1332:
80:
2046:
177:
3041:
1251:
1432:. A special DNA base sequence in the region of the kinetochores provides, along with special proteins, longer-lasting attachment in this region. The microtubules then pull the chromatids apart toward the centrosomes, so that each daughter cell inherits one set of chromatids. Once the cells have divided, the chromatids are uncoiled and DNA can again be transcribed. In spite of their appearance, chromosomes are structurally highly condensed, which enables these giant DNA structures to be contained within a cell nucleus.
1321:
344:
2038:
139:
458:
1126:
801:
1203:
1448:(s)). Certain genetic traits are linked to a person's sex and are passed on through the sex chromosomes. The autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information. All act in the same way during cell division. Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes), giving a total of 46 per cell. In addition to these, human cells have many hundreds of copies of the
503:
2468:
Exposure of males to certain lifestyle, environmental and/or occupational hazards may increase the risk of aneuploid spermatozoa. In particular, risk of aneuploidy is increased by tobacco smoking, and occupational exposure to benzene, insecticides, and perfluorinated compounds. Increased aneuploidy
3151:
up to 100,000 copies of the chromosome can be present. Plasmids and plasmid-like small chromosomes are, as in eukaryotes, highly variable in copy number. The number of plasmids in the cell is almost entirely determined by the rate of division of the plasmid – fast division causes high copy
792:
2360:
of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. "Cri du chat" means "cry of the cat" in French; the condition was so-named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like those of a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw, moderate to severe mental health
1246:
The packaging of DNA into nucleosomes causes a 10 nanometer fibre which may further condense up to 30 nm fibres Most of the euchromatin in interphase nuclei appears to be in the form of 30-nm fibers. Chromatin structure is the more decondensed state, i.e. the 10-nm conformation allows
2377:, or trisomy-18, the second most common trisomy. Symptoms include motor retardation, developmental disability and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems. Ninety percent of those affected die in infancy. They have characteristic clenched hands and overlapping fingers.
2447:(X instead of XX or XY). In Turner syndrome, female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. Females with Turner syndrome often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development and a "caved-in" appearance to the chest.
1030:. The nucleoid is a distinct structure and occupies a defined region of the bacterial cell. This structure is, however, dynamic and is maintained and remodeled by the actions of a range of histone-like proteins, which associate with the bacterial chromosome. In
6082:
Romanenko SA, Perelman PL, Serdukova NA, Trifonov VA, Biltueva LS, Wang J, Li T, Nie W, O'Brien PC, Volobouev VT, Stanyon R, Ferguson-Smith MA, Yang F, Graphodatsky AS (December 2006). "Reciprocal chromosome painting between three laboratory rodent species".
6178:
Hayes H, Rogel-Gaillard C, Zijlstra C, De Haan NA, Urien C, Bourgeaux N, Bertaud M, Bosma AA (2002). "Establishment of an R-banded rabbit karyotype nomenclature by FISH localization of 23 chromosome-specific genes on both G- and R-banded chromosomes".
904:. By inspection through the microscope, he counted twenty-four pairs, which would mean forty-eight chromosomes. His error was copied by others and it was not until 1956 that the true number, forty-six, was determined by Indonesian-born cytogeneticist
1351:
stops) and become a compact transportable form. The loops of thirty-nanometer chromatin fibers are thought to fold upon themselves further to form the compact metaphase chromosomes of mitotic cells. The DNA is thus condensed about ten-thousand-fold.
2125:, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are often highly variable. There may be variation between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization. In some cases, there is significant variation within species. Often there is:
3036:
all have the same number of nuclear chromosomes (see the table). Other eukaryotic chromosomes, i.e., mitochondrial and plasmid-like small chromosomes, are much more variable in number, and there may be thousands of copies per cell.
663:
in cells, either visible or not under light microscopy. Others use the concept in a narrower sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division, visible under light microscopy due to high condensation.
2488:
The number of chromosomes in eukaryotes is highly variable (see table). In fact, chromosomes can fuse or break and thus evolve into novel karyotypes. Chromosomes can also be fused artificially. For example, the 16 chromosomes of
2453:, which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4. It is characterized by growth retardation, delayed motor skills development, "Greek Helmet" facial features, and mild to profound mental health problems.
2389:, which is very rare. It is also called the 11q terminal deletion disorder. Those affected have normal intelligence or mild developmental disability, with poor expressive language skills. Most have a bleeding disorder called
617:. During metaphase, the X-shaped structure is called a metaphase chromosome, which is highly condensed and thus easiest to distinguish and study. In animal cells, chromosomes reach their highest compaction level in
6035:
Nie W, Wang J, O'Brien PC, Fu B, Ying T, Ferguson-Smith MA, Yang F (2002). "The genome phylogeny of domestic cat, red panda and five mustelid species revealed by comparative chromosome painting and G-banding".
3116:
as well as the wild progenitors. The more-common pasta and bread wheat types are polyploid, having 28 (tetraploid) and 42 (hexaploid) chromosomes, compared to the 14 (diploid) chromosomes in the wild wheat.
2399:(XXY). Men with Klinefelter syndrome are usually sterile and tend to be taller and have longer arms and legs than their peers. Boys with the syndrome are often shy and quiet and have a higher incidence of
6363:
Vitturi R, Libertini A, Sineo L, Sparacio I, Lannino A, Gregorini A, Colomba M (2005). "Cytogenetics of the land snails
Cantareus aspersus and C. mazzullii (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Pulmonata)".
850:'s earlier work, Boveri was able to point out the connection between the rules of inheritance and the behaviour of the chromosomes. Boveri influenced two generations of American cytologists:
1072:
of the bacteria. In molecular biology application, this allows for its isolation from plasmid DNA by centrifugation of lysed bacteria and pelleting of the membranes (and the attached DNA).
3112:. Plants important in agriculture such as tobacco or wheat are often polyploid, compared to their ancestral species. Wheat has a haploid number of seven chromosomes, still seen in some
6568:
Ciudad J, Cid E, Velasco A, Lara JM, Aijón J, Orfao A (May 2002). "Flow cytometry measurement of the DNA contents of G0/G1 diploid cells from three different teleost fish species".
952:
5436:
Xia Y, Bian Q, Xu L, Cheng S, Song L, Liu J, Wu W, Wang S, Wang X (October 2004). "Genotoxic effects on human spermatozoa among pesticide factory workers exposed to fenvalerate".
1188:, with one or two arms projecting from the centromere, although, under most circumstances, these arms are not visible as such. In addition, most eukaryotes have a small circular
2315:
2246:
was not certain whether the diploid number of man is 46 or 48, at first favouring 46. He revised his opinion later from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on humans having an
1371:, plays an important role in holding the chromatin into compact chromosomes. Loops of thirty-nanometer structure further condense with scaffold into higher order structures.
7506:
6760:
Komaki K, Ishikawa H (March 2000). "Genomic copy number of intracellular bacterial symbionts of aphids varies in response to developmental stage and morph of their host".
1283:, which consists of mostly inactive DNA. It seems to serve structural purposes during the chromosomal stages. Heterochromatin can be further distinguished into two types:
6447:
Houck ML, Kumamoto AT, Gallagher DS, Benirschke K (2001). "Comparative cytogenetics of the
African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus)".
2288:
It took until 1954 before the human diploid number was confirmed as 46. Considering the techniques of
Winiwarter and Painter, their results were quite remarkable.
5577:
Shao, Yangyang; Lu, Ning; Wu, Zhenfang; Cai, Chen; Wang, Shanshan; Zhang, Ling-Li; Zhou, Fan; Xiao, Shijun; Liu, Lin; Zeng, Xiaofei; Zheng, Huajun (August 2018).
1184:
with nuclei such as those found in plants, fungi, and animals) possess multiple large linear chromosomes contained in the cell's nucleus. Each chromosome has one
7473:
2224:
6490:
Semba U, Umeda Y, Shibuya Y, Okabe H, Tanase S, Yamamoto T (October 2004). "Primary structures of guinea pig high- and low-molecular-weight kininogens".
3228:
2334:, although they may lead to a higher chance of bearing a child with a chromosome disorder. Abnormal numbers of chromosomes or chromosome sets, called
7499:
6876:
4650:
Lodish, U.H.; Lodish, H.; Berk, A.; Kaiser, C.A.; Kaiser, C.; Kaiser, U.C.A.; Krieger, M.; Scott, M.P.; Bretscher, A.; Ploegh, H.; others (2008).
2371:). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate developmental disability.
6294:
Robinson TJ, Yang F, Harrison WR (2002). "Chromosome painting refines the history of genome evolution in hares and rabbits (order
Lagomorpha)".
5387:
Xing C, Marchetti F, Li G, Weldon RH, Kurtovich E, Young S, Schmid TE, Zhang L, Rappaport S, Waidyanatha S, Wyrobek AJ, Eskenazi B (June 2010).
1460:
has provided a great deal of information about each of the chromosomes. Below is a table compiling statistics for the chromosomes, based on the
644:. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo
6974:
5855:
Kenton A, Parokonny AS, Gleba YY, Bennett MD (August 1993). "Characterization of the
Nicotiana tabacum L. genome by molecular cytogenetics".
778:
terms have become outdated. For example, Chromatin (Flemming 1880) and
Chromosom (Waldeyer 1888), both ascribe color to a non-colored state.
760:
1007:) from which replication starts, whereas some archaea contain multiple replication origins. The genes in prokaryotes are often organized in
7492:
3543:
601:(where all chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell in their condensed form). Before this happens, each chromosome is duplicated (
2322:
Chromosomal aberrations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a cell. They can cause genetic conditions in humans, such as
1417:
Mitotic metaphase chromosomes are best described by a linearly organized longitudinally compressed array of consecutive chromatin loops.
873:, Wilson linked together the independent work of Boveri and Sutton (both around 1902) by naming the chromosome theory of inheritance the
6925:
489:
6538:
2417:, also called D-Syndrome or trisomy-13. Symptoms are somewhat similar to those of trisomy-18, without the characteristic folded hand.
1062:
4593:
Poonperm, Rawin; Takata, Hideaki; Hamano, Tohru; Matsuda, Atsushi; Uchiyama, Susumu; Hiraoka, Yasushi; Fukui, Kiichi (1 July 2015).
3063:
species have one set of chromosomes that are the same in all body cells. However, asexual species can be either haploid or diploid.
1347:(cell division), the chromatin double helix becomes more and more condensed. They cease to function as accessible genetic material (
7371:
6898:
2459:. XYY boys are usually taller than their siblings. Like XXY boys and XXX girls, they are more likely to have learning difficulties.
1465:
1374:
This highly compact form makes the individual chromosomes visible, and they form the classic four-arm structure, a pair of sister
7426:
7421:
3320:
3239:
5992:"rDNA (18S–28S and 5S) colocalization and linkage between ribosomal genes and (TTAGGG)(n) telomeric sequence in the earthworm,
4412:
Sandman K, Reeve JN (March 2000). "Structure and functional relationships of archaeal and eukaryal histones and nucleosomes".
2326:, although most aberrations have little to no effect. Some chromosome abnormalities do not cause disease in carriers, such as
1424:
grow from centrosomes located at opposite ends of the cell and also attach to the centromere at specialized structures called
1331:
7463:
7104:
5197:
4862:
4659:
3598:
3506:
3428:
3325:
2478:
2420:
2158:
3097:), and thus create new chromosomes that are not inherited solely from either parent. When a male and a female gamete merge (
1034:, the DNA in chromosomes is even more organized, with the DNA packaged within structures similar to eukaryotic nucleosomes.
7468:
5268:
Templado C, Uroz L, Estop A (October 2013). "New insights on the origin and relevance of aneuploidy in human spermatozoa".
1120:
6856:
6400:"A second-generation integrated map of the silkworm reveals synteny and conserved gene order between lepidopteran insects"
5243:
5213:
5303:
Shi Q, Ko E, Barclay L, Hoang T, Rademaker A, Martin R (August 2001). "Cigarette smoking and aneuploidy in human sperm".
3885:
874:
613:
is located equatorially, or a two-arm structure, if the centromere is located distally. The joined copies are now called
7226:
3145:
has multiple copies of its chromosome, ranging from 10 to 400 copies per cell. However, in some large bacteria, such as
6131:"A Comparison of the Chromosomes of the Rat and Mouse with Reference to the Question of Chromosome Homology in Mammals"
5522:"Chromosomal aneuploidies and DNA fragmentation of human spermatozoa from patients exposed to perfluorinated compounds"
4577:
3131:
generally have one copy of each major chromosome, but most cells can easily survive with multiple copies. For example,
2496:
The tables below give the total number of chromosomes (including sex chromosomes) in a cell nucleus. For example, most
6222:
5951:
Ambarish, C.N.; Sridhar, K.R. (2014). "Cytological and karyological observations on two endemic giant pill-millipedes
4814:"Relevance of human chromosome analysis activities against mutation concept in genetics course. IOP Conference Series"
1410:
meaning tail in French). This is the only natural context in which individual chromosomes are visible with an optical
6967:
6348:
5059:
3922:
1003:
Prokaryotic chromosomes have less sequence-based structure than eukaryotes. Bacteria typically have a one-point (the
4761:
3634:
7243:
2516:. This gives 46 chromosomes in total. Other organisms have more than two copies of their chromosome types, such as
2493:
have been fused into one giant chromosome and the cells were still viable with only somewhat reduced growth rates.
897:, all of a rather dogmatic turn of mind. Eventually, complete proof came from chromosome maps in Morgan's own lab.
2423:. This means there is an extra, abnormal chromosome. Features depend on the origin of the extra genetic material.
3763:
2190:, with the set of chromosomes arranged, autosomes in order of length, and sex chromosomes (here X/Y) at the end.
846:, and Boveri was able to test and confirm this hypothesis. Aided by the rediscovery at the start of the 1900s of
151:
encode genes, which provide functions. A human DNA can have up to 500 million base pairs with thousands of genes.
2210:
652:
leading to its own death, but sometimes mutations in the cell hamper this process and thus cause progression of
8329:
8160:
7755:
3206:
2432:
482:
63:
362:
8296:
7089:
5798:"Chromosome painting using repetitive DNA sequences as probes for somatic chromosome identification in maize"
4916:
Painter, Theophilus S. (April 1923). "Studies in mammalian spermatogenesis. II. The spermatogenesis of man".
3797:
6888:
6715:
6525:
Wayne RK, Ostrander EA (March 1999). "Origin, genetic diversity, and genome structure of the domestic dog".
4675:
3093:
cell. During meiosis, the matching chromosomes of father and mother can exchange small parts of themselves (
7944:
7625:
6960:
6893:
2450:
2078:
836:
of heredity, with two notions that became known as 'chromosome continuity' and 'chromosome individuality'.
79:
7630:
42:
7864:
7620:
6940:
5749:"Genetic map of diploid wheat, Triticum monococcum L., and its comparison with maps of Hordeum vulgare L"
3315:
3310:
3305:
3269:
2247:
2236:
2194:
17:
4014:"Sympatric speciation in a bacterial endosymbiont results in two genomes with the functionality of one"
3636:
Biological Stains – A Handbook on the Nature and Uses of the Dyes
Employed in the Biological Laboratory
3586:
833:
583:
251:
5520:
Governini L, Guerranti C, De Leo V, Boschi L, Luddi A, Gori M, Orvieto R, Piomboni P (November 2015).
3670:
3077:
having two sets of chromosomes (23 pairs in humans), one set from the mother and one from the father.
8165:
7236:
5747:
Dubcovsky J, Luo MC, Zhong GY, Bransteitter R, Desai A, Kilian A, Kleinhofs A, Dvorák J (June 1996).
3133:
475:
38:
6716:"Kurze Mitteilung über die Chromosomenzahlen und die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der Triticum-Arten"
8012:
7913:
7830:
7290:
7074:
3715:
3264:
2490:
2390:
2239:
2114:
1348:
1080:
1050:
269:
6647:
5346:
Rubes J, Lowe X, Moore D, Perreault S, Slott V, Evenson D, Selevan SG, Wyrobek AJ (October 1998).
4110:
Han K, Li ZF, Peng R, Zhu LP, Zhou T, Wang LG, Li SG, Zhang XB, Hu W, Wu ZH, Qin N, Li YZ (2013).
3716:"New trends in plant cytogenetics and cytoembryology: Dedicated to the memory of Emilio Battaglia"
8039:
7815:
4569:
3977:
Thanbichler M, Shapiro L (November 2006). "Chromosome organization and segregation in bacteria".
3147:
2659:
1290:
938:, but many variations exist. The chromosomes of most bacteria, which some authors prefer to call
579:
6882:
6251:
De
Grouchy J (August 1987). "Chromosome phylogenies of man, great apes, and Old World monkeys".
3444:
Bonev, Boyan; Cavalli, Giacomo (14 October 2016). "Organization and function of the 3D genome".
8267:
7583:
7196:
7169:
3171:
3045:
2331:
2309:
2148:
622:
5479:
Xia Y, Cheng S, Bian Q, Xu L, Collins MD, Chang HC, Song L, Liu J, Wang S, Wang X (May 2005).
4857:(6th ed.). London: Chapman and Hall, distributed by Halsted Press, New York. p. 28.
3528:
Microscopical researches into the accordance in the structure and growth of animals and plants
8334:
8027:
8000:
7615:
7231:
7129:
6922:
3650:
Waldeyer-Hartz (1888). "Über
Karyokinese und ihre Beziehungen zu den Befruchtungsvorgängen".
3216:
3109:
3094:
2154:
2070:
1907:
1839:
1823:
1807:
1791:
1775:
1759:
1743:
1727:
1711:
1695:
1679:
1663:
1647:
1472:. Total chromosome length is an estimate as well, based on the estimated size of unsequenced
1004:
851:
629:
442:
422:
387:
299:
294:
7603:
5181:
5098:
5077:
Understanding
Genetics: A New York, Mid-Atlantic Guide for Patients and Health Professionals
8324:
7971:
7966:
7842:
7451:
7376:
7361:
7191:
7139:
7114:
7054:
6808:
5809:
5696:
5592:
5009:
4925:
4705:
4606:
4476:
4421:
4311:
4123:
3728:
3347:
3259:
3223:
3060:
2546:
2396:
2297:
2045:
2017:
1975:
1631:
1615:
1599:
1583:
1567:
1551:
1535:
1519:
1503:
1449:
1042:
983:
964:
539:
144:
4762:"Ensembl genome browser 71: Homo sapiens – Chromosome summary – Chromosome 1: 1–1,000,000"
4692:
Naumova N, Imakaev M, Fudenberg G, Zhan Y, Lajoie BR, Mirny LA, Dekker J (November 2013).
2215:
Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question:
659:
Some use the term chromosome in a wider sense, to refer to the individualized portions of
8:
8207:
8049:
8005:
7961:
7699:
7119:
6866:
4826:
4813:
3934:
Gartler, Stanley M. (1 August 2006). "The chromosome number in humans: a brief history".
3332:
3291:
3191:
3066:
1356:
935:
890:
645:
637:
571:
417:
397:
332:
289:
283:
274:
246:
119:
96:
6812:
5813:
5700:
5596:
5013:
4929:
4709:
4610:
4480:
4425:
4381:
4356:
4315:
4127:
3732:
3613:
3526:
3040:
2524:
and has six copies of seven different chromosome types – 42 chromosomes in total.
176:
8257:
6831:
6796:
6628:
6550:
6472:
6424:
6399:
6319:
6276:
6204:
6155:
6130:
6108:
6061:
5972:
5928:
5903:
5880:
5773:
5748:
5624:
5559:
5461:
5413:
5388:
5328:
5189:
5137:
5033:
4969:
4952:
4831:
4726:
4693:
4627:
4594:
4445:
4394:
4332:
4299:
4280:
4196:
4184:
4144:
4111:
4087:
4062:
4043:
3959:
3853:
3744:
3695:
3479:
3392:
3367:
3296:
2974:
2610:
2383:, also called idic(15), partial tetrasomy 15q, or inverted duplication 15 (inv dup 15).
2339:
2243:
1406:
in the Latin alphabet; q-g "grande"; alternatively it is sometimes said q is short for
958:
901:
866:
were all influenced by Boveri (Wilson, Stevens, and Painter actually worked with him).
863:
412:
407:
382:
304:
7484:
6773:
6732:
5832:
5797:
5719:
5684:
5389:"Benzene exposure near the U.S. permissible limit is associated with sperm aneuploidy"
5364:
5347:
4535:
8252:
7956:
7181:
7093:
6836:
6777:
6696:
6692:
6620:
6585:
6542:
6507:
6464:
6429:
6380:
6344:
6311:
6268:
6196:
6160:
6100:
6053:
6017:
5976:
5933:
5872:
5837:
5778:
5724:
5665:
5616:
5608:
5551:
5502:
5453:
5418:
5369:
5320:
5285:
5193:
5141:
5129:
5055:
5025:
4982:
4858:
4731:
4655:
4632:
4573:
4539:
4504:
4499:
4464:
4437:
4386:
4337:
4272:
4231:
4188:
4149:
4092:
4035:
3994:
3951:
3918:
3881:
3845:
3594:
3568:
3502:
3497:
Alberts B, Bray D, Hopkin K, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2014).
3471:
3424:
3417:
3397:
3211:
3202:
2438:
2386:
2346:
2292:, the closest living relatives to modern humans, have 48 chromosomes as do the other
2284:
Cutting up a photomicrograph and arranging the result into an indisputable karyogram.
2164:
1289:, which is never expressed. It is located around the centromere and usually contains
1226:, the uncondensed DNA exists in a semi-ordered structure, where it is wrapped around
1192:
1149:
886:
641:
614:
462:
347:
226:
6679:
Smith J, Burt DW (August 1998). "Parameters of the chicken genome (Gallus gallus)".
6632:
6476:
6323:
6208:
6112:
5628:
5579:
5563:
5465:
5332:
4835:
4787:
4449:
4398:
4284:
4214:
Kelman LM, Kelman Z (September 2004). "Multiple origins of replication in archaea".
4200:
4047:
3963:
3857:
3748:
3699:
3671:"Chromosome numbers of the Italian flora. From the Caryologia foundation to present"
3483:
7988:
7882:
7515:
7270:
7149:
6826:
6816:
6769:
6727:
6688:
6659:
6612:
6577:
6554:
6534:
6499:
6456:
6419:
6411:
6372:
6303:
6280:
6260:
6188:
6150:
6142:
6092:
6065:
6045:
6007:
5964:
5923:
5915:
5899:
5884:
5864:
5827:
5817:
5768:
5760:
5714:
5704:
5655:
5600:
5543:
5533:
5492:
5445:
5408:
5400:
5359:
5312:
5277:
5121:
5113:
5037:
5017:
4974:
4964:
4933:
4821:
4748:
4721:
4713:
4622:
4614:
4531:
4494:
4484:
4429:
4376:
4368:
4327:
4319:
4262:
4223:
4180:
4139:
4131:
4082:
4074:
4025:
3986:
3943:
3835:
3736:
3685:
3558:
3461:
3453:
3387:
3379:
3233:
2729:
2424:
2374:
2357:
2171:
Also, variation in karyotype may occur during development from the fertilized egg.
2054:
1461:
1102:
1026:
do not possess nuclei. Instead, their DNA is organized into a structure called the
768:
679:
590:
575:
354:
4112:"Extraordinary expansion of a Sorangium cellulosum genome from an alkaline milieu"
3872:
2441:(XXX). XXX girls tend to be tall and thin and have a higher incidence of dyslexia.
2281:
Squashing the preparation on the slide forcing the chromosomes into a single plane
1250:
1170:
are responsible for the first and most basic unit of chromosome organization, the
822:
8245:
7939:
7918:
7847:
7650:
7263:
7084:
7032:
6929:
6503:
6376:
6338:
5968:
5764:
4522:
Johnson JE, Chiu W (April 2000). "Structures of virus and virus-like particles".
3740:
3690:
3618:
3254:
3244:
2991:
2966:
2513:
2444:
2428:
2380:
2110:
1473:
1469:
1280:
1084:
1069:
882:
6415:
6146:
5996:(Annelida: Oligochaeta: Lumbricidae), revealed by single- and double-color FISH"
5155:
5072:
4851:
4357:"Diversity of prokaryotic chromosomal proteins and the origin of the nucleosome"
3678:
Caryologia – International Journal of Cytology, Cytosystematics and Cytogenetics
1320:
578:
the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity. These chromosomes display a complex
8235:
8122:
7993:
7852:
7835:
7640:
7570:
7154:
7078:
6801:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5802:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5689:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5221:
4469:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4300:"High-resolution mapping of the spatial organization of a bacterial chromosome"
4030:
4013:
3279:
3249:
2824:
2761:
2739:
2669:
2649:
2414:
2327:
2074:
1453:
1445:
1181:
1161:
1157:
855:
829:
813:
733:
402:
327:
6096:
6049:
6012:
5991:
5604:
5449:
5182:
4227:
4078:
3990:
3840:
3823:
3563:
3501:(Fourth ed.). New York, New York, US: Garland Science. pp. 621–626.
825:
was the first scientist to recognize the structures now known as chromosomes.
8318:
8275:
8240:
8083:
8073:
8044:
7677:
7670:
7134:
5644:"Meiotic cytology and chromosome behaviour in wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana"
5612:
5348:"Smoking cigarettes is associated with increased sperm disomy in teenage men"
4779:
4489:
3342:
3098:
2569:
2367:, the most common trisomy, usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (
2364:
2323:
2228:
2037:
1189:
1153:
1076:
1057:) and viruses, the DNA is often densely packed and organized; in the case of
859:
847:
816:(right) independently developed the chromosome theory of inheritance in 1902.
809:
598:
6952:
6821:
5822:
5497:
5480:
5281:
4717:
4323:
4063:"An interdependent metabolic patchwork in the nested symbiosis of mealybugs"
8262:
8105:
8065:
8032:
7804:
7790:
7688:
7109:
6983:
6840:
6781:
6624:
6589:
6546:
6511:
6468:
6433:
6384:
6315:
6200:
6164:
6104:
6057:
6021:
5955:(Pocock 1895) (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida) of the Western Ghats of India".
5937:
5841:
5709:
5669:
5660:
5643:
5620:
5555:
5506:
5457:
5422:
5324:
5289:
5133:
5099:"Short- and long-term effects of chromosome mis-segregation and aneuploidy"
5029:
4937:
4802:
The colors of each row match those of the karyogram (see Karyotype section)
4735:
4636:
4543:
4441:
4341:
4276:
4235:
4153:
4096:
4039:
3998:
3955:
3880:. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. p. 88.
3849:
3572:
3475:
3401:
3286:
3274:
3070:
3049:
2834:
2719:
2709:
2621:
2517:
2456:
2408:
2400:
2275:
2137:
2103:
1871:
1855:
1457:
1425:
1335:
Stages of early mitosis in a vertebrate cell with micrographs of chromatids
988:
947:
905:
843:
839:
392:
6700:
6272:
6226:
5876:
5782:
5728:
5373:
4792:. Bethesda, Maryland: National Center for Biotechnology Information. 1998.
4751:, all data in this table was derived from this database, 11 November 2008.
4508:
4433:
4390:
4372:
4192:
3466:
8286:
8152:
8100:
8095:
7608:
7328:
7323:
7186:
7164:
7159:
7027:
6934:
6539:
10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(199903)21:3<247::AID-BIES9>3.0.CO;2-Z
5919:
5125:
4986:
3764:"Caryoneme alternative to chromosome and a new caryological nomenclature"
3457:
3383:
3196:
2844:
2699:
2599:
2588:
2353:
2289:
1421:
1277:, which consists of DNA that is active, e.g., being expressed as protein.
1274:
1214:, the 10 nm "beads-on-a-string" fibre, the 30 nm fibre and the
1075:
Prokaryotic chromosomes and plasmids are, like eukaryotic DNA, generally
969:
894:
5547:
5404:
5188:(5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp.
4595:"Chromosome Scaffold is a Double-Stranded Assembly of Scaffold Proteins"
2431:(or Idic15) are both caused by a supernumerary marker chromosome, as is
881:
remarks that the theory was hotly contested by some famous geneticists:
8194:
8189:
8142:
8135:
8130:
8115:
8110:
7886:
7635:
7577:
7348:
7338:
7333:
7318:
7258:
7248:
7124:
7098:
7049:
6664:
6581:
6264:
5868:
4978:
3166:
3161:
3125:
3053:
2934:
2884:
2814:
2497:
2368:
2335:
2293:
2269:
2183:
2122:
2066:
1903:
1493:
1411:
1379:
1375:
1263:
1259:
1211:
1202:
1185:
1177:
1171:
1106:
1079:. The DNA must first be released into its relaxed state for access for
1023:
923:
878:
610:
606:
559:
555:
519:
322:
236:
216:
148:
62:
This article is about the DNA molecule. For the genetic algorithm, see
6616:
6460:
6307:
6192:
5538:
5521:
5021:
4618:
4267:
4250:
4135:
2505:
1148:
Chromatin contains the vast majority of the DNA in an organism, but a
1061:, by homology to eukaryotic histones, and in the case of bacteria, by
832:
gave definitive contributions to elucidating that chromosomes are the
8199:
8184:
8171:
7923:
7711:
7542:
7300:
7044:
7022:
7003:
6398:
Yasukochi Y, Ashakumary LA, Baba K, Yoshido A, Sahara K (July 2006).
5316:
3337:
3181:
3138:
3105:
2854:
2684:
2265:
2096:
2092:
2084:
2062:
2050:
2032:
1429:
1360:
1325:
1267:
1235:
1223:
1215:
1196:
1143:
1114:
1096:
1054:
1046:
943:
939:
775:
764:
660:
649:
609:, resulting either in an X-shaped structure (pictured above), if the
594:
554:. In most chromosomes, the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with
514:
507:
279:
127:
6340:
Rabbits, Hares and Pikas. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan
5117:
4168:
4012:
Van Leuven JT, Meister RC, Simon C, McCutcheon JP (September 2014).
3947:
962:, to more than 14,000,000 base pairs in the soil-dwelling bacterium
8230:
8176:
8078:
8022:
8017:
7908:
7869:
7825:
7727:
7532:
7286:
7070:
3113:
3090:
2924:
2914:
2804:
2509:
2404:
2342:
is offered for families that may carry a chromosome rearrangement.
2198:
2179:
2133:
1902:
Based on the micrographic characteristics of size, position of the
1441:
1195:, and some eukaryotes may have additional small circular or linear
1125:
1027:
981:
are a notable exception to this arrangement, with bacteria such as
977:
927:
917:
618:
551:
338:
221:
211:
168:
6871:
6603:
Burt DW (2002). "Origin and evolution of avian microchromosomes".
6177:
6081:
4251:"The bacterial nucleoid: a highly organized and dynamic structure"
2345:
The gain or loss of DNA from chromosomes can lead to a variety of
2186:. These cells are then stained, photographed, and arranged into a
1910:, the human chromosomes are classified into the following groups:
8212:
8090:
7874:
7859:
7562:
7537:
7456:
7310:
7221:
7216:
6916:
6908:
4878:
von Winiwarter H (1912). "Études sur la spermatogenèse humaine".
3366:
Hammond CM, Strømme CB, Huang H, Patel DJ, Groth A (March 2017).
3176:
3128:
3086:
3082:
3074:
3033:
2261:
2232:
2218:
2099:
2058:
1344:
1340:
1315:
1311:
1231:
1227:
1167:
1138:
1110:
1058:
1038:
1031:
1008:
931:
800:
633:
602:
567:
563:
112:Gene
105:DNA
89:Chromosome
6901:, European network for Rare Chromosome Disorders on the Internet
6646:
Itoh M, Ikeuchi T, Shimba H, Mori M, Sasaki M, Makino S (1969).
6446:
5000:
Ford CE, Hamerton JL (November 1956). "The chromosomes of man".
4011:
2314:
791:
138:
8303:
8281:
7978:
7901:
7896:
7661:
7552:
7547:
7366:
7253:
7017:
7013:
7008:
6885:, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
6879:, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
4811:
3771:
Caryologia – International Journal of Cytology, Cytosystematics
3078:
2874:
2864:
2501:
2178:. Cells can be locked part-way through division (in metaphase)
2141:
1012:
653:
547:
231:
206:
6397:
5989:
5519:
5481:"Genotoxic effects on spermatozoa of carbaryl-exposed workers"
2469:
is often associated with increased DNA damage in spermatozoa.
2253:
New techniques were needed to definitively solve the problem:
7785:
7777:
7595:
7557:
7431:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7401:
7396:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7356:
7294:
6946:
6860:
6362:
5746:
3142:
2894:
2771:
2174:
The technique of determining the karyotype is usually called
1394:
1384:
1368:
1364:
973:
746:
736:
502:
6648:"A Comparative Karyotype Study in Fourteen Species of Birds"
3085:: They have one set of chromosomes. Gametes are produced by
2193:
Like many sexually reproducing species, humans have special
1468:. Number of genes is an estimate, as it is in part based on
8291:
7983:
7524:
6912:
5950:
5904:"Evolution of DNA amounts across land plants (embryophyta)"
5854:
4691:
4592:
4463:
Pereira SL, Grayling RA, Lurz R, Reeve JN (November 1997).
3652:
Archiv für Mikroskopische Anatomie und Entwicklungsmechanik
3544:"Chromosome condensation and decondensation during mitosis"
2794:
1487:
721:
706:
697:
691:
111:
6904:
6794:
5052:
Human and mammalian cytogenetics: a historical perspective
3589:(2003) , Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.),
2318:
In Down syndrome, there are three copies of chromosome 21.
2278:
0.075 M KCl, which swells them and spreads the chromosomes
2057:. It is a graphical representation of the idealized human
755:, "body"), describing their strong staining by particular
6863:: Huntington's Outreach Project for Education at Stanford
6795:
Mendell JE, Clements KD, Choat JH, Angert ER (May 2008).
5897:
3520:
3518:
3186:
2904:
2558:
2118:
1207:
1134:
900:
The number of human chromosomes was published in 1923 by
756:
543:
201:
196:
104:
4462:
3496:
3419:
Molecular biology of the cell : a problems approach
3365:
7514:
7474:
International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature
6223:"The Genetics of the Popular Aquarium Pet – Guppy Fish"
5990:
Vitturi R, Colomba MS, Pirrone AM, Mandrioli M (2002).
5345:
3368:"Histone chaperone networks shaping chromatin function"
2338:, may be lethal or may give rise to genetic disorders.
1141:, forming a compact complex of proteins and DNA called
828:
In a series of experiments beginning in the mid-1880s,
6489:
4649:
4298:
Le TB, Imakaev MV, Mirny LA, Laub MT (November 2013).
4248:
3515:
6645:
5386:
3639:. Commission on Standardization of Biological Stains.
2147:
3. variation between members of a population, due to
2102:. The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of
2073:, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the
1440:
Chromosomes in humans can be divided into two types:
1133:
Each eukaryotic chromosome consists of a long linear
718:
715:
703:
700:
685:
6567:
6293:
6034:
4060:
3798:"Otto Bütschli (1848–1920) Where we will genuflect?"
3712:
3668:
688:
70:
6947:
Unique – The Rare Chromosome Disorder Support Group
4354:
2407:. Without testosterone treatment, some may develop
1305:
842:suggested that each chromosome carries a different
724:
709:
694:
682:
59:DNA molecule containing genetic material of a cell
6872:On-line exhibition on chromosomes and genome (SIB)
5578:
4850:
4297:
4249:Thanbichler M, Wang SC, Shapiro L (October 2005).
3976:
3714:
3416:
3229:List of number of chromosomes of various organisms
2204:
6949:Support for people with rare chromosome disorders
6867:Chromosome Abnormalities at AtlasGeneticsOncology
5302:
5267:
4897:Painter TS (1922). "The spermatogenesis of man".
4515:
4355:Sandman K, Pereira SL, Reeve JN (December 1998).
3874:Mendel's Legacy: The Origin of Classical Genetics
3359:
2095:is the characteristic chromosome complement of a
1068:Bacterial chromosomes tend to be tethered to the
8316:
5795:
4877:
2512:, each present as two homologous pairs, and two
5796:Kato A, Lamb JC, Birchler JA (September 2004).
5580:"Creating a functional single-chromosome yeast"
5062:p. 10: "It's amazing that he even came close!"
4848:
4166:
6759:
6524:
5641:
5478:
5435:
5096:
4559:
4557:
4555:
4553:
4005:
3649:
3541:
2472:
2061:karyotype. It shows dark and white regions on
1266:where the cell is not dividing), two types of
759:. The term was coined by the German anatomist
7500:
6982:
6968:
4169:"Linear plasmids and chromosomes in bacteria"
2211:Argument from authority § Use in science
2201:). These are XX in females and XY in males.
1049:that contain cellular DNA and play a role in
483:
6337:Chapman JA, Flux JE (1990), "section 4.W4",
6077:
6075:
5742:
5740:
5738:
5513:
5472:
5429:
5380:
5296:
5261:
4999:
4812:Erwinsyah, R.; Riandi; Nurjhani, M. (2017).
4685:
4411:
4291:
4213:
4109:
4061:McCutcheon JP, von Dohlen CD (August 2011).
3821:
3443:
1466:Vertebrate Genome Annotation (VEGA) database
648:. Usually, this will make the cell initiate
6336:
5576:
5339:
4550:
4521:
3824:"Theodor Boveri and the natural experiment"
23:
7507:
7493:
6975:
6961:
6937:from the U.S. National Library of Medicine
6250:
6246:
6244:
6124:
6122:
5682:
4896:
3032:Normal members of a particular eukaryotic
2296:: in humans two chromosomes fused to form
490:
476:
24:
6830:
6820:
6797:"Extreme polyploidy in a large bacterium"
6762:Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
6731:
6678:
6663:
6423:
6154:
6072:
6011:
5927:
5831:
5821:
5772:
5735:
5718:
5708:
5659:
5537:
5496:
5412:
5363:
4968:
4950:
4825:
4725:
4626:
4498:
4488:
4380:
4331:
4266:
4143:
4086:
4029:
3839:
3761:
3689:
3593:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
3562:
3524:
3465:
3391:
2016:Very small, acrocentric (and 21, 22 with
1428:, one of which is present on each sister
1152:inherited maternally can be found in the
998:
589:Chromosomes are normally visible under a
6894:Chromosome News from Genome News Network
6713:
4694:"Organization of the mitotic chromosome"
3039:
2636:Chromosome numbers (2n) in some animals
2313:
2044:
2036:
1392:, small) and the longer arms are called
1330:
1319:
1249:
1206:The major structures in DNA compaction:
1201:
1129:Organization of DNA in a eukaryotic cell
1124:
501:
147:long strand of DNA unraveled. The DNA's
32:This is an accepted version of this page
6911:project, presenting chromosomes, their
6241:
6128:
6119:
5642:Armstrong SJ, Jones GH (January 2003).
4915:
4167:Hinnebusch J, Tilly K (December 1993).
3933:
3870:
3713:Peruzzi L, Garbari F, Bedini G (2012).
3669:Garbari F, Bedini G, Peruzzi L (2012).
3353:
3321:Temperature-dependent sex determination
3240:Maternal influence on sex determination
1241:
1234:), forming a composite material called
1045:. These are circular structures in the
781:
14:
8317:
6857:An Introduction to DNA and Chromosomes
5685:"The Giemsa C-banded karyotype of rye"
5305:Molecular Reproduction and Development
5179:
5106:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology
4563:
3414:
3372:Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology
2948:Chromosome numbers in other organisms
1160:, with a few exceptions, for example,
942:, can range in size from only 130,000
506:Diagram of a replicated and condensed
125:
116:
109:
7488:
7464:List of organisms by chromosome count
6956:
6748:Organization of the prokaryote genome
4524:Current Opinion in Structural Biology
3904:, Ed. 3. Macmillan, New York. p. 923.
3795:
3585:
3326:Haplodiploid sex-determination system
3236:(explains gene location nomenclature)
3201:For information about chromosomes in
3101:), a new diploid organism is formed.
2479:List of organisms by chromosome count
2421:Small supernumerary marker chromosome
1990:Small, metacentric or submetacentric
1935:Large, metacentric or submetacentric
102:
93:
86:
6602:
5097:Santaguida S, Amon A (August 2015).
4361:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
3902:The Cell in Development and Heredity
3632:
2065:. Each row is vertically aligned at
1435:
1359:, which is made of proteins such as
1121:Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure
877:(the names are sometimes reversed).
871:The Cell in Development and Heredity
582:, which plays a significant role in
3531:. Printed for the Sydenham Society.
2580:Maize (diploid or palaeotetraploid)
2463:
2429:isodicentric chromosome 15 syndrome
2217:How many chromosomes does a normal
1464:'s human genome information in the
1444:(body chromosome(s)) and allosome (
605:), and both copies are joined by a
128:Function
56:
6941:Visualisation of human chromosomes
4970:10.1111/j.1601-5223.1956.tb03010.x
4185:10.1111/j.1365-2958.1993.tb00963.x
3542:Antonin W, Neumann H (June 2016).
3108:: They have more than two sets of
3104:Some animal and plant species are
2532:Chromosome numbers in some plants
2167:or otherwise abnormal individuals.
2129:1. variation between the two sexes
562:cells the most important of these
57:
8346:
6877:What Can Our Chromosomes Tell Us?
6850:
6733:10.15281/jplantres1887.32.379_150
5393:Environmental Health Perspectives
5180:Miller KR (2000). "Chapter 9-3".
4818:Materials Science and Engineering
3120:
2197:(sex chromosomes, in contrast to
6693:10.1046/j.1365-2052.1998.00334.x
6652:The Japanese Journal of Genetics
6492:International Immunopharmacology
5857:Molecular & General Genetics
5683:Gill BS, Kimber G (April 1974).
4255:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry
3915:The growth of biological thought
2483:
1974:Medium-sized, acrocentric, with
1906:and sometimes the presence of a
1306:Metaphase chromatin and division
1018:
934: – typically have a single
799:
790:
678:
558:-forming packaging proteins; in
457:
456:
343:
342:
175:
137:
78:
7085:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome
6943:and comparison to other species
6883:Try making a karyotype yourself
6788:
6753:
6740:
6707:
6672:
6639:
6605:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
6596:
6561:
6518:
6483:
6440:
6391:
6356:
6330:
6296:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
6287:
6215:
6181:Cytogenetic and Genome Research
6171:
6028:
5983:
5944:
5891:
5848:
5789:
5676:
5635:
5570:
5236:
5206:
5173:
5148:
5090:
5079:, Genetic Alliance, 8 July 2009
5065:
5044:
4993:
4944:
4918:Journal of Experimental Zoology
4909:
4890:
4871:
4842:
4805:
4796:
4754:
4742:
4668:
4643:
4586:
4456:
4405:
4348:
4242:
4207:
4160:
4103:
4054:
3970:
3927:
3907:
3894:
3864:
3815:
3789:
3755:
3706:
3662:
3643:
3551:Current Opinion in Cell Biology
2508:who have 22 different types of
2205:History and analysis techniques
2077:(bottom right), as well as the
1299:, which is sometimes expressed.
1254:Heterochromatin vs. euchromatin
953:Candidatus Hodgkinia cicadicola
875:Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory
8161:Last universal common ancestor
7756:Defective interfering particle
6449:Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics
5648:Journal of Experimental Botany
5248:European Chromosome 11 Network
4953:"The chromosome number of man"
4827:10.1088/1757-899x/180/1/012285
3822:Maderspacher, Florian (2008).
3626:
3619:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
3606:
3591:English Pronouncing Dictionary
3579:
3535:
3490:
3437:
3408:
3207:chromosome (genetic algorithm)
2303:
1382:. The shorter arms are called
1378:attached to each other at the
1222:In the nuclear chromosomes of
1037:Certain bacteria also contain
911:
64:Chromosome (genetic algorithm)
13:
1:
8297:Clonally transmissible cancer
7733:Satellite-like nucleic acids
6935:Home reference on Chromosomes
6774:10.1016/S0965-1748(99)00125-3
5902:, Bennett MD (January 2005).
5365:10.1016/S0015-0282(98)00261-1
4676:Chromosome Mapping: Idiograms
4536:10.1016/S0959-440X(00)00073-7
3979:Journal of Structural Biology
3423:. New York: Garland Science.
2361:problems, and are very short.
2149:balanced genetic polymorphism
1961:Medium-sized, submetacentric
1090:
1011:, and do not usually contain
959:Candidatus Tremblaya princeps
6919:loci graphically via the web
6504:10.1016/j.intimp.2004.06.003
6377:10.1016/j.micron.2004.12.010
5969:10.1080/00087114.2014.891700
5270:Molecular Human Reproduction
3741:10.1080/11263504.2012.712553
3691:10.1080/00087114.2012.678090
2026:
1287:Constitutive heterochromatin
667:
570:. These proteins, aided by
7:
6750:. ASM Press, Washington DC.
6746:Charlebois R.L. (ed) 1999.
6416:10.1534/genetics.106.055541
5073:"Chromosomal Abnormalities"
4766:apr2013.archive.ensembl.org
3316:XO sex-determination system
3311:ZW sex-determination system
3306:ZO sex-determination system
3270:XY sex-determination system
3155:
2526:
2473:Number in various organisms
2240:sex determination mechanism
2227:reported 47 chromosomes in
2053:of a human, with annotated
1297:Facultative heterochromatin
640:play a significant role in
580:three-dimensional structure
10:
8351:
7853:Class II or DNA transposon
7848:Class I or retrotransposon
7125:Dinoflagellate chromosomes
5765:10.1093/genetics/143.2.983
4031:10.1016/j.cell.2014.07.047
3762:Battaglia, Emilio (2009).
3081:, reproductive cells, are
2476:
2433:Pallister–Killian syndrome
2349:. Human examples include:
2307:
2208:
2182:(in a reaction vial) with
2121:is highly standardized in
2082:
2030:
1309:
1118:
1100:
1094:
915:
767:, which was introduced by
747:
737:
584:transcriptional regulation
61:
8223:
8166:Earliest known life forms
8151:
8064:
8040:Repeated sequences in DNA
7932:
7814:
7803:
7776:
7748:
7698:
7687:
7660:
7649:
7594:
7523:
7469:List of sequenced genomes
7444:
7347:
7309:
7279:
7237:Chromosomal translocation
7207:
7110:A chromosome/B chromosome
7101:(or accessory chromosome)
7063:
6994:
6889:Kimballs Chromosome pages
6147:10.1093/genetics/13.2.180
6129:Painter TS (March 1928).
6097:10.1007/s00335-006-0081-z
5605:10.1038/s41586-018-0382-x
5450:10.1016/j.tox.2004.05.018
4951:Tjio JH, Levan A (1956).
4228:10.1016/j.tim.2004.07.001
4079:10.1016/j.cub.2011.06.051
3991:10.1016/j.jsb.2006.05.007
3871:Carlson, Elof A. (2004).
3841:10.1016/j.cub.2008.02.061
3564:10.1016/j.ceb.2016.01.013
3525:Schleyden, M. J. (1847).
2356:, which is caused by the
2144:and the rest of the body)
2132:2. variation between the
2041:Karyogram of a human male
1324:Human chromosomes during
761:Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer
8013:Endogenous viral element
7831:Horizontal gene transfer
7291:Telomere-binding protein
7105:Supernumerary chromosome
6714:Sakamura, Tetsu (1918).
5054:. Springer-Verlag, N.Y.
4849:White, M. J. D. (1973).
4490:10.1073/pnas.94.23.12633
4414:Archives of Microbiology
3265:Sex-determination system
3073:(body cells), which are
2451:Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome
2391:Paris-Trousseau syndrome
2003:Very small, metacentric
1156:. It is present in most
1051:horizontal gene transfer
763:, referring to the term
546:with part or all of the
39:latest accepted revision
7710:dsDNA satellite virus (
6822:10.1073/pnas.0707522105
6050:10.1023/A:1015292005631
6013:10.1093/jhered/93.4.279
6000:The Journal of Heredity
5823:10.1073/pnas.0403659101
5352:Fertility and Sterility
4718:10.1126/science.1236083
4570:Oxford University Press
4324:10.1126/science.1242059
3936:Nature Reviews Genetics
3446:Nature Reviews Genetics
3148:Epulopiscium fishelsoni
2997:Columba livia domestica
2274:Pretreating cells in a
1339:In the early stages of
869:In his famous textbook
510:eukaryotic chromosome:
8268:Helper dependent virus
7584:Biological dark matter
7227:Structural alterations
5994:Octodrilus complanatus
5898:Leitch IJ, Soltis DE,
5710:10.1073/pnas.71.4.1247
5485:Toxicological Sciences
4938:10.1002/jez.1400370303
4652:Molecular Cell Biology
4465:"Archaeal nucleosomes"
4216:Trends in Microbiology
4173:Molecular Microbiology
3499:Essential Cell Biology
3172:Chromosome segregation
3110:homologous chromosomes
3057:
3046:chromosome territories
2689:Octodrilus complanatus
2332:chromosomal inversions
2319:
2310:Chromosome abnormality
2257:Using cells in culture
2155:geographical variation
2088:
2071:homologous chromosomes
2042:
1948:Large, submetacentric
1336:
1328:
1270:can be distinguished:
1255:
1219:
1130:
1053:. In prokaryotes (see
999:Structure in sequences
991:, containing a single
623:chromosome segregation
531:
8330:Nuclear substructures
8028:Endogenous retrovirus
8001:Origin of replication
7717:ssDNA satellite virus
7707:ssRNA satellite virus
7244:Numerical alterations
7232:Chromosomal inversion
7130:Homologous chromosome
6720:Shokubutsugaku Zasshi
5498:10.1093/toxsci/kfi066
5282:10.1093/molehr/gat039
5218:Trisomy 18 Foundation
5214:"What is Trisomy 18?"
4564:Cooper, G.M. (2019).
4434:10.1007/s002039900122
4373:10.1007/s000180050259
3900:Wilson, E.B. (1925).
3415:Wilson, John (2002).
3217:Genealogical DNA test
3061:Asexually reproducing
3043:
2751:Oryctolagus cuniculus
2317:
2083:Further information:
2048:
2040:
1908:chromosomal satellite
1334:
1323:
1253:
1205:
1128:
1015:, unlike eukaryotes.
1005:origin of replication
852:Edmund Beecher Wilson
844:genetic configuration
505:
443:Personalized medicine
437:Personalized medicine
300:Quantitative genetics
295:Mendelian inheritance
143:A chromosome and its
7972:Secondary chromosome
7967:Extrachromosomal DNA
7843:Transposable element
7452:Extrachromosomal DNA
7140:Satellite chromosome
7115:Lampbrush chromosome
7055:Nuclear organization
6928:12 July 2007 at the
5661:10.1093/jxb/54.380.1
4880:Archives de Biologie
3633:Coxx, H. J. (1925).
3458:10.1038/nrg.2016.112
3384:10.1038/nrm.2016.159
3354:Notes and references
3348:Parasitic chromosome
3260:Secondary chromosome
3224:Lampbrush chromosome
3067:Sexually reproducing
2674:Arthrosphaera fumosa
2547:Arabidopsis thaliana
2397:Klinefelter syndrome
2079:mitochondrial genome
1450:mitochondrial genome
1291:repetitive sequences
1242:Interphase chromatin
1043:extrachromosomal DNA
984:Borrelia burgdorferi
965:Sorangium cellulosum
782:History of discovery
363:Branches of genetics
8208:Model lipid bilayer
8050:Interspersed repeat
7145:Centromere position
7120:Polytene chromosome
7090:Circular chromosome
6923:Genographic Project
6813:2008PNAS..105.6730M
6498:(10–11): 1391–400.
6038:Chromosome Research
5814:2004PNAS..10113554K
5701:1974PNAS...71.1247G
5597:2018Natur.560..331S
5405:10.1289/ehp.0901531
5244:"Terminal deletion"
5156:"Genetic Disorders"
5014:1956Natur.178.1020F
4930:1923JEZ....37..291P
4710:2013Sci...342..948N
4611:2015NatSR...511916P
4481:1997PNAS...9412633P
4426:2000ArMic.173..165S
4316:2013Sci...342..731L
4128:2013NatSR...3E2101H
3917:. Harvard. p. 749.
3733:2012PBios.146..674P
3333:Polytene chromosome
3292:Y-chromosomal Aaron
2949:
2776:poecilia reticulata
2637:
2622:Adder's tongue fern
2533:
2225:Hans von Winiwarter
2221:human cell contain?
2069:level. It shows 22
2055:bands and sub-bands
1480:
1357:chromosome scaffold
1262:(the period of the
936:circular chromosome
891:Richard Goldschmidt
646:mitotic catastrophe
638:sexual reproduction
333:Genetic engineering
290:Population genetics
163:Part of a series on
29:Page version status
7518:organic structures
6665:10.1266/jjg.44.163
6582:10.1002/cyto.10100
6343:, pp. 61–94,
6265:10.1007/bf00057436
5920:10.1093/aob/mci014
5869:10.1007/BF00277053
5224:on 30 January 2017
4786:"Chromosome Map".
4599:Scientific Reports
4116:Scientific Reports
3622:. Merriam-Webster.
3297:Y-chromosomal Adam
3203:genetic algorithms
3058:
2975:Trypanosoma brucei
2947:
2635:
2611:Cultivated tobacco
2531:
2340:Genetic counseling
2320:
2276:hypotonic solution
2089:
2081:(at bottom left).
2043:
1872:Y (sex chromosome)
1856:X (sex chromosome)
1479:
1337:
1329:
1256:
1220:
1131:
1083:, regulation, and
902:Theophilus Painter
864:Theophilus Painter
774:Some of the early
572:chaperone proteins
532:
305:Molecular genetics
264:History and topics
35:
8312:
8311:
8253:Non-cellular life
8060:
8059:
7799:
7798:
7772:
7771:
7726:ssRNA satellite (
7482:
7481:
7440:
7439:
7177:Centromere number
7094:Linear chromosome
6617:10.1159/000063018
6461:10.1159/000056992
6308:10.1159/000063034
6193:10.1159/000069807
5591:(7718): 331–335.
5539:10.1111/and.12371
5199:978-0-13-436265-6
5022:10.1038/1781020a0
4864:978-0-412-11930-9
4789:Genes and Disease
4749:Vega.sanger.ad.uk
4661:978-0-7167-7601-7
4654:. W. H. Freeman.
4619:10.1038/srep11916
4268:10.1002/jcb.20519
4136:10.1038/srep02101
3913:Mayr, E. (1982).
3796:Fokin SI (2013).
3600:978-3-12-539683-8
3508:978-0-8153-4454-4
3430:978-0-8153-3577-1
3212:Genetic genealogy
3030:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3019:2 sex chromosomes
2943:
2942:
2631:
2630:
2439:Triple-X syndrome
2387:Jacobsen syndrome
2347:genetic disorders
2268:by a solution of
2024:
2023:
1900:
1899:
1436:Human chromosomes
1388:(from the French
887:Wilhelm Johannsen
732:) comes from the
642:genetic diversity
615:sister chromatids
500:
499:
227:Genetic variation
158:
157:
47:18 September 2024
26:
16:(Redirected from
8342:
7989:Gene duplication
7812:
7811:
7808:self-replication
7696:
7695:
7658:
7657:
7516:Self-replicating
7509:
7502:
7495:
7486:
7485:
7307:
7306:
7271:Polyploidization
7099:Extra chromosome
7014:Genetic material
6977:
6970:
6963:
6954:
6953:
6845:
6844:
6834:
6824:
6792:
6786:
6785:
6757:
6751:
6744:
6738:
6737:
6735:
6711:
6705:
6704:
6676:
6670:
6669:
6667:
6643:
6637:
6636:
6600:
6594:
6593:
6565:
6559:
6558:
6522:
6516:
6515:
6487:
6481:
6480:
6444:
6438:
6437:
6427:
6395:
6389:
6388:
6360:
6354:
6353:
6334:
6328:
6327:
6291:
6285:
6284:
6248:
6239:
6238:
6236:
6234:
6225:. Archived from
6219:
6213:
6212:
6187:(2–3): 199–205.
6175:
6169:
6168:
6158:
6126:
6117:
6116:
6085:Mammalian Genome
6079:
6070:
6069:
6032:
6026:
6025:
6015:
5987:
5981:
5980:
5948:
5942:
5941:
5931:
5908:Annals of Botany
5895:
5889:
5888:
5852:
5846:
5845:
5835:
5825:
5793:
5787:
5786:
5776:
5744:
5733:
5732:
5722:
5712:
5680:
5674:
5673:
5663:
5639:
5633:
5632:
5582:
5574:
5568:
5567:
5541:
5517:
5511:
5510:
5500:
5476:
5470:
5469:
5433:
5427:
5426:
5416:
5384:
5378:
5377:
5367:
5343:
5337:
5336:
5317:10.1002/mrd.1048
5300:
5294:
5293:
5265:
5259:
5258:
5256:
5254:
5240:
5234:
5233:
5231:
5229:
5220:. Archived from
5210:
5204:
5203:
5187:
5177:
5171:
5170:
5168:
5166:
5152:
5146:
5145:
5103:
5094:
5088:
5087:
5086:
5084:
5069:
5063:
5050:Hsu T.C. (1979)
5048:
5042:
5041:
5008:(4541): 1020–3.
4997:
4991:
4990:
4972:
4948:
4942:
4941:
4913:
4907:
4906:
4894:
4888:
4887:
4875:
4869:
4868:
4856:
4846:
4840:
4839:
4829:
4809:
4803:
4800:
4794:
4793:
4783:
4777:
4776:
4774:
4772:
4758:
4752:
4746:
4740:
4739:
4729:
4704:(6161): 948–53.
4689:
4683:
4682:– 13 August 2013
4680:Nature Education
4672:
4666:
4665:
4647:
4641:
4640:
4630:
4590:
4584:
4583:
4561:
4548:
4547:
4519:
4513:
4512:
4502:
4492:
4460:
4454:
4453:
4409:
4403:
4402:
4384:
4352:
4346:
4345:
4335:
4295:
4289:
4288:
4270:
4246:
4240:
4239:
4211:
4205:
4204:
4164:
4158:
4157:
4147:
4107:
4101:
4100:
4090:
4058:
4052:
4051:
4033:
4024:(6): 1270–1280.
4009:
4003:
4002:
3974:
3968:
3967:
3931:
3925:
3911:
3905:
3898:
3892:
3891:
3879:
3868:
3862:
3861:
3843:
3834:(7): R279–R286.
3819:
3813:
3812:
3802:
3793:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3782:
3768:
3759:
3753:
3752:
3721:Plant Biosystems
3718:
3710:
3704:
3703:
3693:
3675:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3647:
3641:
3640:
3630:
3624:
3623:
3610:
3604:
3603:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3566:
3548:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3522:
3513:
3512:
3494:
3488:
3487:
3469:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3422:
3412:
3406:
3405:
3395:
3363:
3192:Genetic deletion
2967:Microchromosomes
2950:
2946:
2730:Laboratory mouse
2660:Common fruit fly
2638:
2634:
2534:
2530:
2527:
2464:Sperm aneuploidy
2425:Cat-eye syndrome
2375:Edwards syndrome
2235:, concluding an
2091:In general, the
1913:
1912:
1481:
1478:
1470:gene predictions
1462:Sanger Institute
1420:During mitosis,
1137:associated with
1103:DNA condensation
803:
794:
769:Walther Flemming
750:
749:
745:, "colour") and
740:
739:
731:
730:
727:
726:
723:
720:
717:
712:
711:
708:
705:
702:
699:
696:
693:
690:
687:
684:
593:only during the
591:light microscope
548:genetic material
492:
485:
478:
465:
460:
459:
355:Medical genetics
351:
346:
345:
179:
160:
159:
141:
140:
130:
123:
114:
107:
100:
91:
82:
71:
21:
8350:
8349:
8345:
8344:
8343:
8341:
8340:
8339:
8315:
8314:
8313:
8308:
8258:Synthetic virus
8246:Artificial cell
8219:
8147:
8056:
7945:RNA replication
7940:DNA replication
7928:
7919:Group II intron
7817:
7807:
7795:
7786:Mammalian prion
7768:
7744:
7723:dsRNA satellite
7720:ssDNA satellite
7690:
7683:
7652:
7645:
7590:
7519:
7513:
7483:
7478:
7436:
7343:
7305:
7275:
7264:Paleopolyploidy
7209:
7203:
7059:
7033:Heterochromatin
6996:
6990:
6981:
6930:Wayback Machine
6853:
6848:
6793:
6789:
6758:
6754:
6745:
6741:
6712:
6708:
6681:Animal Genetics
6677:
6673:
6644:
6640:
6611:(1–4): 97–112.
6601:
6597:
6566:
6562:
6523:
6519:
6488:
6484:
6455:(3–4): 249–52.
6445:
6441:
6396:
6392:
6361:
6357:
6351:
6335:
6331:
6292:
6288:
6249:
6242:
6232:
6230:
6221:
6220:
6216:
6176:
6172:
6127:
6120:
6091:(12): 1183–92.
6080:
6073:
6033:
6029:
5988:
5984:
5949:
5945:
5896:
5892:
5853:
5849:
5808:(37): 13554–9.
5794:
5790:
5745:
5736:
5681:
5677:
5640:
5636:
5575:
5571:
5518:
5514:
5477:
5473:
5434:
5430:
5385:
5381:
5344:
5340:
5301:
5297:
5266:
5262:
5252:
5250:
5242:
5241:
5237:
5227:
5225:
5212:
5211:
5207:
5200:
5178:
5174:
5164:
5162:
5160:medlineplus.gov
5154:
5153:
5149:
5118:10.1038/nrm4025
5101:
5095:
5091:
5082:
5080:
5071:
5070:
5066:
5049:
5045:
4998:
4994:
4949:
4945:
4914:
4910:
4895:
4891:
4876:
4872:
4865:
4853:The chromosomes
4847:
4843:
4810:
4806:
4801:
4797:
4785:
4784:
4780:
4770:
4768:
4760:
4759:
4755:
4747:
4743:
4690:
4686:
4673:
4669:
4662:
4648:
4644:
4591:
4587:
4580:
4562:
4551:
4520:
4516:
4475:(23): 12633–7.
4461:
4457:
4410:
4406:
4367:(12): 1350–64.
4353:
4349:
4310:(6159): 731–4.
4296:
4292:
4247:
4243:
4212:
4208:
4165:
4161:
4108:
4104:
4073:(16): 1366–72.
4067:Current Biology
4059:
4055:
4010:
4006:
3975:
3971:
3948:10.1038/nrg1917
3932:
3928:
3912:
3908:
3899:
3895:
3888:
3887:978-087969675-7
3877:
3869:
3865:
3828:Current Biology
3820:
3816:
3800:
3794:
3790:
3780:
3778:
3766:
3760:
3756:
3711:
3707:
3673:
3667:
3663:
3648:
3644:
3631:
3627:
3612:
3611:
3607:
3601:
3584:
3580:
3546:
3540:
3536:
3523:
3516:
3509:
3495:
3491:
3452:(11): 661–678.
3442:
3438:
3431:
3413:
3409:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3255:Non-disjunction
3245:Microchromosome
3158:
3123:
2994:
2992:Domestic pigeon
2962:
2957:
2514:sex chromosomes
2486:
2481:
2475:
2466:
2445:Turner syndrome
2411:during puberty.
2381:Isodicentric 15
2312:
2306:
2213:
2207:
2087:
2035:
2029:
1474:heterochromatin
1438:
1318:
1308:
1281:Heterochromatin
1247:transcription.
1244:
1162:red blood cells
1123:
1117:
1099:
1093:
1070:plasma membrane
1021:
1001:
987:, the cause of
920:
914:
883:William Bateson
820:
819:
818:
817:
806:
805:
804:
796:
795:
784:
714:
681:
677:
670:
636:and subsequent
530:
496:
455:
448:
447:
438:
430:
429:
428:
427:
376:
368:
367:
359:
337:
318:
310:
309:
265:
257:
256:
243:
242:
241:
187:
154:
153:
152:
142:
134:
133:
132:
131:
126:
124:
117:
115:
110:
108:
103:
101:
94:
92:
87:
83:
67:
60:
55:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
34:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8348:
8338:
8337:
8332:
8327:
8310:
8309:
8307:
8306:
8301:
8300:
8299:
8294:
8284:
8278:
8272:
8271:
8270:
8265:
8255:
8250:
8249:
8248:
8243:
8233:
8227:
8225:
8221:
8220:
8218:
8217:
8216:
8215:
8210:
8202:
8197:
8192:
8187:
8181:
8180:
8179:
8168:
8163:
8157:
8155:
8149:
8148:
8146:
8145:
8140:
8139:
8138:
8133:
8125:
8123:Kappa organism
8120:
8119:
8118:
8113:
8108:
8103:
8098:
8088:
8087:
8086:
8081:
8070:
8068:
8062:
8061:
8058:
8057:
8055:
8054:
8053:
8052:
8047:
8037:
8036:
8035:
8030:
8025:
8020:
8010:
8009:
8008:
7998:
7997:
7996:
7994:Non-coding DNA
7991:
7986:
7976:
7975:
7974:
7969:
7964:
7959:
7949:
7948:
7947:
7936:
7934:
7930:
7929:
7927:
7926:
7921:
7916:
7914:Group I intron
7911:
7906:
7905:
7904:
7894:
7893:
7892:
7889:
7880:
7877:
7872:
7867:
7857:
7856:
7855:
7850:
7840:
7839:
7838:
7836:Genomic island
7833:
7822:
7820:
7816:Mobile genetic
7809:
7801:
7800:
7797:
7796:
7794:
7793:
7788:
7782:
7780:
7774:
7773:
7770:
7769:
7767:
7766:
7765:
7764:
7761:
7752:
7750:
7746:
7745:
7743:
7742:
7741:
7740:
7737:
7731:
7724:
7721:
7718:
7715:
7708:
7704:
7702:
7693:
7685:
7684:
7682:
7681:
7674:
7666:
7664:
7655:
7647:
7646:
7644:
7643:
7641:dsDNA-RT virus
7638:
7636:ssRNA-RT virus
7633:
7631:(−)ssRNA virus
7628:
7626:(+)ssRNA virus
7623:
7618:
7613:
7612:
7611:
7600:
7598:
7592:
7591:
7589:
7588:
7587:
7586:
7581:
7571:Incertae sedis
7567:
7566:
7565:
7560:
7555:
7550:
7540:
7535:
7529:
7527:
7521:
7520:
7512:
7511:
7504:
7497:
7489:
7480:
7479:
7477:
7476:
7471:
7466:
7461:
7460:
7459:
7448:
7446:
7442:
7441:
7438:
7437:
7435:
7434:
7429:
7424:
7419:
7414:
7409:
7404:
7399:
7394:
7389:
7384:
7379:
7374:
7369:
7364:
7359:
7353:
7351:
7345:
7344:
7342:
7341:
7336:
7331:
7326:
7321:
7315:
7313:
7304:
7303:
7298:
7283:
7281:
7277:
7276:
7274:
7273:
7268:
7267:
7266:
7261:
7256:
7251:
7241:
7240:
7239:
7234:
7224:
7219:
7213:
7211:
7205:
7204:
7202:
7201:
7200:
7199:
7194:
7189:
7184:
7174:
7173:
7172:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7155:Submetacentric
7152:
7142:
7137:
7132:
7127:
7122:
7117:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7096:
7087:
7082:
7081:or heterosome)
7075:Sex chromosome
7067:
7065:
7061:
7060:
7058:
7057:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7036:
7035:
7030:
7020:
7011:
7006:
7000:
6998:
6992:
6991:
6980:
6979:
6972:
6965:
6957:
6951:
6950:
6944:
6938:
6932:
6920:
6902:
6896:
6891:
6886:
6880:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6852:
6851:External links
6849:
6847:
6846:
6807:(18): 6730–4.
6787:
6752:
6739:
6726:(379): 150–3.
6706:
6671:
6658:(3): 163–170.
6638:
6595:
6560:
6517:
6482:
6439:
6410:(3): 1319–28.
6390:
6355:
6349:
6329:
6302:(1–4): 223–7.
6286:
6259:(1–2): 37–52.
6240:
6229:on 31 May 2023
6214:
6170:
6118:
6071:
6027:
5982:
5943:
5890:
5847:
5788:
5734:
5675:
5634:
5569:
5512:
5471:
5444:(1–3): 49–60.
5428:
5379:
5338:
5295:
5276:(10): 634–43.
5260:
5235:
5205:
5198:
5172:
5147:
5089:
5064:
5043:
4992:
4963:(1–2): 723–4.
4943:
4924:(3): 291–336.
4908:
4889:
4870:
4863:
4841:
4804:
4795:
4778:
4753:
4741:
4684:
4667:
4660:
4642:
4585:
4579:978-1605357072
4578:
4568:(8 ed.).
4549:
4514:
4455:
4404:
4347:
4290:
4241:
4222:(9): 399–401.
4206:
4159:
4102:
4053:
4004:
3985:(2): 292–303.
3969:
3942:(8): 655–660.
3926:
3906:
3893:
3886:
3863:
3814:
3788:
3754:
3727:(3): 674–675.
3705:
3661:
3642:
3625:
3605:
3599:
3578:
3534:
3514:
3507:
3489:
3467:2027.42/151884
3436:
3429:
3407:
3378:(3): 141–158.
3357:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3329:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3294:
3284:
3283:
3282:
3280:X-inactivation
3262:
3257:
3252:
3250:Minichromosome
3247:
3242:
3237:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3220:
3219:
3209:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3157:
3154:
3122:
3121:In prokaryotes
3119:
3028:
3027:
3024:
3023:
3020:
3017:
3014:
3010:
3009:
3006:
3003:
3000:
2988:
2987:
2984:
2981:
2978:
2970:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2857:
2851:
2850:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2827:
2825:Domestic sheep
2821:
2820:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2807:
2801:
2800:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2787:
2783:
2782:
2779:
2768:
2767:
2764:
2762:Syrian hamster
2758:
2757:
2754:
2746:
2745:
2742:
2740:Laboratory rat
2736:
2735:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2692:
2681:
2680:
2677:
2670:Pill millipede
2666:
2665:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2652:
2650:Indian muntjac
2646:
2645:
2642:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2627:approx. 1,200
2625:
2618:
2617:
2614:
2607:
2606:
2603:
2596:
2595:
2592:
2585:
2584:
2581:
2577:
2576:
2573:
2566:
2565:
2562:
2555:
2554:
2551:
2542:
2541:
2538:
2485:
2482:
2477:Main article:
2474:
2471:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2454:
2448:
2442:
2436:
2418:
2415:Patau Syndrome
2412:
2394:
2384:
2378:
2372:
2362:
2328:translocations
2308:Main article:
2305:
2302:
2286:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2272:
2258:
2206:
2203:
2169:
2168:
2161:
2151:
2145:
2130:
2075:sex chromosome
2031:Main article:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2021:
2014:
2011:
2005:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1988:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1959:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1933:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1898:
1897:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1820:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1714:
1708:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1612:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1596:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1576:
1573:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1548:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1496:
1490:
1485:
1446:sex chromosome
1437:
1434:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1300:
1294:
1278:
1243:
1240:
1095:Main article:
1092:
1089:
1020:
1017:
1000:
997:
916:Main article:
913:
910:
856:Nettie Stevens
830:Theodor Boveri
814:Theodor Boveri
808:
807:
798:
797:
789:
788:
787:
786:
785:
783:
780:
669:
666:
574:, bind to and
529:
528:
525:
522:
517:
511:
498:
497:
495:
494:
487:
480:
472:
469:
468:
467:
466:
450:
449:
446:
445:
439:
436:
435:
432:
431:
426:
425:
420:
415:
410:
405:
403:Immunogenetics
400:
395:
390:
385:
379:
378:
377:
374:
373:
370:
369:
366:
365:
358:
357:
352:
335:
330:
328:DNA sequencing
325:
319:
316:
315:
312:
311:
308:
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
277:
272:
266:
263:
262:
259:
258:
255:
254:
249:
240:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
190:
189:
188:
186:Key components
185:
184:
181:
180:
172:
171:
165:
164:
156:
155:
136:
135:
85:
84:
77:
76:
75:
74:
58:
36:
30:
27:
25:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8347:
8336:
8333:
8331:
8328:
8326:
8323:
8322:
8320:
8305:
8302:
8298:
8295:
8293:
8290:
8289:
8288:
8285:
8283:
8279:
8277:
8276:Nanobacterium
8273:
8269:
8266:
8264:
8261:
8260:
8259:
8256:
8254:
8251:
8247:
8244:
8242:
8241:Cell division
8239:
8238:
8237:
8234:
8232:
8229:
8228:
8226:
8222:
8214:
8211:
8209:
8206:
8205:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8196:
8193:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8182:
8178:
8175:
8174:
8173:
8169:
8167:
8164:
8162:
8159:
8158:
8156:
8154:
8150:
8144:
8141:
8137:
8134:
8132:
8129:
8128:
8126:
8124:
8121:
8117:
8114:
8112:
8109:
8107:
8104:
8102:
8099:
8097:
8094:
8093:
8092:
8089:
8085:
8084:Hydrogenosome
8082:
8080:
8077:
8076:
8075:
8074:Mitochondrion
8072:
8071:
8069:
8067:
8066:Endosymbiosis
8063:
8051:
8048:
8046:
8045:Tandem repeat
8043:
8042:
8041:
8038:
8034:
8031:
8029:
8026:
8024:
8021:
8019:
8016:
8015:
8014:
8011:
8007:
8004:
8003:
8002:
7999:
7995:
7992:
7990:
7987:
7985:
7982:
7981:
7980:
7977:
7973:
7970:
7968:
7965:
7963:
7960:
7958:
7955:
7954:
7953:
7950:
7946:
7943:
7942:
7941:
7938:
7937:
7935:
7933:Other aspects
7931:
7925:
7922:
7920:
7917:
7915:
7912:
7910:
7907:
7903:
7900:
7899:
7898:
7895:
7890:
7888:
7884:
7881:
7878:
7876:
7873:
7871:
7868:
7866:
7863:
7862:
7861:
7858:
7854:
7851:
7849:
7846:
7845:
7844:
7841:
7837:
7834:
7832:
7829:
7828:
7827:
7824:
7823:
7821:
7819:
7813:
7810:
7806:
7802:
7792:
7789:
7787:
7784:
7783:
7781:
7779:
7775:
7762:
7759:
7758:
7757:
7754:
7753:
7751:
7747:
7738:
7735:
7734:
7732:
7729:
7725:
7722:
7719:
7716:
7713:
7709:
7706:
7705:
7703:
7701:
7697:
7694:
7692:
7686:
7680:
7679:
7678:Avsunviroidae
7675:
7673:
7672:
7671:Pospiviroidae
7668:
7667:
7665:
7663:
7659:
7656:
7654:
7648:
7642:
7639:
7637:
7634:
7632:
7629:
7627:
7624:
7622:
7619:
7617:
7614:
7610:
7607:
7606:
7605:
7602:
7601:
7599:
7597:
7593:
7585:
7582:
7580:
7579:
7575:
7574:
7573:
7572:
7568:
7564:
7561:
7559:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7545:
7544:
7541:
7539:
7536:
7534:
7531:
7530:
7528:
7526:
7525:Cellular life
7522:
7517:
7510:
7505:
7503:
7498:
7496:
7491:
7490:
7487:
7475:
7472:
7470:
7467:
7465:
7462:
7458:
7455:
7454:
7453:
7450:
7449:
7447:
7443:
7433:
7430:
7428:
7425:
7423:
7420:
7418:
7415:
7413:
7410:
7408:
7405:
7403:
7400:
7398:
7395:
7393:
7390:
7388:
7385:
7383:
7380:
7378:
7375:
7373:
7370:
7368:
7365:
7363:
7360:
7358:
7355:
7354:
7352:
7350:
7346:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7332:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7322:
7320:
7317:
7316:
7314:
7312:
7308:
7302:
7299:
7296:
7292:
7288:
7285:
7284:
7282:
7278:
7272:
7269:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7255:
7252:
7250:
7247:
7246:
7245:
7242:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7229:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7214:
7212:
7210:and evolution
7206:
7198:
7195:
7193:
7190:
7188:
7185:
7183:
7180:
7179:
7178:
7175:
7171:
7168:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7151:
7148:
7147:
7146:
7143:
7141:
7138:
7136:
7135:Isochromosome
7133:
7131:
7128:
7126:
7123:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7113:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7103:
7100:
7097:
7095:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7080:
7076:
7072:
7069:
7068:
7066:
7062:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7025:
7024:
7021:
7019:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7005:
7002:
7001:
6999:
6993:
6989:
6985:
6978:
6973:
6971:
6966:
6964:
6959:
6958:
6955:
6948:
6945:
6942:
6939:
6936:
6933:
6931:
6927:
6924:
6921:
6918:
6914:
6910:
6906:
6903:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6884:
6881:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6865:
6862:
6858:
6855:
6854:
6842:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6791:
6783:
6779:
6775:
6771:
6767:
6763:
6756:
6749:
6743:
6734:
6729:
6725:
6721:
6717:
6710:
6702:
6698:
6694:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6675:
6666:
6661:
6657:
6653:
6649:
6642:
6634:
6630:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6606:
6599:
6591:
6587:
6583:
6579:
6575:
6571:
6564:
6556:
6552:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6533:(3): 247–57.
6532:
6528:
6521:
6513:
6509:
6505:
6501:
6497:
6493:
6486:
6478:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6450:
6443:
6435:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6417:
6413:
6409:
6405:
6401:
6394:
6386:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6359:
6352:
6350:9782831700199
6346:
6342:
6341:
6333:
6325:
6321:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6290:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6262:
6258:
6254:
6247:
6245:
6228:
6224:
6218:
6210:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6174:
6166:
6162:
6157:
6152:
6148:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6125:
6123:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6078:
6076:
6067:
6063:
6059:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6044:(3): 209–22.
6043:
6039:
6031:
6023:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6006:(4): 279–82.
6005:
6001:
5997:
5995:
5986:
5978:
5974:
5970:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5954:
5953:Arthrosphaera
5947:
5939:
5935:
5930:
5925:
5921:
5917:
5914:(1): 207–17.
5913:
5909:
5905:
5901:
5894:
5886:
5882:
5878:
5874:
5870:
5866:
5863:(2): 159–69.
5862:
5858:
5851:
5843:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5792:
5784:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5759:(2): 983–99.
5758:
5754:
5750:
5743:
5741:
5739:
5730:
5726:
5721:
5716:
5711:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5695:(4): 1247–9.
5694:
5690:
5686:
5679:
5671:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5654:(380): 1–10.
5653:
5649:
5645:
5638:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5618:
5614:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5581:
5573:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5540:
5535:
5532:(9): 1012–9.
5531:
5527:
5523:
5516:
5508:
5504:
5499:
5494:
5491:(1): 615–23.
5490:
5486:
5482:
5475:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5432:
5424:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5390:
5383:
5375:
5371:
5366:
5361:
5358:(4): 715–23.
5357:
5353:
5349:
5342:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5311:(4): 417–21.
5310:
5306:
5299:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5264:
5249:
5245:
5239:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5209:
5201:
5195:
5191:
5186:
5185:
5176:
5161:
5157:
5151:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5126:1721.1/117201
5123:
5119:
5115:
5112:(8): 473–85.
5111:
5107:
5100:
5093:
5078:
5074:
5068:
5061:
5060:9780387903644
5057:
5053:
5047:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4996:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4947:
4939:
4935:
4931:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4912:
4904:
4900:
4893:
4885:
4881:
4874:
4866:
4860:
4855:
4854:
4845:
4837:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4819:
4815:
4808:
4799:
4791:
4790:
4782:
4767:
4763:
4757:
4750:
4745:
4737:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4688:
4681:
4677:
4671:
4663:
4657:
4653:
4646:
4638:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4589:
4581:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4560:
4558:
4556:
4554:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4530:(2): 229–35.
4529:
4525:
4518:
4510:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4459:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4408:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4351:
4343:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4294:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4261:(3): 506–21.
4260:
4256:
4252:
4245:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4210:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4179:(5): 917–22.
4178:
4174:
4170:
4163:
4155:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4106:
4098:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4057:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4008:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3973:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3930:
3924:
3923:9780674364462
3920:
3916:
3910:
3903:
3897:
3889:
3883:
3876:
3875:
3867:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3818:
3810:
3806:
3799:
3792:
3776:
3772:
3765:
3758:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3717:
3709:
3701:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3672:
3665:
3657:
3653:
3646:
3638:
3637:
3629:
3621:
3620:
3615:
3609:
3602:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3587:Jones, Daniel
3582:
3574:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3545:
3538:
3530:
3529:
3521:
3519:
3510:
3504:
3500:
3493:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3440:
3432:
3426:
3421:
3420:
3411:
3403:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3362:
3358:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3343:Neochromosome
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3289:
3288:
3285:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3159:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3127:
3118:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3102:
3100:
3099:fertilization
3096:
3092:
3089:of a diploid
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3071:somatic cells
3069:species have
3068:
3064:
3062:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3044:The 23 human
3042:
3038:
3035:
3021:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3007:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2993:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2968:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2952:
2951:
2945:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2932:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2922:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2902:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2822:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2788:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2755:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2737:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2717:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2678:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2633:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2604:
2601:
2598:
2597:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2571:
2570:Einkorn wheat
2568:
2567:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2544:
2543:
2539:
2537:Plant species
2536:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2494:
2492:
2484:In eukaryotes
2480:
2470:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2366:
2365:Down syndrome
2363:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2324:Down syndrome
2316:
2311:
2301:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2229:spermatogonia
2226:
2222:
2220:
2212:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2166:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2115:transcription
2112:
2109:Although the
2107:
2105:
2101:
2098:
2094:
2086:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2039:
2034:
2019:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1977:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1895:
1893:3,079,843,747
1892:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1869:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1677:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1661:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1483:
1482:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1396:
1391:
1387:
1386:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1353:
1350:
1349:transcription
1346:
1342:
1333:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1252:
1248:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1200:
1199:chromosomes.
1198:
1194:
1191:
1190:mitochondrial
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1145:
1140:
1136:
1127:
1122:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1098:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1081:transcription
1078:
1073:
1071:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1019:DNA packaging
1016:
1014:
1010:
1006:
996:
994:
990:
986:
985:
980:
979:
975:
971:
967:
966:
961:
960:
955:
954:
949:
948:endosymbiotic
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
919:
909:
907:
903:
898:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
867:
865:
861:
860:Walter Sutton
857:
853:
849:
848:Gregor Mendel
845:
841:
837:
835:
831:
826:
824:
823:Otto Bütschli
815:
811:
810:Walter Sutton
802:
793:
779:
777:
772:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
744:
735:
729:
675:
665:
662:
657:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
630:recombination
626:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
599:cell division
596:
592:
587:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
512:
509:
504:
493:
488:
486:
481:
479:
474:
473:
471:
470:
464:
454:
453:
452:
451:
444:
441:
440:
434:
433:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
380:
372:
371:
364:
361:
360:
356:
353:
349:
340:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
320:
314:
313:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
285:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
267:
261:
260:
253:
250:
248:
245:
244:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
192:
191:
183:
182:
178:
174:
173:
170:
167:
166:
162:
161:
150:
146:
129:
121:
113:
106:
98:
90:
81:
73:
72:
69:
65:
48:
44:
40:
33:
28:
19:
8335:Cytogenetics
8263:Viral vector
8106:Gerontoplast
8033:Transpoviron
7951:
7805:Nucleic acid
7791:Fungal prion
7689:Helper-virus
7676:
7669:
7576:
7569:
7176:
7144:
7039:
6987:
6984:Cytogenetics
6899:Eurochromnet
6804:
6800:
6790:
6768:(3): 253–8.
6765:
6761:
6755:
6747:
6742:
6723:
6719:
6709:
6687:(4): 290–4.
6684:
6680:
6674:
6655:
6651:
6641:
6608:
6604:
6598:
6573:
6569:
6563:
6530:
6526:
6520:
6495:
6491:
6485:
6452:
6448:
6442:
6407:
6403:
6393:
6371:(4): 351–7.
6368:
6364:
6358:
6339:
6332:
6299:
6295:
6289:
6256:
6252:
6231:. Retrieved
6227:the original
6217:
6184:
6180:
6173:
6141:(2): 180–9.
6138:
6134:
6088:
6084:
6041:
6037:
6030:
6003:
5999:
5993:
5985:
5963:(1): 49–56.
5960:
5956:
5952:
5946:
5911:
5907:
5893:
5860:
5856:
5850:
5805:
5801:
5791:
5756:
5752:
5692:
5688:
5678:
5651:
5647:
5637:
5588:
5584:
5572:
5548:11365/982323
5529:
5525:
5515:
5488:
5484:
5474:
5441:
5437:
5431:
5399:(6): 833–9.
5396:
5392:
5382:
5355:
5351:
5341:
5308:
5304:
5298:
5273:
5269:
5263:
5251:. Retrieved
5247:
5238:
5226:. Retrieved
5222:the original
5217:
5208:
5183:
5175:
5163:. Retrieved
5159:
5150:
5109:
5105:
5092:
5083:27 September
5081:, retrieved
5076:
5067:
5051:
5046:
5005:
5001:
4995:
4960:
4956:
4946:
4921:
4917:
4911:
4902:
4898:
4892:
4886:(93): 147–9.
4883:
4879:
4873:
4852:
4844:
4817:
4807:
4798:
4788:
4781:
4769:. Retrieved
4765:
4756:
4744:
4701:
4697:
4687:
4679:
4670:
4651:
4645:
4605:(1): 11916.
4602:
4598:
4588:
4565:
4527:
4523:
4517:
4472:
4468:
4458:
4420:(3): 165–9.
4417:
4413:
4407:
4364:
4360:
4350:
4307:
4303:
4293:
4258:
4254:
4244:
4219:
4215:
4209:
4176:
4172:
4162:
4119:
4115:
4105:
4070:
4066:
4056:
4021:
4017:
4007:
3982:
3978:
3972:
3939:
3935:
3929:
3914:
3909:
3901:
3896:
3873:
3866:
3831:
3827:
3817:
3808:
3805:Protistology
3804:
3791:
3779:. Retrieved
3774:
3770:
3757:
3724:
3720:
3708:
3684:(1): 65–66.
3681:
3677:
3664:
3655:
3651:
3645:
3635:
3628:
3617:
3614:"Chromosome"
3608:
3590:
3581:
3554:
3550:
3537:
3527:
3498:
3492:
3449:
3445:
3439:
3418:
3410:
3375:
3371:
3361:
3287:Y-chromosome
3275:X-chromosome
3146:
3132:
3124:
3103:
3065:
3059:
3050:prometaphase
3031:
2996:
2973:
2961:Intermediate
2835:Garden snail
2775:
2750:
2720:Domestic pig
2710:Domestic cat
2688:
2673:
2613:(tetraploid)
2591:(tetraploid)
2545:
2521:
2495:
2487:
2467:
2457:XYY syndrome
2409:gynecomastia
2401:speech delay
2344:
2321:
2298:chromosome 2
2287:
2252:
2216:
2214:
2192:
2187:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2108:
2104:cytogenetics
2090:
2008:
1995:
1982:
1966:
1953:
1940:
1927:
1919:Chromosomes
1901:
1458:human genome
1439:
1426:kinetochores
1422:microtubules
1419:
1416:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1393:
1389:
1383:
1373:
1354:
1338:
1296:
1286:
1257:
1245:
1230:(structural
1221:
1176:
1166:
1154:mitochondria
1150:small amount
1142:
1135:DNA molecule
1132:
1074:
1067:
1063:histone-like
1036:
1022:
1002:
995:chromosome.
992:
989:Lyme disease
982:
976:
970:Spirochaetes
963:
957:
951:
921:
906:Joe Hin Tjio
899:
870:
868:
840:Wilhelm Roux
838:
827:
821:
776:karyological
773:
752:
742:
673:
671:
658:
628:Chromosomal
627:
588:
535:
533:
423:Quantitative
393:Cytogenetics
388:Conservation
270:Introduction
88:
68:
46:
37:This is the
31:
8325:Chromosomes
8287:Cancer cell
8153:Abiogenesis
8101:Chromoplast
8096:Chloroplast
7879:Degradative
7621:dsRNA virus
7616:ssDNA virus
7609:Giant virus
7604:dsDNA virus
7197:Polycentric
7187:Monocentric
7170:Holocentric
7165:Acrocentric
7160:Telocentric
7150:Metacentric
7028:Euchromatin
6988:chromosomes
6905:Ensembl.org
6576:(1): 20–5.
5253:20 February
4979:10261/15776
3811:(1): 22–35.
3197:Epigenetics
2963:chromosomes
2958:chromosomes
2815:Chimpanzees
2700:Tibetan fox
2624:(polyploid)
2602:(hexaploid)
2600:Bread wheat
2589:Durum wheat
2520:, which is
2518:bread wheat
2354:Cri du chat
2304:Aberrations
2290:Chimpanzees
2242:. In 1922,
2176:karyotyping
2111:replication
1863:154,913,754
1735:100,338,915
1719:106,360,585
1703:114,127,980
1687:132,289,534
1671:134,452,384
1655:135,374,737
1639:140,442,298
1623:146,274,826
1607:158,821,424
1591:170,896,993
1575:180,837,866
1559:191,263,063
1543:199,446,827
1527:242,751,149
1511:247,199,719
1498:% of bases
1275:Euchromatin
1218:chromosome.
1197:cytoplasmic
1085:replication
1077:supercoiled
1024:Prokaryotes
924:prokaryotes
912:Prokaryotes
895:T.H. Morgan
812:(left) and
120:10 - 10 bp
18:Chromosomes
8319:Categories
8195:Proteinoid
8190:Coacervate
8143:Nitroplast
8136:Trophosome
8131:Bacteriome
8116:Apicoplast
8111:Leucoplast
7952:Chromosome
7870:Resistance
7578:Parakaryon
7349:Centromere
7280:Structures
7259:Polyploidy
7249:Aneuploidy
7050:Nucleosome
7040:Chromosome
6233:6 December
5957:Caryologia
5526:Andrologia
5438:Toxicology
5228:4 February
3781:6 November
3167:Chromomere
3162:Aneuploidy
3126:Prokaryote
3054:fibroblast
2935:Kingfisher
2885:Guinea pig
2498:eukaryotes
2369:trisomy 21
2336:aneuploidy
2294:great apes
2270:colchicine
2260:Arresting
2231:and 48 in
2209:See also:
2184:colchicine
2123:eukaryotes
2067:centromere
2049:Schematic
1904:centromere
1879:57,741,652
1847:49,528,953
1831:46,944,323
1815:62,435,965
1799:63,806,651
1783:76,117,153
1767:78,654,742
1751:88,822,254
1494:base pairs
1484:Chromosome
1454:Sequencing
1412:microscope
1380:centromere
1376:chromatids
1310:See also:
1264:cell cycle
1260:interphase
1224:eukaryotes
1212:nucleosome
1186:centromere
1178:Eukaryotes
1172:nucleosome
1119:See also:
1107:Nucleosome
1101:See also:
1091:Eukaryotes
1065:proteins.
944:base pairs
940:genophores
879:Ernst Mayr
674:chromosome
611:centromere
607:centromere
560:eukaryotic
556:nucleosome
536:chromosome
520:Centromere
418:Population
398:Ecological
323:Geneticist
237:Amino acid
217:Nucleotide
193:Chromosome
149:base pairs
97:10 - 10 bp
8204:Research
8185:Protocell
7924:Retrozyme
7883:Virulence
7865:Fertility
7712:Virophage
7700:Satellite
7691:dependent
7543:Eukaryota
7301:Protamine
7208:Processes
7192:Dicentric
7045:Chromatid
7023:Chromatin
7004:Karyotype
6570:Cytometry
6527:BioEssays
5977:219554731
5900:Soltis PS
5613:1476-4687
5142:205495880
4957:Hereditas
4899:Anat. Res
3777:(4): 1–80
3557:: 15–22.
3338:Protamine
3182:Condensin
3114:cultivars
3106:polyploid
3095:crossover
2685:Earthworm
2572:(diploid)
2561:(diploid)
2550:(diploid)
2522:hexaploid
2510:autosomes
2266:metaphase
2223:In 1912,
2199:autosomes
2195:gonosomes
2188:karyogram
2140:(between
2097:eukaryote
2093:karyotype
2085:Karyotype
2063:G banding
2051:karyogram
2033:Karyotype
2027:Karyotype
2018:satellite
2013:21–22, Y
1976:satellite
1922:Features
1476:regions.
1442:autosomes
1430:chromatid
1361:condensin
1326:metaphase
1268:chromatin
1236:chromatin
1216:metaphase
1144:chromatin
1115:Protamine
1097:Chromatin
1055:nucleoids
1047:cytoplasm
1041:or other
950:bacteria
765:chromatin
672:The word
668:Etymology
661:chromatin
650:apoptosis
595:metaphase
524:Short arm
515:Chromatid
508:metaphase
413:Molecular
408:Microbial
383:Classical
284:molecular
280:Evolution
8231:Organism
8224:See also
8200:Sulphobe
8177:Ribozyme
8172:RNA life
8079:Mitosome
8023:Prophage
8018:Provirus
8006:Replicon
7962:Circular
7909:Phagemid
7826:Mobilome
7818:elements
7728:Virusoid
7651:Subviral
7563:Protista
7548:Animalia
7533:Bacteria
7445:See also
7287:Telomere
7254:Euploidy
7182:Acentric
7079:allosome
7071:Autosome
6997:concepts
6926:Archived
6917:syntenic
6841:18445653
6782:10732993
6633:26017998
6625:12438785
6590:12116377
6547:10333734
6512:15313436
6477:23529399
6469:11528120
6434:16547103
6404:Genetics
6385:15857774
6324:19327437
6316:12438803
6253:Genetica
6209:29849096
6201:12698004
6165:17246549
6135:Genetics
6113:41546146
6105:17143584
6058:12067210
6022:12407215
5938:15596468
5842:15342909
5753:Genetics
5670:12456750
5629:51894920
5621:30069045
5564:13484513
5556:25382683
5507:15615886
5466:36073841
5458:15363581
5423:20418200
5333:35230655
5325:11468778
5290:23720770
5165:27 April
5134:26204159
5030:13378517
4836:90739754
4771:11 April
4736:24200812
4637:26132639
4566:The Cell
4544:10753814
4450:28946064
4442:10763747
4399:21101836
4382:11147202
4342:24158908
4285:25355087
4277:15988757
4236:15337158
4201:23852021
4154:23812535
4122:: 2101.
4097:21835622
4048:11839535
4040:25175626
3999:16860572
3964:21365693
3956:16847465
3858:15479331
3850:18397731
3749:83749502
3700:83748967
3573:26895139
3484:31259189
3476:27739532
3402:28053344
3156:See also
3152:number.
3139:symbiont
3134:Buchnera
3091:germline
2929:100–104
2925:Goldfish
2915:Hedgehog
2855:Elephant
2845:Silkworm
2805:Gorillas
2749:Rabbit (
2405:dyslexia
2358:deletion
2250:system.
2180:in vitro
2157:between
2134:germline
1958:6–12, X
1402:follows
1232:proteins
1228:histones
1168:Histones
1139:proteins
1039:plasmids
1028:nucleoid
978:Borrelia
928:bacteria
926: –
918:Nucleoid
619:anaphase
576:condense
568:histones
566:are the
564:proteins
552:organism
527:Long arm
463:Category
348:template
339:Genomics
317:Research
222:Mutation
212:Heredity
169:Genetics
145:packaged
43:reviewed
8213:Jeewanu
8127:Organs
8091:Plastid
7891:Cryptic
7860:Plasmid
7558:Plantae
7538:Archaea
7457:Plasmid
7311:Histone
7222:Meiosis
7217:Mitosis
6909:Ensembl
6832:2373351
6809:Bibcode
6701:9745667
6555:5547543
6425:1526672
6281:1098866
6273:3333352
6156:1200977
6066:9660694
5929:4246719
5885:6953185
5877:8355650
5810:Bibcode
5783:8725244
5774:1207354
5729:4133848
5697:Bibcode
5593:Bibcode
5414:2898861
5374:9797104
5184:Biology
5038:4155320
5010:Bibcode
4926:Bibcode
4727:4040465
4706:Bibcode
4698:Science
4628:4487240
4607:Bibcode
4509:9356501
4477:Bibcode
4422:Bibcode
4391:9893710
4333:3927313
4312:Bibcode
4304:Science
4193:7934868
4145:3696898
4124:Bibcode
4088:3169327
3729:Bibcode
3393:5319910
3177:Cohesin
3129:species
3087:meiosis
3083:haploid
3079:Gametes
3075:diploid
3048:during
3034:species
3013:Chicken
2953:Species
2654:6♀, 7♂
2641:Species
2504:, like
2502:diploid
2262:mitosis
2244:Painter
2233:oogonia
2219:diploid
2165:mosaics
2142:gametes
2100:species
2059:diploid
1456:of the
1345:meiosis
1341:mitosis
1316:meiosis
1312:mitosis
1258:During
1111:Histone
1059:archaea
1032:archaea
1013:introns
1009:operons
972:of the
946:in the
932:archaea
834:vectors
634:meiosis
632:during
621:during
603:S phase
540:package
275:History
247:Outline
8304:Virome
8282:Nanobe
7979:Genome
7957:Linear
7902:Fosmid
7897:Cosmid
7662:Viroid
7653:agents
7018:Genome
7009:Ploidy
6839:
6829:
6780:
6699:
6631:
6623:
6588:
6553:
6545:
6510:
6475:
6467:
6432:
6422:
6383:
6365:Micron
6347:
6322:
6314:
6279:
6271:
6207:
6199:
6163:
6153:
6111:
6103:
6064:
6056:
6020:
5975:
5936:
5926:
5883:
5875:
5840:
5833:518793
5830:
5781:
5771:
5727:
5720:388202
5717:
5668:
5627:
5619:
5611:
5585:Nature
5562:
5554:
5505:
5464:
5456:
5421:
5411:
5372:
5331:
5323:
5288:
5196:
5140:
5132:
5058:
5036:
5028:
5002:Nature
4987:345813
4985:
4905:: 129.
4861:
4834:
4734:
4724:
4658:
4635:
4625:
4576:
4542:
4507:
4497:
4448:
4440:
4397:
4389:
4379:
4340:
4330:
4283:
4275:
4234:
4199:
4191:
4152:
4142:
4095:
4085:
4046:
4038:
3997:
3962:
3954:
3921:
3884:
3856:
3848:
3747:
3698:
3597:
3571:
3505:
3482:
3474:
3427:
3400:
3390:
3205:, see
3143:aphids
3008:59–63
2875:Donkey
2506:humans
2000:19–20
1987:16–18
1971:13–15
1916:Group
1896:100.0
1890:21,000
1492:Total
1395:q arms
1385:p arms
1210:, the
1193:genome
1113:, and
993:linear
743:chroma
654:cancer
550:of an
461:
375:Fields
232:Allele
207:Genome
7778:Prion
7749:Other
7596:Virus
7553:Fungi
7295:TINF2
7064:Types
6995:Basic
6913:genes
6861:HOPES
6859:from
6629:S2CID
6551:S2CID
6473:S2CID
6320:S2CID
6277:S2CID
6205:S2CID
6109:S2CID
6062:S2CID
5973:S2CID
5881:S2CID
5625:S2CID
5560:S2CID
5462:S2CID
5329:S2CID
5138:S2CID
5102:(PDF)
5034:S2CID
4832:S2CID
4500:25063
4446:S2CID
4395:S2CID
4281:S2CID
4197:S2CID
4044:S2CID
3960:S2CID
3878:(PDF)
3854:S2CID
3801:(PDF)
3767:(PDF)
3745:S2CID
3696:S2CID
3674:(PDF)
3658:: 27.
3547:(PDF)
3480:S2CID
3234:Locus
3056:cells
2986:≈100
2956:Large
2895:Horse
2795:Hares
2786:Human
2772:Guppy
2491:yeast
2330:, or
2248:XX/XY
2237:XX/XO
2159:races
1887:Total
1488:Genes
1408:queue
1390:petit
1365:TOP2A
1182:cells
1158:cells
974:genus
738:χρῶμα
734:Greek
538:is a
252:Index
8292:HeLa
8236:Cell
7984:Gene
7077:(or
6915:and
6837:PMID
6778:PMID
6697:PMID
6621:PMID
6586:PMID
6543:PMID
6508:PMID
6465:PMID
6430:PMID
6381:PMID
6345:ISBN
6312:PMID
6269:PMID
6235:2009
6197:PMID
6161:PMID
6101:PMID
6054:PMID
6018:PMID
5934:PMID
5873:PMID
5838:PMID
5779:PMID
5725:PMID
5666:PMID
5617:PMID
5609:ISSN
5552:PMID
5503:PMID
5454:PMID
5419:PMID
5370:PMID
5321:PMID
5286:PMID
5255:2023
5230:2017
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