361:
shape, consistent with the
Renaissance conception of the city, and the pursuit of features of extreme functionality of the complex were the two main causes that led to the choice of the pentagonal shape for the construction of citadels. The study of fortifications, in which every single technical-geometric element is carefully dosed in order to achieve the most suitable shape and size, sees the maintenance of a physical centrality as a necessary element to be able to reconcile and mold the shape of the fortress with the characteristics of the surrounding territory. Hence the choice of a five-sided, elongated shape rather than an equilateral one. In the second half of the century, after several realizations, the pentagonal shape would be chosen, as in the
1376:
45:
545:
537:, on the other hand, limited themselves to perfecting the defensive system and the internal control system, but did not intervene massively. The refinement, however, proved to be in vain: after Antonio's death, the Citadel was stormed by several foreign powers, and during this period leaded guardhouses were installed on the ramparts, underground guardhouses were organized ready to counterattack the enemy from ten sorties, facilities were built to house the military, and a house was built for the priest. Warehouses for use in case of siege and prisons were also built inside the Citadel. In the
61:
1293:
417:
265:
642:
602:
441:, in line with the criteria for the construction of monumental entrances to cities or citadels in the 16th century. The gate stands today without its original appearance being substantially affected, except for the upper part, made of brick, the only modification made over time. The construction time of this gate was rather long: when completed, it turned out to be divided into three bays communicating through a series of rooms intended for the guard and control units; on the upper floor, meanwhile, was located the
650:
353:
409:) free, so as not to leave any possible shelters for the enemy in case of siege, led to the demolition of numerous buildings, from the simple dwellings of the population to the highest level buildings up to even religious ones. The urban structure of the city was affected quite a bit, even in the following centuries; likewise, the very role of the city itself was also profoundly altered, with an anticipation of the city's later urban and economic decline, similar to what also happened in
509:; moreover, the realization of such an ambitious project at the same time gave employment to many citizens, and this also unintentionally contributed to limiting the riots that arose during the periods of major famine. However, several frauds occurred during the course of the work, concerning very often the quality of the materials, sometimes really bad, or the labor, with work being sloppy or even not performed. Such events fell under indictment on both Stirpio and Smeraldi.
1564:
1552:
723:
Stirpio delivered to
Smeraldi, was later declined in detail by the Deputies to the Reparation, who arranged to "have the bastion of the Stradella of this city destroyed for the benefit of the said building, and from the said Bastion all the following wall, beginning from the said bastion and coming up to half of the bastion of Porta Nova..." Letter dated October 17, 1591, Municipal Archives, envelope 754.
68:
292:'s commissioner of war and artillery Francesco De Marchi (1504-1576) the principles of fortifications, decided in 1589 to build one in Parma, even though he was convinced that "the loyalty of a city was obtained not by building citadels, but by pulling them down." It was the duke himself who drew the outline of the fortress, who drew inspiration for its design from the one built by
663:
body painting. Through this experience, it is possible for the children to showcase their skills and abilities in the artistic context. In parallel, musical performances are held, with DJ sets and concerts also organized by the students. At the end of the day, a jury of students and professors eventually awards prizes to those who are judged the best.
485:'s administrators caused several problems in the technical sphere as well: this led to a long series of mutual accusations between those in charge of the project, as attested in the two letters sent by the ducal secretary Pico to Duke Alessandro in which, in addition to strongly expressing the intention of wanting to equip the
630:
synthetic soccer fields and a basketball court were to be built in the lower part of the
Citadel, but this has not happened yet. In the upper part of the ramparts, the use of which for jogging is frequent, the time championship system was installed, through which citadel-goers can consult their activity data on a scoreboard.
703:
12, 1590 Alexander replied, "The Pope's inclination, tending more and more every day to show at our house the little will he holds, it seems to me that we should put our hand to it as soon as possible..." In
Archivio di Stato di Parma (ASP), Governo Farnesiano, Fabbriche ducali e fortificazioni, busta n°3, Castello di Parma.
772:
In a letter to
Cardinal Odoardo, Governor Ceserini writes: " Stirpio is so much at odds with these engineers, and the engineers and commissioners and superior ministers are also so much at odds with him, that it is impossible that work can be done, and (what is worse) there is competition on one side
712:
Zorzi and
Morosini drafted a report in October 1598 at the end of the inspection: "The quality of the soil is excellent, being very tenacious and chalky; which also brings great convenience, since the ditch itself comes to supply the material for making the stones..." In ASP, coll. cit., envelope no.
432:
The citadel historically had only two entrances, located one in the northern part of the complex, facing the city, and the other in the southern part, facing what was then the countryside. The entrance facing the city was crowned by a gate of monumental character, while the one facing the outside was
762:
In a letter dated 17 August 1590, the Duke ordered "that the work be begun as soon as possible and that it be carried out with such speed and order that it will be visible in the defences and that the guard and artillery will be in place in a few days, so that if anyone had thought of disturbing us,
592:
built, which – combined with the continuous transit of artillery pieces and military units – earned it the new name arranged by
Charles III, "War Square." The last changes were finally made after World War II: first the barracks were demolished and then, as a result of the city's expansion, the moat
552:
In 1747, on the other hand, it was a survey by engineer
Borelli that raised the need for interventions on the ramparts and curtains: conservation defects were found in the faces of the Bastions of San Francesco, Sant'Alessandro, Santa Maria and San Giovanni and in the curtain between the latter two.
496:
Seeking at all costs to complete the work, he did not hesitate to make decisions discordant with the will of the city community and, at times, of
Alessandro himself. Disagreements between Brunelli and the administrators grew as time went on, to the point that it became a recurring practice, in order
360:
The choice of the pentagonal shape adopted for the citadel of Parma has its roots in the long debate that took place during the 15th and 16th centuries about what was the right number of bastions to give the structure for better defensibility for strategic purposes. The maintenance of a radiocentric
722:
The "Note of the orders given to me
Smeraldo by S.m Gio. Ant.o on September 30, 1591" read, "All the city walls, the Bastion of the Hermits, the platform of S. Cristoforo with all the wall up to the front of the castle gate should be repaired..." The indication, also reported in the "memorial" that
702:
On November 20, 1589, Ranuccio wrote to his father to warn him of the situation, speaking of "some speeches that are being made in Parma on behalf of the new Castle that someone is putting into consideration that Your Highness cannot build the said Castle without license from the Pope...." On March
662:
On an annual basis, the Citadel park hosts the Art and Creativity Day, an event in which various students, from the city's leading high schools, come together to display and admire some of the various types of work they have created, such as paintings, drawings, comics, photographs, sculptures, and
327:
In order to choose the site for the fortress, the conformation of the land was studied, looking for land that could provide materials to build it, and the arrangement of the surrounding waterways, so as to facilitate the operation of the moats. The choice thus fell on the southern part of the city,
323:
abandoned their favorable attitude toward the construction of the Citadel. The duke nevertheless decided to proceed with the construction, partly in light of the tension with neighboring states and to resist possible invasions. Nonetheless, the Citadel was never used for defensive purposes and was
500:
Smeraldo Smeraldi is credited with many designs of the fortress. Stirpio himself drew on his expertise by providing solutions to various problems with particular effort. Among Smeraldi's most important designs are: the plan of the fortress (which includes measurements of some of its elements), a
629:
The restoration, which could count on funding of 2.2 million euros, started with the care of the gardens, which cover more than 120000 m between the part inside the walls and the one outside, through pruning works, planting of new trees and landscaping of the lawns. In a second phase, some
782:
On 30 July 1592, Ranuccio wrote to his father: "As far as the Castle is concerned, it is in a very good state of repair, but it is being worked on slowly, since there are no more than six hundred people due to a lack of money. The ramparts, particularly those on the squares and those that look
480:
at the time of the construction, it is not certain whether or not Ranuccio faithfully followed the directives left to him by his father. On the other hand, some documents attest to the difficulties related to some problems that arose during the construction of the citadel, which prolonged the
560:
In the 19th century, some ramparts collapsed and were rebuilt, thus the occasion was taken to raise the walls and make them less easy to storm. Between 1842 and 1859, moreover, two barracks and a warehouse reserved for artillery and trailing materials were built in the fortress, effectively
392:
and begun in 1562. Moreover, although the search for precise geometries is noticeable, it is possible to observe a desire to abandon a certain formal closure in favor of a figurative openness toward the medieval structure and the study of urban structure marked by the presence of the river.
497:
to discredit his opponent, to deliberately allow him to make design mistakes. In this climate, it ended up that in 1592 Brunelli was sent back to Flanders on the express order of the duke, who appointed Bresciani in his place, joined by Smeraldo Smeraldi, thus stabilizing the situation.
225:
and entrusted to the engineers Giovanni Antonio Stirpio de' Brunelli and Genesio Bresciani with the collaboration of Smeraldo Smeraldi. To build it, the Maggiore canal was diverted, whose course was joined with that of the Comune canal up to the Porta Nuova (today's Barriera Farini).
618:, with a project carried out by Studio Canali. The project, which aimed to introduce services for citizens inside the historic structure while protecting its architectural aspects threatened by vegetation, focused on the static consolidation of the ramparts and the conservative
241:, as a prison for political crimes and as a place for executions. Between the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the fortress, which retains its original pentagonal shape, was renovated and used as a public park, with spaces dedicated to sports and children's activities.
481:
construction time beyond what was expected. First of all, already at the beginning of the works, a substantial disagreement emerged between Brunelli and the ducal officials, who imposed restrictions related to the construction time. In addition, the meddling of
384:, lies in his ability to combine aesthetics and functionality, civil and military architecture. With the passage of time, it is possible to note the improvement of military town planning in the sixteenth century, as evidenced also by the outer wall of
783:
towards the Porta di San Micheli, are showing many cracks, and I doubt that it was easy to maintain them this winter. The disorder came from the lack of diligence that was put into making them, but Genese is repairing them as best he can. "
504:
From the beginning, the construction of the Citadel required a huge financial effort, inevitably attracting various interests throughout the area. Alessandro intended to entrust his household with the economic burden of building the
1107:
732:
In Saccardi's deed of August 29, 1596, Carra "undertakes to give all the stones that will be needed, and to work according to the design made by Mr. Simone Moschino, consistent with the parts and measures below declared." In
343:
perimeter of the city. To follow the project, however, the bastions of Stradella and Porta Nuova were torn down. The latter, commissioned by Ottavio Farnese in 1573, was rebuilt along the perimeter of the new walls.
405:, both environmentally, socially and economically. First of all, the enormous space required for the construction of the complex, together with the need to keep the outer perimeter of the structure (the so-called
413:, where the entrenchment of military units within the citadel caused such tension that it drove away trade, thus displacing markets and financial transfers, contributing therefore to the city's impoverishment.
633:
The last step of the project was the installation of a bar, toilets and changing rooms at the youth hostel, the creation of an area equipped with children's games in the central part and the removal of
1144:
476:, on the other hand, personally took care of the financial aspect, while Count Cosimo Tagliaferri, "doctor of laws," attended to the administrative part. However, since Duke Alessandro was in
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Starting in 1818, the Citadel became home to the Military College, which was later renamed the Military School and relocated. Subsequently, the fortress underwent significant modifications:
1121:
828:
1190:
1226:
Una Cittadella e una città (il Castello Nuovo farnesiano di Parma, 1589-1597): tensioni sociali e strategie politiche attorno alla costruzione di una fortezza urbana
1156:
869:
453:, thus appearing much simpler and more approximate when compared to the original design, which saw it enriched by more refined and complex designs, with
675:. The City of Parma, with the stated goal of "filling public spaces instead of desertifying them," organizes a theme day there for charitable purposes.
445:'s dwelling, spaced from the facade by means of a corridor leading to the observation posts. The original plan also called for the installation of four
1259:
449:, which were never really integrated into the structure. The "Relief Gate," by contrast, underwent substantial reconstruction in the aftermath of
472:
Work on the construction of the citadel began in 1591, under the supervision of the ducal engineer Giovanni Antonio Stirpio de' Brunelli. Prince
561:
transforming the Citadel from a defensive structure into a barracks, a function to which it had in fact been permanently destined since the
1281:
565:
in 1748, except for the Napoleonic interlude (1802-1814) and the first part of the second Habsburg rule over the Duchy. During the rule of
335:, with a smaller size due to reasons probably related to limited financial resources or location. The fortress was thus leaned against the
304:
from intervening in its realization. The Citadel thus became a symbol of Parma's renewal, surpassing in prestige the Parco Ducale built by
1589:
824:
60:
252:
in Angera stone, is to the north, while the other, the Porta del Soccorso, is to the south. The main entrance gate, designed by
1178:
1502:
1492:
557:, also described a building, probably a cult building: its existence is also confirmed by the oldest maps of the Citadel.
91:
300:. On whether he would have his plans followed to the letter, the duke was adamant, so much so that he prevented his son
1507:
1365:
522:
1467:
473:
301:
1289:
1274:
873:
684:
530:
482:
268:
222:
1487:
619:
374:
763:
not only could they not do it, but they would not be able to do it in time " In ASP, coll. cit., envelope no. 3.
566:
534:
518:
305:
285:
1462:
1457:
1375:
1320:
1310:
577:
1267:
289:
44:
1330:
1542:
1477:
1422:
750:
Giovanni Antonio Stirpio de' Brunelli da Busseto ingegnere ed architetto militare di Alessandro Farnese
581:
554:
541:'s apartment next to the entrance, guardhouses equipped with five batteries of cannons were installed.
517:
Over the centuries the Citadel underwent several transformations. The first were arranged by the dukes
324:
soon converted into a prison, causing speculation that the duke had conceived it as a repressive tool.
219:
1355:
1397:
570:
501:
survey of the outline of the Citadel and the city walls, and a section of the moats and ramparts.
1594:
1531:
1515:
562:
1520:
553:
The scholar Emilio Casa, who discussed the condition of the Citadel from 1734 to the duchy of
544:
792:
In 1591 there were about three thousand people on the site, including women and children. In
635:
623:
401:
The construction of the Citadel entailed several non-negligible consequences for the city of
385:
996:
Nella spirale della crisi, popolazione, mercato e prezzi a Parma tra il Cinque e il Seicento
1345:
457:
8:
1568:
1437:
1350:
1325:
389:
256:
and built by Giambattista Carra in 1596, has been preserved without later modifications.
1452:
1447:
1442:
1360:
1335:
1305:
293:
1340:
1152:
1116:
362:
1427:
1407:
1392:
197:
1110:
Restauro delle mura e nuovi impianti sportivi: presentata la Cittadella del futuro
416:
284:
Alessandro Farnese, who in his youth had the opportunity to learn from his father
438:
264:
253:
641:
1584:
1432:
1417:
1297:
1292:
672:
601:
336:
34:
1578:
506:
486:
316:
272:
208:
106:
93:
649:
1556:
1412:
525:, who decided on the restoration of the walls and the strengthening of the
450:
434:
420:
320:
356:
Sixteenth-century map of the city of Parma in the early days of the duchy.
352:
340:
332:
529:, as well as increasing the armaments for its defense. Their successors
437:
of 1596, the design of the main gate was said to have been conceived by
585:
170:
1591 under Duke Alessandro Farnese - 1599 under Duke Ranuccio I Farnese
538:
490:
446:
442:
381:
249:
773:
and the other that the partner makes a mistake..." 3 February 1592.
477:
370:
366:
309:
238:
205:
308:
precisely to give it greater dignity than other cities, including
229:
Created for defensive purposes, and for this reason equipped with
1402:
526:
454:
410:
297:
245:
230:
433:
called the "Relief Gate." Consistent with what is reported in a
614:
The Citadel was restored in 2009 at the request of the City of
589:
580:
had a barracks built there that was higher than the walls, and
548:
Restoration of the Santa Maria Bastion at the Citadel of Parma.
461:
396:
347:
1563:
380:
Sangallo's signature feature, found in the palace-fortress of
615:
402:
212:
30:
234:
573:
the fortress housed an infantry regiment and its parades.
512:
1251:
Guidoni, E.; A. Marino (1991). "La cittadella di Parma".
279:
1217:
L'architettura a Parma sotto i primi Farnese: 1545-1630
1540:
248:. The main entrance, characterized by a monumental
1147:In tremila in Cittadella per la giornata dell'arte
1224:Papagno, Giuseppe; Marzio Achille Romani (1982).
671:In late spring each year, the park also hosts an
1576:
1250:
747:
328:between Porta Nuova and the Stradella rampart.
218:The structure was erected at the behest of the
1275:
1142:
939:
937:
909:
907:
905:
903:
852:
850:
848:
846:
397:Construction of the Citadel and consequences
348:The long debate on the shape of the fortress
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1069:
1067:
978:
976:
1282:
1268:
626:leaning against the two monumental gates.
1006:
1004:
934:
900:
843:
819:
817:
815:
813:
811:
1091:
1064:
973:
888:
648:
640:
600:
543:
415:
369:(1533) and the Cittadella Farnesiana in
351:
263:
67:
1253:Storia dell'urbanistica, il Cinquecento
924:
922:
513:Subsequent transformations and problems
331:The Antwerp fortress was reproduced to
215:in the last years of the 16th century.
1577:
1001:
808:
1263:
831:from the original on 15 December 2021
339:, causing work to begin close to the
280:Historical context and site selection
1493:List of presidents of Emilia-Romagna
919:
752:. Parma: Tipolitografia Benedettina.
464:placed to the side of the entrance.
862:
645:Amusement park at the Citadel Park.
13:
1374:
1193:from the original on 7 August 2011
14:
1606:
1590:Buildings and structures in Parma
1468:United Provinces of Central Italy
1241:
1237:. Parma: Tipografia Luigi Battei.
1223:
1085:
1073:
1058:
1046:
1034:
1010:
982:
967:
955:
943:
928:
913:
894:
856:
793:
666:
493:, Brunelli is basically accused.
1562:
1550:
1291:
1214:
1120:. 3 October 2009. Archived from
734:
685:Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma
66:
59:
43:
1208:
1171:
1136:
1079:
1052:
1040:
1028:
1016:
988:
961:
949:
786:
776:
766:
756:
740:
726:
638:in the northeast rampart area.
596:
375:Antonio da Sangallo the Younger
1232:
1022:
716:
706:
696:
609:
1:
1181:Il Luna Park non è più nomade
802:
467:
427:
288:the art of war and from the
7:
1488:Elections in Emilia–Romagna
1433:Duchy of Parma and Piacenza
1143:Enrico Gotti (4 May 2012).
678:
315:However, upon the death of
10:
1611:
1423:Duchy of Modena and Reggio
1219:. Reggio Emilia: Diabasis.
657:
259:
220:Duke of Parma and Piacenza
1529:
1501:
1476:
1385:
1372:
1304:
748:Vincenzo Banzola (1973).
578:Charles-René de Bombelles
182:
174:
166:
161:
153:
143:
135:
130:
122:
85:
54:
42:
28:
23:
1242:Conforti, Paolo (1982).
870:"Parco della Cittadella"
825:"Parco della Cittadella"
690:
423:of the Citadel of Parma.
16:Fortress in Parma, Italy
1246:. Parma: Rotaract Club.
460:and the two monumental
244:The structure has five
237:, it was later used as
178:Duke Alessandro Farnese
1379:
1244:La Cittadella di Parma
1235:La Cittadella di Parma
1215:Adorni, Bruno (2008).
654:
646:
636:architectural barriers
606:
549:
424:
357:
276:
1378:
1233:Casa, Emilio (1897).
1228:. Bologna: Il mulino.
746:For more details see
652:
644:
604:
547:
419:
355:
267:
139:Municipality of Parma
107:44.793277°N 10.3311°E
373:(1547), designed by
1438:County of Guastalla
1311:Metropolitan cities
1124:on 11 November 2013
1025:, pp. 109 ff).
876:on 29 November 2011
523:Ranuccio II Farnese
390:Francesco Laparelli
202:Cittadella di Parma
103: /
1453:Cisalpine Republic
1448:Cispadane Republic
1443:Duchy of Guastalla
1380:
1088:, pp. 79–80).
1061:, pp. 77–78).
1037:, pp. 75–76).
655:
647:
607:
550:
483:Alessandro Farnese
425:
386:Castel Sant'Angelo
358:
294:Francesco Paciotto
277:
269:Alessandro Farnese
223:Alessandro Farnese
112:44.793277; 10.3311
1538:
1537:
1153:Gazzetta di Parma
1117:Gazzetta di Parma
363:Fortezza da Basso
271:in a portrait by
190:
189:
1602:
1567:
1566:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1546:
1463:Kingdom of Italy
1458:Italian Republic
1428:Duchy of Ferrara
1408:March of Tuscany
1393:Padanian Etruria
1366:List of communes
1296:
1295:
1284:
1277:
1270:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1247:
1238:
1229:
1220:
1203:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1187:La Repubblica.it
1175:
1169:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1159:on 13 April 2013
1155:. Archived from
1140:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1104:
1089:
1083:
1077:
1071:
1062:
1056:
1050:
1044:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1020:
1014:
1008:
999:
992:
986:
980:
971:
965:
959:
953:
947:
941:
932:
926:
917:
911:
898:
892:
886:
885:
883:
881:
872:. Archived from
866:
860:
854:
841:
840:
838:
836:
821:
797:
790:
784:
780:
774:
770:
764:
760:
754:
753:
744:
738:
730:
724:
720:
714:
710:
704:
700:
563:Treaty of Aachen
489:with guards and
194:Citadel of Parma
131:Site information
126:Military citadel
118:
117:
115:
114:
113:
108:
104:
101:
100:
99:
96:
74:Citadel of Parma
70:
69:
63:
47:
38:
24:Citadel of Parma
21:
20:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1604:
1603:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1561:
1551:
1549:
1541:
1539:
1534:
1525:
1506:
1497:
1479:
1472:
1381:
1370:
1313:
1309:
1300:
1290:
1288:
1211:
1206:
1196:
1194:
1189:. 27 May 2011.
1177:
1176:
1172:
1162:
1160:
1141:
1137:
1127:
1125:
1106:
1105:
1092:
1084:
1080:
1072:
1065:
1057:
1053:
1045:
1041:
1033:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1002:
998:, Milano, 1975.
993:
989:
981:
974:
966:
962:
954:
950:
942:
935:
927:
920:
912:
901:
893:
889:
879:
877:
868:
867:
863:
855:
844:
834:
832:
823:
822:
809:
805:
800:
791:
787:
781:
777:
771:
767:
761:
757:
745:
741:
737:, p. 177).
731:
727:
721:
717:
711:
707:
701:
697:
693:
681:
669:
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1478:Politics and
1413:Papal States
1331:Forlì-Cesena
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1209:Bibliography
1197:26 September
1195:. Retrieved
1186:
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1157:the original
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213:Emilian city
201:
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162:Site history
144:Open to
18:
1128:8 September
835:15 December
620:restoration
610:Restoration
582:Charles III
555:Charles III
341:Renaissance
275:(ca. 1585).
273:Otto Venius
157:Public park
110: /
86:Coordinates
1579:Categories
1532:Categories
1480:government
1314:and places
1255:. Laterza.
1023:Casa (1897
803:References
586:drawbridge
447:embrasures
421:Planimetry
206:pentagonal
98:10°19′52″E
95:44°47′36″N
1503:Education
1306:Provinces
588:and some
539:castellan
531:Francesco
491:artillery
468:The works
443:castellan
428:The gates
382:Caprarola
183:Materials
154:Condition
1346:Piacenza
1191:Archived
829:Archived
679:See also
590:trenches
527:arsenals
507:fortress
487:fortress
478:Flanders
474:Ranuccio
458:moldings
407:tagliate
371:Piacenza
367:Florence
310:Piacenza
302:Ranuccio
246:bastions
239:barracks
231:ramparts
209:fortress
1543:Portals
1508:culture
1403:Romagna
1386:History
1351:Ravenna
1326:Ferrara
1321:Bologna
658:Art Day
624:atriums
622:of the
535:Antonio
519:Odoardo
462:cannons
455:granite
411:Antwerp
298:Antwerp
286:Ottavio
260:History
204:) is a
198:Italian
1398:Emilia
1361:Rimini
1336:Modena
1163:27 May
584:had a
319:, the
250:facade
1585:Parma
1557:Italy
1516:Music
1341:Parma
691:Notes
616:Parma
403:Parma
337:walls
333:scale
290:duchy
235:moats
186:Brick
167:Built
136:Owner
31:Parma
1521:Flag
1199:2012
1165:2021
1130:2012
882:2012
837:2021
569:and
533:and
521:and
233:and
192:The
123:Type
1505:and
365:in
296:in
149:Yes
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196:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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