Cretaceous - Knowledge

2293:. Tropical SSTs during the late Albian most likely averaged around 30 °C. Despite this high SST, seawater was not hypersaline at this time, as this would have required significantly higher temperatures still. On land, arid zones in the Albian regularly expanded northward in tandem with expansions of subtropical high pressure belts. The Cedar Mountain Formation's Soap Wash flora indicates a mean annual temperature of between 19 and 26 °C in Utah at the Albian-Cenomanian boundary. Tropical SSTs during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum were at least 30 °C, though one study estimated them as high as between 33 and 42 °C. An intermediate estimate of ~33-34 °C has also been given. Meanwhile, deep ocean temperatures were as much as 15 to 20 °C (27 to 36 °F) warmer than today's; one study estimated that deep ocean temperatures were between 12 and 20 °C during the MKH. The poles were so warm that 1766: 1961: 2419: 3189: 3149: 2778: 3220: 2851: 3167: 3128: 2795: 2868: 2813: 2830: 3104: 2339: 3257: 9138: 2934: 2407: 9127: 2897: 1740: 2264:

latest Albian. Approximately 94 Ma, the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum occurred, with this hyperthermal being the most extreme hothouse interval of the Cretaceous and being associated with a sea level highstand. Temperatures cooled down slightly over the next few million years, but then another thermal maximum, the Coniacian Thermal Maximum, happened, with this thermal event being dated to around 87 Ma. Atmospheric CO

1731:, were semiaquatic and had access to detritus. Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and can survive for months without food and go into hibernation when conditions are unfavorable, and their young are small, grow slowly, and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms or fragments of organisms for their first few years. These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous. 1404: 114: 2301:

known formally as the Late Cretaceous-Early Palaeogene Cool Interval (LKEPCI). Tropical SSTs declined from around 35 °C in the early Campanian to around 28 °C in the Maastrichtian. Deep ocean temperatures declined to 9 to 12 °C, though the shallow temperature gradient between tropical and polar seas remained. Regional conditions in the

2925:. The cause of the decline of Rhynchocephalia remains unclear, but has often been suggested to be due to competition with advanced lizards and mammals. They appear to have remained diverse in high-latitude southern South America during the Late Cretaceous, where lizards remained rare, with their remains outnumbering terrestrial lizards 200:1. 1708:, few groups of animals became extinct. Stream communities rely less on food from living plants and more on detritus that washes in from land. This particular ecological niche buffered them from extinction. Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the 2300:

Beginning in the Santonian, near the end of the MKH, the global climate began to cool, with this cooling trend continuing across the Campanian. This period of cooling, driven by falling levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, caused the end of the MKH and the transition into a cooler climatic interval,

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until the early Campanian. Faster rates of seafloor spreading and entry of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere are believed to have initiated this period of extreme warmth, along with high flood basalt activity. The MKH was punctuated by multiple thermal maxima of extreme warmth. The Leenhardt Thermal

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The high sea level and warm climate of the Cretaceous meant large areas of the continents were covered by warm, shallow seas, providing habitat for many marine organisms. The Cretaceous was named for the extensive chalk deposits of this age in Europe, but in many parts of the world, the deposits from

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to the poles; the latitudinal temperature gradient during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum was 0.54 °C per ° latitude for the Southern Hemisphere and 0.49 °C per ° latitude for the Northern Hemisphere, in contrast to present day values of 1.07 and 0.69 °C per ° latitude for the

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beds. Bivalve palaeobiogeography also indicates that Africa was split in half by a shallow sea during the Coniacian and Santonian, connecting the Tethys with the South Atlantic by way of the central Sahara and Central Africa, which were then underwater. Yet another shallow seaway ran between what is

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O'Brien, Charlotte L.; Robinson, Stuart A.; Pancost, Richard D.; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S.; Schouten, Stefan; Lunt, Daniel J.; Alsenz, Heiko; Bornemann, André; Bottini, Cinzia; Brassell, Simon C.; Farnsworth, Alexander; Forster, Astrid; Huber, Brian T.; Inglis, Gordon N.; Jenkyns, Hugh C.; Linnert,

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concentrations. Laramidia likewise had a seasonal, monsoonal climate. The Maastrichtian was a time of chaotic, highly variable climate. Two upticks in global temperatures are known to have occurred during the Maastrichtian, bucking the trend of overall cooler temperatures during the LKEPCI. Between

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measurements from the equatorial Pacific. During the Aptian, Milankovitch cycles governed the occurrence of anoxic events by modulating the intensity of the hydrological cycle and terrestrial runoff. The early Aptian was also notable for its millennial scale hyperarid events in the mid-latitudes of

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Yuichiro Kashiyama; Nanako O. Ogawa; Junichiro Kuroda; Motoo Shiro; Shinya Nomoto; Ryuji Tada; Hiroshi Kitazato; Naohiko Ohkouchi (May 2008). "Diazotrophic cyanobacteria as the major photoautotrophs during mid-Cretaceous oceanic anoxic events: Nitrogen and carbon isotopic evidence from sedimentary

2546:, with the family having diversified into modern groups by the end of the Cretaceous. The oldest large angiosperm trees are known from the Turonian (c. 90 Mya) of New Jersey, with the trunk having a preserved diameter of 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) and an estimated height of 50 metres (160 ft). 2196:

The cooling trend of the last epoch of the Jurassic, the Tithonian, continued into the Berriasian, the first age of the Cretaceous. The North Atlantic seaway opened and enabled the flow of cool water from the Boreal Ocean into the Tethys. There is evidence that snowfalls were common in the higher

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Stagnation of deep sea currents in middle Cretaceous times caused anoxic conditions in the sea water leaving the deposited organic matter undecomposed. Half of the world's petroleum reserves were laid down at this time in the anoxic conditions of what would become the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of

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Hasegawa, Hitoshi; Katsuta, Nagayoshi; Muraki, Yasushi; Heimhofer, Ulrich; Ichinnorov, Niiden; Asahi, Hirofumi; Ando, Hisao; Yamamoto, Koshi; Murayama, Masafumi; Ohta, Tohru; Yamamoto, Masanobu; Ikeda, Masayuki; Ishikawa, Kohki; Kuma, Ryusei; Hasegawa, Takashi; Hasebe, Noriko; Nishimoto, Shoji;

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around 106 Ma, during the middle Albian. Then, around a million years after that, occurred the Petite Verol Thermal Event (PVTE). Afterwards, around 102.5 Ma, the Event 6 Thermal Event (EV6) took place; this event was itself followed by the Breistroffer Thermal Maximum around 101 Ma, during the

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evidence indicates the Cretaceous climate had three broad phases: a Berriasian–Barremian warm-dry phase, an Aptian–Santonian warm-wet phase, and a Campanian–Maastrichtian cool-dry phase. As in the Cenozoic, the 400,000 year eccentricity cycle was the dominant orbital cycle governing carbon flux

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Age, based on isotopic evidence. However, this has subsequently been suggested to be the result of inconsistent isotopic proxies, with evidence of polar rainforests during this time interval at 82° S. Rafting by ice of stones into marine environments occurred during much of the Cretaceous, but

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Hauptblatterton Thermal Event (HTE). The HTE marked the ultimate end of the Tithonian-early Barremian Cool Interval (TEBCI). During this interval, precession was the dominant orbital driver of environmental changes in the Vocontian Basin. For much of the TEBCI, northern Gondwana experienced a

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are known from the Aptian. Flowering plants underwent a rapid radiation beginning during the middle Cretaceous, becoming the dominant group of land plants by the end of the period, coincident with the decline of previously dominant groups such as conifers. The oldest known fossils of

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Gao, Yuan; Ibarra, Daniel E.; Caves Rubenstein, Jeremy K.; Chen, Jiuquan; Kukla, Tyler; Methner, Katharina; Gao, Youfeng; Huang, He; Lin, Zhipeng; Zhang, Laiming; Xi, Dangpeng; Wu, Huaichun; Carroll, Alan R.; Graham, Stephan A.; Chamberlain, C. Page; Wang, Changshan (May 2021).

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Trevisan L. 1988. Angiospermous pollen (monosulcate–trichotomosulcate phase) from the very early Lower Cretaceous of southern Tuscany (Italy): some aspects. 7th International Palynological Congress Abstracts Volume. Brisbane, Australia: University of Queensland,

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From page 373: "La troisième, qui correspond à ce qu'on a déja appelé formation de la craie, sera désigné par le nom de terrain crétacé." (The third, which corresponds to what was already called the "chalk formation", will be designated by the name "chalky

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During the Cretaceous, the present North American continent was isolated from the other continents. In the Jurassic, the North Atlantic already opened, leaving a proto-ocean between Europe and North America. From north to south across the continent, the

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the Science Team of Expedition PS104; Klages, Johann P.; Salzmann, Ulrich; Bickert, Torsten; Hillenbrand, Claus-Dieter; Gohl, Karsten; Kuhn, Gerhard; Bohaty, Steven M.; Titschack, Jürgen; Müller, Juliane; Frederichs, Thomas (April 2020).

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were also particularly notable among Cretaceous bivalves, and they have been used to identify major biotic turnovers such as at the Turonian-Coniacian boundary. Predatory gastropods with drilling habits were widespread. Globotruncanid

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changed little between the MKH and the LKEPCI. During this period of relatively cool temperatures, the ITCZ became narrower, while the strength of both summer and winter monsoons in East Asia was directly correlated to atmospheric

1467:, coinciding with the base of the eponymous Alpina subzone, has been proposed as the definition of the base of the Cretaceous. The working definition for the boundary has often been placed as the first appearance of the ammonite 3592:

Lena, Luis; López-Martínez, Rafael; Lescano, Marina; Aguire-Urreta, Beatriz; Concheyro, Andrea; Vennari, Verónica; Naipauer, Maximiliano; Samankassou, Elias; Pimentel, Márcio; Ramos, Victor A.; Schaltegger, Urs (2019-01-08).

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Christan; Littler, Kate; Markwick, Paul; McAnena, Alison; Mutterlose, Jörg; Naafs, B. David A.; Püttmann, Wilhelm; Sluijs, Appy; Van Helmond, Niels A.G.M.; Wellekoop, Johan; Wagner, Thomas; Wrobel, Neil E. (September 2017).

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continued to dominate on land. The world was largely ice-free, although there is some evidence of brief periods of glaciation during the cooler first half, and forests extended to the poles. During this time, new groups of

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angiosperms during the Late Triassic or the Jurassic, but such estimates are difficult to reconcile with the heavily sampled pollen record and the distinctive tricolpate to tricolporoidate (triple grooved) pollen of

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was accompanied by a ~0.6 °C increase in temperature. The latter warming interval, occurring at the very end of the Cretaceous, was triggered by the activity of the Deccan Traps. The LKEPCI lasted into the

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Aberhan, M; Weidemeyer, S; Kieesling, W; Scasso, RA & Medina, FA (2007). "Faunal evidence for reduced productivity and uncoordinated recovery in Southern Hemisphere Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary sections".

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Asia. The BAWI itself was followed by the Aptian-Albian Cold Snap (AACS) that began about 118 Ma. A short, relatively minor ice age may have occurred during this so-called "cold snap", as evidenced by glacial

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Linnert, Christian; Robinson, Stuart A.; Lees, Jackie A.; Bown, Paul R.; Pérez-Rodríguez, Irene; Petrizzo, Maria Rose; Falzoni, Francesca; Littler, Kate; Arz, José Antonio; Russell, Ernest E. (17 June 2014).

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mountains, though seasonal snow may have existed farther from the poles. After the end of the first age, however, temperatures began to increase again, with a number of thermal excursions, such as the middle

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Temperatures increased drastically after the end of the AACS, which ended around 111 Ma with the Paquier/Urbino Thermal Maximum, giving way to the Mid-Cretaceous Hothouse (MKH), which lasted from the early

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briefly abundant during the latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous, have been suggested as the most promising candidates for fixing the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary. In particular, the first appearance

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Mutterlose, Jörg; Brumsack, Hans; Flögel, Sascha; Hay, William; Klein, Christian; Langrock, Uwe; Lipinski, Marcus; Ricken, Werner; Söding, Emanuel; Stein, Rüdiger; Swientek, Oliver (26 February 2003).

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Wimbledon, William A.P.; Rehakova, Daniela; Svobodová, Andrea; Schnabl, Petr; Pruner, Petr; Elbra, Tiiu; Šifnerová, Kristýna; Kdýr, Šimon; Frau, Camille; Schnyder, Johann; Galbrun, Bruno (2020-02-11).

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levels may have varied by thousands of ppm throughout the MKH. Mean annual temperatures at the poles during the MKH exceeded 14 °C. Such hot temperatures during the MKH resulted in a very gentle

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Martinez, Mathieu; Aguirre-Urreta, Beatriz; Dera, Guillaume; Lescano, Marina; Omarini, Julieta; Tunik, Maisa; O'Dogherty, Luis; Aguado, Roque; Company, Miguel; Bodin, Stéphane (April 2023).

5120:"Paleoclimate of the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian-Turonian) Portion of the Winton Formation, Central-Western Queensland, Australia: New Observations Based on Clamp and Bioclimatic Analysis" 2218:

monsoonal climate. A shallow thermocline existed in the mid-latitude Tethys. The TEBCI was followed by the Barremian-Aptian Warm Interval (BAWI). This hot climatic interval coincides with

5815: 5408:"Deciphering Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian to Campanian) coastline dynamics in the southwestern Münsterland (northwest Germany) by using calcareous nannofossils: Eustasy vs local tectonics" 1675:-eaters survived the extinction event, perhaps because of the increased availability of their food sources. At the end of the Cretaceous, there seem to have been no purely herbivorous or 3127: 2794: 2246:

in the western parts of the Tethys Ocean and the expansion of calcareous nannofossils that dwelt in cold water into lower latitudes. The AACS is associated with an arid period in the

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in the east. Three dinosaur clades found in Laramidia (troodontids, therizinosaurids and oviraptorosaurs) are absent from Appalachia from the Coniacian through the Maastrichtian.

2445:(angiosperms) make up around 90% of living plant species today. Prior to the rise of angiosperms, during the Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous, the higher flora was dominated by 2694:) in China is an important site, full of preserved remains of numerous types of small dinosaurs, birds and mammals, that provides a glimpse of life in the Early Cretaceous. The 2973:

was widely distributed across western North America. Due to the extreme climatic warmth in the Arctic, choristoderans were able to colonise it too during the Late Cretaceous.

1694:, and snails, which in turn fed on dead plant and animal matter. Scientists theorise that these organisms survived the collapse of plant-based food chains because they fed on 2656:

were common in the early and middle Cretaceous, but as the Cretaceous proceeded they declined for poorly understood reasons (once thought to be due to competition with early

1521:(formerly known as the K–T boundary). Earth's biodiversity required substantial time to recover from this event, despite the probable existence of an abundance of vacant 6551:"Terrestrial climate in mid-latitude East Asia from the latest Cretaceous to the earliest Paleogene: A multiproxy record from the Songliao Basin in northeastern China" 5985:

Pucéat, Emmanuelle; Lécuyer, Christophe; Donnadieu, Yannick; Naveau, Philippe; Cappetta, Henri; Ramstein, Gilles; Huber, Brian T.; Kriwet, Juergen (1 February 2007).

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Brenner, G.J. (1996). "Evidence for the Earliest Stage of Angiosperm Pollen Evolution: A Paleoequatorial Section from Israel". In Taylor, D.W.; Hickey, L.J. (eds.).

8077:"The calcareous nannofossil record across the Late Cretaceous Turonian/Coniacian boundary, including new data from Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic and England" 6264:

Wang, Chengshan; Scott, Robert W.; Wan, Xiaoqiao; Graham, Stephan A.; Huang, Yongjian; Wang, Pujun; Wu, Huaichun; Dean, Walter E.; Zhang, Laiming (November 2013).

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during the Maastrichtian age. The result was the extinction of three-quarters of Earth's plant and animal species. The impact created the sharp break known as the

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Vennari, Verónica V.; Lescano, Marina; Naipauer, Maximiliano; Aguirre-Urreta, Beatriz; Concheyro, Andrea; Schaltegger, Urs; Armstrong, Richard; Pimentel, Marcio;

2850: 5119: 4984:"Glacial dropstones in the western Tethys during the late Aptian–early Albian cold snap: Palaeoclimate and palaeogeographic implications for the mid-Cretaceous" 4780: 3103: 2259:

Event (LTE) occurred around 110 Ma, followed shortly by the l’Arboudeyesse Thermal Event (ATE) a million years later. Following these two hyperthermals was the

7882:"The Turonian-Coniacian stage boundary in Lower Saxony (Germany) and adjacent areas: the Salzgitter-Salder Quarry as a proposed international standard section" 7826:"Inoceramid bivalves from the Turonian/Coniacian (Cretaceous) boundary in Romania: revisions of Simonescu's (1899) material from Ürmös (Ormenis), Transylvania" 5313:"Tropical warming and intermittent cooling during the Cenomanian/Turonian oceanic anoxic event 2: Sea surface temperature records from the equatorial Atlantic" 3086:. Calcareous nannoplankton were important components of the marine microbiota and important as biostratigraphic markers and recorders of environmental change. 2867: 2193:

between different reservoirs and influencing global climate. The location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was roughly the same as in the present.

6386:. Environmental/Climate Change in the Cretaceous Greenhouse World: records from terrestrial scientific drilling of Songliao Basin and adjacent area of China. 8507: 4628:"Climatic precession is the main driver of Early Cretaceous sedimentation in the Vocontian Basin (France): Evidence from the Valanginian Orpierre succession" 3066:

were abundant in Cretaceous marine settings; ostracod species characterised by high male sexual investment had the highest rates of extinction and turnover.

2481:. The exact origins of angiosperms are uncertain, although molecular evidence suggests that they are not closely related to any living group of gymnosperms. 2043:

had begun to break up during the Jurassic Period, but its fragmentation accelerated during the Cretaceous and was largely complete by the end of the period.

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to be approximately 145 million years ago, but other estimates have been proposed based on U-Pb geochronology, ranging as young as 140 million years ago.

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The lower boundary of the Cretaceous is currently undefined, and the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary is currently the only system boundary to lack a defined

4099:"Bivalves (Mollusca) from the Coniacian-Santonian Anguille Formation from Cap Esterias, Northern Gabon, with notes on paleoecology and paleobiogeography" 6203:

O'Connor, Lauren K.; Robinson, Stuart A.; Naafs, B. David A.; Jenkyns, Hugh C.; Henson, Sam; Clarke, Madeleine; Pancost, Richard D. (27 February 2019).

3504: 5776:"Paleoclimatic reconstruction for the Albian–Cenomanian transition based on a dominantly angiosperm flora from the Cedar Mountain Formation, Utah, USA" 5036: 4704:

Wang, Tianyang; Hoffmann, René; He, Songlin; Zhang, Qinghai; Li, Guobiao; Randrianaly, Hasina Nirina; Xie, Jing; Yue, Yahui; Ding, Lin (October 2023).

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now Norway and Greenland, connecting the Tethys to the Arctic Ocean and enabling biotic exchange between the two oceans. At the peak of the Cretaceous

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Bornemann, Norris R. D.; Friedrich, O.; Beckmann, B.; Schouten, Stefan; Sinnighe Damsté, Jaap S.; Vogel, J.; Hofmann, P.; Wagner, T. (January 2008).

6382: 6094:"Late Cretaceous Paleoceanographic Evolution and the Onset of Cooling in the Santonian at Southern High Latitudes (IODP Site U1513, SE Indian Ocean)" 5269: 4988: 1433:(GSSP). Placing a GSSP for this boundary has been difficult because of the strong regionality of most biostratigraphic markers, and the lack of any 3372: 7294:"Heinrichsia cheilanthoides gen. et sp. nov., a fossil fern in the family Pteridaceae (Polypodiales) from the Cretaceous amber forests of Myanmar" 989:, all originating from European stratigraphy, is now used worldwide. In many parts of the world, alternative local subdivisions are still in use. 6869:

Alley, N. F.; Frakes, L. A. (2003). "First known Cretaceous glaciation: Livingston Tillite Member of the Cadna-owie Formation, South Australia".

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Wilf, P; Johnson KR (2004). "Land plant extinction at the end of the Cretaceous: a quantitative analysis of the North Dakota megafloral record".

3595:"High-precision U–Pb ages in the early Tithonian to early Berriasian and implications for the numerical age of the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary" 1960: 4779:

Schouten, Stefan; Hopmans, Ellen C.; Forster, Astrid; Van Breugel, Yvonne; Kuypers, Marcel M. M.; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S. (1 December 2003).

3540:"Revision of the ammonite index species Berriasella jacobi Mazenot, 1939 and its consequences for the biostratigraphy of the Berriasian Stage" 879: 4706:"Early Cretaceous climate for the southern Tethyan Ocean: Insights from the geochemical and paleoecological analyses of extinct cephalopods" 4288:

Giorgioni, Martino; Weissert, Helmut; Bernasconi, Stefano M.; Hochuli, Peter A.; Coccioni, Rodolfo; Keller, Christina E. (21 January 2012).

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Despite the severity of the K-Pg extinction event, there were significant variations in the rate of extinction between and within different

4746:"Onset of the Mid-Cretaceous greenhouse in the Barremian-Aptian: Igneous events and the biological, sedimentary, and geochemical responses" 3985:

Sheehan, PM; Fastovsky, DE (1992). "Major extinctions of land-dwelling vertebrates at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, eastern Montana".

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or "seed ferns", a collective term that refers to disparate groups of extinct seed plants with fern-like foliage, including groups such as

1430: 1200: 8371: 1955: 8341: 5816:"Testing the Cretaceous greenhouse hypothesis using glassy foraminiferal calcite from the core of the Turonian tropics on Demerara Rise" 3505:"Fixing a J/K boundary: A comparative account of key Tithonian–Berriasian profiles in the departments of Drôme and Hautes-Alpes, France" 6523:

Nordt, Lee; Atchley, Stacy; Dworkin, Steve (December 2003). "Terrestrial Evidence for Two Greenhouse Events in the Latest Cretaceous".

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Pucéat, Emmanuelle; Lécuyer, Christophe; Sheppard, Simon M. F.; Dromart, Gilles; Reboulet, Stéphane; Grandjean, Patricia (3 May 2003).

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Southern and Northern hemispheres, respectively. This meant weaker global winds, which drive the ocean currents, and resulted in less

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Frakes, L. A.; Francis, J. E. (1988). "A guide to Phanerozoic cold polar climates from high-latitude ice-rafting in the Cretaceous".

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in Asia during the Early Cretaceous, which represents the high point of choristoderan diversity, including long necked forms such as

1424: 1416: 840: 437: 8180:"Quantitative changes of calcareous nannoflora in the Saratov region (Russian Platform) during the late Maastrichtian warming event" 7957:"Changes in Late Cretaceous–early Tertiary benthic marine assemblages: analyses from the North American coastal plain shallow shelf" 7225:

Jud, Nathan A.; D’Emic, Michael D.; Williams, Scott A.; Mathews, Josh C.; Tremaine, Katie M.; Bhattacharya, Janok (September 2018).

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A computer-simulated model of surface conditions in Middle Cretaceous, 100 mya, displaying the approximate shoreline and calculated

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Prasad, V.; Strömberg, C. a. E.; Leaché, A. D.; Samant, B.; Patnaik, R.; Tang, L.; Mohabey, D. M.; Ge, S.; Sahni, A. (2011-09-20).

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were common in the Early Cretaceous, but by the Late Cretaceous northern mammalian faunas were dominated by multituberculates and

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latitudes during this age, and the tropics became wetter than during the Triassic and Jurassic. Glaciation was restricted to high-

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animals, which depended on plants and plankton as their food, died out as their food sources became scarce; consequently, the top

4917:"Decadal–centennial-scale solar-linked climate variations and millennial-scale internal oscillations during the Early Cretaceous" 5561:

Laugié, Marie; Donnadieu, Yannick; Ladant, Jean-Baptiste; Green, J. A. Mattias; Bopp, Laurent; Raisson, François (5 June 2020).

4781:"Extremely high sea-surface temperatures at low latitudes during the middle Cretaceous as revealed by archaeal membrane lipids" 4482: 1798:. Because of the relatively young age and great thickness of the system, Cretaceous rocks are evident in many areas worldwide. 8179: 4982:

Rodríguez-López, Juan Pedro; Liesa, Carlos L.; Pardo, Gonzalo; Meléndez, Nieves; Soria, Ana R.; Skilling, Ian (15 June 2016).

8223: 7030: 6616: 6209: 6098: 5868: 5625: 5476: 5317: 5180: 5076: 4851: 4750: 4337: 4294: 4149: 3443: 1649:, as well as organisms whose food chain included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example, 7370:"Eutherians experienced elevated evolutionary rates in the immediate aftermath of the Cretaceous–Palaeogene mass extinction" 7292:

Regalado, Ledis; Schmidt, Alexander R.; Müller, Patrick; Niedermeier, Lisa; Krings, Michael; Schneider, Harald (July 2019).

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Bice, Karen L.; Birgel, Daniel; Meyers, Philip A.; Dahl, Kristina A.; Hinrichs, Kai-Uwe; Norris, Richard D. (8 April 2006).

4668:"Early Cretaceous monsoonal upwelling along the northern margin of the Gondwana continent: Evidence from radiolarian cherts" 8493: 7298: 6871: 3286: 1849: 4290:"Orbital control on carbon cycle and oceanography in the mid-Cretaceous greenhouse: LONG ECCENTRICITY CYCLES IN C-ISOTOPE" 7446:"Late Maastrichtian pterosaurs from North Africa and mass extinction of Pterosauria at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary" 6433: 6314:"Evolution of atmospheric circulation across the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) boundary interval in low-latitude East Asia" 3017:

lived during the period and survived the extinction event. Panchelonioidea is today represented by a single species; the

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in China. Tricolpate pollen distinctive of eudicots first appears in the Late Barremian, while the earliest remains of

7533:"Lepidosaurian diversity in the Mesozoic-Palaeogene: the potential roles of sampling biases and environmental drivers" 5621:"Thermal evolution of Cretaceous Tethyan marine waters inferred from oxygen isotope composition of fish tooth enamels" 8266: 8247: 7709:"A sphenodontine (Rhynchocephalia) from the Miocene of New Zealand and palaeobiogeography of the tuatara (Sphenodon)" 7352: 6266:"Late Cretaceous climate changes recorded in Eastern Asian lacustrine deposits and North American Epieric sea strata" 4200: 3775: 2437: 1055: 860: 723: 17: 7227:"A new fossil assemblage shows that large angiosperm trees grew in North America by the Turonian (Late Cretaceous)" 6092:

Petrizzo, Maria Rose; MacLeod, Kenneth G.; Watkins, David K.; Wolfgring, Erik; Huber, Brian T. (27 December 2021).

5357:"Cretaceous sea-surface temperature evolution: Constraints from TEX86 and planktonic foraminiferal oxygen isotopes" 5311:

Forster, Astrid; Schouten, Stephan; Moriya, Kazuyoshi; Wilson, Paul A.; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S. (14 March 2007).

2998: 1790:, a rock type that is formed under warm, shallow marine conditions. Due to the high sea level, there was extensive 8166: 4145:"The Greenland-Norwegian Seaway: A key area for understanding Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous paleoenvironments" 8364: 5716: 4847:"Astronomically Driven Variations in Depositional Environments in the South Atlantic During the Early Cretaceous" 2357:, further pushed sea levels up, so that large areas of the continental crust were covered with shallow seas. The 682: 7974: 6494: 5947: 5841: 5689: 4006: 3885: 3833: 3664:(2014). "New constraints on the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary in the High Andes using high-precision U–Pb data". 2209:(WTX), which was caused by the Paraná-Etendeka Large Igneous Province's activity. It was followed by the middle 634: 3769:

MacLeod, N; Rawson, PF; Forey, PL; Banner, FT; Boudagher-Fadel, MK; Bown, PR; Burnett, JA; et al. (1997).

3711:

Renne, Paul R.; et al. (2013). "Time scales of critical events around the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary".

2429: 6469:"Global environmental changes preceding the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary: Early-late Maastrichtian transition" 3933: 2949:, a group of freshwater aquatic reptiles that first appeared during the preceding Jurassic, underwent a major 1712:

than among animals living on or in the seafloor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on

8011:

Fernandes Martins, Maria João; Puckett, Mark; Lockwood, Rowan; Swaddle, John P.; Hunt, Gene (11 April 2018).

6534: 5176:"Oceanic anoxic events and plankton evolution: Biotic response to tectonic forcing during the mid-Cretaceous" 4632: 926: 863:(K–Pg boundary), a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction that lies between the Mesozoic and 8323: 6378:"Modeling East Asian climate and impacts of atmospheric CO2 concentration during the Late Cretaceous (66Ma)" 6036:

Tarduno, J. A.; Brinkman, D. B.; Renne, P. R.; Cottrell, R. D.; Scher, H.; Castillo, P. (18 December 1998).

5864:"A multiple proxy and model study of Cretaceous upper ocean temperatures and atmospheric CO2 concentrations" 3538:

Frau, Camille; Bulot, Luc G.; Reháková, Daniela; Wimbledon, William A.P.; Ifrim, Christina (November 2016).

4845:

Behrooz, L.; Naafs, B. D. A.; Dickson, A. J.; Love, G. D.; Batenburg, S. J.; Pancost, R. D. (August 2018).

4063: 6550: 6429:"Integrated climate model-oxygen isotope evidence for a North American monsoon during the Late Cretaceous" 6265: 5712:"Middle Albian climate fluctuation recorded in the carbon isotope composition of terrestrial plant matter" 5514: 5265:"A fossil champsosaur population from the high Arctic: Implications for Late Cretaceous paleotemperatures" 5071: 4983: 4551: 4528: 4417: 4241: 3353:[Observations on a trial geological map of France, the Low Countries, and neighboring countries]. 9166: 8516: 6714: 6318: 5664:"Low-latitude sea-surface temperatures for the mid-Cretaceous and the evolution of planktic foraminifera" 5563:"Stripping back the modern to reveal the Cenomanian–Turonian climate and temperature gradient underneath" 4710: 4422: 3910:

Shehan, P; Hansen, TA (1986). "Detritus feeding as a buffer to extinction at the end of the Cretaceous".

493: 6468: 5863: 5175: 4144: 8357: 8215: 8187: 7762: 5513:

Wang, Yongdong; Huang, Chengmin; Sun, Bainian; Quan, Cheng; Wu, Jingyu; Lin, Zhicheng (February 2014).

4068: 3275: 1125: 7825: 6313: 5711: 5407: 3857:"Mosasaur Predation on Upper Cretaceous Nautiloids and Ammonites from the United States Pacific Coast" 2079:

continued to narrow. During most of the Late Cretaceous, North America would be divided in two by the

2071:

were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising

6709: 6606: 6241: 4883: 3388: 3423: 3351:"Observations sur un essai de carte géologique de la France, des Pays-Bas, et des contrées voisines" 2520: 8318: 7344: 5223: 4552:"Synchrony of carbon cycle fluctuations, volcanism and orbital forcing during the Early Cretaceous" 4481:

Scotese, Christopher R.; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J. W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (April 2021).

2424: 2115:

activity—or rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridges—enriched the oceans in

2664:

is not consistent with pterosaur decline). By the end of the period only three highly specialized

8789: 8784: 8335: 8076: 7928: 7650:"A stem acrodontan lizard in the Cretaceous of Brazil revises early lizard evolution in Gondwana" 7506: 7168:"Late Cretaceous origin of the rice tribe provides evidence for early diversification in Poaceae" 6428: 5775: 5416:. Advances in Cretaceous palaeontology and stratigraphy – Christopher John Wood Memorial Volume. 5118:

Fletcher, Tamara L.; Greenwood, David R.; Moss, Patrick T.; Salisbury, Steven W. (1 March 2014).

4705: 4667: 4627: 3241: 2361:

connecting the tropical oceans east to west also helped to warm the global climate. Warm-adapted

2343: 2302: 2231: 2097: 2080: 2067:

remained attached to each other until around 80 million years ago); thus, the South Atlantic and

1970: 1791: 1510: 855:, died out, widely thought to have been caused by the impact of a large asteroid that formed the 7056:

Condamine, Fabien L.; Silvestro, Daniele; Koppelhus, Eva B.; Antonelli, Alexandre (2020-11-17).

4048: 3661: 3579: 3539: 1938:

did not yet exist in the Cretaceous, these deposits formed on the southern edge of the European

1326: 7961: 4483:"Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years" 3820: 3018: 2950: 2652:

also diversified. They inhabited every continent, and were even found in cold polar latitudes.

2091:

to the east, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between

1897:

and the Chalk Group still consists of loose sediments in many places. The group also has other

580: 4612: 3350: 7654: 7172: 6849: 6555: 6270: 6150: 5987:"Fish tooth δ18O revising Late Cretaceous meridional upper ocean water temperature gradients" 5519: 5361: 5228: 4600: 4556: 4487: 3366: 2354: 2088: 1978: 1859: 1754: 970: 613: 538: 118:

Map of Earth as it appeared 100 million years ago during the mid-Cretaceous, Cenomanian stage

8125: 7336: 6037: 5072:"Floristic and vegetational changes in the Iberian Peninsula during Jurassic and Cretaceous" 3082:) in the oceans occurred during the Cretaceous; freshwater diatoms did not appear until the 1854:

In northwestern Europe, chalk deposits from the Upper Cretaceous are characteristic for the

8292: 8136: 8090: 8026: 7839: 7771: 7663: 7604: 7544: 7240: 7181: 7071: 6966:"How deep is the conflict between molecular and fossil evidence on the age of angiosperms?" 6925: 6880: 6798: 6723: 6659: 6564: 6482: 6391: 6327: 6279: 6218: 6205:"Late Cretaceous Temperature Evolution of the Southern High Latitudes: A TEX86 Perspective" 6159: 6051: 6000: 5935: 5877: 5829: 5725: 5677: 5634: 5576: 5528: 5485: 5421: 5370: 5326: 5278: 5189: 5133: 5085: 4997: 4930: 4860: 4794: 4565: 4496: 4431: 4346: 4333:"ITCZ controls on Late Cretaceous black shale sedimentation in the tropical Atlantic Ocean" 4158: 3994: 3959: 3921: 3873: 3784: 3722: 3675: 3606: 3553: 3509: 3280: 2484:

The earliest widely accepted evidence of flowering plants are monosulcate (single-grooved)

2470: 2269: 2184: 2148: 1927: 1894: 1874: 1469: 1442: 1389: 1098: 1067: 986: 789: 6708:

Huber, Brian T.; MacLeod, Kenneth G.; Watkins, David K.; Coffin, Millard F. (2018-08-01).

3397:] (in Russian) (3rd ed.). Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. 1974. vol. 16, p. 50. 3070:, a class of crustaceans, went extinct in the Late Cretaceous. The first radiation of the 1499: 8: 9161: 9120: 8081: 7830: 7337: 7127:"Dinosaur-associated Poaceae epidermis and phytoliths from the Early Cretaceous of China" 6781: 6376:

Chen, Junming; Zhao, Ping; Wang, Chengshan; Huang, Yongjian; Cao, Ke (1 September 2013).

5920:

Norris, Richard D.; Bice, Karen L.; Magno, Elizabeth A.; Wilson, Paul A. (1 April 2002).

5780: 5567: 5412: 5049: 4418:"Late Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous palaeoclimatic evolution of the southern North Sea" 4394: 3544: 3262: 3022: 2223: 2022: 1804:

is a rock type characteristic for (but not restricted to) the Cretaceous. It consists of

1513:

with the Earth may have been the punctuation mark at the end of a progressive decline in

930: 8296: 8140: 8094: 8030: 7843: 7775: 7667: 7608: 7548: 7244: 7185: 7075: 6929: 6884: 6802: 6727: 6663: 6568: 6486: 6395: 6331: 6283: 6222: 6163: 6055: 6004: 5939: 5881: 5833: 5729: 5681: 5638: 5580: 5532: 5489: 5425: 5406:

Püttmann, Tobias; Linnert, Christian; Dölling, Bettina; Mutterlose, Jörg (1 July 2018).

5374: 5330: 5282: 5193: 5137: 5089: 5001: 4934: 4864: 4798: 4569: 4500: 4435: 4350: 4162: 3998: 3963: 3925: 3877: 3788: 3726: 3679: 3610: 3557: 2390:

evidence of deposition directly from glaciers is limited to the Early Cretaceous of the

785: 8050: 7986: 7799: 7733: 7708: 7684: 7649: 7625: 7592: 7565: 7532: 7480: 7445: 7396: 7369: 7269: 7226: 7126: 7102: 7057: 6941: 6896: 6830: 6757: 6683: 6580: 6351: 6246: 6180: 6145: 6120: 6093: 5749: 5594: 5445: 5388: 5149: 4959: 4921: 4916: 4896: 4820: 4581: 4520: 4313: 4263: 4118: 3889: 3837: 3800: 3746: 3642: 3435: 2661: 2136: 1713: 1695: 588: 8304: 4443: 3856: 8918: 8882: 8277: 8262: 8243: 8219: 8148: 8054: 8042: 8012: 7990: 7978: 7923: 7904: 7855: 7738: 7689: 7630: 7570: 7485: 7467: 7424: 7401: 7348: 7317: 7274: 7256: 7207: 7199: 7148: 7107: 7089: 7026: 6995: 6987: 6900: 6892: 6834: 6822: 6814: 6761: 6749: 6687: 6675: 6650: 6612: 6584: 6498: 6473: 6409: 6355: 6343: 6250: 6185: 6125: 6067: 6042: 5991: 5926: 5820: 5753: 5741: 5668: 5598: 5449: 5437: 5264: 5245: 5153: 5031: 4964: 4946: 4888: 4824: 4815: 4785: 4626:

Boulila, Slah; Charbonnier, Guillaume; Galbrun, Bruno; Gardin, Silvia (1 July 2015).

4585: 4524: 4512: 4364: 4317: 4267: 4196: 4122: 3950: 3912: 3893: 3804: 3738: 3713: 3666: 3646: 3634: 3485: 3465: 3439: 2648:, which were at their most diverse stage. Avians such as the ancestors of modern-day 2577: 2474: 2247: 1939: 1626: 1518: 1434: 899: 733: 528: 7784: 7757: 6735: 6576: 6339: 6291: 5540: 5392: 5383: 5356: 4900: 4723: 4577: 4508: 3841: 3770: 9012: 8887: 8856: 8653: 8393: 8300: 8236: 8196: 8144: 8098: 8034: 8017: 7970: 7896: 7847: 7779: 7728: 7720: 7679: 7671: 7620: 7612: 7560: 7552: 7475: 7457: 7391: 7383: 7307: 7264: 7248: 7231: 7189: 7138: 7097: 7079: 7018: 6977: 6945: 6933: 6916: 6888: 6806: 6789: 6784: 6739: 6731: 6667: 6645: 6572: 6530: 6490: 6442: 6399: 6335: 6287: 6236: 6226: 6175: 6167: 6115: 6107: 6059: 6008: 5943: 5893: 5885: 5837: 5789: 5733: 5685: 5642: 5584: 5536: 5493: 5472:"Possible atmospheric CO2 extremes of the Middle Cretaceous (late Albian–Turonian)" 5429: 5378: 5334: 5286: 5237: 5197: 5141: 5097: 5093: 5045: 5005: 4954: 4938: 4878: 4868: 4810: 4802: 4759: 4719: 4683: 4679: 4641: 4573: 4504: 4439: 4354: 4303: 4255: 4166: 4110: 4077: 4044: 4002: 3967: 3929: 3881: 3829: 3792: 3750: 3730: 3691: 3683: 3624: 3614: 3561: 3518: 3477: 3431: 3411:(3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Geological Institute. 1972. p. 165. 2918: 2906:

a large herbivorous rhynchocephalian known from the mid-Cretaceous of South America

2691: 2665: 2530: 2219: 2164: 2144: 2132: 2124: 2034: 1642: 1522: 1495: 1262: 1218: 959: 856: 844: 688: 279: 8102: 6063: 5793: 5562: 5433: 5032:"The Aptian - Albian cold snap: Evidence for "mid" Cretaceous icehouse interludes" 4915:

Yamaguchi, Koichi; Abe, Fumio; Tada, Ryuji; Nakagawa, Takeshi (19 December 2022).

4064:"The biogeography and ecology of the Cretaceous non-avian dinosaurs of Appalachia" 3565: 2338: 9112: 9108: 9104: 8981: 8877: 8815: 8710: 8679: 8648: 8398: 8230:—detailed coverage of various aspects of the evolutionary history of the insects. 7462: 6404: 6377: 5737: 5290: 5009: 4645: 4416:

Abbink, Oscar; Targarona, Jordi; Brinkhuis, Henk; Visscher, Henk (October 2001).

4259: 3075: 3014: 2960: 2922: 2910: 2788:, one of the largest land predators of all time, lived during the Late Cretaceous 2707: 2669: 2570: 2493: 2492:(~ 134 million years ago) found in Israel and Italy, initially at low abundance. 2442: 2120: 2112: 2026: 2002: 1813: 1611: 1038: 966: 963: 945:

between Neocomian and Aptian and the Cenomanian between the Albian and Turonian.

821: 767:', which is abundant in the latter half of the period. It is usually abbreviated 290: 41: 9137: 7881: 7022: 6312:

Ma, Mingming; He, Mei; Zhao, Mengting; Peng, Chao; Liu, Xiuming (1 April 2021).

2933: 9131: 8950: 8820: 8715: 8684: 8207: 8156:

Larson, Neal L; Jorgensen, Steven D; Farrar, Robert A; Larson, Peter L (1997).

7063:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6446: 4942: 3334: 3329: 3177: 3111: 3067: 2938: 2857: 2840: 2711: 2391: 2332: 2307: 2206: 2030: 2010: 1994: 1935: 1758: 1533: 1503: 1457: 1347: 1152: 911: 852: 828:

across the Earth by the end of the Cretaceous, coincident with the decline and

796: 8485: 8038: 7880:

Wood, Christopher J.; Ernst, Gundolf; Rasemann, Gabriele (11 September 1984).

6810: 6038:"Evidence for Extreme Climatic Warmth from Late Cretaceous Arctic Vertebrates" 3481: 2726: 2687: 2406: 2107:; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the 2072: 1552:

in the late Cretaceous, and all else that depended on them suffered, as well.

973:. In older literature, the Cretaceous is sometimes divided into three series: 9155: 8851: 8841: 8810: 8773: 8705: 8674: 8469: 7982: 7908: 7900: 7859: 7471: 7368:

Halliday, Thomas John Dixon; Upchurch, Paul; Goswami, Anjali (29 June 2016).

7321: 7260: 7203: 7152: 7093: 6991: 6818: 6753: 6502: 6413: 6347: 5745: 5441: 5249: 4950: 4892: 4516: 4368: 3946: 3796: 3687: 3638: 3523: 3489: 3041:

genus with a straight shell, flourished in the seas along with reef-building

2997:

in the early and mid-Cretaceous (becoming extinct during the late Cretaceous

2969: 2955: 2902: 2784: 2702:, which includes modern birds and their closest non-avian relatives, such as 2673: 2634: 2627: 2615: 2601: 2597: 2525: 2466: 2260: 2044: 1878: 1795: 1784: 1750: 1598: 1562: 1541: 1320: 1268: 1146: 1043: 867: 744: 649: 636: 399: 72: 8328: 7084: 6671: 4240:

Wang, Jing-Yu; Li, Xiang-Hui; Li, Li-Qin; Wang, Yong-Dong (September 2022).

3734: 2921:, and were absent from North Africa and northern South America by the early 2496:

estimates conflict with fossil estimates, suggesting the diversification of

2009:, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the 1926:

In southern Europe, the Cretaceous is usually a marine system consisting of

1490:

The upper boundary of the Cretaceous is sharply defined, being placed at an

758: 9142: 9073: 8923: 8846: 8046: 8013:"High male sexual investment as a driver of extinction in fossil ostracods" 7851: 7742: 7724: 7693: 7648:

Simões TR, Wilner E, Caldwell MW, Weinschütz LC, Kellner AW (August 2015).

7634: 7574: 7489: 7405: 7387: 7278: 7252: 7211: 7111: 6999: 6826: 6679: 6189: 6129: 5589: 4968: 4035:

Weimar, R.J. (1960). "Upper Cretaceous Stratigraphy, Rocky Mountain Area".

3742: 3226: 3051: 3046: 2946: 2802: 2703: 2677: 2606: 2557:, which make up 80% of living fern species, would also begin to diversify. 2554: 2362: 2350: 2314:

70 and 69 Ma and 66–65 Ma, isotopic ratios indicate elevated atmospheric CO

2290: 2172: 2068: 1943: 1829: 1728: 1709: 1668: 1575: 1537: 1514: 1446: 1242: 1119: 978: 903: 878:

The Cretaceous as a separate period was first defined by Belgian geologist

574: 7058:"The rise of angiosperms pushed conifers to decline during global cooling" 6071: 5353: 5174:

Leckie, R. Mark; Bralower, Timothy J.; Cashman, Richard (23 August 2002).

5145: 3578:

Cohen, K.M., Finney, S.C., Gibbard, P.L. & Fan, J.-X. (2013; updated)

2844:, one of the largest animals to ever fly, lived during the Late Cretaceous 859:

in the Gulf of Mexico. The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt

9068: 8937: 8913: 8758: 8553: 8418: 8413: 7924:"The Turonian - Coniacian boundary in the United States Western interior" 7143: 6785:"Temperate rainforests near the South Pole during peak Cretaceous warmth" 6427:

Fricke, Henry C.; Foreman, Brady Z.; Sewall, Jacob O. (15 January 2010).

6231: 6204: 6111: 5898: 5889: 5647: 5620: 5498: 5471: 5339: 5312: 5241: 5201: 4873: 4846: 4764: 4745: 4359: 4332: 4308: 4289: 4246: 4170: 3619: 3594: 3196: 3156: 3117: 3094: 3055: 3010: 2994: 2896: 2874: 2819: 2764: 2748: 2715: 2699: 2695: 2623: 2611: 2506: 2497: 2489: 2478: 2458: 2294: 2227: 2210: 2203: 2108: 1855: 1837: 1833: 1724: 1717: 1705: 1602: 1594: 1475: 1463: 1382: 1374: 1334: 1307: 1289: 1173: 1061: 891: 752: 318: 309: 47: 8334: 7616: 7556: 6646:"Isotopic evidence for glaciation during the Cretaceous supergreenhouse" 2318:

pressures with levels of 1000–1400 ppmV and mean annual temperatures in

992:

From youngest to oldest, the subdivisions of the Cretaceous period are:

824:

appeared and began to rapidly diversify, becoming the dominant group of

612:-enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent 9063: 9023: 8966: 8866: 8763: 8537: 8444: 8408: 8170: 8010: 7675: 7194: 7167: 6171: 5814:

Wilson, Paul A.; Norris, Richard D.; Cooper, Matthew J. (1 July 2002).

5612: 5263:

Vandermark, Deborah; Tarduno, John A.; Brinkman, Donald B. (May 2007).

5224:"Present and past nonanthropogenic CO 2 degassing from the solid earth" 4242:"Cretaceous climate variations indicated by palynoflora in South China" 3768: 3696: 3629: 3236: 3134: 3090: 3079: 3059: 3002: 2883: 2836: 2589: 2574: 2511: 2462: 2446: 2382: 2378: 2358: 2319: 2189: 2076: 2064: 2048: 1919: 1906: 1745: 1650: 1549: 1494:-rich layer found worldwide that is believed to be associated with the 1361: 1187: 1092: 1071: 907: 833: 829: 737: 567: 354: 300: 57: 9126: 7444:

Longrich, Nicholas R.; Martill, David M.; Andres, Brian (2018-03-13).

7312: 7293: 6982: 6965: 6744: 6012: 4114: 3971: 3591: 1299: 9078: 9028: 9002: 8961: 8908: 8753: 8729: 8610: 8600: 8589: 8464: 8459: 8454: 8423: 8167:"Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)" 6937: 6525: 4806: 3063: 3033: 2964: 2768: 2752: 2653: 2638: 2593: 2585: 2581: 2516: 2454: 2395: 2370: 2349:

The production of large quantities of magma, variously attributed to

2278: 2243: 2214: 2128: 2084: 2052: 2006: 1990: 1974: 1910: 1898: 1890: 1805: 1787: 1770: 1739: 1676: 1664: 1582:. The other Cretaceous groups that did not survive into the Cenozoic 1579: 1553: 1408: 1276: 1133: 1106: 1079: 1030: 974: 938: 848: 800: 390: 381: 372: 327: 269: 97: 8349: 7707:

Jones ME, Tennyson AJ, Worthy JP, Evans SE, Worthy TH (April 2009).

7339:

Mammals from the Age of Dinosaurs: Origins, Evolution, and Structure

7055: 4666:

Cui, Xiaohui; Li, Xin; Aitchison, Jonathan C.; Luo, Hui (May 2023).

3659: 3309: 9038: 9033: 8997: 8897: 8830: 8799: 8694: 8663: 8624: 8574: 8548: 8524: 8449: 7335:

Kielan-Jaworowska, Zofia; Cifelli, Richard L.; Luo, Zhe-Xi (2005).

4191:

Dixon, Dougal; Benton, M J; Kingsley, Ayala; Baker, Julian (2001).

3173: 3139: 3038: 3006: 2982: 2723: 2719: 2684: 2645: 2534: 2502: 2386: 2374: 2198: 2168: 2040: 2018: 1914: 1870: 1775: 1654: 1634: 1607: 1571: 1567: 1557: 1450: 1353: 1160: 982: 864: 808: 741: 584: 363: 247: 235: 222: 87: 82: 67: 62: 52: 27:

Third and last period of the Mesozoic Era, 145–66 million years ago

8278:"Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities" 6643: 6031: 6029: 5515:"Paleo-CO2 variation trends and the Cretaceous greenhouse climate" 4287: 3142:, carnivorous marine reptiles that emerged in the late Cretaceous. 3089:

The Cretaceous was also an important interval in the evolution of

2963:, which appear to have evolved in the regional absence of aquatic 1623:

were already extinct millions of years before the event occurred.

9052: 8992: 8742: 8579: 8563: 5124: 5070:

Diéguez, Carmen; Peyrot, Daniel; Barrón, Eduardo (October 2010).

4981: 4778: 4549: 4082: 3864: 3502: 3311: 3083: 2990: 2914: 2879: 2744: 2730: 2641: 2569:

were generally small sized, but a very relevant component of the

2539: 2273: 2116: 2014: 1998: 1973:

started forming. This inland sea separated the elevated areas of

1902: 1886: 1882: 1863: 1809: 1672: 1630: 1491: 1453: 1438: 1210: 887: 804: 793: 781: 751:

million years, it is the longest geological period of the entire

628: 609: 113: 102: 77: 7291: 6202: 5710:

Hong, Sung Kyung; Yi, Sangheon; Shinn, Young Jae (1 July 2020).

5405: 4415: 3466:"Developments with fixing a Tithonian/Berriasian (J/K) boundary" 2967:

crocodyliformes. During the Late Cretaceous the neochoristodere

2119:; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the 9088: 8971: 8605: 8433: 8428: 6091: 6026: 4625: 3071: 3042: 2736: 2619: 2596:

had already begun to diversify greatly, ranging as carnivores (

2566: 2543: 2485: 2366: 2255: 2152: 2140: 2056: 1867: 1702: 1683: 1679: 1658: 1646: 1638: 1403: 1250: 1223: 813: 624: 345: 336: 7647: 5117: 4913: 2175:

were erupted in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene.

6547: 5922:"Jiggling the tropical thermostat in the Cretaceous hothouse" 5030:

Mutterlose, Jörg; Bornemann, André; Herrle, Jens (May 2009).

4018: 4016: 3231: 3210: 3182:, Owl Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Ripley, Mississippi 3026: 3009:

appearing in the Late Cretaceous. Sea turtles in the form of

2986: 2760: 2649: 2450: 2322:

between 21 and 23 °C (70 and 73 °F). Atmospheric CO

2286: 2282: 2235: 2160: 2156: 2104: 2060: 1825: 1817: 1801: 1716:

from living phytoplankton, while animals living on or in the

1687: 1545: 1540:. As is the case today, photosynthesizing organisms, such as 1529: 1412: 1179: 915: 895: 825: 817: 764: 7591:

Apesteguía S, Daza JD, Simões TR, Rage JC (September 2016).

6710:"The rise and fall of the Cretaceous Hot Greenhouse climate" 6035: 5984: 5961: 5618: 4480: 2377:

fossils have been found within 15 degrees of the Cretaceous

1536:

declined or became extinct as atmospheric particles blocked

925:. The twofold division of the Cretaceous was implemented by 8155: 7975:

10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0459:CILCTB]2.0.CO;2

7334: 7165: 6495:

10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0877:GECPTC>2.3.CO;2

5948:

10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0299:JTTTIT>2.0.CO;2

5842:

10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0607:TTCGHU>2.0.CO;2

5690:

10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<0823:LLSSTF>2.3.CO;2

5310: 4142: 4007:

10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0556:MEOLDV>2.3.CO;2

3886:

10.1669/0883-1351(2004)019<0096:MPOUCN>2.0.CO;2

3834:

10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0347:LPEATE>2.0.CO;2

2756: 2657: 2588:

existed until the very end, but a variety of non-marsupial

2550: 2092: 1931: 1691: 941:, Aptian, Albian, Turonian, and Senonian, later adding the 712: 706: 7922:

Walaszczyk, Ireneusz Piotr; Cobban, W. A. (January 1998).

7758:"Choristoderes and the freshwater assemblages of Laurasia" 6964:

Coiro, Mario; Doyle, James A.; Hilton, Jason (July 2019).

6625: 5560: 4221: 4013: 3537: 709: 7531:

Cleary TJ, Benson RB, Evans SE, Barrett PM (March 2018).

6707: 5262: 5029: 3934:

10.1130/0091-7613(1986)14<868:DFAABT>2.0.CO;2

2740: 697: 8158:

Ammonites and the other Cephalopods of the Pierre Seaway

7706: 7590: 7530: 7224: 6535:

10.1130/1052-5173(2003)013<4:TEFTGE>2.0.CO;2

5662:

Norris, Richard D.; Wilson, Paul A. (1 September 1998).

4190: 3984: 2739:

diversified during the Cretaceous, and the oldest known

2335:, when it gave way to another supergreenhouse interval. 2147:

Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous

2135:

make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous

2100:, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged. 1832:

of western North America. These shales are an important

1682:. Mammals and birds that survived the extinction fed on 1445:) that could be used to define or correlate a boundary. 839:

The Cretaceous (along with the Mesozoic) ended with the

7593:"The first iguanian lizard from the Mesozoic of Africa" 7367: 6142: 5470:

Bice, Karen L.; Norris, Richard D. (24 December 2002).

4844: 2861:, a genus of crow-sized birds from the Early Cretaceous 2823:, one of the most recognizable genera of the Cretaceous 1661:

related to snakes that became extinct at the boundary.

8345:. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 414–418. 8238:

The Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology

4209: 2917:) disappeared from North America and Europe after the 2139:

from North America include the rich marine fossils of

7443: 5919: 5173: 4476: 4474: 4472: 4470: 4468: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4460: 4380: 4378: 3348: 1824:

Mexico. In many places around the world, dark anoxic

847:

in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs,

724: 715: 691: 8324:

Cretaceous Microfossils: 180+ images of Foraminifera

6146:"Evidence for global cooling in the Late Cretaceous" 5861: 5774:

Arens, Nan Crystal; Harris, Elisha B. (March 2015).

3252: 3093:, the production of borings and scrapings in rocks, 3025:

were flightless, marine diving birds that swam like

2505:

angiosperms. Among the oldest records of Angiosperm

2326:

and temperature relations indicate a doubling of pCO

1720:

feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding.

1509:

At the end of the Cretaceous, the impact of a large

1415:

is today widely accepted as the main reason for the

703: 694: 7125:Wu, Yan; You, Hai-Lu; Li, Xiao-Qiang (2018-09-01). 6522: 6426: 5069: 4703: 4195:. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. p. 215. 3909: 2942:, a choristodere from the Early Cretaceous of China 2698:dinosaurs found there represent types of the group 2580:outnumbering dinosaurs in some sites. Neither true 780:The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm 700: 130: 8235: 7586: 7584: 6263: 5980: 5978: 5976: 5813: 4457: 4387:"Palaeos Mesozoic: Cretaceous: The Berriasian Age" 4375: 2285:than today. This is evidenced by widespread black 2013:widened, the convergent-margin mountain building ( 1889:and in the subsurface of the southern part of the 1840:, for example in the subsurface of the North Sea. 1723:The largest air-breathing survivors of the event, 1498:, with its boundaries circumscribing parts of the 8242:(3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. 8177: 7879: 7017:. New York: Chapman & Hall. pp. 91–115. 7015:Flowering Plant Origin, Evolution & Phylogeny 6383:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6375: 5270:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4989:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4744:Larson, Roger L.; Erba, Elisabetta (4 May 2010). 4665: 4233: 3817: 9153: 7921: 6963: 5512: 4097:Moussavou, Benjamin Musavu (25 September 2015). 3905: 3903: 3154:Strong-swimming and toothed predatory waterbird 2151:. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in 1566:, also perished. Yet only three major groups of 933:in 1840 divided the French Cretaceous into five 792:. These oceans and seas were populated with now- 8515: 8206: 7823: 7581: 7421:Pterosaurs: Natural History, Evolution, Anatomy 7418: 5973: 3580:The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart 1964:Map of North America During the Late Cretaceous 1653:are thought to have been the principal food of 1483:. The boundary is officially considered by the 740:(Mya). It is the third and final period of the 453:Subdivision of the Cretaceous according to the 8234:Skinner, Brian J.; Porter, Stephen C. (1995). 7755: 7749: 4055: 3710: 3421: 2213:Faraoni Thermal Excursion (FTX) and the early 1828:were formed during this interval, such as the 8501: 8365: 8233: 7889:Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark 7824:Walaszczyk, I.; Szasz, L. (1 December 1997). 6959: 6957: 6955: 6913: 6604: 5967: 5037:Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie 4330: 3900: 8275: 6311: 5661: 4331:Hofmann, P.; Wagner, T. (23 December 2011). 4239: 3371:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2806:was feathered and roamed the Late Cretaceous 2465:and close relatives, as well as the extinct 1431:Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point 772: 7524: 6868: 6854:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 6608:Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy 5773: 5709: 4049:10.1306/0BDA5F6F-16BD-11D7-8645000102C1865D 3771:"The Cretaceous–Tertiary biotic transition" 3422:Ogg, J.G.; Hinnov, L.A.; Huang, C. (2012), 1956:Category:Cretaceous System of North America 1778:dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of Italy 1506:. This layer has been dated at 66.043 Mya. 914:. The name Cretaceous was derived from the 756: 460:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago. 8508: 8494: 8372: 8358: 7700: 6952: 5469: 4743: 4061: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3310:International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2959:and the first records of the gharial-like 2800:Up to 2 m long and 0.5 m high at the hip, 2729:are notable for the presence of hair-like 2365:are known from localities as far north as 2167:). In the area that is now India, massive 1877:is found in England, northern France, the 7783: 7732: 7683: 7624: 7564: 7479: 7461: 7395: 7311: 7268: 7193: 7142: 7101: 7083: 6981: 6743: 6403: 6242:1983/9c306756-d31c-4cda-b68e-4ba6f0bf9d44 6240: 6230: 6179: 6119: 5897: 5646: 5588: 5497: 5382: 5338: 4958: 4884:1983/dd9ce325-fc6b-44a0-bab0-e0aa68943adc 4882: 4872: 4814: 4763: 4358: 4307: 4096: 4081: 3695: 3628: 3618: 3522: 3463: 8178:Ovechkina, M.N.; Alekseev, A.S. (2005). 6529:. Vol. 13, no. 12. p. 4. 3854: 3848: 2993:became common. Marine reptiles included 2932: 2895: 2417: 2405: 2337: 2103:The Cretaceous is justly famous for its 1959: 1764: 1738: 1485:International Commission on Stratigraphy 1402: 1028: 873: 598:Lower boundary GSSP candidate section(s) 8256: 7955:Kosnik, Matthew A. (1 September 2005). 7800:"EVOLUTIONARY/GEOLOGICAL TIMELINE v1.0" 7501: 7499: 7124: 7012: 6631: 6598: 6466: 5222:Kerrick, Derrill M. (1 November 2001). 5221: 4227: 4215: 4022: 3757: 1820:that prospered in the Cretaceous seas. 820:appeared. During the Early Cretaceous, 14: 9154: 8261:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. 7954: 4034: 3464:WIMBLEDON, William A.P. (2017-12-27). 2722:. Fossils of these dinosaurs from the 2075:worldwide. To the north of Africa the 1734: 747:, as well as the longest. At around 79 450: 8489: 8379: 8353: 8329:Cretaceous (chronostratigraphy scale) 8276:Taylor, P. D.; Wilson, M. A. (2003). 7343:. Columbia University Press. p. 6467:Barrera, Enriqueta (1 October 1994). 6210:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 6099:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 5869:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 5626:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 5477:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 5318:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 5181:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 5077:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 4852:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 4751:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 4338:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 4295:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 4150:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 3109:A scene from the early Cretaceous: a 1570:disappeared completely; the nonavian 1425:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 1417:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 841:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 755:. The name is derived from the Latin 8074: 7496: 7299:Journal of Systematics and Evolution 6872:Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 6456:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 5803:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 4733:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 4693:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 4655:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 3287:South Polar region of the Cretaceous 2891: 2560: 2297:reptiles were able to inhabit them. 2234:(SSTs) were 27–32 °C, based on 1905:. Among the fossils it contains are 1850:Category:Cretaceous System of Europe 1441:excursions (large sudden changes in 985:(upper/late). A subdivision into 12 910:), found in the upper Cretaceous of 894:and named for the extensive beds of 561:Lower boundary definition candidates 427: 9107:= kiloannum (thousands years ago); 8164: 6434:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2529:from the Barremian-Aptian boundary 2083:, a large interior sea, separating 24: 9111:= megaannum (millions years ago); 7375:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 4384: 3436:10.1016/b978-0-444-59425-9.00027-5 3005:throughout the entire period, and 2469:. Other groups of plants included 2428:specimen in the collection of the 2381:. It was suggested that there was 902:deposited by the shells of marine 25: 9178: 9115:= gigaannum (billions years ago). 8312: 8075:Lees, Jackie A. (February 2008). 3776:Journal of the Geological Society 2660:, but now it is understood avian 2614:). Various "archaic" groups like 2438:Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution 1984: 1548:, formed the primary part of the 736:that lasted from about 145 to 66 9136: 9125: 8149:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2007.11.010 8068: 8004: 7948: 7915: 7873: 7817: 7792: 7713:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 6893:10.1046/j.1440-0952.2003.00984.x 5050:10.1127/0077-7749/2009/0252-0217 3255: 3230:, one of the largest Cretaceous 3218: 3187: 3165: 3147: 3126: 3102: 2999:Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event 2866: 2849: 2828: 2811: 2793: 2776: 2414:from the Yixian Formation, China 1989:During the Cretaceous, the late- 1949: 969:, or Lower and Upper Cretaceous 687: 112: 45: 8119: 7785:10.5209/rev_jige.2010.v36.n2.11 7641: 7437: 7412: 7361: 7328: 7285: 7218: 7159: 7118: 7049: 7039: 7006: 6907: 6862: 6775: 6736:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.04.004 6701: 6637: 6577:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103572 6541: 6516: 6460: 6420: 6369: 6340:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103435 6305: 6292:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.08.016 6257: 6196: 6136: 6085: 5913: 5855: 5807: 5767: 5717:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 5703: 5655: 5554: 5541:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.11.001 5506: 5463: 5399: 5384:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.07.012 5347: 5304: 5256: 5215: 5167: 5111: 5063: 5023: 4975: 4907: 4838: 4772: 4737: 4724:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2023.104220 4697: 4659: 4619: 4578:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104356 4543: 4509:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103503 4409: 4324: 4281: 4184: 4136: 4090: 4028: 3978: 3940: 3811: 3704: 3653: 3585: 3572: 3271:Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction 2976: 2928: 2913:(which today only includes the 1473:, formerly placed in the genus 996:Subdivisions of the Cretaceous 958:The Cretaceous is divided into 953: 7756:Matsumoto R, Evans SE (2010). 7423:. Princeton University Press. 5098:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2010.06.004 4684:10.1016/j.marmicro.2023.102247 3531: 3496: 3457: 3430:, Elsevier, pp. 793–853, 3415: 3401: 3381: 3349:d’Halloy, d’O., J.-J. (1822). 3342: 3322: 3303: 2430:Natural History Museum, Berlin 1930:limestone beds or incompetent 788:that created numerous shallow 426: 13: 1: 8554:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma) 8319:UCMP Berkeley Cretaceous page 8305:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00131-9 8103:10.1016/j.cretres.2007.08.002 6064:10.1126/science.282.5397.2241 5794:10.1016/j.cretres.2014.11.004 5434:10.1016/j.cretres.2017.07.005 4444:10.1016/S0921-8181(01)00101-1 3566:10.1016/j.cretres.2016.05.007 3292: 3160:roamed late Cretacean oceans. 2005:breakup into the present-day 1398: 1120:Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus 1056:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary 861:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary 771:, for its German translation 8195:(1): 149–165. Archived from 7463:10.1371/journal.pbio.2001663 6405:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.07.017 5738:10.1016/j.jseaes.2020.104363 5291:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.11.008 5010:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.04.004 4646:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2015.04.014 4260:10.1016/j.palwor.2021.11.001 4062:Brownstein, Chase D (2018). 3297: 2017:) that had begun during the 1368: 1365: 1341: 1338: 1314: 1311: 1283: 1280: 1257: 1254: 1230: 1227: 1201:Rotalipora globotruncanoides 1194: 1191: 1167: 1164: 1140: 1137: 1113: 1110: 1086: 1083: 1054:top: iridium anomaly at the 1050: 1047: 7: 8517:Geological history of Earth 8257:Stanley, Steven M. (1999). 7023:10.1007/978-0-585-23095-5_5 6715:Global and Planetary Change 6319:Global and Planetary Change 4711:Global and Planetary Change 4423:Global and Planetary Change 3248: 1532:. Species that depended on 451: 215: 10: 9183: 8790:Mississippian (323–359 Ma) 8785:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma) 8549:Holocene (present–11.7 ka) 8216:Kluwer Academic Publishers 8188:Journal of Iberian Geology 7763:Journal of Iberian Geology 7597:Royal Society Open Science 7537:Royal Society Open Science 6447:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.10.018 4943:10.1038/s41598-022-25815-w 4069:Palaeontologia Electronica 3276:Cretaceous Thermal Maximum 2435: 2207:Weissert Thermal Excursion 2182: 2178: 1953: 1866:and similar cliffs on the 1847: 1743:Drawing of fossil jaws of 1657:, a group of giant marine 1422: 1372:base: first occurrence of 1345:base: first occurrence of 1318:base: first occurrence of 1287:base: first occurrence of 1237:Praediscosphaera columnata 1234:base: first occurrence of 1198:base: first occurrence of 1171:base: first occurrence of 1144:base: first occurrence of 1117:base: first occurrence of 948: 9102: 9087: 9074:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga) 9051: 9011: 8980: 8949: 8936: 8924:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma) 8896: 8865: 8829: 8798: 8772: 8741: 8728: 8693: 8662: 8636: 8623: 8588: 8562: 8536: 8523: 8387: 8336:"Cretaceous System" 8210:; Quicke, D.L.J. (2002). 8039:10.1038/s41586-018-0020-7 6811:10.1038/s41586-020-2148-5 5968:Skinner & Porter 1995 4816:21.11116/0000-0001-D1DF-8 3482:10.5604/01.3001.0010.7467 3395:Great Soviet Encyclopedia 3335:Dictionary.com Unabridged 2410:Facsimile of a fossil of 2385:marine glaciation in the 2023:North American Cordillera 1917:and sea reptiles such as 1843: 1456:with urn-shaped calcitic 1217: 1090:base: last occurrence of 1059:base:first occurrence of 1037: 1023: 1020: 1003: 1000: 832:of previously widespread 665: 619: 606:Upper boundary definition 605: 597: 560: 553:Lower boundary definition 552: 544: 534: 524: 519: 511: 499: 489: 484: 476: 471: 128: 123: 111: 37: 32: 9069:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga) 8914:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma) 8759:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma) 8611:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma) 8601:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma) 7901:10.37570/bgsd-1984-33-21 7507:"Life of the Cretaceous" 7419:Wilton, Mark P. (2013). 4672:Marine Micropaleontology 3797:10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265 3688:10.1016/j.gr.2013.07.005 3524:10.31577/GeolCarp.71.1.3 3390:Sovetskaya Enciklopediya 3312:"ICS - Chart/Time Scale" 3058:such as sea urchins and 2886:from the Late Cretaceous 2425:Pluricarpellatia peltata 2401: 2289:deposition and frequent 2232:sea surface temperatures 2230:. Early Aptian tropical 1808:, microscopically small 1449:, an enigmatic group of 1147:Cremnoceramus rotundatus 1093:Marsupites testudinarius 133: 9064:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga) 9029:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga) 9024:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga) 8967:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma) 8857:Llandovery (433–444 Ma) 8764:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma) 8575:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma) 8342:Encyclopædia Britannica 7929:Acta Geologica Polonica 7131:National Science Review 7085:10.1073/pnas.2005571117 6672:10.1126/science.1148777 3735:10.1126/science.1230492 3582:. Episodes 36: 199-204. 3428:The Geologic Time Scale 3242:Western Interior Seaway 2549:During the Cretaceous, 2303:Western Interior Seaway 2261:Amadeus Thermal Maximum 2226:volcanism and with the 2125:calcareous nanoplankton 2081:Western Interior Seaway 1971:Western Interior Seaway 1942:, at the margin of the 1502:and extending into the 1496:Chicxulub impact crater 1062:Pachydiscus neubergicus 880:Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy 176:−100 — 166:−110 — 156:−120 — 146:−130 — 136:−140 — 9034:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga) 9003:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga) 8962:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma) 8909:Furongian (485–497 Ma) 8754:Lopingian (252–260 Ma) 8580:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma) 8394:Lower/Early Cretaceous 8165:Ogg, Jim (June 2004). 7852:10.1006/cres.1997.0086 7725:10.1098/rspb.2008.1785 7388:10.1098/rspb.2015.3026 7253:10.1126/sciadv.aar8568 6605:Foulger, G.R. (2010). 5590:10.5194/cp-16-953-2020 4193:Atlas of Life on Earth 3019:leatherback sea turtle 2951:evolutionary radiation 2943: 2907: 2433: 2415: 2346: 1965: 1936:Alpine mountain chains 1893:. Chalk is not easily 1862:on the south coast of 1783:the Cretaceous are of 1779: 1762: 1420: 1348:Calpionellites darderi 929:and Phillips in 1822. 773: 757: 206:−70 — 196:−80 — 186:−90 — 9039:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga) 8998:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga) 8919:Series 2 (509–521 Ma) 8606:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma) 8399:Upper/Late Cretaceous 8285:Earth-Science Reviews 7655:Nature Communications 7511:www.ucmp.Berkeley.edu 7173:Nature Communications 6556:Earth-Science Reviews 6271:Earth-Science Reviews 6151:Nature Communications 5520:Earth-Science Reviews 5362:Earth-Science Reviews 5229:Reviews of Geophysics 5146:10.2110/palo.2013.080 4557:Earth-Science Reviews 4488:Earth-Science Reviews 3283:(with link directory) 3078:shelled, rather than 2936: 2899: 2600:), aquatic foragers ( 2488:grains from the late 2421: 2409: 2355:extensional tectonics 2341: 2183:Further information: 1963: 1860:white cliffs of Dover 1768: 1757:, by Dutch geologist 1742: 1406: 1174:Watinoceras devonense 874:Etymology and history 614:K-Pg extinction event 9079:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga) 8972:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga) 8852:Wenlock (427–433 Ma) 8842:Pridoli (419–423 Ma) 8259:Earth System History 8129:Organic Geochemistry 6232:10.1029/2018PA003546 6112:10.1029/2021PA004353 6106:(1): e2021PA004353. 5890:10.1029/2005PA001203 5648:10.1029/2002PA000823 5499:10.1029/2002PA000778 5340:10.1029/2006PA001349 5242:10.1029/2001RG000105 5202:10.1029/2001PA000623 4874:10.1029/2018PA003338 4765:10.1029/1999PA900040 4360:10.1029/2011PA002154 4309:10.1029/2011PA002163 4171:10.1029/2001pa000625 3855:Kauffman, E (2004). 3620:10.5194/se-10-1-2019 3510:Geologica Carpathica 3316:www.stratigraphy.org 3281:List of fossil sites 3060:starfish (sea stars) 2903:Prosphenodon avelasi 2270:temperature gradient 2185:Cool tropics paradox 2149:Hell Creek Formation 2133:sedimentary deposits 2029:was followed by the 1746:Mosasaurus hoffmanni 1605:), and nonmammalian 1470:Strambergella jacobi 1380:first occurrence of 1068:Maastricht Formation 784:, resulting in high 556:Not formally defined 9134: • 9123: • 9121:Geologic time scale 8883:Middle (458–470 Ma) 8847:Ludlow (423–427 Ma) 8816:Middle (383–393 Ma) 8711:Middle (237–247 Ma) 8680:Middle (164–174 Ma) 8297:2003ESRv...62....1T 8202:on August 24, 2006. 8160:. Geoscience Press. 8141:2008OrGeo..39..532K 8095:2008CrRes..29...40L 8082:Cretaceous Research 8031:2018Natur.556..366M 7844:1997CrRes..18..767W 7831:Cretaceous Research 7804:www.TalkOrigins.org 7776:2010JIbG...36..253M 7668:2015NatCo...6.8149S 7617:10.1098/rsos.160462 7609:2016RSOS....360462A 7557:10.1098/rsos.171830 7549:2018RSOS....571830C 7245:2018SciA....4.8568J 7186:2011NatCo...2..480P 7076:2020PNAS..11728867C 7070:(46): 28867–28875. 6930:1988Natur.333..547F 6885:2003AuJES..50..139A 6803:2020Natur.580...81K 6728:2018GPC...167....1H 6664:2008Sci...319..189B 6611:. Wiley-Blackwell. 6569:2021ESRv..21603572G 6487:1994Geo....22..877B 6396:2013PPP...385..190C 6332:2021GPC...19903435M 6284:2013ESRv..126..275W 6223:2019PaPa...34..436O 6164:2014NatCo...5.4194L 6056:1998Sci...282.2241T 6050:(5397): 2241–2243. 6005:2007Geo....35..107P 5940:2002Geo....30..299N 5882:2006PalOc..21.2002B 5834:2002Geo....30..607W 5781:Cretaceous Research 5730:2020JAESc.19604363H 5682:1998Geo....26..823N 5639:2003PalOc..18.1029P 5581:2020CliPa..16..953L 5568:Climate of the Past 5533:2014ESRv..129..136W 5490:2002PalOc..17.1070B 5426:2018CrRes..87..174P 5413:Cretaceous Research 5375:2017ESRv..172..224O 5331:2007PalOc..22.1219F 5283:2007PPP...248...49V 5194:2002PalOc..17.1041L 5138:2014Palai..29..121F 5090:2010RPaPa.162..325D 5002:2016PPP...452...11R 4935:2022NatSR..1221894H 4865:2018PaPa...33..894B 4799:2003Geo....31.1069S 4633:Sedimentary Geology 4570:2023ESRv..23904356M 4501:2021ESRv..21503503S 4436:2001GPC....30..231A 4397:on 20 December 2010 4351:2011PalOc..26.4223H 4230:, pp. 279–281. 4163:2003PalOc..18.1010M 4025:, pp. 481–482. 3999:1992Geo....20..556S 3964:2007Geo....35..227A 3926:1986Geo....14..868S 3878:2004Palai..19...96K 3789:1997JGSoc.154..265M 3727:2013Sci...339..684R 3680:2014GondR..26..374V 3611:2019SolE...10....1L 3558:2016CrRes..66...94F 3545:Cretaceous Research 3409:Glossary of Geology 3263:Paleontology portal 3023:Hesperornithiformes 2224:Ontong Java Plateau 2127:. These widespread 2123:of the element for 2073:eustatic sea levels 1993:-to-early-Mesozoic 1735:Geologic formations 997: 786:eustatic sea levels 666:Upper GSSP ratified 646: / 620:Upper boundary GSSP 545:Time span formality 9167:Geological periods 9132:Geology portal 8993:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga) 8888:Early (470–485 Ma) 8821:Early (393–419 Ma) 8716:Early (247–252 Ma) 8685:Early (174–201 Ma) 8654:Early (100–145 Ma) 8649:Late (66.0–100 Ma) 8212:History of Insects 7676:10.1038/ncomms9149 7382:(1833): 20153026. 7195:10.1038/ncomms1482 7144:10.1093/nsr/nwx145 6634:, p. 480–482. 6172:10.1038/ncomms5194 4922:Scientific Reports 4611:has generic name ( 3470:Volumina Jurassica 3207:Dercetis triqueter 2944: 2908: 2662:adaptive radiation 2604:) and herbivores ( 2592:and non-placental 2523:beds of Spain and 2449:groups, including 2434: 2416: 2347: 2281:and more stagnant 2035:Laramide orogenies 1966: 1858:, which forms the 1780: 1763: 1714:primary production 1464:Calpionella alpina 1443:ratios of isotopes 1435:chemostratigraphic 1421: 1383:Calpionella alpina 1375:Berriasella jacobi 995: 650:36.1537°N 8.6486°E 589:Berriasella jacobi 535:Stratigraphic unit 525:Chronological unit 512:Time scale(s) used 9149: 9148: 9047: 9046: 9013:Paleoproterozoic 8932: 8931: 8878:Late (444–458 Ma) 8811:Late (359–383 Ma) 8724: 8723: 8706:Late (201–237 Ma) 8675:Late (145–164 Ma) 8619: 8618: 8540:(present–2.58 Ma) 8528:(present–66.0 Ma) 8483: 8482: 8478: 8477: 8381:Cretaceous Period 8225:978-1-4020-0026-3 8025:(7701): 366–369. 7719:(1660): 1385–90. 7313:10.1111/jse.12514 7032:978-0-585-23095-5 6983:10.1111/nph.15708 6924:(6173): 547–549. 6658:(5860): 189–192. 6618:978-1-4051-6148-0 6013:10.1130/G23103A.1 5484:(4): 22-1–22-17. 5188:(3): 13-1–13-29. 4793:(12): 1069–1072. 4531:on 8 January 2021 4157:(1): 10-1–10-25. 4115:10.5252/g2015n3a2 3972:10.1130/G23197A.1 3721:(6120): 684–688. 3667:Gondwana Research 3445:978-0-444-59425-9 3355:Annales des Mines 3115:is attacked by a 2911:Rhynchocephalians 2892:Rhynchocephalians 2785:Tyrannosaurus rex 2718:along with other 2578:multituberculates 2561:Terrestrial fauna 2475:Corystospermaceae 2248:Iberian Peninsula 2055:rifted away from 2021:continued in the 1940:continental shelf 1643:freshwater snails 1627:Coccolithophorids 1597:, last remaining 1563:Tyrannosaurus rex 1523:ecological niches 1500:Yucatán Peninsula 1396: 1395: 1290:Spitidiscus hugii 900:calcium carbonate 738:million years ago 734:geological period 673: 672: 566:Magnetic—base of 485:Usage information 466: 465: 446: 445: 18:Cretaceous period 16:(Redirected from 9174: 9143:World portal 9141: 9140: 9130: 9129: 9092: 9056: 9016: 8985: 8982:Mesoproterozoic 8954: 8947: 8946: 8942: 8901: 8870: 8834: 8803: 8777: 8746: 8739: 8738: 8734: 8698: 8667: 8641: 8634: 8633: 8629: 8593: 8567: 8541: 8534: 8533: 8529: 8510: 8503: 8496: 8487: 8486: 8390: 8389: 8374: 8367: 8360: 8351: 8350: 8346: 8338: 8308: 8282: 8272: 8253: 8241: 8229: 8203: 8201: 8184: 8174: 8173:on 16 July 2006. 8169:. Archived from 8161: 8152: 8114: 8113: 8111: 8109: 8072: 8066: 8065: 8063: 8061: 8008: 8002: 8001: 7999: 7997: 7952: 7946: 7945: 7943: 7941: 7919: 7913: 7912: 7886: 7877: 7871: 7870: 7868: 7866: 7821: 7815: 7814: 7812: 7810: 7796: 7790: 7789: 7787: 7753: 7747: 7746: 7736: 7704: 7698: 7697: 7687: 7645: 7639: 7638: 7628: 7588: 7579: 7578: 7568: 7528: 7522: 7521: 7519: 7517: 7503: 7494: 7493: 7483: 7465: 7441: 7435: 7434: 7416: 7410: 7409: 7399: 7365: 7359: 7358: 7342: 7332: 7326: 7325: 7315: 7289: 7283: 7282: 7272: 7232:Science Advances 7222: 7216: 7215: 7197: 7163: 7157: 7156: 7146: 7122: 7116: 7115: 7105: 7087: 7053: 7047: 7043: 7037: 7036: 7010: 7004: 7003: 6985: 6961: 6950: 6949: 6938:10.1038/333547a0 6911: 6905: 6904: 6866: 6860: 6859: 6853: 6845: 6843: 6841: 6779: 6773: 6772: 6770: 6768: 6747: 6705: 6699: 6698: 6696: 6694: 6641: 6635: 6629: 6623: 6622: 6602: 6596: 6595: 6593: 6591: 6545: 6539: 6538: 6520: 6514: 6513: 6511: 6509: 6464: 6458: 6457: 6455: 6453: 6424: 6418: 6417: 6407: 6373: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6362: 6309: 6303: 6302: 6300: 6298: 6261: 6255: 6254: 6244: 6234: 6200: 6194: 6193: 6183: 6140: 6134: 6133: 6123: 6089: 6083: 6082: 6080: 6078: 6033: 6024: 6023: 6021: 6019: 5982: 5971: 5965: 5959: 5958: 5956: 5954: 5917: 5911: 5910: 5908: 5906: 5901: 5859: 5853: 5852: 5850: 5848: 5811: 5805: 5804: 5802: 5800: 5771: 5765: 5764: 5762: 5760: 5707: 5701: 5700: 5698: 5696: 5659: 5653: 5652: 5650: 5616: 5610: 5609: 5607: 5605: 5592: 5558: 5552: 5551: 5549: 5547: 5510: 5504: 5503: 5501: 5467: 5461: 5460: 5458: 5456: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5386: 5351: 5345: 5344: 5342: 5308: 5302: 5301: 5299: 5297: 5260: 5254: 5253: 5219: 5213: 5212: 5210: 5208: 5171: 5165: 5164: 5162: 5160: 5132:(3–4): 121–128. 5115: 5109: 5108: 5106: 5104: 5067: 5061: 5060: 5058: 5056: 5027: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5016: 4979: 4973: 4972: 4962: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4886: 4876: 4842: 4836: 4835: 4833: 4831: 4818: 4807:10.1130/G19876.1 4776: 4770: 4769: 4767: 4741: 4735: 4734: 4732: 4730: 4701: 4695: 4694: 4692: 4690: 4663: 4657: 4656: 4654: 4652: 4623: 4617: 4616: 4610: 4606: 4604: 4596: 4594: 4592: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4527:. Archived from 4478: 4455: 4454: 4452: 4450: 4430:(3–4): 231–256. 4413: 4407: 4406: 4404: 4402: 4393:. Archived from 4385:Kazlev, M.Alan. 4382: 4373: 4372: 4362: 4328: 4322: 4321: 4311: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4237: 4231: 4225: 4219: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4188: 4182: 4181: 4179: 4177: 4140: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4094: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4032: 4026: 4020: 4011: 4010: 3982: 3976: 3975: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3907: 3898: 3897: 3861: 3852: 3846: 3845: 3815: 3809: 3808: 3766: 3755: 3754: 3708: 3702: 3701: 3699: 3662:Ramos, Victor A. 3657: 3651: 3650: 3632: 3622: 3589: 3583: 3576: 3570: 3569: 3535: 3529: 3528: 3526: 3500: 3494: 3493: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3453: 3452: 3419: 3413: 3412: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3385: 3379: 3376: 3370: 3362: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3307: 3265: 3260: 3259: 3258: 3222: 3203:Pseudostacus sp. 3191: 3169: 3151: 3130: 3106: 2919:Early Cretaceous 2870: 2853: 2832: 2815: 2797: 2780: 2692:Yixian Formation 2531:Yixian Formation 2443:Flowering plants 2165:Yixian Formation 2145:Smoky Hill Chalk 2087:to the west and 1977:in the west and 1814:coccolithophores 1622: 1619: 1617: 1592: 1589: 1587: 1437:events, such as 1407:The impact of a 1378:(traditionally); 1263:magnetic anomaly 1219:Early Cretaceous 998: 994: 931:Alcide d'Orbigny 857:Chicxulub crater 822:flowering plants 776: 762: 750: 728: 722: 721: 718: 717: 714: 711: 708: 705: 702: 699: 696: 693: 686: 661: 660: 658: 657: 656: 651: 647: 644: 643: 642: 639: 623:El Kef Section, 433: 428: 402: 393: 384: 375: 366: 357: 348: 339: 330: 321: 312: 303: 294: 293: 283: 282: 263: 261: 241: 227: 225: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 131: 116: 107: 44: 40:~145.0 – 66.0 30: 29: 21: 9182: 9181: 9177: 9176: 9175: 9173: 9172: 9171: 9152: 9151: 9150: 9145: 9135: 9124: 9116: 9098: 9090: 9083: 9054: 9043: 9014: 9007: 8983: 8976: 8952: 8951:Neoproterozoic 8941:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga) 8940: 8939: 8938:Proterozoic Eon 8928: 8899: 8892: 8868: 8861: 8832: 8825: 8801: 8794: 8775: 8768: 8744: 8732: 8731: 8720: 8696: 8689: 8665: 8658: 8639: 8627: 8626: 8615: 8591: 8584: 8565: 8558: 8539: 8527: 8526: 8519: 8514: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8438: 8383: 8378: 8333: 8315: 8280: 8269: 8250: 8226: 8208:Rasnitsyn, A.P. 8199: 8182: 8122: 8117: 8107: 8105: 8073: 8069: 8059: 8057: 8009: 8005: 7995: 7993: 7953: 7949: 7939: 7937: 7920: 7916: 7884: 7878: 7874: 7864: 7862: 7822: 7818: 7808: 7806: 7798: 7797: 7793: 7754: 7750: 7705: 7701: 7646: 7642: 7589: 7582: 7529: 7525: 7515: 7513: 7505: 7504: 7497: 7456:(3): e2001663. 7442: 7438: 7431: 7417: 7413: 7366: 7362: 7355: 7333: 7329: 7290: 7286: 7239:(9): eaar8568. 7223: 7219: 7164: 7160: 7123: 7119: 7054: 7050: 7044: 7040: 7033: 7011: 7007: 6970:New Phytologist 6962: 6953: 6912: 6908: 6867: 6863: 6847: 6846: 6839: 6837: 6797:(7801): 81–86. 6780: 6776: 6766: 6764: 6706: 6702: 6692: 6690: 6642: 6638: 6630: 6626: 6619: 6603: 6599: 6589: 6587: 6546: 6542: 6521: 6517: 6507: 6505: 6481:(10): 877–880. 6465: 6461: 6451: 6449: 6425: 6421: 6374: 6370: 6360: 6358: 6310: 6306: 6296: 6294: 6262: 6258: 6201: 6197: 6141: 6137: 6090: 6086: 6076: 6074: 6034: 6027: 6017: 6015: 5983: 5974: 5966: 5962: 5952: 5950: 5918: 5914: 5904: 5902: 5860: 5856: 5846: 5844: 5812: 5808: 5798: 5796: 5772: 5768: 5758: 5756: 5708: 5704: 5694: 5692: 5660: 5656: 5617: 5613: 5603: 5601: 5559: 5555: 5545: 5543: 5511: 5507: 5468: 5464: 5454: 5452: 5404: 5400: 5352: 5348: 5309: 5305: 5295: 5293: 5261: 5257: 5220: 5216: 5206: 5204: 5172: 5168: 5158: 5156: 5116: 5112: 5102: 5100: 5068: 5064: 5054: 5052: 5028: 5024: 5014: 5012: 4980: 4976: 4912: 4908: 4843: 4839: 4829: 4827: 4777: 4773: 4742: 4738: 4728: 4726: 4702: 4698: 4688: 4686: 4664: 4660: 4650: 4648: 4624: 4620: 4608: 4607: 4598: 4597: 4590: 4588: 4548: 4544: 4534: 4532: 4479: 4458: 4448: 4446: 4414: 4410: 4400: 4398: 4383: 4376: 4329: 4325: 4286: 4282: 4272: 4270: 4238: 4234: 4226: 4222: 4214: 4210: 4203: 4189: 4185: 4175: 4173: 4141: 4137: 4127: 4125: 4095: 4091: 4060: 4056: 4033: 4029: 4021: 4014: 3983: 3979: 3945: 3941: 3920:(10): 868–870. 3908: 3901: 3859: 3853: 3849: 3816: 3812: 3767: 3758: 3709: 3705: 3658: 3654: 3590: 3586: 3577: 3573: 3536: 3532: 3501: 3497: 3462: 3458: 3450: 3448: 3446: 3420: 3416: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3387: 3386: 3382: 3364: 3363: 3347: 3343: 3328: 3327: 3323: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3261: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3244: 3223: 3214: 3192: 3183: 3170: 3161: 3152: 3143: 3131: 3122: 3107: 3015:Panchelonioidea 2979: 2961:Neochoristodera 2931: 2923:Late Cretaceous 2894: 2887: 2878:was a toothed, 2871: 2862: 2854: 2845: 2833: 2824: 2816: 2807: 2798: 2789: 2781: 2708:oviraptorosaurs 2670:Pteranodontidae 2563: 2494:Molecular clock 2440: 2404: 2333:Late Palaeocene 2329: 2325: 2317: 2311: 2267: 2239: 2187: 2181: 2121:bioavailability 2113:Mid-ocean ridge 2027:Nevadan orogeny 1987: 1958: 1952: 1852: 1846: 1737: 1620: 1615: 1612:Tritylodontidae 1606: 1590: 1585: 1583: 1427: 1401: 1379: 1058: 1039:Late Cretaceous 1015: 1008: 977:(lower/early), 964:Late Cretaceous 956: 951: 884:Terrain Crétacé 882:in 1822 as the 876: 853:marine reptiles 845:mass extinction 797:marine reptiles 748: 726: 690: 681: 680: 655:36.1537; 8.6486 654: 652: 648: 645: 640: 637: 635: 633: 632: 631: 467: 462: 461: 459: 442: 439: 431: 424: 423: 419: 418: 414: 413: 409: 408: 404: 403: 398: 395: 394: 389: 386: 385: 380: 377: 376: 371: 368: 367: 362: 359: 358: 353: 350: 349: 344: 341: 340: 335: 332: 331: 326: 323: 322: 317: 314: 313: 308: 305: 304: 299: 296: 295: 289: 288: 285: 284: 278: 277: 274: 273: 265: 264: 257: 255: 252: 251: 243: 242: 237: 233: 230: 229: 228: 221: 219: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 119: 106: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 50: 39: 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9180: 9170: 9169: 9164: 9147: 9146: 9103: 9100: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9085: 9084: 9082: 9081: 9076: 9071: 9066: 9060: 9058: 9049: 9048: 9045: 9044: 9042: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9026: 9020: 9018: 9009: 9008: 9006: 9005: 9000: 8995: 8989: 8987: 8978: 8977: 8975: 8974: 8969: 8964: 8958: 8956: 8944: 8934: 8933: 8930: 8929: 8927: 8926: 8921: 8916: 8911: 8905: 8903: 8894: 8893: 8891: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8874: 8872: 8863: 8862: 8860: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8838: 8836: 8827: 8826: 8824: 8823: 8818: 8813: 8807: 8805: 8796: 8795: 8793: 8792: 8787: 8781: 8779: 8774:Carboniferous 8770: 8769: 8767: 8766: 8761: 8756: 8750: 8748: 8736: 8726: 8725: 8722: 8721: 8719: 8718: 8713: 8708: 8702: 8700: 8691: 8690: 8688: 8687: 8682: 8677: 8671: 8669: 8660: 8659: 8657: 8656: 8651: 8645: 8643: 8631: 8621: 8620: 8617: 8616: 8614: 8613: 8608: 8603: 8597: 8595: 8592:(23.0–66.0 Ma) 8586: 8585: 8583: 8582: 8577: 8571: 8569: 8566:(2.58–23.0 Ma) 8560: 8559: 8557: 8556: 8551: 8545: 8543: 8531: 8521: 8520: 8513: 8512: 8505: 8498: 8490: 8481: 8480: 8476: 8475: 8473: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8441: 8439: 8437: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8421: 8416: 8411: 8405: 8402: 8401: 8396: 8388: 8385: 8384: 8377: 8376: 8369: 8362: 8354: 8348: 8347: 8331: 8326: 8321: 8314: 8313:External links 8311: 8310: 8309: 8273: 8267: 8254: 8248: 8231: 8224: 8204: 8175: 8162: 8153: 8135:(5): 532–549. 8121: 8118: 8116: 8115: 8067: 8003: 7969:(3): 459–479. 7947: 7914: 7872: 7838:(6): 767–787. 7816: 7791: 7770:(2): 253–274. 7748: 7699: 7640: 7580: 7523: 7495: 7436: 7430:978-0691150611 7429: 7411: 7360: 7353: 7327: 7306:(4): 329–338. 7284: 7217: 7158: 7137:(5): 721–727. 7117: 7048: 7038: 7031: 7005: 6951: 6906: 6879:(2): 139–144. 6861: 6774: 6700: 6636: 6624: 6617: 6597: 6540: 6515: 6459: 6441:(1–2): 11–21. 6419: 6368: 6304: 6256: 6217:(4): 436–454. 6195: 6135: 6084: 6025: 5999:(2): 107–110. 5972: 5970:, p. 557. 5960: 5934:(4): 299–302. 5912: 5854: 5828:(7): 607–610. 5806: 5766: 5702: 5676:(9): 823–826. 5654: 5611: 5575:(3): 953–971. 5553: 5505: 5462: 5398: 5346: 5303: 5277:(1–2): 49–59. 5255: 5236:(4): 565–585. 5214: 5166: 5110: 5084:(3): 325–340. 5062: 5044:(2): 217–225. 5022: 4974: 4906: 4859:(8): 894–912. 4837: 4771: 4758:(6): 663–678. 4736: 4696: 4658: 4618: 4542: 4456: 4408: 4374: 4323: 4280: 4254:(3): 507–520. 4232: 4220: 4218:, p. 280. 4208: 4201: 4183: 4135: 4109:(3): 315–324. 4089: 4054: 4027: 4012: 3993:(6): 556–560. 3977: 3958:(3): 227–230. 3939: 3899: 3847: 3828:(3): 347–368. 3810: 3783:(2): 265–292. 3756: 3703: 3674:(1): 374–385. 3652: 3584: 3571: 3530: 3495: 3476:(1): 107–112. 3456: 3444: 3414: 3400: 3380: 3341: 3338:(Online). n.d. 3321: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3290: 3289: 3284: 3278: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3250: 3247: 3246: 3245: 3234:, attacking a 3224: 3217: 3215: 3205:and a partial 3193: 3186: 3184: 3178:Discoscaphites 3171: 3164: 3162: 3153: 3146: 3144: 3132: 3125: 3123: 3112:Woolungasaurus 3108: 3101: 3068:Thylacocephala 2978: 2975: 2939:Philydrosaurus 2930: 2927: 2893: 2890: 2889: 2888: 2872: 2865: 2863: 2858:Confuciusornis 2855: 2848: 2846: 2841:Quetzalcoatlus 2834: 2827: 2825: 2817: 2810: 2808: 2799: 2792: 2790: 2782: 2775: 2712:therizinosaurs 2635:apex predators 2616:eutriconodonts 2562: 2559: 2436:Main article: 2403: 2400: 2392:Eromanga Basin 2327: 2323: 2315: 2309: 2265: 2237: 2180: 2177: 2011:Atlantic Ocean 2001:completed its 1995:supercontinent 1986: 1985:Paleogeography 1983: 1951: 1948: 1934:. Because the 1845: 1842: 1759:Pieter Harting 1736: 1733: 1534:photosynthesis 1504:Gulf of Mexico 1400: 1397: 1394: 1393: 1387: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1358: 1357: 1356:, Switzerland 1351: 1343: 1340: 1337: 1331: 1330: 1329:, Switzerland 1324: 1316: 1313: 1310: 1304: 1303: 1297: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1273: 1272: 1266: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1247: 1246: 1240: 1232: 1229: 1226: 1221: 1215: 1214: 1204: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1184: 1183: 1177: 1169: 1166: 1163: 1157: 1156: 1150: 1142: 1139: 1136: 1130: 1129: 1123: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1103: 1102: 1096: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1076: 1075: 1074:, Netherlands 1065: 1052: 1049: 1046: 1041: 1035: 1034: 1026: 1025: 1022: 1019: 1012: 1005: 1002: 955: 952: 950: 947: 937:(stages): the 912:Western Europe 906:, principally 875: 872: 671: 670: 667: 663: 662: 621: 617: 616: 607: 603: 602: 599: 595: 594: 593: 592: 578: 571: 562: 558: 557: 554: 550: 549: 546: 542: 541: 536: 532: 531: 526: 522: 521: 517: 516: 515:ICS Time Scale 513: 509: 508: 501: 500:Regional usage 497: 496: 491: 490:Celestial body 487: 486: 482: 481: 478: 477:Name formality 474: 473: 469: 468: 464: 463: 448: 447: 444: 443: 436: 434: 425: 421: 420: 416: 415: 411: 410: 406: 405: 397: 396: 388: 387: 379: 378: 370: 369: 361: 360: 352: 351: 343: 342: 334: 333: 325: 324: 316: 315: 307: 306: 298: 297: 287: 286: 276: 275: 267: 266: 254: 253: 245: 244: 232: 231: 218: 217: 216: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 129: 126: 125: 121: 120: 117: 109: 108: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 51: 46: 35: 34: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9179: 9168: 9165: 9163: 9160: 9159: 9157: 9144: 9139: 9133: 9128: 9122: 9119: 9114: 9110: 9106: 9101: 9095: 9093: 9086: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9061: 9059: 9057: 9050: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9021: 9019: 9017: 9010: 9004: 9001: 8999: 8996: 8994: 8991: 8990: 8988: 8986: 8979: 8973: 8970: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8959: 8957: 8955: 8953:(539 Ma–1 Ga) 8948: 8945: 8943: 8935: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8915: 8912: 8910: 8907: 8906: 8904: 8902: 8895: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8875: 8873: 8871: 8864: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8839: 8837: 8835: 8828: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8809: 8808: 8806: 8804: 8797: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8782: 8780: 8778: 8771: 8765: 8762: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8751: 8749: 8747: 8740: 8737: 8735: 8730:Paleozoic Era 8727: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8704: 8703: 8701: 8699: 8692: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8672: 8670: 8668: 8661: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8646: 8644: 8642: 8640:(66.0–145 Ma) 8635: 8632: 8630: 8628:(66.0–252 Ma) 8622: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8598: 8596: 8594: 8587: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8572: 8570: 8568: 8561: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8547: 8546: 8544: 8542: 8535: 8532: 8530: 8522: 8518: 8511: 8506: 8504: 8499: 8497: 8492: 8491: 8488: 8471: 8470:Maastrichtian 8468: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8442: 8440: 8435: 8432: 8430: 8427: 8425: 8422: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8410: 8407: 8406: 8404: 8403: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8392: 8391: 8386: 8382: 8375: 8370: 8368: 8363: 8361: 8356: 8355: 8352: 8344: 8343: 8337: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8316: 8306: 8302: 8298: 8294: 8290: 8286: 8279: 8274: 8270: 8268:0-7167-2882-6 8264: 8260: 8255: 8251: 8249:0-471-60618-9 8245: 8240: 8239: 8232: 8227: 8221: 8217: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8189: 8181: 8176: 8172: 8168: 8163: 8159: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8130: 8124: 8123: 8104: 8100: 8096: 8092: 8088: 8084: 8083: 8078: 8071: 8056: 8052: 8048: 8044: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8028: 8024: 8020: 8019: 8014: 8007: 7992: 7988: 7984: 7980: 7976: 7972: 7968: 7964: 7963: 7958: 7951: 7935: 7931: 7930: 7925: 7918: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7898: 7894: 7890: 7883: 7876: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7849: 7845: 7841: 7837: 7833: 7832: 7827: 7820: 7805: 7801: 7795: 7786: 7781: 7777: 7773: 7769: 7765: 7764: 7759: 7752: 7744: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7718: 7714: 7710: 7703: 7695: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7661: 7657: 7656: 7651: 7644: 7636: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7603:(9): 160462. 7602: 7598: 7594: 7587: 7585: 7576: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7558: 7554: 7550: 7546: 7543:(3): 171830. 7542: 7538: 7534: 7527: 7512: 7508: 7502: 7500: 7491: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7473: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7440: 7432: 7426: 7422: 7415: 7407: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7376: 7371: 7364: 7356: 7354:9780231119184 7350: 7346: 7341: 7340: 7331: 7323: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7305: 7301: 7300: 7295: 7288: 7280: 7276: 7271: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7254: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7234: 7233: 7228: 7221: 7213: 7209: 7205: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7187: 7183: 7179: 7175: 7174: 7169: 7162: 7154: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7121: 7113: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7077: 7073: 7069: 7065: 7064: 7059: 7052: 7042: 7034: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7009: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6984: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6960: 6958: 6956: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6918: 6910: 6902: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6874: 6873: 6865: 6857: 6851: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6791: 6786: 6778: 6763: 6759: 6755: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6716: 6711: 6704: 6689: 6685: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6652: 6647: 6640: 6633: 6628: 6620: 6614: 6610: 6609: 6601: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6557: 6552: 6544: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6527: 6519: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6475: 6470: 6463: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6435: 6430: 6423: 6415: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6384: 6379: 6372: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6320: 6315: 6308: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6272: 6267: 6260: 6252: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6211: 6206: 6199: 6191: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6152: 6147: 6139: 6131: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6100: 6095: 6088: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6044: 6039: 6032: 6030: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5993: 5988: 5981: 5979: 5977: 5969: 5964: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5928: 5923: 5916: 5900: 5899:2027.42/95054 5895: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5870: 5865: 5858: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5822: 5817: 5810: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5782: 5777: 5770: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5718: 5713: 5706: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5670: 5665: 5658: 5649: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5627: 5622: 5615: 5600: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5569: 5564: 5557: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5521: 5516: 5509: 5500: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5478: 5473: 5466: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5414: 5409: 5402: 5394: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5363: 5358: 5350: 5341: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5319: 5314: 5307: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5271: 5266: 5259: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5230: 5225: 5218: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5182: 5177: 5170: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5126: 5121: 5114: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5078: 5073: 5066: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5038: 5033: 5026: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4990: 4985: 4978: 4970: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4923: 4918: 4910: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4853: 4848: 4841: 4826: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4787: 4782: 4775: 4766: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4752: 4747: 4740: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4712: 4707: 4700: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4662: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4634: 4629: 4622: 4614: 4602: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4558: 4553: 4546: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4489: 4484: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4467: 4465: 4463: 4461: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4424: 4419: 4412: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4381: 4379: 4370: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4339: 4334: 4327: 4319: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4296: 4291: 4284: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4248: 4243: 4236: 4229: 4224: 4217: 4212: 4204: 4202:9780760719572 4198: 4194: 4187: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4151: 4146: 4139: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4103:Geodiversitas 4100: 4093: 4084: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4070: 4065: 4058: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4037:AAPG Bulletin 4031: 4024: 4019: 4017: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3981: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3952: 3943: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3914: 3906: 3904: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3872:(1): 96–100. 3871: 3867: 3866: 3858: 3851: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3822: 3814: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3777: 3772: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3715: 3707: 3698: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3668: 3663: 3656: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3588: 3581: 3575: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3546: 3541: 3534: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3511: 3506: 3499: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3460: 3447: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3418: 3410: 3404: 3396: 3392: 3391: 3384: 3374: 3368: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3345: 3337: 3336: 3331: 3325: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3302: 3288: 3285: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3253: 3243: 3239: 3238: 3233: 3229: 3228: 3221: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3198: 3194:A plate with 3190: 3185: 3181: 3179: 3175: 3168: 3163: 3159: 3158: 3150: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3136: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3119: 3114: 3113: 3105: 3100: 3099: 3098: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3035: 3030: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2981:In the seas, 2974: 2972: 2971: 2970:Champsosaurus 2966: 2962: 2958: 2957: 2956:Hyphalosaurus 2952: 2948: 2947:Choristoderes 2941: 2940: 2935: 2926: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2905: 2904: 2898: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2876: 2869: 2864: 2860: 2859: 2852: 2847: 2843: 2842: 2838: 2831: 2826: 2822: 2821: 2814: 2809: 2805: 2804: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2786: 2779: 2774: 2773: 2772: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2749:lepidopterans 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2686: 2681: 2679: 2675: 2674:Nyctosauridae 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2644:, especially 2643: 2640: 2636: 2631: 2629: 2628:South America 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2608: 2603: 2602:Stagodontidae 2599: 2598:Deltatheroida 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2558: 2556: 2553:in the order 2552: 2547: 2545: 2542:are from the 2541: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2527: 2526:Archaefructus 2522: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2508: 2504: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2482: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2471:pteridosperms 2468: 2467:Bennettitales 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2431: 2427: 2426: 2420: 2413: 2412:Archaefructus 2408: 2399: 2397: 2393: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2363:plant fossils 2360: 2356: 2352: 2351:mantle plumes 2345: 2340: 2336: 2334: 2321: 2312: 2304: 2298: 2296: 2292: 2291:anoxic events 2288: 2284: 2280: 2275: 2271: 2262: 2257: 2251: 2249: 2245: 2240: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2205: 2200: 2194: 2191: 2190:Palynological 2186: 2176: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2101: 2099: 2098:transgression 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2069:Indian Oceans 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2045:South America 2042: 2038: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1982: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1962: 1957: 1950:North America 1947: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1924: 1922: 1921: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1879:low countries 1876: 1872: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1851: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1821: 1819: 1815: 1812:skeletons of 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1797: 1796:sedimentation 1793: 1789: 1786: 1777: 1773: 1772: 1767: 1760: 1756: 1755:Dutch Limburg 1752: 1751:Maastrichtian 1748: 1747: 1741: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1704: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1613: 1609: 1604: 1600: 1599:temnospondyls 1596: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1564: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1542:phytoplankton 1539: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1524: 1520: 1519:K–Pg boundary 1516: 1512: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1488: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1477: 1472: 1471: 1466: 1465: 1459: 1455: 1452: 1448: 1447:Calpionellids 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1426: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1391: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1377: 1376: 1371: 1363: 1360: 1359: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1349: 1344: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1328: 1325: 1323: 1322: 1321:Acanthodiscus 1317: 1309: 1306: 1305: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1291: 1286: 1281:125.77 ± 1.5 1278: 1275: 1274: 1270: 1267: 1264: 1260: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1238: 1233: 1225: 1222: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1202: 1197: 1189: 1186: 1185: 1181: 1178: 1176: 1175: 1170: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1148: 1143: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1127: 1124: 1122: 1121: 1116: 1108: 1105: 1104: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1094: 1089: 1081: 1078: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1063: 1057: 1053: 1045: 1044:Maastrichtian 1042: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1027: 1018: 1013: 1011: 1006: 999: 993: 990: 988: 984: 981:(middle) and 980: 976: 972: 968: 965: 961: 946: 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 917: 913: 909: 905: 904:invertebrates 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 871: 869: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 837: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 810: 806: 802: 798: 795: 791: 787: 783: 778: 775: 770: 766: 761: 760: 754: 746: 743: 739: 735: 731: 730: 720: 684: 678: 668: 664: 659: 630: 626: 622: 618: 615: 611: 608: 604: 600: 596: 591: 590: 586: 582: 579: 576: 572: 569: 565: 564: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 540: 537: 533: 530: 527: 523: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 495: 492: 488: 483: 479: 475: 470: 458: 457:, as of 2022. 456: 449: 441: 435: 430: 429: 401: 400:Maastrichtian 392: 383: 374: 365: 356: 347: 338: 329: 320: 311: 302: 292: 281: 272: 271: 262: 260: 250: 249: 240: 239: 226: 224: 132: 127: 122: 115: 110: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 43: 36: 31: 19: 9117: 9053:Archean Eon 9015:(1.6–2.5 Ga) 8900:(485–539 Ma) 8869:(444–485 Ma) 8833:(419–444 Ma) 8802:(359–419 Ma) 8776:(299–359 Ma) 8745:(252–299 Ma) 8733:(252–539 Ma) 8697:(201–252 Ma) 8666:(145–201 Ma) 8637: 8625:Mesozoic Era 8525:Cenozoic Era 8380: 8340: 8291:(1): 1–103. 8288: 8284: 8258: 8237: 8211: 8197:the original 8192: 8186: 8171:the original 8157: 8132: 8128: 8127:porphyrin". 8120:Bibliography 8106:. 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Retrieved 4106: 4102: 4092: 4083:10.26879/801 4073: 4067: 4057: 4040: 4036: 4030: 4023:Stanley 1999 3990: 3986: 3980: 3955: 3949: 3942: 3917: 3911: 3869: 3863: 3850: 3825: 3821:Paleobiology 3819: 3813: 3780: 3774: 3718: 3712: 3706: 3671: 3665: 3655: 3602: 3598: 3587: 3574: 3549: 3543: 3533: 3514: 3508: 3498: 3473: 3469: 3459: 3449:, retrieved 3427: 3424:"Cretaceous" 3417: 3408: 3403: 3394: 3389: 3383: 3367:cite journal 3358: 3354: 3344: 3333: 3330:"Cretaceous" 3324: 3315: 3305: 3235: 3227:Cretoxyrhina 3225: 3206: 3202: 3195: 3176: 3155: 3138:was a large 3133: 3116: 3110: 3097:and shells. 3088: 3052:foraminifera 3032: 3031: 2995:ichthyosaurs 2980: 2977:Marine fauna 2968: 2954: 2945: 2937: 2929:Choristodera 2909: 2901: 2900:Skeleton of 2873: 2856: 2839: 2818: 2803:Velociraptor 2801: 2783: 2765:grasshoppers 2759:, appeared. 2735: 2704:dromaeosaurs 2682: 2678:Azhdarchidae 2639:archosaurian 2632: 2624:dryolestoids 2607:Schowalteria 2605: 2590:metatherians 2564: 2555:Polypodiales 2548: 2524: 2510: 2507:macrofossils 2483: 2459:ginkgophytes 2441: 2423: 2411: 2394:in southern 2348: 2299: 2252: 2195: 2188: 2173:Deccan Traps 2102: 2039: 1988: 1967: 1944:Tethys Ocean 1925: 1918: 1895:consolidated 1853: 1830:Mancos Shale 1822: 1816:, a type of 1800: 1781: 1769: 1744: 1729:champsosaurs 1725:crocodilians 1722: 1710:water column 1700: 1669:insectivores 1663: 1633:, including 1625: 1595:ichthyosaurs 1561: 1538:solar energy 1527: 1515:biodiversity 1508: 1489: 1480: 1474: 1468: 1462: 1428: 1386:(since 2016) 1381: 1373: 1366:145.0 ± 4.0 1346: 1339:139.8 ± 3.0 1319: 1315:125.77 ± 1.5 1312:132.6 ± 2.0 1295:S. vandeckii 1294: 1288: 1255:121.4 ± 1.0 1235: 1228:113.0 ± 1.0 1206: 1199: 1192:100.5 ± 0.9 1172: 1145: 1118: 1091: 1060: 1016: 1009: 991: 957: 954:Subdivisions 942: 934: 922: 918: 883: 877: 851:, and large 838: 779: 768: 676: 674: 587: 575:Calpionellid 452: 268: 258: 256: 246: 234: 220: 92: 9089:Hadean Eon 8867:Ordovician 8638:Cretaceous 8538:Quaternary 8419:Hauterivian 8414:Valanginian 8108:24 November 7940:24 November 7895:: 225–238. 7865:24 November 7662:(1): 8149. 6508:19 November 6390:: 190–201. 6361:18 November 6278:: 275–299. 5876:(2): 1–17. 5788:: 140–152. 5759:19 November 5633:(2): 1029. 5527:: 136–147. 5455:24 November 5420:: 174–184. 5369:: 224–247. 5325:(1): 1–14. 4391:Palaeos.com 4345:(4): 1–11. 4302:(1): 1–12. 4273:11 December 4247:Palaeoworld 4128:28 December 3697:11336/30971 3630:11336/97384 3605:(1): 1–14. 3599:Solid Earth 3209:, found in 3197:Nematonotus 3157:Hesperornis 3118:Kronosaurus 3095:hardgrounds 3074:(generally 3056:echinoderms 3047:Inoceramids 3011:Cheloniidae 3003:plesiosaurs 2875:Ichthyornis 2820:Triceratops 2753:butterflies 2727:lagerstätte 2716:troodontids 2700:Maniraptora 2696:coelurosaur 2688:lagerstätte 2626:dominating 2612:Zhelestidae 2498:crown-group 2490:Valanginian 2479:Caytoniales 2463:gnetophytes 2295:ectothermic 2228:Selli Event 2211:Hauterivian 2204:Valanginian 2171:called the 2155:(e.g., the 2109:Phanerozoic 1907:sea urchins 1881:, northern 1873:coast. The 1856:Chalk Group 1838:oil and gas 1834:source rock 1749:, from the 1718:ocean floor 1706:communities 1677:carnivorous 1603:Koolasuchus 1576:plesiosaurs 1554:Herbivorous 1476:Berriasella 1369:139.8 ± 3.0 1342:132.6 ± 2.0 1335:Valanginian 1308:Hauterivian 1284:121.4 ± 1.0 1258:113.0 ± 1.0 1231:100.5 ± 0.9 1165:93.9 ± 0.8 1138:89.8 ± 0.3 1111:86.3 ± 0.5 1084:83.6 ± 0.2 1048:72.1 ± 0.2 892:Paris Basin 790:inland seas 753:Phanerozoic 653: / 319:Hauterivian 310:Valanginian 9162:Cretaceous 9156:Categories 9091:(4–4.6 Ga) 9055:(2.5–4 Ga) 8984:(1–1.6 Ga) 8590:Paleogene 8445:Cenomanian 8409:Berriasian 7809:18 October 7516:18 October 7180:(1): 480. 6745:1912/10514 6326:: 103435. 5724:: 104363. 4718:: 104220. 4678:: 102247. 4495:: 103503. 4401:18 October 3552:: 94–114. 3451:2021-01-08 3378:terrain".) 3361:: 353–376. 3293:References 3237:Pteranodon 3135:Tylosaurus 3091:bioerosion 3080:calcareous 2965:neosuchian 2884:ornithuran 2837:azhdarchid 2771:appeared. 2769:gall wasps 2751:, akin to 2668:remained; 2654:Pterosaurs 2594:eutherians 2586:placentals 2582:marsupials 2575:cimolodont 2512:Montsechia 2447:gymnosperm 2379:south pole 2359:Tethys Sea 2320:west Texas 2244:dropstones 2137:formations 2131:and other 2129:carbonates 2089:Appalachia 2077:Tethys Sea 2065:Madagascar 2049:Antarctica 2007:continents 1979:Appalachia 1954:See also: 1920:Mosasaurus 1911:belemnites 1899:limestones 1871:Normandian 1848:See also: 1806:coccoliths 1580:pterosaurs 1560:, such as 1550:food chain 1451:planktonic 1423:See also: 1399:Boundaries 1362:Berriasian 1195:93.9 ± 0.8 1188:Cenomanian 1168:89.8 ± 0.3 1141:86.3 ± 0.5 1114:83.6 ± 0.2 1087:72.1 ± 0.2 1072:Maastricht 1024:Etymology 1021:Definition 921:, meaning 908:coccoliths 849:pterosaurs 843:, a large 834:gymnosperm 830:extinction 677:Cretaceous 638:36°09′13″N 520:Definition 440:extinction 355:Cenomanian 301:Berriasian 259:Cretaceous 124:Chronology 33:Cretaceous 9118:See also: 8898:Cambrian 8831:Silurian 8800:Devonian 8695:Triassic 8664:Jurassic 8465:Campanian 8460:Santonian 8455:Coniacian 8424:Barremian 8055:256767945 7991:130932162 7983:0094-8373 7909:2245-7070 7860:0195-6671 7472:1545-7885 7322:1674-4918 7261:2375-2548 7204:2041-1723 7153:2095-5138 7094:0027-8424 6992:0028-646X 6901:128739024 6835:214736648 6819:0028-0836 6762:135295956 6754:0921-8181 6688:206509273 6585:233918778 6526:GSA Today 6503:0091-7613 6414:0031-0182 6356:233573257 6348:0921-8181 6251:134095694 5754:216375103 5746:1367-9120 5599:219918773 5450:134356485 5442:0195-6671 5250:8755-1209 5154:128403453 4996:: 11–27. 4951:2045-2322 4893:2572-4517 4825:129660048 4586:256880421 4525:233579194 4517:0012-8252 4449:17 August 4369:0883-8305 4318:128594924 4268:243963376 4123:128803778 3894:130690035 3805:129654916 3647:135382485 3639:1869-9529 3490:1731-3708 3298:Citations 3213:, Lebanon 3076:siliceous 3064:Ostracods 3062:thrived. 3034:Baculites 3007:mosasaurs 2985:, modern 2747:and some 2646:dinosaurs 2565:On land, 2521:Las Hoyas 2517:Barremian 2515:from the 2432:, Germany 2396:Australia 2383:Antarctic 2371:Greenland 2344:isotherms 2279:upwelling 2272:from the 2215:Barremian 2169:lava beds 2085:Laramidia 2053:Australia 2025:, as the 2015:orogenies 1991:Paleozoic 1975:Laramidia 1928:competent 1915:ammonites 1891:North Sea 1794:for such 1788:limestone 1771:Scipionyx 1665:Omnivores 1655:mosasaurs 1651:ammonites 1635:ammonites 1608:cynodonts 1572:dinosaurs 1568:tetrapods 1558:predators 1544:and land 1481:C. alpina 1409:meteorite 1392:, France 1327:Hauterive 1302:, France 1277:Barremian 1271:, France 1245:, France 1213:, France 1207:Cenomanum 1182:, France 1155:, France 1134:Coniacian 1128:, France 1107:Santonian 1101:, France 1099:Champagne 1080:Campanian 975:Neocomian 939:Neocomian 927:Conybeare 809:dinosaurs 801:ammonites 641:8°38′55″E 472:Etymology 438:K-Pg mass 391:Campanian 382:Santonian 373:Coniacian 328:Barremian 270:Paleogene 8743:Permian 8564:Neogene 8450:Turonian 8060:31 March 8047:29643505 7743:19203920 7694:26306778 7635:27703708 7575:29657788 7490:29534059 7406:27358361 7279:30263954 7212:21934664 7112:33139543 7000:30681148 6840:18 March 6827:32238944 6767:18 March 6722:: 1–23. 6693:18 March 6680:18187651 6563:: 1–29. 6297:19 March 6190:24937202 6158:: 4194. 6130:35910494 6018:19 March 5604:19 March 5393:55405082 5207:19 April 5015:19 March 4969:36536054 4901:89611847 4640:: 1–11. 4591:9 August 4535:18 March 4076:: 1–56. 4043:: 1–20. 3842:33880578 3743:23393261 3249:See also 3174:ammonite 3140:mosasaur 3039:ammonite 2991:teleosts 2745:termites 2731:feathers 2724:Liaoning 2720:avialans 2685:Liaoning 2666:families 2642:reptiles 2620:therians 2535:monocots 2455:conifers 2387:Turonian 2375:dinosaur 2373:, while 2220:Manihiki 2199:latitude 2059:(though 2041:Gondwana 2019:Jurassic 2003:tectonic 1903:arenites 1776:theropod 1696:detritus 1631:molluscs 1578:and the 1454:protists 1354:Valangin 1161:Turonian 983:Senonian 943:Urgonian 886:, using 865:Cenozoic 836:groups. 807:, while 742:Mesozoic 585:Ammonite 573:Base of 503:Global ( 364:Turonian 248:Jurassic 223:Mesozoic 8293:Bibcode 8137:Bibcode 8091:Bibcode 8027:Bibcode 7840:Bibcode 7772:Bibcode 7734:2660973 7685:4560825 7664:Bibcode 7626:5043327 7605:Bibcode 7566:5882712 7545:Bibcode 7481:5849296 7397:4936024 7270:6157959 7241:Bibcode 7182:Bibcode 7103:7682372 7072:Bibcode 6946:4344903 6926:Bibcode 6881:Bibcode 6799:Bibcode 6724:Bibcode 6660:Bibcode 6651:Science 6590:21 July 6565:Bibcode 6483:Bibcode 6474:Geology 6452:18 July 6392:Bibcode 6328:Bibcode 6280:Bibcode 6219:Bibcode 6181:4082635 6160:Bibcode 6121:9303530 6077:24 July 6072:9856943 6052:Bibcode 6043:Science 6001:Bibcode 5992:Geology 5953:5 April 5936:Bibcode 5927:Geology 5905:5 April 5878:Bibcode 5847:5 April 5830:Bibcode 5821:Geology 5799:18 July 5726:Bibcode 5695:5 April 5678:Bibcode 5669:Geology 5635:Bibcode 5577:Bibcode 5546:5 April 5529:Bibcode 5486:Bibcode 5422:Bibcode 5371:Bibcode 5327:Bibcode 5279:Bibcode 5190:Bibcode 5159:6 April 5134:Bibcode 5125:PALAIOS 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