:
8962:
8959:
8958:
8956:
8954:
8953:Genetic drift
8950:
8944:
8941:
8939:
8936:
8935:
8933:
8925:
8919:
8916:
8914:
8911:
8909:
8906:
8904:
8901:
8900:
8898:
8896:
8892:
8886:
8883:
8881:
8878:
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8868:
8866:
8863:
8861:
8858:
8856:
8853:
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8843:
8841:
8838:
8836:
8833:
8831:
8828:
8826:
8823:
8821:
8818:
8816:
8813:
8812:
8810:
8806:
8802:
8795:
8790:
8788:
8783:
8781:
8776:
8775:
8772:
8760:
8759:
8750:
8749:
8746:
8738:
8735:
8734:
8732:
8728:
8725:
8724:
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8713:
8710:
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8707:
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8687:
8683:
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8669:
8667:
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8640:
8638:
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8630:
8628:
8625:
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8618:
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8610:
8609:
8607:
8606:
8604:
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8588:
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8580:
8576:
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8571:
8568:
8564:
8561:
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8542:
8539:
8538:
8537:
8534:
8530:
8527:
8525:
8522:
8520:
8517:
8515:
8514:British Isles
8512:
8510:
8507:
8505:
8502:
8501:
8500:
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8493:
8490:
8489:
8488:
8485:
8481:
8478:
8477:
8476:
8473:
8469:
8466:
8465:
8464:
8461:
8457:
8454:
8452:
8449:
8447:
8444:
8442:
8439:
8437:
8436:West Africa
8434:
8432:
8429:
8428:
8427:
8424:
8423:
8421:
8417:
8413:
8407:
8404:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8392:
8390:
8387:
8385:
8382:
8380:
8377:
8375:
8372:
8371:
8370:
8367:
8363:
8360:
8356:
8353:
8352:
8351:
8348:
8346:
8343:
8342:
8341:
8338:
8334:
8331:
8330:
8329:
8326:
8325:
8323:
8319:
8315:
8308:
8303:
8301:
8296:
8294:
8289:
8288:
8285:
8273:
8270:
8268:
8265:
8263:
8260:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8246:
8243:
8242:
8241:
8238:
8236:
8233:
8232:
8230:
8226:
8218:
8215:
8213:
8210:
8208:
8205:
8203:
8200:
8198:
8195:
8194:
8192:
8190:
8187:
8185:
8182:
8180:
8177:
8175:
8172:
8170:
8167:
8165:
8162:
8160:
8157:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8147:
8146:
8144:
8142:
8138:
8134:
8128:
8125:
8121:
8118:
8116:
8113:
8111:
8110:Schizophrenia
8108:
8106:
8103:
8101:
8098:
8097:
8096:
8093:
8091:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8082:
8080:
8078:
8074:
8070:
8065:
8055:
8052:
8050:
8047:
8043:
8040:
8039:
8038:
8035:
8034:
8032:
8028:
8024:
8017:
8012:
8010:
8005:
8003:
7998:
7997:
7994:
7988:
7985:
7984:
7973:
7967:
7963:
7959:
7954:
7950:
7946:
7941:
7936:
7932:
7928:
7924:
7920:
7916:
7912:
7908:
7903:
7898:
7894:
7890:
7886:
7882:
7878:
7873:
7869:
7865:
7860:
7855:
7851:
7847:
7843:
7839:
7835:
7830:
7826:
7822:
7818:
7814:
7810:
7809:10.1038/79866
7806:
7803:(2): 151–57.
7802:
7798:
7793:
7789:
7785:
7781:
7777:
7776:
7770:
7765:
7760:
7757:(3): 632–50.
7756:
7752:
7751:
7746:
7741:
7737:
7733:
7728:
7723:
7719:
7715:
7711:
7707:
7703:
7698:
7694:
7690:
7685:
7680:
7676:
7672:
7668:
7664:
7660:
7655:
7651:
7647:
7642:
7637:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7617:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7600:
7596:
7592:
7588:
7583:
7578:
7575:(4): 393–98.
7574:
7570:
7565:
7561:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7542:
7537:
7533:
7529:
7525:
7521:
7517:
7512:
7508:
7504:
7499:
7494:
7490:
7486:
7482:
7478:
7474:
7469:
7465:
7461:
7456:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7439:
7434:
7430:
7424:
7420:
7415:
7414:
7407:
7403:
7399:
7396:(3): 534–44.
7395:
7391:
7390:
7384:
7380:
7376:
7372:
7368:
7364:
7363:10.1038/84773
7360:
7357:(2): 155–56.
7356:
7352:
7347:
7343:
7339:
7335:
7331:
7327:
7323:
7319:
7315:
7310:
7306:
7302:
7298:
7294:
7290:
7286:
7282:
7278:
7273:
7269:
7265:
7260:
7255:
7251:
7247:
7244:(3): 979–88.
7243:
7239:
7235:
7230:
7215:
7211:
7207:
7203:
7199:
7195:
7191:
7188:(2): 126–36.
7187:
7183:
7176:
7171:
7167:
7163:
7158:
7157:2027.42/62798
7153:
7148:
7143:
7139:
7135:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7118:
7114:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7096:
7092:
7089:(6): 467–75.
7088:
7084:
7080:
7075:
7071:
7067:
7063:
7059:
7054:
7053:2027.42/62838
7049:
7045:
7041:
7037:
7033:
7029:
7025:
7020:
7016:
7012:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6996:
6992:
6988:
6984:
6980:
6975:
6971:
6967:
6962:
6957:
6953:
6949:
6945:
6941:
6937:
6932:
6928:
6924:
6920:
6916:
6911:
6906:
6902:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6880:
6876:
6872:
6867:
6862:
6858:
6854:
6850:
6846:
6842:
6837:
6833:
6829:
6825:
6821:
6817:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6800:
6796:
6792:
6788:
6784:
6780:
6776:
6771:
6767:
6763:
6758:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6737:
6733:
6728:
6724:
6720:
6716:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6698:
6694:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6677:
6673:
6669:
6665:
6661:
6656:
6651:
6647:
6643:
6639:
6634:
6630:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6606:
6601:
6597:
6593:
6589:
6585:
6582:(3): 135–40.
6581:
6577:
6570:
6565:
6561:
6557:
6553:
6549:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6529:
6525:
6520:
6516:
6512:
6508:
6504:
6500:
6496:
6493:(2): 99–111.
6492:
6488:
6483:
6481:
6476:
6472:
6468:
6464:
6460:
6456:
6452:
6448:
6443:
6439:
6435:
6431:
6427:
6423:
6419:
6415:
6411:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6393:
6388:
6384:
6380:
6377:(5): 936–50.
6376:
6372:
6368:
6363:
6359:
6355:
6350:
6345:
6341:
6337:
6334:(4): 519–32.
6333:
6329:
6325:
6320:
6319:
6307:
6302:
6294:
6290:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6262:
6258:
6251:
6243:
6239:
6234:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6218:(2): 268–75.
6217:
6213:
6209:
6202:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6167:
6159:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6143:
6139:
6135:
6131:
6123:
6115:
6111:
6106:
6101:
6097:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6081:
6074:
6066:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6038:
6034:
6030:
6023:
6021:
6012:
6008:
6003:
5998:
5993:
5988:
5984:
5980:
5976:
5969:
5961:
5957:
5952:
5947:
5942:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5925:
5921:
5917:
5910:
5902:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5874:
5870:
5867:(2): 786–91.
5866:
5862:
5858:
5851:
5843:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5813:
5809:
5802:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5747:
5739:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5721:
5717:
5713:
5709:
5705:
5701:
5697:
5690:
5682:
5678:
5673:
5668:
5664:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5631:
5623:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5579:
5572:
5556:. 7 June 2009
5555:
5554:Science Daily
5551:
5537:
5536:
5531:
5523:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5499:
5495:
5491:
5490:PLOS Genetics
5487:
5480:
5472:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5445:(1): 416610.
5444:
5440:
5436:
5429:
5421:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5380:
5372:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5329:
5320:
5315:
5307:
5299:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5266:PLOS Genetics
5263:
5256:
5248:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5212:
5208:
5204:
5197:
5189:
5185:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5138:
5130:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5089:
5081:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5063:
5059:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5032:
5030:
5021:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4972:
4964:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4915:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4884:(4): 449–71.
4883:
4879:
4878:Human Biology
4872:
4864:
4856:
4848:
4836:
4828:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4803:
4795:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4762:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4731:
4729:
4727:
4718:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4677:
4661:
4657:
4650:
4634:
4630:
4626:
4619:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4595:
4594:
4586:
4571:
4570:
4565:
4558:
4550:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4525:(2): 226–31.
4524:
4520:
4516:
4509:
4494:on 8 May 2015
4493:
4489:
4488:
4487:The Scientist
4483:
4476:
4468:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4419:
4411:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4370:
4362:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4321:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4299:
4295:
4294:
4286:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4265:
4257:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4232:(3): 578–89.
4231:
4227:
4223:
4216:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4175:
4173:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4115:
4113:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4055:
4047:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
3998:
3990:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3951:
3946:
3939:
3923:
3919:
3918:
3913:
3909:
3903:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3847:
3840:
3835:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3790:
3783:
3775:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3722:
3706:
3705:Science Daily
3702:
3696:
3694:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3668:10.1038/81685
3665:
3662:(3): 358–61.
3661:
3657:
3650:
3648:
3640:
3627:
3621:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3592:
3584:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3563:
3555:
3549:
3545:
3540:
3539:
3530:
3522:
3521:
3513:
3505:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3464:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3434:
3426:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3401:
3393:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3344:
3336:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3295:
3287:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3238:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3189:
3173:
3169:
3163:
3147:
3146:Science Daily
3143:
3137:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3107:
3099:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3056:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3026:
3018:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2975:
2967:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2934:PLOS Genetics
2931:
2924:
2916:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2899:(4): 506–15.
2898:
2894:
2890:
2883:
2875:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2832:
2824:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2789:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2731:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2698:
2696:
2687:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2654:
2652:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2616:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2559:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2513:(1): 135–40.
2512:
2508:
2504:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2440:
2432:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2373:
2365:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2324:
2308:
2307:Science Daily
2304:
2298:
2290:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2241:
2239:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2132:
2124:
2118:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2083:
2081:
2072:
2066:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2044:
2040:
2039:
2031:
2016:
2012:
2005:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1940:
1934:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1916:0-8476-9692-8
1912:
1908:
1904:
1903:
1895:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1779:
1771:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1721:
1706:
1705:NCBI Insights
1702:
1695:
1693:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1593:(3): 763–71.
1592:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1573:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1334:
1331:
1327:
1323:
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1066:
1057:
1049:
1040:
1037:
1033:
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1021:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1007:
1006:interbreeding
1003:
999:
993:
983:
981:
976:
972:
964:
959:
954:
946:
939:
934:
932:
921:
917:
913:
912:Sewall Wright
903:
899:
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889:
885:
880:
877:
872:
870:
866:
861:
851:
849:
840:
835:
830:
821:
818:
813:
811:
810:genetic drift
806:
804:
799:
798:
793:
783:
775:
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756:
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750:
746:
742:
738:
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634:
627:
622:
613:
611:
607:
602:
600:
596:
592:
589:
585:
581:
577:
576:tandem repeat
571:
561:
559:
555:
551:
547:
542:
540:
536:
533:that share a
532:
528:
522:
512:
510:
506:
500:
490:
488:
484:
480:
474:
464:
462:
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453:
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397:
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389:
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382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
357:
347:
345:
340:
335:
333:
329:
325:
321:
320:messenger RNA
317:
316:gene splicing
312:
309:
305:
299:
290:
281:
279:
274:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
212:
210:
205:
201:
200:genetic drift
196:
194:
190:
186:
185:genetic drift
181:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
156:
146:
143:
140:
134:
132:
131:Out of Africa
128:
123:
119:
113:
110:
104:
102:
101:human genomes
98:
94:
89:
87:
83:
79:
74:
72:
68:
64:
60:
52:
46:
41:
37:
33:
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9565:made visible
9510:
9474:2010: First
9465:
9449:
9421:
9393:Nanocircuits
9337:
9327:
9201:Applications
9171:
9023:Biogeography
8997:R. A. Fisher
8875:Heritability
8808:Key concepts
8756:
8654:Azerbaijanis
8536:Central Asia
8431:North Africa
8368:
8328:Human genome
8174:Intelligence
8137:Neuroscience
8085:Autoimmunity
7957:
7930:
7926:
7884:
7880:
7841:
7837:
7800:
7796:
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7350:
7326:10.1038/8785
7320:(1): 78–81.
7317:
7313:
7283:(1): 57–65.
7280:
7276:
7241:
7237:
7221:. Retrieved
7214:the original
7185:
7181:
7129:
7125:
7086:
7082:
7027:
7023:
6982:
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6943:
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5746:
5706:(2): 89–97.
5703:
5699:
5689:
5644:
5640:
5630:
5585:
5581:
5571:
5558:. Retrieved
5539:. Retrieved
5533:
5493:
5489:
5479:
5442:
5438:
5428:
5393:
5389:
5379:
5342:
5338:
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5306:
5272:(12): e215.
5269:
5265:
5255:
5210:
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5151:
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5098:
5088:
5045:
5041:
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4981:
4971:
4928:
4924:
4914:
4881:
4877:
4871:
4862:
4855:
4808:
4802:
4775:
4771:
4761:
4749:. Retrieved
4745:the original
4740:
4693:(3): 502–9.
4690:
4686:
4676:
4664:. Retrieved
4660:the original
4649:
4637:. Retrieved
4633:the original
4628:
4618:
4591:
4585:
4573:. Retrieved
4567:
4557:
4522:
4518:
4508:
4496:. Retrieved
4492:the original
4485:
4475:
4432:
4428:
4418:
4383:
4379:
4369:
4334:
4330:
4320:
4292:
4285:
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4229:
4225:
4215:
4180:
4128:
4124:
4068:
4064:
4054:
4011:
4007:
3997:
3954:
3948:
3938:
3926:. Retrieved
3915:
3908:Zimmer, Carl
3902:
3890:. Retrieved
3860:
3856:
3846:
3837:
3799:
3795:
3782:
3739:
3735:
3721:
3709:. Retrieved
3659:
3655:
3637:
3630:. Retrieved
3620:
3608:. Retrieved
3600:
3597:"Haplogroup"
3591:
3568:
3562:
3537:
3529:
3518:
3512:
3477:
3473:
3463:
3451:. Retrieved
3447:the original
3433:
3406:
3400:
3357:
3353:
3343:
3308:
3304:
3294:
3251:
3247:
3237:
3202:
3198:
3188:
3176:. Retrieved
3162:
3150:. Retrieved
3136:
3124:. Retrieved
3120:the original
3106:
3072:(10): e254.
3069:
3066:PLOS Biology
3065:
3055:
3043:. Retrieved
3039:the original
3025:
2991:(10): e266.
2988:
2985:PLOS Biology
2984:
2974:
2937:
2933:
2923:
2896:
2892:
2882:
2845:
2841:
2831:
2804:
2800:
2752:
2748:
2738:
2711:
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2667:
2663:
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2621:
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2568:
2558:
2550:
2510:
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2453:
2449:
2439:
2386:
2382:
2372:
2340:(7): 712–4.
2337:
2333:
2323:
2311:. Retrieved
2297:
2254:
2250:
2202:
2198:
2188:
2145:
2141:
2131:
2089:
2037:
2030:
2018:. Retrieved
2014:
2004:
1961:
1957:
1947:
1901:
1894:
1861:
1857:
1847:
1835:. Retrieved
1823:
1813:
1788:
1784:
1778:
1735:
1731:
1720:
1708:. Retrieved
1704:
1648:
1644:
1590:
1586:
1576:
1452:human genome
1441:
1412:
1408:
1396:North Africa
1372:
1366:
1358:
1350:
1342:
1339:hypertension
1335:
1307:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1264:Ternary plot
1251:
1219:
1215:
1199:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1180:
1175:
1172:
1164:
1158:
1155:Micronesians
1107:
1102:
1098:
1080:
1072:
1029:
1025:
1022:
1011:
995:
971:paraphyletic
962:
960:
952:
944:
937:
935:
919:
909:
900:
881:
873:
863:
844:
814:
807:
795:
788:
768:
753:
717:Nilo-Saharan
709:North Africa
697:
684:
669:
654:
603:
573:
543:
524:
502:
489:influences.
476:
450:
442:
438:
412:
392:Craig Venter
381:duplications
359:
336:
313:
301:
275:
257:
218:
197:
177:
158:
144:
135:
121:
114:
105:
97:mitochondria
90:
75:
71:polymorphism
58:
57:
36:
9604:GLP-1 Drugs
9493:Higgs boson
9413:Dark energy
8976:Coalescence
8712:Han Chinese
8688:South Asia
8475:Middle East
8245:in the U.S.
8189:Neurosexism
8127:Stroke care
8049:In research
7782:: 273–300.
6480:reprint-zip
4666:5 September
4639:5 September
4629:BioNews.org
4593:Nature News
4575:5 September
4498:5 September
3863:: 405–428.
3711:5 September
3610:5 September
3453:5 September
3178:5 September
3172:EurekAlert!
3152:5 September
3126:5 September
3045:5 September
2456:(1): 1865.
2313:5 September
2257:: 403–433.
2205:: 403–433.
1361:2003), and
1357:(Fernandez
1324:), ethnic (
1143:Polynesians
1014:Melanesians
733:West Africa
729:Niger-Congo
721:East Africa
705:Afroasiatic
693:bottlenecks
678:of archaic
584:chromosomes
558:matrilineal
554:patrilineal
515:Haplogroups
447:Epigenetics
339:stop codons
237:miscarriage
63:populations
9620:Categories
9562:black hole
8918:Ecological
8908:Artificial
8737:Hutu/Tutsi
8708:East Asia
8622:Bulgarians
8463:South Asia
8321:Sub-topics
8257:Leadership
8202:Attraction
8193:Sexuality
8184:Narcissism
8149:Aggression
8141:Psychology
8105:Depression
8054:Physiology
7223:28 October
5654:1504.04543
5526:See also:
4751:22 January
3632:11 January
2109:1006478846
2057:1062418886
1907:Berel Lang
1568:References
1448:scientific
1414:Neil Risch
1302:See also:
1162:clusters.
1063:See also:
1018:Denisovans
892:photolysis
884:skin color
763:See also:
747:; and the
640:See also:
531:haplotypes
521:Haplogroup
452:Epigenetic
377:insertions
373:inversions
365:chromosome
324:phenotypic
263:base pairs
225:nucleotide
223:to single
173:mutational
93:base pairs
9495:discovery
9434:in action
9432:Evolution
9377:Stem cell
9249:SNP array
9028:Evolution
8895:Selection
8727:Filipinos
8697:Sinhalese
8692:Gujaratis
8682:Moroccans
8677:Egyptians
8632:Romanians
8548:East Asia
8419:by region
8240:Education
8228:Sociology
8154:Cognition
8042:Disorders
7919:Pennisi E
7577:CiteSeerX
7182:BioEssays
6775:BioEssays
6723:205209730
5818:: 65–89.
5777:1556-4029
5720:2096-1790
5002:0016-6731
4945:0016-6731
4845:ignored (
4835:cite book
3728:Balloux F
3517:"Cline".
3480:(1): R6.
2413:0027-8424
2271:1527-8204
2162:0016-6731
2117:cite book
2065:cite book
2020:15 August
1996:231598896
1988:1573-1901
1933:cite book
1878:1047-2797
1837:15 August
1832:0362-4331
1752:1088-9051
1341:(Douglas
1277:Gene flow
1222:autosomal
1115:Europeans
1093:, called
680:specimens
661:dispersal
595:forensics
588:inherited
479:genotypes
369:deletions
241:autosomal
227:changes.
221:karyotype
202:. Serial
45:karyotype
9560:2019: A
9541:GW170817
9484:HPTN 052
9052:genomics
8990:Founders
8758:Category
8717:Japanese
8637:Russians
8617:Bosniaks
8602:by group
8575:Thailand
8487:Caucasus
8362:Timeline
8262:Religion
8217:Jealousy
8073:Medicine
7962:Springer
7949:18096770
7911:14513410
7868:12930756
7838:Genetics
7817:11017069
7736:15342553
7693:15213210
7650:12434037
7599:12124919
7560:16243969
7507:12540910
7464:15508003
7379:19384784
7371:11175781
7334:10319866
7305:26960216
7297:10545758
7268:10712212
7210:17203268
7166:11237011
7113:15153999
7062:14685227
7015:52850476
7007:11130070
6970:10733465
6927:10069634
6919:12029063
6875:10330360
6832:25764082
6824:15510170
6795:12879450
6766:11992255
6715:12695777
6672:26968169
6664:15507997
6621:12610536
6596:12615007
6515:13722452
6507:12560807
6475:12378279
6467:15266342
6438:22703861
6430:12573076
6401:11565063
6358:16175499
6285:12493913
6242:15625622
6193:14527305
6150:11901272
6114:25059740
6065:12184798
6011:23213535
5985:: 1–13.
5960:23226471
5920:PLOS ONE
5901:20080753
5842:20594047
5785:28133721
5738:32939424
5681:26715629
5622:20445095
5522:19503611
5471:31951611
5420:32193295
5396:(6484).
5371:33350384
5298:17194221
5247:32095519
5188:21896735
5129:23410836
5099:Genetics
5080:21179161
5020:23410836
4982:Genetics
4963:27038113
4925:Genetics
4906:26108602
4898:14655871
4794:15507998
4717:17273971
4610:84380725
4549:17206142
4467:23676674
4410:26297486
4361:26300125
4256:12557124
4207:21095796
4163:10069634
4155:12029063
4103:37591388
4095:20004770
4046:26432245
3989:37198480
3980:10208968
3922:Archived
3887:19155657
3879:29727585
3834:19407144
3774:17637668
3684:12893406
3676:11062480
3504:12526754
3392:24352235
3335:17666543
3286:17122850
3221:18160035
3098:17803354
3017:20076646
2966:18704161
2915:18197193
2874:21992066
2779:20858594
2730:15507999
2686:15508000
2642:19516035
2607:18451855
2547:16371466
2488:29760457
2431:15604148
2364:21666693
2289:18593304
2229:18593304
2180:17339205
2142:Genetics
1925:42389561
1805:12733395
1770:27934697
1683:26432245
1617:18304490
1556:Projects
1519:Regional
1462:See also
1347:diabetes
175:events.
9584:brings
9511:Rosetta
9343:journal
9339:Science
9328:Science
9141:Biobank
8903:Natural
8870:Fitness
8612:Basques
8608:Europe
8582:America
8212:Fantasy
8169:Empathy
8120:Suicide
8030:Biology
7927:Science
7902:1180505
7859:1462640
7684:2271142
7641:2271140
7620:Science
7607:8717358
7551:1276087
7528:Bibcode
7485:Bibcode
7342:9153915
7259:1288178
7202:9631658
7134:Bibcode
7104:2271136
7070:4387110
7032:Bibcode
6987:Bibcode
6961:1288200
6897:Bibcode
6889:Science
6866:1377916
6693:Bibcode
6629:8314161
6560:4285418
6552:3025745
6532:Bibcode
6392:1274370
6349:1275602
6293:8127224
6265:Bibcode
6257:Science
6233:1196372
6158:1538974
6105:4143101
6002:3506882
5951:3511383
5928:Bibcode
5892:2818934
5869:Bibcode
5833:7454031
5793:3453064
5729:7476619
5672:4776707
5613:3024024
5590:Bibcode
5560:25 June
5541:25 June
5513:2685456
5462:6992231
5439:bioRxiv
5411:7115999
5390:Science
5362:7755386
5314:bioRxiv
5289:1713257
5238:7015685
5215:Bibcode
5179:3174671
5156:Bibcode
5120:3632468
5071:4306417
5050:Bibcode
5011:3632468
4954:4896200
4708:1821107
4540:3005333
4458:3789121
4437:Bibcode
4401:4617958
4352:4556133
4247:1180234
4133:Bibcode
4125:Science
4086:2790568
4037:4750478
4016:Bibcode
3959:Bibcode
3825:2947357
3804:Bibcode
3796:Science
3765:1978547
3744:Bibcode
3523:. 2009.
3482:Bibcode
3383:4031459
3362:Bibcode
3326:1950895
3277:2669898
3256:Bibcode
3229:9263608
3089:1964779
3008:1964778
2957:2493042
2865:3194196
2823:9872978
2770:2953750
2598:2424287
2577:Bibcode
2538:1317879
2515:Bibcode
2479:5951811
2458:Bibcode
2391:Bibcode
2355:3322360
2280:2953791
2220:2953791
2171:1893020
1966:Bibcode
1886:9250627
1761:5131817
1674:4750478
1653:Bibcode
1608:2427204
1365:(Platz
1355:obesity
1353:2003),
1349:(Gower
1345:1996),
1202:2004).
1198:(Pfaff
1178:2004).
1151:Oceania
1105:2003).
1091:SLC24A5
749:Khoisan
688:Khoisan
537:with a
509:species
505:biology
487:genetic
400:haploid
385:diploid
169:meiosis
67:alleles
9602:2023:
9593:2022:
9588:to all
9580:2021:
9571:2020:
9552:2018:
9539:2017:
9527:2016:
9519:2015:
9508:2014:
9500:2013:
9491:2012:
9482:2011:
9464:2009:
9456:2008:
9448:2007:
9439:2006:
9430:2005:
9422:Spirit
9419:2004:
9411:2003:
9403:2002:
9391:2001:
9383:2000:
9375:1999:
9367:1998:
9359:1997:
9350:1996:
8913:Sexual
8627:Croats
8519:Iberia
8499:Europe
8426:Africa
8207:Desire
8179:Memory
8159:Coping
8100:Autism
8077:Health
7968:
7947:
7909:
7899:
7866:
7856:
7825:685795
7823:
7815:
7734:
7727:515312
7724:
7691:
7681:
7648:
7638:
7605:
7597:
7579:
7558:
7548:
7505:
7477:Nature
7462:
7425:
7377:
7369:
7340:
7332:
7303:
7295:
7266:
7256:
7208:
7200:
7164:
7126:Nature
7111:
7101:
7068:
7060:
7024:Nature
7013:
7005:
6979:Nature
6968:
6958:
6925:
6917:
6873:
6863:
6830:
6822:
6793:
6764:
6757:379137
6754:
6721:
6713:
6685:Nature
6670:
6662:
6627:
6619:
6594:
6558:
6550:
6524:Nature
6513:
6505:
6473:
6465:
6436:
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