1468:
closures violated the state constitution, and a panel of federal judges ruled they violated the U.S. Constitution. In early
February 1959, both the Arlington County (also subject to a NAACP lawsuit, and which had lost its elected school board pursuant to other parts of the Stanley Plan) and Norfolk schools desegregated peacefully. Soon, all counties reopened and integrated with the exception of Prince Edward County that took the extreme step of choosing not to appropriate any funding for its school system, thus forcing all its public schools to close, although Prince Edward County provided tuition grants for all students, regardless of their race, to use for private, nonsectarian education. Since no private schools existed for blacks within the county, black children in the county either had to leave the county to receive any education between 1959 and 1963, or received no education. All private schools in the region remained racially segregated. This lasted until 1964, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled Prince Edward County's decision to provide tuition grants for private schools that only admitted whites violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, in the case of
2079:...we lived in an integrated neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school and the school looked so big to a smaller child. And I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out ... to sit outside with the secretary. And while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on. And then he immediately came out of the office, took me by the hand and we walked home from the school. I just couldn't understand what was happening because I was so sure that I was going to go to school with Mona and Guinevere, Wanda, and all of my playmates.
1892:
series of cases ... The Court's realistic choice, therefore, was either to abandon the quest for equality by allowing segregation or to forbid segregation in order to achieve equality. There was no third choice. Either choice would violate one aspect of the original understanding, but there was no possibility of avoiding that. Since equality and segregation were mutually inconsistent, though the ratifiers did not understand that, both could not be honored. When that is seen, it is obvious the Court must choose equality and prohibit state-imposed segregation. The purpose that brought the fourteenth amendment into being was equality before the law, and equality, not separation, was written into the law.
553:
1527:
1900:, a civil rights attorney who served as an associate in the Solicitor General's office during Harry Truman's term, claimed he and Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter were mostly responsible for the Supreme Court's decision, and stated that the NAACP's arguments did not present strong evidence. Elman has been criticized for offering a self-aggrandizing history of the case, omitting important facts, and denigrating the work of civil rights attorneys who had laid the groundwork for the decision over many decades. However, Frankfurter was also known for being one of court's most outspoken advocates of the
45:
1129:
could afford schooling usually attended private schools, while the education of
Southern black children was "almost nonexistent", to the point that in some Southern states the education of black people was forbidden by law. The Court contrasted this with the situation in 1954: "Today, education is perhaps the most important function of our local and state governments." The Court concluded that, in making its ruling, it would have to "consider public education in light of its full development and its present place in American life throughout the Nation."
883:
facilities, the curricula, courses of study, qualification and quality of teachers, as well as other educational facilities in the two sets of schools comparable." The lower court observed that "colored children in many instances are required to travel much greater distances than they would be required to travel could they attend a white school" but also noted that the school district "transports colored children to and from school free of charge" and that "no such service provided to white children." In the
Delaware case the district court judge in
1615:
1421:
integration, putting up legal obstacles to the actual implementation of school desegregation for years afterward, and in 1969, the federal government found the city was not in compliance with the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Transition to a fully integrated school system did not begin until 1971, after numerous local lawsuits and both nonviolent and violent demonstrations. Historians have noted the irony that
Greensboro, which had heralded itself as such a progressive city, was one of the last holdouts for school desegregation.
12702:
5406:
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1842:. In addition, Berger argues that the views of the draftsmen of the 14th Amendment in 1866 are decisive—as opposed to the views of later readers of the 14th Amendment (including the views of supporters of the 14th Amendment after this amendment's passage and ratification due to the fact that even their views and beliefs about the meaning and scope of this Amendment could and sometimes did change over time—like with
8264:
2023:. They were concerned that the Topeka Public Schools' policy of "open enrollment" had led to and would lead to further segregation. They also believed that with a choice of open enrollment, white parents would shift their children to "preferred" schools that would create both predominantly African-American and predominantly European-American schools within the district. The district court reopened the
1089:
1539:
neighborhood attendance centers in
January 1956, although existing students were allowed to continue attending their prior assigned schools at their option. Plaintiff Zelma Henderson, in a 2004 interview, recalled that no demonstrations or tumult accompanied desegregation in Topeka's schools: "They accepted it ... It wasn't too long until they integrated the teachers and principals."
1463:, to study the issue and make recommendations. The commission recommended giving localities "broad discretion" in meeting the new judicial requirements. However, in 1956, a special session of the Virginia legislature adopted a legislative package which allowed the governor to simply close all schools under desegregation orders from federal courts. In early 1958, newly elected Governor
1678:. Later, at his 1986 hearings for the slot of Chief Justice, Rehnquist put further distance between himself and the 1952 memo: "The bald statement that Plessy was right and should be reaffirmed, was not an accurate reflection of my own views at the time." In any event, while serving on the Supreme Court, Rehnquist made no effort to reverse or undermine the
1792:, since that was the US Congress that actually passed the 14th Amendment) and also criticized McConnell's view that the 1954 view of "civil rights" should be decisive in interpreting the 14th Amendment as opposed to the 1866 view of "civil rights." Berger also argues that McConnell failed to provide any evidence that the
702:, proclaiming that "Our American system like all others is on trial both at home and abroad, ... the extent to which we maintain the spirit of our constitution with its Bill of Rights, will in the long run do more to make it both secure and the object of adulation than the number of hydrogen bombs we stockpile."
2441:
As a direct offshoot of the 1948 "Universal
Declaration of Human Rights," it sought to dismantle any scientific justification or basis for racism and proclaimed that race was not a biological fact of nature but a dangerous social myth. As a milestone, this critically important declaration contributed
1865:
has written: "we have developed criteria for evaluating the constitutionality of racial classifications that do not depend upon findings of psychic harm or social science evidence. They are based rather on the principle that 'distinctions between citizens solely because of their ancestry are by their
1114:
Reargument was largely devoted to the circumstances surrounding the adoption of the
Fourteenth Amendment in 1868. It covered exhaustively consideration of the Amendment in Congress, ratification by the states, then-existing practices in racial segregation, and the views of proponents and opponents of
927:
in a case ostensibly about domestic issues. Of the seven pages covering "the interest of the United States," five focused on the way school segregation hurt the United States in the Cold War competition for the friendship and allegiance of non-white peoples in countries then gaining independence from
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wrote: "I have no doubt that if the segregation cases had reached decision last term, there would have been four dissenters—Vinson, Reed, Jackson, and Clark." Id. Justice
Jackson's longtime legal secretary had a different view, calling Rehnquist's Senate testimony an attempt to "smear the reputation
4323:
had been on the books for 60 years; Congress had never acted, and the same
Congress that had promulgated the 14th Amendment had required segregation in the District schools. . . . I saw factors on both sides. . . . I did not agree then, and I certainly do not agree now,
1891:
By 1954, when Brown came up for decision, it had been apparent for some time that segregation rarely if ever produced equality. Quite aside from any question of psychology, the physical facilities provided for blacks were not as good as those provided for whites. That had been demonstrated in a long
1774:
who spearheaded the 14th
Amendment were in favor of desegregated southern schools. Evidence supporting this interpretation of the 14th Amendment has come from archived Congressional records showing that proposals for federal legislation which would enforce school integration were debated in Congress
1737:
Given that desegregation has not produced the predicted leaps forward in black educational achievement, there is no reason to think that black students cannot learn as well when surrounded by members of their own race as when they are in an integrated environment. (...) Because of their "distinctive
1665:
was right and should be reaffirmed." Rehnquist continued, "To the argument ... that a majority may not deprive a minority of its constitutional right, the answer must be made that while this is sound in theory, in the long run it is the majority who will determine what the constitutional rights
1395:
Native American communities were also heavily impacted by segregation laws with native children also being prohibited from attending white institutions. Native American children considered light-complexioned were allowed to ride school buses to previously all white schools, while dark-skinned Native
1268:
decision, African-American teachers, principals, and other school staff who worked in segregated Black schools were fired or laid off as Southerners sought to create a system of integrated schools with White leadership. According to historian Michael Fultz, "In many ways the South moved faster, with
1109:
The Court's opinion began by discussing whether the Fourteenth Amendment, adopted in 1868, was meant to abolish segregation in public education. The Court said that it had been unable to reach a conclusion on the question, even after hearing a second round of oral arguments from the parties' lawyers
1079:
resistance. He began to build a unanimous opinion. Although most justices were immediately convinced, Warren spent some time after this famous speech convincing everyone to sign onto the opinion. Justice Jackson dropped his concurrence and Reed finally decided to drop his dissent. The final decision
882:
The Kansas case was unique among the group in that there was no contention of gross inferiority of the segregated schools' physical plant, curriculum, or staff. The district court found substantial equality as to all such factors. The lower court, in its opinion, noted that, in Topeka, "the physical
1990:
White students in the county were given assistance to attend white-only "private academies" that were taught by teachers formerly employed by the public school system, while black students had no education at all unless they moved out of the county. But the public schools reopened after the Supreme
773:
The case "Oliver Brown et al. v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas" was named after Oliver Brown as a legal strategy to have a man at the head of the roster. The lawyers, and the National Chapter of the NAACP, also felt that having Mr. Brown at the head of the roster would be better received
1974:
as legal justification for resisting, delaying, and avoiding significant integration for years—and in some cases for a decade or more—using such tactics as closing down school systems, using state money to finance segregated "private" schools, and "token" integration where a few carefully selected
1195:
We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation
980:
opinion that would outlaw segregation. The justices in support of desegregation spent much effort convincing those who initially intended to dissent to join a unanimous opinion. Although the legal effect would be same for a majority rather than unanimous decision, it was felt that dissent could be
799:
children, the court denied relief on the ground that the negro and white schools in Topeka were substantially equal with respect to buildings, transportation, curricula, and educational qualifications of teachers. This finding would be specifically cited in the subsequent Supreme Court opinion of
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is right and should be reaffirmed. I had ideas on both sides, and I do not think I ever really finally settled in my own mind on that. . . . round the lunch table I am sure I defended it. . . . I thought there were good arguments to be made in support of it. (S. Hrg.
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Soon after the district court decision, election outcomes and the political climate in Topeka changed. The Board of Education of Topeka began to end segregation in the Topeka elementary schools in August 1953, integrating two attendance districts. All the Topeka elementary schools were changed to
1467:
closed public schools in Charlottesville, Norfolk, and Warren County rather than comply with desegregation orders, leaving 10,000 children without schools despite efforts of various parent groups. However, he reconsidered when on the Lee-Jackson state holiday, the Virginia Supreme Court ruled the
1943:
was a living refutation of that assumption. And it was within walking distance of the Supreme Court." In Sowell's estimation, "Dunbar, which had been accepting outstanding black students from anywhere in the city, could now accept only students from the rough ghetto neighborhood in which it was
1128:
The Court said the question was complicated by the major social and governmental changes that had taken place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It observed that public schools had been uncommon in the American South in the late 1860s. At that time, Southern white children whose families
730:
The suit called for the school district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The Topeka Board of Education operated separate elementary schools due to a 1879 Kansas law, which permitted (but did not require) districts to maintain separate elementary school facilities for black and white
1733:
Segregation was not unconstitutional because it might have caused psychological feelings of inferiority. Public school systems that separated blacks and provided them with superior educational resources making blacks "feel" superior to whites sent to lesser schools—would violate the Fourteenth
1248:
The reaction of the white South to this judicial onslaught on its institutions was noisy and stubborn. Certain "border states," which had formerly maintained segregated school systems, did integrate, and others permitted the token admission of a few Negro students to schools that had once been
1136:
Court did not address this issue, however, probably because some of the school districts involved in the case had made improvements to their black schools to "equalize" them with the quality of the white schools. This prevented the Court from finding a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's
1420:
ruling. This was the result of the initiative of D. E. Hudgins Jr., a former Rhodes Scholar and prominent attorney, who chaired the school board. This made Greensboro the first, and for years the only, city in the South, to announce its intent to comply. However, others in the city resisted
1141:
in "measurable inequalities" between all white and black schools and forced the Court to look to the effects of segregation itself. The Court therefore framed the case around the more general question of whether the principle of "separate but equal" was constitutional when applied to public
689:
in 1950, the first question he was asked was, "Why does America tolerate the lynching of Negroes?" Douglas later wrote that he had learned from his travels that "the attitude of the United States toward its colored minorities is a powerful factor in our relations with India." Chief Justice
1778:
In response to Michael McConnell's research, Raoul Berger argued that the Congressmen and Senators who were advocating in favor of school desegregation in the 1870s were trying to rewrite the 14th Amendment in order to make the 14th Amendment fit their political agenda and that the actual
1054:
dinner, where the president told him: "These are not bad people. All they are concerned about is to see that their sweet little girls are not required to sit in school alongside some big overgrown Negroes." Nevertheless, the Justice Department sided with the African-American plaintiffs.
1796:
who ratified the 14th Amendment understood it at the time as prohibiting school segregation and that whenever the question of school segregation's compatibility with the US Constitution (as opposed to the separate question of school segregation's compatibility with US state law and/or
1513:
of the period were established. The city responded to the campaign by permitting more open transfers to high-quality, historically white schools. (New York's African-American community, and Northern desegregation activists generally, now found themselves contending with the problem of
1209:
The Court did not close with an order to implement the integration of the schools of the various jurisdictions. Instead, it requested the parties re-appear before the Court the following Term to hold arguments on what the appropriate remedy should be. This became the case known as
9735:
968:
In spring 1953, the court heard the case, but was unable to decide the issue and asked to rehear the case in fall 1953, with special attention to whether the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause prohibited the operation of separate public schools for whites and blacks.
1179:
The Court supported this conclusion with citations—in a footnote, not the main text of the opinion—to several psychological studies purporting to show that segregating black children made them feel inferior and interfered with their learning. These studies included those of
2040:
After a 1994 plan was approved and a bond issue passed, additional elementary magnet schools were opened and district attendance plans redrawn, which resulted in the Topeka schools meeting court standards of racial balance by 1998. Unified status was eventually granted to
1969:
Supporters of the earlier decision were displeased with this decision. The language "all deliberate speed" was seen by critics as too ambiguous to ensure reasonable haste for compliance with the court's instruction. Many Southern states and school districts interpreted
932:
noted that "the existence of discrimination against minority groups in the United States has an adverse effect upon our relations with other countries. Racial discrimination furnishes grist for the Communist propaganda mills." The brief also quoted a letter by
1146:
We come then to the question presented: Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational
1534:
The Topeka junior high schools had been integrated since 1941. Topeka High School was integrated from its inception in 1871 and its sports teams from 1949 onwards. The Kansas law permitting segregated schools allowed them only "below the high school level".
1904:
philosophy of basing court rulings on existing law rather than personal or political considerations. Public officials in the United States today are nearly unanimous in lauding the ruling. In May 2004, the fiftieth anniversary of the ruling, President
1986:
did not have to desegregate immediately. When faced with a court order to finally begin desegregation in 1959 the county board of supervisors stopped appropriating money for public schools, which remained closed for five years, from 1959 to 1964.
794:
wrote the opinion for the three-judge District Court panel, including nine "findings of fact," based on the evidence presented at trial. Although finding number eight stated that segregation in public education has a detrimental effect on
5772:
1673:
However, during his 1971 confirmation hearings, Rehnquist said, "I believe that the memorandum was prepared by me as a statement of Justice Jackson's tentative views for his own use." Jackson had initially planned to join a dissent in
1160:
In answer, the Court held that it did. The Court ruled that state-mandated segregation, even if implemented in schools of otherwise equal quality, is inherently unequal because of its psychological impact upon the segregated children.
1070:
Warren convened a meeting of the justices, and presented to them the simple argument that the only reason to sustain segregation was an honest belief in the inferiority of Negroes. Warren further submitted that the court must overrule
12817:
1080:
was unanimous. Warren drafted the basic opinion and kept circulating and revising it until he had an opinion endorsed by all the members of the court. Reed was the last holdout and reportedly cried during the reading of the opinion.
3847:
1062:
faction questioned whether the Constitution gave the court the power to order its end. The activist faction believed the Fourteenth Amendment did give the necessary authority and were pushing to go ahead. Warren, who held only a
1860:
The case also has attracted some criticism from more liberal authors, including some who say that Chief Justice Warren's reliance on psychological criteria to find a harm against segregated blacks was unnecessary. For example,
1165:
To separate from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely to ever be
940:
lamenting that "the United States is under constant attack in the foreign press, over the foreign radio, and in such international bodies as the United Nations because of various practices of discrimination in this country."
3517:
Howell, Mark C., John Ben Shepperd, Attorney General of the State of Texas: His Role in the Continuation of Segregation in Texas, 1953–1957, Master's Thesis, The University of Texas of the Permian Basin, Odessa, Texas, July
769:
As directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and redirected to the segregated schools.
1729:
itself did not need to rely upon any psychological or social-science research in order to announce the simple, yet fundamental truth that the Government cannot discriminate among its citizens on the basis of race. ...
1428:, the schools were desegregated, as ordered. However, after 1955, the African-American teachers from the local "negro school" were not retained; this was ascribed to poor performance. They appealed their dismissal in
1783:
to have segregated schools. Berger criticized McConnell for being unable to find any reference to school segregation—let alone any reference to a desire to prohibit it—among supporters of the 14th Amendment in the
488:
In May 1954, the Supreme Court issued a unanimous 9–0 decision in favor of the Browns. The Court ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," and therefore laws that impose them violate the
902:—who was later appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1967—argued the case before the Supreme Court for the plaintiffs. Assistant attorney general Paul Wilson—later distinguished emeritus professor of law at the
1115:
the Amendment. This discussion and our own investigation convince us that, although these sources cast some light, it is not enough to resolve the problem with which we are faced. At best, they are inconclusive.
8725:
1380:" incident. Wallace sought to uphold his "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever" promise he had given in his 1963 inaugural address. Wallace moved aside only when confronted by General
1249:
racially unmixed. However, the Deep South made no moves to obey the judicial command, and in some districts there can be no doubt that the Desegregation decision hardened resistance to integration proposals.
10571:
4454:, S. Hrg. 99-1067, Hearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on the Nomination of Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist to be Chief Justice of the United States (July 29, 30, 31, and August 1, 1986).
4289:, S. Hrg. 99-1067, Hearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on the Nomination of Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist to be Chief Justice of the United States (July 29, 30, 31, and August 1, 1986).
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in all schools, while masquerading as providing separate but equal treatment of both white and black Americans, instead perpetuated inferior accommodations, services, and treatment for black Americans.
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had been wrongly decided at the time, that it was not a good interpretation of the equal protection clause to say that when you segregate people by race, there is no denial of equal protection. But
1849:, who initially opposed school desegregation but later changed his mind and supported it). To back up his view about original intent being decisive, Berger cites—among other things—an 1871 quote by
1191:
The Court then concluded its relatively short opinion by declaring that segregated public education was inherently unequal, violated the Equal Protection Clause, and therefore was unconstitutional:
10374:
4447:
4282:
1132:
During the segregation era, it was common for black schools to have fewer resources and poorer facilities than white schools despite the equality required by the "separate but equal" doctrine. The
465:
at the school closest to their home, instead requiring her to ride a bus to a segregated black school farther away. The Browns and twelve other local black families in similar situations filed a
9815:
4491:
Rehnquist ultimately embraced the Warren Court's Brown decision, and after he joined the Court he made no attempt to dismantle the civil-rights revolution, as political opponents feared he would.
4329:
99-1067, Hearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on the Nomination of Justice William Hubbs Rehnquist to be Chief Justice of the United States, July 29, 30, 31, and August 1, 1986)
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Amendment, whether or not the white students felt stigmatized, just as do school systems in which the positions of the races are reversed. Psychological injury or benefit is irrelevant ...
1400:'s desegregation campaign in Birmingham, Alabama, contacted him for assistance. King promptly responded to the tribal leaders and through his intervention the problem was quickly resolved.
681:
during this time, and U.S. officials, including Supreme Court justices, were highly aware of the harm that segregation and racism were doing to America's international image. When Justice
9938:
2122:
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on a 2–1 vote found that the vestiges of segregation remained with respect to student and staff assignment. In 1993, the Supreme Court denied the appellant School District's request for
778:, Shirley Hodison, Maude Lawton, Alma Lewis, Iona Richardson, Vivian Scales, and Lucinda Todd. The last surviving plaintiff, Zelma Henderson, died in Topeka, on May 20, 2008, at age 88.
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case, beginning with the work of the NAACP's Legal Defense Fund's efforts to combat 'separate but equal' in graduate school education and culminating in the historical 1954 decision.
1494:
caused overcrowding of existing schools. Existing schools tended to be dilapidated and staffed with inexperienced teachers. Northern officials were in denial of the segregation, but
10112:
1762:
did not ban segregated schools and that the same Congress that passed the 14th Amendment also voted to segregate schools in the District of Columbia. Other originalists, including
1738:
histories and traditions," black schools can function as the center and symbol of black communities, and provide examples of independent black leadership, success, and achievement.
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wrote: "In the original conference there were only four who voted that segregation in the public schools was unconstitutional. Those four were Black, Burton, Minton, and myself."
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where Garfield challenged Bingham's recollection of a statement that Bingham had previously made in 1866—with Garfield telling Bingham that he can make but not unmake history.
1801:, where courts have often ruled against school segregation) reached the judiciary in the couple of decades after the passage and ratification of the 14th Amendment (whether in
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1958:" the court delegated the task of carrying out school desegregation to district courts with orders that desegregation occur "with all deliberate speed," a phrase traceable to
1099:
On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court issued a unanimous 9–0 decision in favor of the Brown family and the other plaintiffs. The decision consists of a single opinion written by
4813:
3701:
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decision. In his memo, Rehnquist argued: "I realize that it is an unpopular and unhumanitarian position, for which I have been excoriated by 'liberal' colleagues but I think
1725:
did not say that "racially isolated" schools were inherently inferior; the harm that it identified was tied purely to de jure segregation, not de facto segregation. Indeed,
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ordered that the black students be admitted to the white high school due to the substantial harm of segregation and the differences that made the separate schools unequal.
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and expressed concerns about the proposed decision's enforceability. Chief Justice Vinson had been a key stumbling block. After Vinson died in September 1953, President
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594:'s Equal Protection Clause ("no State shall ... deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws"). Racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17
2001:, declaring that "...the time for mere 'deliberate speed' has run out" and that the county must provide a public school system for all children regardless of race.
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1581:, the Supreme Court rejected the ideas of scientific racists about the need for segregation, especially in schools. The court buttressed its holding by citing (in
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In 1955, the Supreme Court considered arguments by the schools requesting relief concerning the task of desegregation. In their decision, which became known as "
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principles. Mallory and thousands of other parents bolstered the pressure of the lawsuit with a school boycott in 1959. During the boycott, some of the first
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lawsuit in U.S. federal court against the Topeka Board of Education, alleging its segregation policy was unconstitutional. A special three-judge court of the
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by the U.S. Supreme Court justices. The 13 plaintiffs were: Oliver Brown, Darlene Brown, Lena Carper, Sadie Emmanuel, Marguerite Emerson, Shirley Fleming,
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879:, found that discrimination was unlawful; in all the other cases the plaintiffs had lost as the original courts had found discrimination to be lawful.
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But he at minimum established popular sentiment and practice, along with legal and scientific testimony on race, as a link in his train of reasoning.
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of the era. However, the popular support for the decision was more likely a result of the racist beliefs held by many whites at the time. In deciding
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501:. However, the decision's 14 pages did not spell out any sort of method for ending racial segregation in schools, and the Court's second decision in
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5209:. transcript of program produced by KTWU Channel 11 in Topeka, Kansas. Originally aired May 3, 2004.: KTWU Video. September 10, 2005. Archived from
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1490:, New York, for example, not a single new school had been built since the turn of the century, nor did a single nursery school exist, even as the
754:, as well as an assistant pastor at his local church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by a childhood friend, Charles Scott. Brown's daughter
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understanding of the 14th Amendment from 1866 to 1868 (which is when the 14th Amendment was actually passed and ratified) does, in fact, permit
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that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Beginning in the 1930s, a legal strategy was pursued, led by scholars at
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are unconstitutional, even if the segregated schools are otherwise equal in quality. The decision partially overruled the Court's 1896 decision
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The members of the U.S. Supreme Court that on May 17, 1954, ruled unanimously that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.
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1920:"a decision that changed America for the better, and forever." Most Senators and Representatives issued press releases hailing the ruling.
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3780:"Naomi Brooks et al., Appellants, v. School District of City of Moberly, Missouri, Etc., et al., Appellees, 267 F.2d 733 (8th Cir. 1959)"
2964:"Anthony Lester, "Brown v. Board of Education Overseas" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Vol. 148, No. 4, December 2004"
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Documents from the district court, including the original complaint and trial transcript, at the Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse
4035:
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1240:." In the face of entrenched Southern opposition, progress on integrating American schools was slow. The American political historian
622:, 339 U.S. 637 (1950), suggesting that racial segregation was inherently unequal (at least in some settings), which paved the way for
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where racial segregation was deeply entrenched in society. Many Southern governmental and political leaders embraced a plan known as "
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case after a 25-year hiatus, but denied the plaintiffs' request finding the schools "unitary". In 1989, a three-judge panel of the
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made no reference to these considerations of foreign policy, there is no doubt that they significantly influenced the decision."
638:
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black children were admitted to former white-only schools but the vast majority remained in underfunded, unequal black schools.
590:(1896), which held that as long as the separate facilities for separate races were equal, state segregation did not violate the
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2536:"Legacy of Brown: Many people part of local case, Thirteen parents representing 20 children signed up as Topeka plaintiffs"
1044:
as Chief Justice. Warren had supported the integration of Mexican-American students in California school systems following
731:
students in 12 communities with populations over 15,000. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka
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534:, in order to frustrate attempts to force them to de-segregate their school systems. Four years later, in the case of
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1341:, fear of violence prevented any plaintiff from bringing a school desegregation suit for the next nine years. When
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under the National Park Service on October 26, 1992, and redesignated a National Historical Park on May 12, 2022.
1357:
murdered him. Two subsequent trials resulted in hung juries. Beckwith was not convicted of the murder until 1994.
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Conference notes and draft decisions illustrate the division of opinions before the decision was issued. Justices
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and returned the case to District Court Judge Richard Rodgers for implementation of the Tenth Circuit's mandate.
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1301:
5787:, a commemoration of the 70th Anniversary of the decision in the first set of cases created by the Oyez.org team
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2016:
1983:
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children from the same band were still barred from riding the same buses. Tribal leaders, having learned about
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2019:, persuaded Linda Brown Smith—who now had her own children in Topeka schools—to be a plaintiff in reopening
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The District Court ruled in favor of the Board of Education, citing the U.S. Supreme Court precedent set in
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Fultz, Michael (Spring 2004). "The Displacement of Black Educators Post-Brown: An Overview and Analysis".
200:
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who, with support of the NAACP, initiated a successful lawsuit against the city and State of New York on
1486:
policies, which resulted in a vast gulf in educational resources between black and white communities. In
1184:, whose experiments in the 1940s had suggested that black American children from segregated environments
1020:, and was inclined to the view that segregation worked to the benefit of the African-American community;
3957:
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to maintain its legitimacy as an institution of liberty, and it must do so unanimously to avoid massive
430:
as long as the facilities for each race were equal in quality, a doctrine that had come to be known as "
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responded by asserting federal control over the Arkansas National Guard and deploying troops from the
898:
donated $ 75,000 to help pay for the NAACP's efforts at the Supreme Court. The NAACP's chief counsel,
564:(in red). Kansas where Topeka is located allowed local school districts to enforce segregation (blue).
552:
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wrote that "we had led the states on to think segregation is OK and we should let them work it out."
868:
385:
5798:
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5449:
Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality
3600:
1651:
wrote a memo titled "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases" when he was a law clerk for Justice
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6054:
4802:"Original Intent-As Perceived by Michael McConnell 91 Northwestern University Law Review 1996–1997"
2805:"District Court Opinion: Brown et al. v Board of Education of Topeka, Shawnee County, kansas et al"
2200:
One source gives Eisenhower's quote as saying "big black bucks" instead of "big overgrown Negroes".
2011:
In 1978, Topeka attorneys Richard Jones, Joseph Johnson and Charles Scott Jr. (son of the original
1866:
very nature odious to a free people whose institutions are founded upon the doctrine of equality,'
1759:
1685:
Chief Justice Warren's reasoning was broadly criticized by contemporary legal academics with Judge
1196:
complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.
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3754:""Summary of 'Civilities and Civil Rights': by William H. Chafe" George Mason University website"
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1313:
1181:
1138:
544:, and explicitly stated that state officials and legislators had no power to nullify its ruling.
490:
251:
186:
4508:
The Supreme Court, 2012 Term – Comment: Windsor and Brown: Marriage Equality and Racial Equality
4156:? There were, perhaps, some important intellectual roots; this was the era of scientific racism.
3564:
The Supreme Court, 2012 Term – Comment: Windsor and Brown: Marriage Equality and Racial Equality
3185:
3179:
3031:
2442:
to the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court desegregation decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.'
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4538:
What Can Brown Do For You: Neutral Principles and the Struggle Over the Equal Protection Clause
2104:
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561:
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Power, Protest, and the Public Schools: Jewish and African American Struggles in New York City
3055:
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2292:
1430:
Naomi Brooks et al., Appellants, v. School District of City of Moberly, Missouri, Etc., et al.
976:, who used reargument as a stalling tactic, to allow the court to gather a consensus around a
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5157:
Topeka Public Schools Desegregation History: "The Naming of Scott Computer Technology Magnet"
5012:
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2804:
2232:
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more 'deliberate speed' in displacing Black educators than it did in desegregating schools."
1046:
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924:
443:
212:
168:
149:
83:
5564:
4917:"Supreme Court History: Expanding civil rights, biographies of the robes: Felix Frankfurter"
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case, the only case of the five originating from a student protest, began when 16-year-old
695:
106:
5778:
curated by Michigan State University's Diversity of Excellence through Artistic Expression
5473:
All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education
5039:. University of Louisville School of Law Legal Studies Research Paper Series No. 2007-01.
4083:
4069:
4021:
1689:
decrying that the Supreme Court had "assumed the role of a third legislative chamber" and
1585:) social science research about the harms to black children caused by segregated schools.
919:("friend of the court") brief in the case. The brief was unusual in its heavy emphasis on
8:
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1963:
1843:
1785:
1710:
1328:
1281:
organized a campaign to generate legal obstacles to the implementation of desegregation.
1241:
895:
650:'s 1950 Statement, signed by a wide variety of internationally renowned scholars, titled
606:, that sought to undermine states' public education segregation by first focusing on the
293:
98:
12494:
5654:
5592:
5532:
2153:(1976), bars segregation in private schools whereas Brown only applies to public schools
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1837:
1661:
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1570:
1565:, the landmark United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of
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5510:
Historical dictionary of school segregation and desegregation: The American experience
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5477:
5471:
5453:
5349:
5330:
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5099:
5074:. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1955. Civil Rights Movement Archive.
4900:
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4141:
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3876:
3601:"De La Beckwith v. State, 707 So. 2d 547 – Miss: Supreme Court 1997 – Google Scholar"
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From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality
3504:
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4519:
citing Learned Hand, The Bill of Rights at 55 (Oliver Wendell Holmes Lecture, 1958).
4259:
Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case Against Brown v. Board of Education
3898:"Exposing the Whole Segregation Myth: The Harlem Nine and New York City Schools" in
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3384:
3382:
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as well as morally condemning racism. Another work that the Supreme Court cited was
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5524:"Chapter 11: 'Our decision does not end but begins the struggle over segregation':
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United States Supreme Court decisions that overrule a prior Supreme Court decision
5767:
5155:
5067:
2433:"Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946–1962)"
1821:), courts have always affirmed the constitutionality of school segregation—as did
1092:
Chief justice Earl Warren, the author of the Supreme Court's unanimous opinion in
86:
12160:
11987:
11897:
11892:
11823:
Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)
11673:
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11482:
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10841:
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Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville
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2477:
1935:
argued that when Chief Justice Earl Warren declared in the landmark 1954 case of
1705:
1630:
1589:
1510:
1456:
1389:
1381:
1009:
775:
607:
536:
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9898:
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7366:
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6931:
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6701:
6327:
6279:
6169:
5447:
5443:
4839:
3424:
The Pain and the Promise: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Tallahassee, Florida
2046:
1906:
1770:, in his article "Originalism and the Desegregation Decisions," argue that the
1626:
1365:
1005:
997:
891:
823:
720:
573:
454:
329:
4654:, originalism, and constitutional theory: a response to Professor Mcconnell".
4237:
1261:
movement that included the closing of schools rather than desegregating them.
727:. The plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children.
12721:
11555:
11537:
11527:
11497:
11442:
11397:
11382:
11327:
11317:
11302:
11252:
11247:
11217:
11014:
10942:
10765:
10572:
Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank
10200:
9591:
9463:
9132:
9100:
9028:
8891:
8797:
8645:
8560:
8239:
8169:
8017:
7883:
7706:
7636:
7541:
7391:
7326:
7311:
7301:
7261:
7186:
7176:
7136:
7121:
7011:
7001:
6961:
6911:
6786:
6711:
6681:
5499:
Brown v. Board of Education: A civil rights milestone and its troubled legacy
5353:
4977:
4532:
4084:
Breaking barriers: Topekans reflect on role in desegregating nation's schools
3255:
3216:
Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy
2457:
2095:, the first black child to attend an all-white elementary school in the South
1932:
1825:
1444:
1376:
to prevent the enrollment of two black students in what became known as the "
1331:
1324:
1317:
1254:
915:
791:
661:
531:
1439:, involving the Prince Edward County schools. Significant opposition to the
739:; Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter; and
11867:
11635:
11560:
11532:
11517:
11502:
11457:
11432:
11412:
11322:
11292:
11287:
11257:
11207:
11059:
10745:
10486:
9850:
9036:
8391:
8199:
8179:
7701:
7656:
7651:
7611:
7446:
7426:
7381:
7316:
7251:
7236:
7151:
7141:
7096:
7046:
7036:
7026:
6996:
6991:
6981:
6966:
6926:
6861:
6841:
6836:
6816:
6811:
6801:
6761:
6716:
6686:
6069:
5790:
5519:
4797:
4220:
Schaffer, Gavin (2007). ""'Scientific' Racism Again?": Reginald Gates, the
2690:
2092:
1897:
1854:
1750:
in his influential 1977 book "Government by Judiciary," make the case that
1747:
1743:
1686:
1515:
1460:
1342:
1320:
to ensure the black students could safely register for and attend classes.
1289:
1233:
1021:
937:
906:—conducted the state's ambivalent defense in his first appellate argument.
758:, a third grader, had to walk six blocks to her school bus stop to ride to
740:
716:
674:
519:
466:
417:
321:
4699:: The originalist justification for Brown: a reply to Professor Klarman".
11887:
11872:
11720:
11683:
11522:
11477:
11462:
11227:
11222:
11069:
9360:
8637:
8552:
8424:
8219:
8189:
7816:
7780:
7721:
7716:
7676:
7626:
7561:
7556:
7466:
7416:
7346:
7341:
7281:
7266:
7116:
7111:
6976:
6856:
6826:
6766:
6731:
5992:
4742:
4395:
3245:
2809:
2136:
1880:
1499:
1338:
1103:
1051:
1041:
691:
473:
heard the case and ruled against the Browns, relying on the precedent of
277:
230:
9816:
Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College
3342:
11422:
11407:
11377:
11372:
11121:
11089:
10928:
10896:
9906:
7843:
7501:
7431:
7401:
7271:
7246:
7191:
7091:
6706:
6676:
5382:
4948:"President Speaks at Brown v Board of Education National Historic Site"
4722:
4677:
4618:
2033:
1810:
1542:
The Topeka Public Schools administration building is named in honor of
1327:
Resolution denouncing the decision and declaring it null and void. But
1228:, but most white Southerners decried it. Many white Southerners viewed
989:
630:
595:
523:
507:(1955) only ordered states to desegregate "with all deliberate speed".
409:
285:
102:
11758:
Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
9784:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
9640:
Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.
5203:"Black/White and Brown: Brown versus the Board of Education of Topeka"
1592:
played an important role in the attack and backlash that followed the
1323:
Also in 1957, Florida's response was mixed. Its legislature passed an
12036:
11882:
11387:
11171:
11109:
11004:
7821:
7291:
7276:
5733:
A copy of Florida's 1957 Interposition Resolution in Response to the
5436:
5248:"Linda Brown, Who Was At Center Of Brown v. Board Of Education, Dies"
3053:
2737:"Last surviving Brown v. Board plaintiff dies at 88 - TwinCities.com"
2183:
and a series of later Supreme Court decisions have severely weakened
1780:
1758:. They support this reading of the 14th Amendment by noting that the
1754:
cannot be defended by reference to the original understanding of the
1408:
In North Carolina, there was often a strategy of nominally accepting
1185:
204:
10683:
5374:
4714:
4669:
4610:
3900:
Freedom north: Black freedom struggles outside the South, 1940–1980"
2297:. G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series.
2123:
List of United States court cases involving the Fourteenth Amendment
960:
12509:
12504:
12014:
8702:
Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists
7181:
5032:
5028:
4224:
and the Question of "Race" in Science after the Second World War".
1924:
1832:
1432:; but it was upheld, and SCOTUS declined to hear a further appeal.
1285:
1212:
981:
used by segregation supporters as a legitimizing counter-argument.
843:
833:
678:
190:
179:
134:
11773:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
5534:
I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases
4201:
Race, Law, and Culture: Reflections on Brown v. Board of Education
4137:
Race, Law, and Culture: Reflections on Brown v. Board of Education
477:
and its "separate but equal" doctrine. The Browns, represented by
426:, which had held that racial segregation laws did not violate the
11126:
7770:
3911:. pp. 65–91. Archived from the original on February 27, 2017
1814:
1361:
762:, her segregated black school one mile (1.6 km) away, while
3980:"Brown vs. The Board of Education of Topeka information release"
2049:
is named after the Scott family attorneys for their role in the
719:
lawsuit was filed against the Board of Education of the City of
560:. Racial segregation was required throughout the states in the
11960:
8908:
Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York
8308:
7838:
5806:
5739:
Made available for public use by the State Archives of Florida.
5420:
1806:
1296:
to block the entry of nine black students, later known as the "
1058:
While all but one justice personally rejected segregation, the
1008:
noted that Congress had not adopted desegregation legislation;
972:
The court reargued the case at the behest of Associate Justice
670:(1944). Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration.
647:
44:
8962:
Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community
1944:
located" as a detrimental consequence of the SCOTUS decision.
1498:
helped stimulate activism among African-American parents like
1088:
1067:, held his tongue until the Senate confirmed his appointment.
11772:
6573:
3694:"Dr. King spoke out against the genocide of Native Americans"
796:
732:
686:
603:
478:
2294:
Meditations of a Militant Moderate: Cool Views on Hot Topics
2119:, federal judge who made a similar ruling in an earlier case
11817:
5723:
2876:. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1951–1953.
2661:"Plaintiffs & Attorneys in Brown v. Board of Education"
2463:
An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy
2075:
later recalled the experience of being refused enrollment:
1802:
1704:
decision are still debated. Notably, Supreme Court Justice
1447:, who led the Byrd Organization and promised a strategy of
875:
case was the only one where a trial court, affirmed by the
735:. Notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman
667:
An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy
223:
197:
5781:
3089:"When Eisenhower and Warren Squared Off Over Civil Rights"
2320:
2318:
2175:
Although the Supreme Court has never explicitly overruled
1939:
that racially separate schools were "inherently unequal,"
10596:
Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett
8500:
O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.
5737:
decision, with Gov. Collin's handwritten rejection of it.
5432:
Brown v. Board and the Transformation of American Culture
4553:
73 HARV. L. REV. 1 (Oliver Wendell Holmes Lecture, 1959).
1788:
of this amendment (specifically in the recordings of the
9393:
Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma
5561:
Brown v. Board of Education : a documentary history
3058:. In George R. Goethals; Georgia Jones Sorenson (eds.).
2917:
The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945–1968
2187:
to the point that it is usually considered to have been
453:
The case began in 1951 when the public school system in
8806:
Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc.
8023:
Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
7801:"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"
5346:
Treatise on Constitutional Law: Substance and Procedure
4879:
See, e.g., Randall Kennedy. "A Reply to Philip Elman."
2897:
2895:
2315:
812:
as heard before the Supreme Court combined five cases:
725:
United States District Court for the District of Kansas
9488:
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
8047:
African American founding fathers of the United States
6400:
Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
6265:
John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
5719:
Case information and transcripts on The Curiae Project
5361:
Schauer, Frederick (1997). "Generality and Equality".
5329:(5th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
3536:. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1957.
3460:. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1954.
2695:"Zelma Henderson, Who Aided Desegregation, Dies at 88"
2268:. Civil Rights Movement History & Timeline, 1954.
2083:
Linda Brown died on March 25, 2018, at the age of 75.
1998:
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
1682:
decision, and frequently relied upon it as precedent.
1471:
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
258:, because separate facilities are inherently unequal.
12808:
United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court
9552:
United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education
8694:
City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
5872:
3634:. Civil Rights Movement History 1963 (January–June).
2369:"An Organized Legal Campaign – Separate Is Not Equal"
2241:
1032:
disapproved of segregation, but were also opposed to
485:, appealed the ruling directly to the Supreme Court.
10383:
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez
9448:
Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
8774:
Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England
2892:
2837:"Separate Is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education"
2755:"School facilities for Negroes here held comparable"
1775:
a few years following the amendment's ratification.
1768:
United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit
1655:
in 1952, during early deliberations that led to the
1530:
Judgment and order of the Supreme Court for the case
829:
Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
698:, echoed Douglas's concerns in a 1954 speech to the
10271:
Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.
8095:
Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
4848:, New York: New York University Press, p. 97,
4845:
What 'Brown v. Board of Education' should have said
1697:impossible to justify based on neutral principles.
1455:, a member of the Byrd Organization, appointed the
766:, a white school, was seven blocks from her house.
9931:Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney
9800:Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action
8654:Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth
5531:
5301:The Plessy Case: A Legal-Historical Interpretation
5098:
3213:
3162:
3030:
2990:Separate is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education
2482:"The Global Impact of Brown v. Board of Education"
1666:of the minorities are." Rehnquist also argued for
1546:, NAACP chapter president who organized the case.
948:has written that "Although the Court's opinion in
9568:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
9245:Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health
5348:(5th ed.). Eagan, MN: West Thomson/Reuters.
4838:(2001), "Days, J., concurring", in Balkan, Jack;
4747:"From 19th-Century View, Desegregation Is a Test"
4400:"The Memo That Rehnquist Wrote and Had to Disown"
4377:"Telling the Truth About Chief Justice Rehnquist"
2870:"Student Strike at Moton High (VA) (April, 1951)"
1416:school board declared that it would abide by the
1412:, but tacitly resisting it. On May 18, 1954, the
1224:Americans mostly cheered the Court's decision in
364:This case overturned a previous ruling or rulings
189:383 (D. Kan. 1979); judgment for defendants, 671
12719:
11808:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
10447:City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.
9656:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
6631:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
5812:Landmark Cases: Historic Supreme Court Decisions
4551:Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law,
4109:"Topeka Public Schools – About McKinley Burnett"
3054:Gill Robinson Hickman; Richard A. Couto (2006).
2958:
2956:
2799:
2399:"The Power of Precedent – Separate Is Not Equal"
1602:was founded in 1960, in part in response to the
185:(D. Kan. 1955); motion to intervene granted, 84
73:, et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka, et al.
11853:Black players in professional American football
11803:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
9528:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
9053:Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co.
6621:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
6554:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
6445:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
2403:Smithsonian National Museum of American History
2373:Smithsonian National Museum of American History
1050:. However, Eisenhower invited Earl Warren to a
580:. Such state policies had been endorsed by the
8100:Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
4408:. Archived from the original on April 12, 2016
2703:. Archived from the original on April 25, 2009
694:, nominated to the Supreme Court by President
471:U.S. District Court for the District of Kansas
229:(10th Cir. 1992); judgment for defendants, 56
10699:
10604:Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs
9955:Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County
9712:Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell
9560:Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
9353:Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education
8294:
8008:List of lynching victims in the United States
6346:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
5858:
4861:
4755:. Archived from the original on June 30, 2015
4593:"Originalism and the desegregation decisions"
4344:Decision: How the Supreme Court Decides Cases
3403:
3401:
3184:. New York: Doubleday & Company. p.
3086:
2953:
2427:
1609:
750:, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the
610:setting. This led to success in the cases of
379:Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education
11566:Historically black colleges and universities
8822:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
8726:Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
8609:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
5343:
4870:, Vol. 100, No. 8 (June 1987), pp. 1938–1948
3875:. Rutgers University Press. pp. 51–66.
3687:
3685:
3683:
3348:
3060:The quest for a general theory of leadership
2262:"Brown v. Board of Education Decision (May)"
1872:, 320 U.S. 81 (1943). . . ."
658:attempts at scientifically justifying racism
522:was "noisy and stubborn", especially in the
12803:United States school desegregation case law
10407:Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia
10319:Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections
9308:
8946:Will v. Michigan Department of State Police
6475:Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
5763:, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
5747:, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
5344:Nowak, John E.; Rotunda, Ronald D. (2012).
5282:Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies
5276:
5179:. PBS NewsHour. May 9, 2014. Archived from
4347:. Oxford University Press USA. p. 96.
4280:"A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases"
4072:on September 29, 2007 – via CJOnline.
4024:on September 26, 2007 – via CJOnline.
3408:
3392:
3373:
3360:
3332:
3296:
3283:
2943:"Brown v. Board of Ed: Key Cold War weapon"
1435:Virginia had one of the companion cases in
867:organized and led a 450-student walkout of
576:in the United States had been dominated by
556:Educational segregation in the US prior to
438:, and its related cases, paved the way for
10706:
10692:
9672:Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education
9205:Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill
8301:
8287:
6524:Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
5865:
5851:
5743:U.S. District Court of Kansas: Records of
5538:. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 133–150.
5284:(6th ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer.
4374:
3398:
3013:
3011:
3009:
3007:
3005:
803:
457:, refused to enroll the daughter of local
12768:History of education in the United States
12758:American Civil Liberties Union litigation
11783:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
10431:New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer
9963:Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan
8978:Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee
8080:Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
5317:
4834:
4792:
4790:
4788:
4786:
4784:
4691:
4587:
3680:
3628:"Standing In the Schoolhouse Door (June)"
3208:
3147:
2920:. Cornell University Press. p. 121.
2767:on November 1, 2006 – via CJOnline.
2596:
2324:
1219:
1083:
781:
9664:Washington v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1
8115:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
6155:University of Georgia desegregation riot
5817:
5466:
4441:Cases where Justice Rehnquist has cited
4340:
4219:
4174:. Oxford University Press. p. 184.
3810:"Revisionist History Season 2 Episode 3"
3017:
2533:
1708:, himself an African American, wrote in
1613:
1525:
1110:specifically on the historical sources.
1087:
959:
551:
12798:United States equal protection case law
12793:School segregation in the United States
10375:Lehnhausen v. Lake Shore Auto Parts Co.
10244:Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward
9109:Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur
8710:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
8577:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
8029:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence
7766:"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
7761:"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
5518:
5360:
5298:
4923:. Educational Broadcasting Corp., PBS.
4642:
4301:"Memos may not hold Roberts's opinions"
4252:
4203:By Austin Sarat. Page 55 and 59. 1997.
4196:
4194:
4167:
4140:. Oxford University Press. p. 55.
3002:
2599:"Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka"
2510:
2476:
2336:
2247:
2015:team member), with assistance from the
1345:sued in 1963 to desegregate schools in
710:
568:For much of the 60 years preceding the
14:
12720:
12682:Topics related to the African diaspora
11788:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
10518:
9616:Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver
8411:
8322:
7943:African-American women in the movement
6395:White House Conference on Civil Rights
6226:"Segregation now, segregation forever"
5640:Brown v. Board of Education (Brown II)
5442:
5239:
4976:
4781:
4741:
4394:
4375:Dershowitz, Alan (September 4, 2005).
4048:on April 5, 2008 – via CJOnline.
3868:
3691:
3668:from the original on February 23, 2023
3511:
3177:
2817:from the original on November 14, 2021
2492:from the original on February 23, 2023
2456:
2290:
2112:History of African Americans in Kansas
2043:Topeka Unified School District No. 501
1718:has been misunderstood by the courts.
1186:preferred white dolls over black dolls
944:British barrister and parliamentarian
746:The named African-American plaintiff,
705:
656:. This declaration denounced previous
12662:Landmark African-American legislation
10713:
10687:
10646:
10517:
9307:
8970:City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams
8410:
8321:
8282:
6384:Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
5846:
5712:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
5303:. New York: Oxford University Press.
5135:Brown v. Unified School Dist. No. 501
5105:. University of North Carolina Press.
5096:
5004:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
4578: (1995) (Thomas, J., concurring).
4463:
4133:
4036:"First step taken to end segregation"
3850:from the original on October 30, 2019
3632:Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement
3482:
3454:""Massive Resistance" to Integration"
3420:
3414:
3129:from the original on January 10, 2015
3099:from the original on October 31, 2020
2940:
2913:
2421:
2284:
2157:Timeline of the civil rights movement
1982:, the U.S. District Court ruled that
955:
540:, the Court reaffirmed its ruling in
434:". The Court's unanimous decision in
397:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
32:1954 United States Supreme Court case
18:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
12743:May 1954 events in the United States
11793:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
9696:Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education
8837:Section 1979 of the Revised Statutes
8152:St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
6616:Regional Council of Negro Leadership
6564:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
6510:Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
5987:Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
5912:Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
5245:
5065:
5027:
4982:"Dunbar High School After 100 Years"
4958:from the original on October 5, 2017
4945:
4927:from the original on August 30, 2017
4481:from the original on January 4, 2010
4191:
4111:. September 24, 2006. Archived from
3895:
3790:from the original on August 29, 2022
3692:Bender, Albert (February 13, 2014).
3625:
3527:
3451:
3244:
3087:O'Donnell, Michael (March 9, 2018).
2867:
2849:from the original on August 20, 2019
2343:American Federalism: An Encyclopedia
2339:"Brown v. Board of Education (1954)"
2259:
1588:Both scholarly and popular ideas of
1459:, 32 Democrats led by state senator
859:All were NAACP-sponsored cases. The
144:1951); probable jurisdiction noted,
12147:African-American Vernacular English
10463:Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools
10279:Quaker City Cab Co. v. Commonwealth
9704:City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
8814:June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo
8790:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
8601:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
6559:Lowndes County Freedom Organization
6495:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
6165:Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
5413:interview with Charles Ogletree on
5254:from the original on March 26, 2018
4952:georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov
4510:, 127 Harv. L. Rev. 127, 142 (2013)
4044:. September 9, 1953. Archived from
4012:"Racial bar down for teachers here"
3988:. February 28, 2002. Archived from
2842:National Museum of American History
2689:
2683:
2379:from the original on April 25, 2020
1368:personally blocked the door to the
346:Warren, joined by a unanimous court
24:
12783:Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower
12753:African-American history of Kansas
12065:U.S. cities with large populations
11768:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
10236:Arlington County Board v. Richards
10161:Examining Board v. Flores de Otero
9939:Wengler v. Druggists Mut. Ins. Co.
9425:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
8310:United States Fourteenth Amendment
8003:African-American churches attacked
6569:Montgomery Improvement Association
6544:Georgia Council on Human Relations
6529:Council of Federated Organizations
6500:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
6258:16th Street Baptist Church bombing
6216:Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
6022:1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
5926:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
5553:
5528:, 1954: Justice Robert H. Jackson"
5391:
4806:Northwestern University Law Review
4796:
4020:. January 19, 1956. Archived from
3704:from the original on June 25, 2021
3638:from the original on June 10, 2023
3566:127 Harv. L. Rev. 127, 153 (2013).
3497:10.1111/j.1748-5959.2004.tb00144.x
3335:, § 9.3.3.1, p. 764 (quoting
3056:"Causality, change and leadership"
2914:Boyle, Kevin (November 21, 1995).
2667:. Brown Foundation. Archived from
2637:. October 26, 1992. Archived from
2409:from the original on June 13, 2020
619:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
50:Supreme Court of the United States
25:
12834:
12813:United States Supreme Court cases
10938:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
10934:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009
10741:African American founding fathers
10580:Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents
10121:Takahashi v. Fish and Game Comm'n
8075:Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
7948:Jews in the civil rights movement
5820:"Basic Equal Protection Analysis"
5818:Galloway, Russell W. Jr. (1989).
5650:294 (1955) is available from:
5588:483 (1954) is available from:
5570:
5078:from the original on June 8, 2023
5047:from the original on May 11, 2024
4625:from the original on June 4, 2020
4309:. August 23, 2005. Archived from
3820:from the original on July 6, 2017
3607:from the original on June 4, 2023
3540:from the original on June 8, 2023
3464:from the original on June 8, 2023
2880:from the original on June 8, 2023
2629:"A Legacy Tour of the Brown Case"
2349:from the original on June 8, 2023
2272:from the original on June 8, 2023
2099:Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
2056:
2045:on July 27, 1999. One of the new
1232:as "a day of catastrophe—a
1106:, which all the justices joined.
12700:
11818:United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
10963:Nadir of American race relations
10399:Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas
9808:Fisher v. University of Texas II
9269:Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co.
8269:Civil rights movement portal
8262:
8110:Freedom Riders National Monument
7852:The Kingdom of God Is Within You
6364:1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
6323:1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
6210:Second Emancipation Proclamation
5404:
5246:Romo, Vanessa (March 26, 2018).
5195:
5169:
5149:
5127:
5109:
5090:
5072:'All Deliberate Speed' Decision"
5059:
5021:
4946:Bush, George W. (May 17, 2004).
4816:from the original on May 2, 2019
3153:"The Gang That Always Liked Ike"
2763:. August 3, 1951. Archived from
928:colonial rule. Attorney General
43:
27:1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision
10824:Civil rights movement 1954–1968
10814:Civil rights movement 1865–1896
10113:Ohio ex rel. Clark v. Deckebach
9792:Fisher v. University of Texas I
9149:Moore v. City of East Cleveland
8994:Los Angeles County v. Humphries
8508:West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish
8137:Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
8125:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
6601:National Council of Negro Women
6539:Deacons for Defense and Justice
5795:, Civil Rights Digital Library.
4996:
4970:
4939:
4909:
4886:
4873:
4828:
4735:
4581:
4556:
4522:
4496:
4457:
4434:
4388:
4334:
4292:
4272:
4213:
4161:
4127:
4101:
4076:
4052:
4028:
4004:
3972:
3956:. July 10, 2001. Archived from
3940:
3889:
3862:
3832:
3802:
3772:
3746:
3716:
3650:
3619:
3593:
3577:
3552:
3521:
3476:
3445:
3366:
3326:
3314:
3302:
3289:
3238:
3202:
3171:
3141:
3111:
3080:
3047:
2980:
2934:
2907:
2861:
2829:
2793:
2771:
2747:
2729:
2653:
2621:
2590:
2560:
2527:
2504:
2470:
2450:
2194:
1840:in the United States of America
1714:(1995) that at the very least,
1569:in 1896 under the doctrine of "
1302:Little Rock Central High School
677:were both at the height of the
442:and was a major victory of the
12763:Civil rights movement case law
12738:1954 in United States case law
11813:Thurgood Marshall College Fund
10819:Civil right movement 1896–1954
9979:J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.
6017:Mansfield school desegregation
5269:
4068:. May 18, 1954. Archived from
3485:History of Education Quarterly
2739:. May 24, 2008. Archived from
2574:. May 12, 2004. Archived from
2511:Dudziak, Mary L. (June 2004).
2391:
2361:
2330:
2253:
2218:
2169:
2017:American Civil Liberties Union
1984:Prince Edward County, Virginia
1482:Many Northern cities also had
1443:verdict included U.S. Senator
1403:
1264:For several decades after the
446:, and a model for many future
196:(D. Kan. 1987); reversed, 892
13:
1:
11993:Cherokee freedmen controversy
10969:The Negro Motorist Green Book
9648:Dayton Bd. of Ed. v. Brinkman
8853:McNeese v. Board of Education
8360:United States v. Wong Kim Ark
8147:National Voting Rights Museum
8090:Civil Rights Movement Archive
7889:Lynching in the United States
7776:"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
6231:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
6204:University of Chicago sit-ins
5971:Davis v. Prince Edward County
5799:"Supreme Court Landmark Case
5759:Online documents relating to
5177:"Brown v. Board of Education"
5142: (D. Kan. 1999),
3664:. American Experience. 2000.
3534:Civil Rights Movement Archive
3458:Civil Rights Movement Archive
3376:, § 9.3.3.1, pp. 764–65.
3363:, § 9.3.3.1, pp. 764–65.
2941:Neier, Aryeh (May 14, 2014).
2874:Civil Rights Movement Archive
2786: (D. Kan. 1951),
2534:Anderson, Ric (May 9, 2004).
2466:. New York: Harper & Row.
2266:Civil Rights Movement Archive
2207:
1573:" were, in part, tied to the
1378:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
1300:" after the desegregation of
1272:
1000:were predisposed to overturn
547:
503:
400:, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), was a
12748:20th-century American trials
9377:Hirabayashi v. United States
9229:DeShaney v. Winnebago County
9181:Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co.
8922:Owen v. City of Independence
8537:Pierce v. Society of Sisters
8142:National Civil Rights Museum
7998:March on Washington Movement
7983:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
6452:Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
5761:Brown vs. Board of Education
5299:Lofgren, Charles A. (1987).
4168:Lofgren, Charles A. (1988).
3421:Rabby, Glenda Alice (1999).
2212:
2067:Brown vs. Board of Education
2004:
1909:spoke at the opening of the
1869:Hirabayashi v. United States
1294:Arkansas Army National Guard
1236:—a day something like
637:asserted that the system of
222:); judgment reinstated, 978
133:Judgment for defendants, 98
7:
11863:Black players in ice hockey
11798:National Urban League (NUL)
11624:American Society of Muslims
10862:Selma to Montgomery marches
10782:Brown v. Board of Education
10263:United States v. Cruikshank
9433:Brown v. Board of Education
8734:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
8585:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
7786:"This Little Light of Mine"
6534:Dallas County Voters League
6480:Atlanta Negro Voters League
6243:Letter from Birmingham Jail
5950:Brown v. Board of Education
5801:Brown v. Board of Education
5792:Brown v. Board of Education
5775:Brown v. Board of Education
5745:Brown v. Board of Education
5725:Brown v. Board of Education
5578:Brown v. Board of Education
5526:Brown v. Board of Education
5140:56 F. Supp. 2d 1212
5117:Brown v. Board of Education
4445:in support of a proposition
4443:Brown v. Board of Education
4226:Journal of American Studies
3869:Weiner, Melissa F. (2010).
3429:University of Georgia Press
2779:Brown v. Board of Education
2517:Journal of American History
2337:Cottrol, Robert J. (2006).
2225:Brown v. Board of Education
2086:
1947:
1937:Brown v. Board of Education
1912:Brown v. Board of Education
1790:39th United States Congress
1657:Brown v. Board of Education
1643:Brown v. Board of Education
1579:Brown v. Board of Education
810:Brown v. Board of Education
582:United States Supreme Court
246:Segregation of students in
38:Brown v. Board of Education
10:
12839:
12788:Public education in Kansas
12020:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
11778:Nashville Student Movement
10789:Children of the plantation
9385:Korematsu v. United States
8120:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
7988:Holt Street Baptist Church
7958:16th Street Baptist Church
6942:Annie Bell Robinson Devine
6586:Nashville Student Movement
6516:An Appeal for Human Rights
5700:Oyez (oral argument audio)
5476:. New York: W. W. Norton.
5323:The American Supreme Court
5124: (10th Cir. 1989).
4540:, 58 DUKE L.J. 1049 (2008)
4341:Schwartz, Bernard (1997).
4096:The Topeka Capital-Journal
3349:Nowak & Rotunda (2012)
3181:The Memoirs of Earl Warren
2513:"Brown as a Cold War Case"
1836:The General Principles of
1772:Radical Reconstructionists
1610:Legal criticism and praise
1559:The intellectual roots of
1414:Greensboro, North Carolina
1392:had ordered to intervene.
673:The United States and the
616:, 339 U.S. 629 (1950) and
105:2094; 53 Ohio Op. 326; 38
12690:
12657:Index of related articles
12535:
12450:
12174:
12107:
12045:
11945:
11906:
11838:
11831:
11746:
11666:
11658:Doctrine of Father Divine
11604:
11546:
11195:
11050:
11042:Women's suffrage movement
10995:Reconstruction Amendments
10802:Voting Rights Act of 1965
10721:
10653:
10647:
10642:
10588:United States v. Morrison
10526:
10513:
10254:
10219:
10040:
10005:
9995:United States v. Skrmetti
9987:United States v. Virginia
9826:
9600:Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson
9320:
9316:
9303:
9021:Jacobson v. Massachusetts
9012:
8954:Gonzaga University v. Doe
8832:
8619:
8518:
8423:
8419:
8406:
8330:
8317:
8258:
8160:
8062:
7876:
7809:
7751:
7730:
7617:Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
7587:Modjeska Monteith Simkins
6659:
6651:Women's Political Council
6646:Wednesdays in Mississippi
6641:United Auto Workers (UAW)
6626:Southern Regional Council
6596:Northern Student Movement
6505:Committee for Freedom Now
6465:
6412:Memphis sanitation strike
6378:Voting Rights Act of 1965
6300:
6121:Savannah Protest Movement
6083:
5941:
5902:Journey of Reconciliation
5894:
5881:
5403:
5398:
5101:They Closed Their Schools
4773:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
4549:citing Herbert Wechsler,
4426:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
4238:10.1017/S0021875807003477
4060:"Little Effect On Topeka"
3931:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
3724:"Civil Rights Greensboro"
3411:, § 9.3.3.1, p. 765.
3395:, § 9.3.3.1, p. 765.
3299:, § 9.3.3.1, p. 764.
3286:, § 9.3.3.1, p. 764.
3123:www.digitalhistory.uh.edu
2721:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
2568:"Black, White, and Brown"
2065:retells the story of the
1766:, a federal judge on the
1633:at a 2004 exhibit on the
1521:
386:Berea College v. Kentucky
369:
362:
355:
350:
342:
337:
271:
266:
245:
240:
159:
129:
124:
114:
78:
65:
59:Reargued December 8, 1953
56:
42:
37:
12707:United States portal
12142:African-American English
11571:Inventors and scientists
11263:George Washington Carver
10867:Chicago Freedom Movement
10620:United States v. Georgia
10564:City of Boerne v. Flores
9728:United States v. Fordice
9285:Williams v. Pennsylvania
9253:Washington v. Glucksberg
6485:Atlanta Student Movement
6434:Civil Rights Act of 1968
6359:1964–1965 Scripto strike
6340:Civil Rights Act of 1964
6238:1963 Birmingham campaign
6131:Civil Rights Act of 1960
6055:Civil Rights Act of 1957
5727:National Historical Park
5468:Ogletree, Charles J. Jr.
5231:: CS1 maint: location (
5163:October 1, 2007, at the
4324:with the statement that
2760:The Topeka State Journal
2597:Finkelman, Paul (2009).
2435:. UNESCO. Archived from
2299:Rowman & Littlefield
2162:
1760:Civil Rights Act of 1875
1477:
890:Under the leadership of
700:American Bar Association
260:District Court of Kansas
12773:Legal history of Kansas
12630:African-American firsts
11679:Back-to-Africa movement
11648:Black Hebrew Israelites
11428:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
10976:Partus sequitur ventrem
10628:Shelby County v. Holder
10193:Cabell v. Chavez-Salido
10049:Patsone v. Pennsylvania
9310:Equal Protection Clause
9237:Michael H. v. Gerald D.
8630:United States v. Vuitch
8545:Griswold v. Connecticut
8037:Voter Education Project
7791:"We Shall Not Be Moved"
7452:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
6887:Josephine Dobbs Clement
6313:Chester school protests
6308:Twenty-fourth Amendment
6270:Detroit Walk to Freedom
6012:Tallahassee bus boycott
5933:Baton Rouge bus boycott
5503:Oxford University Press
4812:. Heinonline.org: 242.
4515:March 25, 2015, at the
4326:Plessy against Ferguson
4090:April 27, 2004, at the
3571:March 25, 2015, at the
3222:Oxford University Press
3064:Edward Elgar Publishing
2784:98 F. Supp. 797
2053:case and civil rights.
1877:The Tempting of America
1670:with other law clerks.
1314:101st Airborne Division
1277:Texas Attorney General
1182:Kenneth and Mamie Clark
1139:Equal Protection Clause
804:Supreme Court arguments
491:Equal Protection Clause
252:Equal Protection Clause
57:Argued December 9, 1952
12598:Spingarn Medal winners
12087:States and territories
11858:Black NFL quarterbacks
11358:Martin Luther King Jr.
10890:Dred Scott v. Sandford
10829:Montgomery bus boycott
10495:Armour v. Indianapolis
9859:Moritz v. Commissioner
8915:Procunier v. Navarette
8833:Civil rights liability
8621:Abortion jurisprudence
8250:Movement photographers
7492:Bernice Johnson Reagon
7212:Martin Luther King Sr.
7207:Martin Luther King Jr.
6777:William Holmes Borders
6549:Highlander Folk School
6439:Poor People's Campaign
6292:St. Augustine movement
6142:Gomillion v. Lightfoot
6065:Katz Drug Store sit-in
6036:Royal Ice Cream sit-in
5998:Montgomery bus boycott
5824:Santa Clara Law Review
4640:Response to McConnell:
4545:March 4, 2016, at the
4469:"Rehnquist the Great?"
4450:June 15, 2007, at the
4398:(September 11, 2005).
4285:June 15, 2007, at the
4261:. By John P. Jackson.
4134:Sarat, Austin (1997).
3844:www2.vcdh.virginia.edu
3530:"The Little Rock Nine"
3339:, 347 U.S. at 492–93).
2996:June 30, 2015, at the
2105:Dred Scott v. Sandford
2081:
1978:For example, based on
1914:National Historic Site
1894:
1847:William Morris Stewart
1823:Michigan Supreme Court
1799:US state constitutions
1740:
1645:
1554:National Historic Site
1531:
1492:Second Great Migration
1398:Martin Luther King Jr.
1386:Alabama National Guard
1351:White Citizens Council
1251:
1220:Reaction and aftermath
1207:
1177:
1158:
1126:
1096:
1084:Supreme Court decision
965:
923:considerations of the
909:In December 1952, the
877:Delaware Supreme Court
782:District court opinion
565:
562:Southern United States
530:", created by Senator
512:Southern United States
357:U.S. Const. amend. XIV
11908:Athletic associations
11843:Negro league baseball
11614:African-American Jews
11333:Ketanji Brown Jackson
11298:Henry Highland Garnet
11157:Negro National Anthem
10907:George Floyd protests
10872:Post–civil rights era
10548:Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer
10391:Richardson v. Ramirez
10359:Boddie v. Connecticut
9947:Kirchberg v. Feenstra
9776:Johnson v. California
9496:McLaughlin v. Florida
8884:O'Connor v. Donaldson
8444:Allgeyer v. Louisiana
8336:Slaughter-House Cases
8085:Civil Rights Memorial
7973:Bethel Baptist Church
7622:Charles Kenzie Steele
7067:Audrey Faye Hendricks
6972:Myrlie Evers-Williams
6952:Patricia Stephens Due
6922:Abraham Lincoln Davis
6857:Colia Lafayette Clark
6611:Operation Breadbasket
6606:National Urban League
6353:Katzenbach v. McClung
6221:Atlanta's Berlin Wall
5874:Civil rights movement
5439:, 2016). xiv, 225 pp.
5213:on September 10, 2005
4883:100 (1987):1938–1948.
4693:McConnell, Michael W.
4589:McConnell, Michael W.
4315:Rehnquist: I thought
4115:on September 24, 2006
3178:Warren, Earl (1977).
3167:on November 17, 2014.
3151:(November 15, 2014).
2904:, 98 F. Supp. at 798.
2480:(February 18, 2010).
2439:on October 11, 2007.
2291:Schuck, P.H. (2006).
2144:Ole Miss riot of 1962
2077:
1923:In a 2016 article in
1889:
1887:decision as follows:
1786:congressional history
1720:
1621:(from left to right)
1617:
1529:
1370:University of Alabama
1253:In Virginia, Senator
1246:
1193:
1163:
1144:
1112:
1091:
1047:Mendez v. Westminster
1014:cultural assimilation
1012:discussed incomplete
963:
925:Truman administration
602:and activists at the
555:
444:civil rights movement
12115:Afro-Seminole Creole
11641:Azusa Street Revival
11513:Booker T. Washington
11037:Underground Railroad
10902:Free people of color
10756:Atlantic slave trade
10540:Katzenbach v. Morgan
10287:Breedlove v. Suttles
10137:Graham v. Richardson
10030:Obergefell v. Hodges
9835:Breedlove v. Suttles
9768:Grutter v. Bollinger
9608:Jefferson v. Hackney
9277:Obergefell v. Hodges
9213:Edwards v. Aguillard
9093:Epperson v. Arkansas
8930:Harlow v. Fitzgerald
8865:Jenkins v. McKeithen
8758:Mazurek v. Armstrong
8718:Hodgson v. Minnesota
8678:Bellotti v. Baird II
8670:Colautti v. Franklin
8425:Economic substantive
8130:other King memorials
8105:Freedom Rides Museum
8042:1960s counterculture
7993:Edmund Pettus Bridge
7672:Walter Francis White
7577:Alexander D. Shimkin
6091:New Year's Day March
6060:Ministers' Manifesto
5907:Executive Order 9981
5773:60th Anniversary of
5752:May 2, 2019, at the
5495:William W. Freehling
5415:All Deliberate Speed
5319:McCloskey, Robert G.
5122:892 F.2d 851
4745:(November 9, 2009).
4689:Response to Klarman:
4372:of a great justice."
4313:on August 29, 2008.
4041:Topeka Daily Capital
4017:Topeka Daily Capital
3896:Back, Adina (2003).
3251:Master of the Senate
3066:. pp. 152–187.
2523:on December 7, 2014.
2073:Linda Brown Thompson
1764:Michael W. McConnell
1742:Some Constitutional
1700:Some aspects of the
1635:Fourteenth Amendment
1484:de facto segregation
1355:Byron De La Beckwith
1347:Jackson, Mississippi
1306:Dwight D. Eisenhower
1038:Dwight D. Eisenhower
904:University of Kansas
711:Filing and arguments
696:Dwight D. Eisenhower
592:Fourteenth Amendment
495:Fourteenth Amendment
256:Fourteenth Amendment
163:Judgment on relief,
61:Decided May 17, 1954
12510:Trinidad and Tobago
12125:Black American Sign
11952:By African descent
11946:Ethnic subdivisions
11933:Southwestern (SWAC)
11848:Baseball color line
11763:Black Panther Party
11667:Political movements
11584:in computer science
11243:Carol Moseley Braun
11032:Tulsa race massacre
11025:Treatment of slaves
10857:March on Washington
10852:Birmingham movement
10471:Gregory v. Ashcroft
10439:Mills v. Habluetzel
10423:Zablocki v. Redhail
10367:Eisenstadt v. Baird
10303:Oyama v. California
10295:Skinner v. Oklahoma
10228:Shapiro v. Thompson
10145:Sugarman v. Dougall
10089:Porterfield v. Webb
10081:Terrace v. Thompson
9744:Missouri v. Jenkins
9688:Hunter v. Underwood
9632:Milliken v. Bradley
9624:Norwood v. Harrison
9576:McDaniel v. Barresi
9261:Troxel v. Granville
9141:Mathews v. Eldridge
9125:Taylor v. Louisiana
9002:Connick v. Thompson
8782:Gonzales v. Carhart
8766:Stenberg v. Carhart
8750:Lambert v. Wicklund
8662:Bellotti v. Baird I
8460:Lochner v. New York
8344:Minor v. Happersett
7868:Mary McLeod Bethune
7829:Sermon on the Mount
7796:"We Shall Overcome"
7377:William Lewis Moore
7157:Frank Minis Johnson
7132:Richie Jean Jackson
7087:Donald L. Hollowell
6892:Charles E. Cobb Jr.
6697:Gwendolyn Armstrong
6692:William G. Anderson
6672:Victoria Gray Adams
6636:The Freedom Singers
6490:Black Panther Party
6275:March on Washington
6188:Garner v. Louisiana
6149:Boynton v. Virginia
5691:Library of Congress
5629:Library of Congress
5559:Whitman, Mark, ed.
5512:(Bloomsbury, 1998)
5491:Patterson, James T.
5452:. New York: Knopf.
5097:Smith, Bob (1965).
4980:(October 4, 2016).
4702:Virginia Law Review
4657:Virginia Law Review
4644:Klarman, Michael J.
4598:Virginia Law Review
4564:Missouri v. Jenkins
4278:William Rehnquist,
4065:The Capital-Journal
3816:. August 26, 2020.
3814:Revisionist History
3351:, § 18.8(d)(ii)(2).
3210:Patterson, James T.
3023:"Did Brown Matter?"
2609:on October 28, 2009
1964:The Hound of Heaven
1927:, an outlet of the
1844:Nevada U.S. Senator
1711:Missouri v. Jenkins
1619:U.S. circuit judges
1284:In September 1957,
1242:Robert G. McCloskey
1216:, described below.
896:United Auto Workers
706:District court case
12608:US representatives
12603:US cabinet members
12495:Dominican Republic
12082:Metropolitan areas
11923:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
11748:Civic and economic
11726:Self-determination
11547:Education, science
11468:Fred Shuttlesworth
11448:A. Philip Randolph
11353:Coretta Scott King
11278:Frederick Douglass
11105:Harlem Renaissance
11010:Separate but equal
11000:Reconstruction era
10988:Plessy v. Ferguson
10879:Cornerstone Speech
10793:Civil Rights Acts
10776:Black Lives Matter
10751:American Civil War
10532:Civil Rights Cases
10520:Enforcement Clause
10351:Oregon v. Mitchell
10343:Williams v. Rhodes
10169:Nyquist v. Mauclet
10129:Hernandez v. Texas
10014:Bowers v. Hardwick
10006:Sexual orientation
9883:Stanton v. Stanton
9875:Geduldig v. Aiello
9843:Goesaert v. Cleary
9760:Gratz v. Bollinger
9584:Palmer v. Thompson
9536:Hunter v. Erickson
9512:Loving v. Virginia
9480:Anderson v. Martin
9401:Shelley v. Kraemer
9345:Plessy v. Ferguson
9337:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
9189:Kolender v. Lawson
9085:Loving v. Virginia
8900:Imbler v. Pachtman
8877:Wood v. Strickland
8742:Leavitt v. Jane L.
8569:Bowers v. Hardwick
8484:Buchanan v. Warley
8413:Due Process Clause
8324:Citizenship Clause
8185:Michael Eric Dyson
8070:In popular culture
7953:Fifth Circuit Four
7937:Loving v. Virginia
7930:Hernandez v. Texas
7909:Buchanan v. Warley
7901:Separate but equal
7895:Plessy v. Ferguson
7858:Frederick Douglass
7692:Robert F. Williams
7602:Kelly Miller Smith
7582:Fred Shuttlesworth
7507:Frederick D. Reese
7487:George Raymond Jr.
7477:A. Philip Randolph
7457:Fay Bellamy Powell
7372:Queen Mother Moore
7257:Z. Alexander Looby
7202:Coretta Scott King
7147:Barbara Rose Johns
7127:Jimmie Lee Jackson
7052:William E. Harbour
6832:Stokely Carmichael
6747:Randolph Blackwell
6417:King assassination
6406:Loving v. Virginia
6390:March Against Fear
6370:How Long, Not Long
6248:Children's Crusade
6199:Cambridge movement
6136:Ax Handle Saturday
6101:Greensboro sit-ins
6028:Give Us the Ballot
5363:Law and Philosophy
5278:Chemerinsky, Erwin
5146:from the original.
5037:Cardozo Law Review
4881:Harvard Law Review
4868:Harvard Law Review
4840:Ackerman, Bruce A.
4836:Days, III, Drew S.
4752:The New York Times
4405:The New York Times
4367:Likewise, Justice
4361:William O. Douglas
4298:Peter S. Canellos,
4154:Plessy v. Ferguson
3948:"The Class of '51"
3909:Palgrave Macmillan
3590:at 352–354 (2004).
3409:Chemerinsky (2019)
3407:Quoted in part in
3393:Chemerinsky (2019)
3374:Chemerinsky (2019)
3361:Chemerinsky (2019)
3333:Chemerinsky (2019)
3323:, 347 U.S. at 493.
3311:, 347 U.S. at 490.
3297:Chemerinsky (2019)
3284:Chemerinsky (2019)
3158:The New York Times
3149:Beschloss, Michael
2803:(August 3, 1951).
2790:from the original.
2700:The New York Times
2548:on August 28, 2008
2177:Plessy v. Ferguson
2129:Loving v. Virginia
2117:Rubey Mosley Hulen
2061:A PBS film called
1941:Dunbar High School
1902:judicial restraint
1838:Constitutional Law
1794:state legislatures
1662:Plessy v. Ferguson
1646:
1623:Robert A. Katzmann
1571:separate but equal
1567:racial segregation
1562:Plessy v. Ferguson
1532:
1449:Massive Resistance
1259:Massive Resistance
1204:, 397 U.S. at 495.
1174:, 347 U.S. at 494.
1155:, 397 U.S. at 493.
1123:, 347 U.S. at 489.
1097:
1065:recess appointment
1060:judicial restraint
994:Harold Hitz Burton
986:William O. Douglas
966:
956:Consensus building
935:Secretary of State
930:James P. McGranery
911:Justice Department
865:Barbara Rose Johns
788:Plessy v. Ferguson
683:William O. Douglas
646:was influenced by
587:Plessy v. Ferguson
578:racial segregation
566:
528:massive resistance
514:, the reaction to
432:separate but equal
423:Plessy v. Ferguson
414:racial segregation
412:laws establishing
406:U.S. Supreme Court
372:Plessy v. Ferguson
306:William O. Douglas
282:Associate Justices
178:); on remand, 139
97:74 S. Ct. 686; 98
12778:Thurgood Marshall
12728:1954 in education
12715:
12714:
12543:African Americans
12415:Dallas–Fort Worth
12010:Black Southerners
11941:
11940:
11393:Thurgood Marshall
11363:Bernard Lafayette
10958:Million Man March
10715:African Americans
10681:
10680:
10677:
10676:
10667:Trump v. Anderson
10659:Gold Clause Cases
10638:
10637:
10612:Tennessee v. Lane
10509:
10508:
10505:
10504:
10415:Trimble v. Gordon
10335:Levy v. Louisiana
10327:Rinaldi v. Yeager
10209:Bernal v. Fainter
10185:Ambach v. Norwick
10177:Foley v. Connelie
10073:Crane v. New York
9971:Lehr v. Robertson
9923:Caban v. Mohammed
9680:Palmore v. Sidoti
9520:Lee v. Washington
9504:Reitman v. Mulkey
9455:Gebhart v. Belton
9441:Briggs v. Elliott
9417:Sweatt v. Painter
9299:
9298:
9295:
9294:
9173:Parratt v. Taylor
9157:Duren v. Missouri
9117:Arnett v. Kennedy
9045:Powell v. Alabama
8986:Ashcroft v. Iqbal
8871:Scheuer v. Rhodes
8686:H. L. v. Matheson
8593:Lawrence v. Texas
8529:Meyer v. Nebraska
8476:Coppage v. Kansas
8402:
8401:
8368:Perez v. Brownell
8276:
8275:
8053:Eyes on the Prize
7968:A.G. Gaston Motel
7963:Kelly Ingram Park
7923:Sweatt v. Painter
7607:Mary Louise Smith
7567:Cleveland Sellers
7552:Michael Schwerner
7517:Gloria Richardson
7297:Thurgood Marshall
7217:Bernard Lafayette
6947:John Wesley Dobbs
6461:
6460:
6180:Birmingham attack
6160:Rock Hill sit-ins
6111:Sibley Commission
6106:Nashville sit-ins
5978:Gebhart v. Belton
5964:Briggs v. Elliott
5957:Bolling v. Sharpe
5918:Sweatt v. Painter
5729:(US Park Service)
5508:Raffel, Jeffrey.
5426:
5425:
5336:978-0-226-55686-4
5310:978-0-19-505684-6
5291:978-1-4548-9574-9
5066:Hartford, Bruce.
4893:A Justice for All
4695:(October 1995). "
4646:(October 1995). "
4383:on April 2, 2019.
4369:Felix Frankfurter
4354:978-0-19-511800-1
4222:Mankind Quarterly
4181:978-0-19-505684-6
4147:978-0-19-510622-0
3626:Hartford, Bruce.
3528:Hartford, Bruce.
3452:Hartford, Bruce.
3119:"Digital History"
3073:978-1-84542-541-8
3019:Sunstein, Cass R.
2949:on July 16, 2014.
2927:978-1-5017-1327-9
2868:Hartford, Bruce.
2429:Harald E.L. Prins
2308:978-0-7425-3961-7
2260:Hartford, Bruce.
2179:in its entirety,
2150:Runyon v. McCrary
1991:Court overturned
1929:Salem Media Group
1851:James A. Garfield
1653:Robert H. Jackson
1649:William Rehnquist
1639:Thurgood Marshall
1599:Mankind Quarterly
1575:scientific racism
1552:was designated a
1550:Monroe Elementary
1465:J. Lindsay Almond
1426:Moberly, Missouri
1388:, whom President
1374:Foster Auditorium
1279:John Ben Shepperd
1034:judicial activism
1030:Robert H. Jackson
1026:Felix Frankfurter
974:Felix Frankfurter
900:Thurgood Marshall
869:Moton High School
849:Bolling v. Sharpe
839:Gebhart v. Belton
819:Briggs v. Elliott
764:Sumner Elementary
760:Monroe Elementary
756:Linda Carol Brown
752:Santa Fe Railroad
653:The Race Question
639:racial separation
613:Sweatt v. Painter
600:Howard University
499:U.S. Constitution
483:Thurgood Marshall
448:impact litigation
428:U.S. Constitution
393:
392:
310:Robert H. Jackson
298:Felix Frankfurter
16:(Redirected from
12830:
12823:Trials in Kansas
12705:
12704:
12703:
12667:Lynching victims
12166:Louisiana Creole
12137:American English
12025:Louisiana Creole
11998:Choctaw freedmen
11836:
11835:
11373:Huddie Ledbetter
11313:Fannie Lou Hamer
11283:W. E. B. Du Bois
11273:Claudette Colvin
11268:Shirley Chisholm
11085:Family structure
10953:Military history
10835:Browder v. Gayle
10708:
10701:
10694:
10685:
10684:
10644:
10643:
10556:Dellmuth v. Muth
10515:
10514:
9915:Parham v. Hughes
9891:Edwards v. Healy
9720:Freeman v. Pitts
9475:(M.D. Ala. 1956)
9472:Browder v. Gayle
9318:
9317:
9305:
9304:
9221:Turner v. Safley
9197:Hudson v. Palmer
9061:NAACP v. Alabama
8520:Right to privacy
8468:Muller v. Oregon
8436:Mugler v. Kansas
8421:
8420:
8408:
8407:
8384:Rogers v. Bellei
8319:
8318:
8303:
8296:
8289:
8280:
8279:
8267:
8266:
8230:Charles M. Payne
8215:Steven F. Lawson
8205:David Halberstam
8175:Clayborne Carson
7916:Hocutt v. Wilson
7863:W. E. B. Du Bois
7712:Sammy Younge Jr.
7697:Q. V. Williamson
7662:Wyatt Tee Walker
7527:Bernice Robinson
7472:Lincoln Ragsdale
7462:Rodney N. Powell
7357:Douglas E. Moore
7232:Sanford R. Leigh
7167:J. Charles Jones
7042:Fannie Lou Hamer
6957:Joseph Ellwanger
6917:Jonathan Daniels
6907:Claudette Colvin
6897:Annie Lee Cooper
6882:Kathleen Cleaver
6877:Eldridge Cleaver
6852:Shirley Chisholm
6742:Gloria Blackwell
6333:workers' murders
6280:"I Have a Dream"
6175:Anniston bombing
6126:Greenville Eight
6041:Little Rock Nine
6004:Browder v. Gayle
5892:
5891:
5867:
5860:
5853:
5844:
5843:
5839:
5837:
5835:
5704:
5698:
5695:
5689:
5686:
5680:
5677:
5671:
5668:
5662:
5659:
5653:
5633:
5627:
5624:
5618:
5615:
5609:
5606:
5600:
5597:
5591:
5549:
5537:
5520:Tushnet, Mark V.
5487:
5463:
5408:
5407:
5396:
5395:
5386:
5357:
5340:
5327:Sanford Levinson
5314:
5295:
5264:
5263:
5261:
5259:
5243:
5237:
5236:
5230:
5222:
5220:
5218:
5199:
5193:
5192:
5190:
5188:
5173:
5167:
5153:
5147:
5137:
5131:
5125:
5119:
5113:
5107:
5106:
5104:
5094:
5088:
5087:
5085:
5083:
5063:
5057:
5056:
5054:
5052:
5033:"Poetic Justice"
5031:(May 3, 2012) .
5029:Chen, James Ming
5025:
5019:
5000:
4994:
4993:
4992:on May 24, 2019.
4988:. Archived from
4974:
4968:
4967:
4965:
4963:
4943:
4937:
4936:
4934:
4932:
4913:
4907:
4897:Kim Isaac Eisler
4890:
4884:
4877:
4871:
4865:
4859:
4858:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4821:
4794:
4779:
4778:
4772:
4764:
4762:
4760:
4739:
4733:
4726:
4709:(7): 1937–1955.
4681:
4664:(7): 1881–1936.
4634:
4632:
4630:
4585:
4579:
4560:
4554:
4526:
4520:
4500:
4494:
4493:
4488:
4486:
4474:Atlantic Monthly
4461:
4455:
4438:
4432:
4431:
4425:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4392:
4386:
4384:
4379:. Archived from
4365:
4338:
4332:
4331:
4306:The Boston Globe
4296:
4290:
4276:
4270:
4256:
4250:
4249:
4217:
4211:
4198:
4189:
4188:
4165:
4159:
4158:
4152:What lay behind
4131:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4105:
4099:
4080:
4074:
4073:
4056:
4050:
4049:
4032:
4026:
4025:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3999:
3997:
3992:on July 22, 2012
3976:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3960:on July 30, 2012
3944:
3938:
3936:
3930:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3906:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3857:
3855:
3836:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3825:
3806:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3760:on April 2, 2015
3756:. Archived from
3750:
3744:
3743:
3741:
3739:
3730:. Archived from
3728:library.uncg.edu
3720:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3709:
3689:
3678:
3677:
3675:
3673:
3658:"Wallace Quotes"
3654:
3648:
3647:
3645:
3643:
3623:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3612:
3597:
3591:
3586:citing Klarman,
3581:
3575:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3545:
3525:
3519:
3515:
3509:
3508:
3480:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3469:
3449:
3443:
3442:
3418:
3412:
3405:
3396:
3390:
3377:
3370:
3364:
3358:
3352:
3346:
3340:
3330:
3324:
3318:
3312:
3306:
3300:
3293:
3287:
3281:
3270:
3269:
3242:
3236:
3235:
3219:
3206:
3200:
3199:
3175:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3161:. Archived from
3145:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3134:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3084:
3078:
3077:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3042:
3040:
3035:on July 13, 2015
3034:
3029:. Archived from
3015:
3000:
2984:
2978:
2977:
2975:
2969:. Archived from
2968:
2960:
2951:
2950:
2945:. Archived from
2938:
2932:
2931:
2911:
2905:
2899:
2890:
2889:
2887:
2885:
2865:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2854:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2801:Walter A. Huxman
2797:
2791:
2781:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2743:on May 24, 2008.
2733:
2727:
2726:
2720:
2712:
2710:
2708:
2693:(May 22, 2008).
2687:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2676:
2671:on March 7, 2021
2657:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2641:on June 15, 2010
2625:
2619:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2605:. Archived from
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2578:on June 10, 2004
2564:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2544:. Archived from
2531:
2525:
2524:
2519:. Archived from
2508:
2502:
2501:
2499:
2497:
2478:Dudziak, Mary L.
2474:
2468:
2467:
2454:
2448:
2447:
2444:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2414:
2395:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2334:
2328:
2325:McCloskey (2010)
2322:
2313:
2312:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2257:
2251:
2245:
2239:
2222:
2201:
2198:
2192:
2173:
1960:Francis Thompson
1863:Drew S. Days III
1829:Thomas M. Cooley
1691:Herbert Wechsler
1544:McKinley Burnett
1508:
1329:Florida Governor
1298:Little Rock Nine
1205:
1175:
1156:
1124:
854:Washington, D.C.
737:McKinley Burnett
404:decision of the
375:(1896) (in part)
318:Harold H. Burton
267:Court membership
207:1989); vacated,
47:
46:
35:
34:
21:
12838:
12837:
12833:
12832:
12831:
12829:
12828:
12827:
12718:
12717:
12716:
12711:
12701:
12699:
12686:
12652:Historic places
12645:US state firsts
12531:
12446:
12170:
12103:
12075:2010 majorities
12070:2000 majorities
12041:
11988:Black Seminoles
11937:
11928:Southern (SIAC)
11911:
11910:and conferences
11909:
11902:
11898:Serena Williams
11893:Jackie Robinson
11827:
11751:
11749:
11742:
11662:
11629:Nation of Islam
11600:
11548:
11542:
11483:Sojourner Truth
11473:Clarence Thomas
11438:Gabriel Prosser
11338:Michael Jackson
11213:Crispus Attucks
11203:Ralph Abernathy
11191:
11147:Musical theater
11046:
10912:Great Migration
10884:COVID-19 impact
10842:Sit-in movement
10717:
10712:
10682:
10673:
10649:
10634:
10522:
10501:
10250:
10215:
10153:In re Griffiths
10097:Webb v. O'Brien
10036:
10001:
9822:
9752:Texas v. Lesage
9544:Hadnott v. Amos
9329:Pace v. Alabama
9312:
9291:
9069:Hoyt v. Florida
9008:
8938:Felder v. Casey
8834:
8828:
8615:
8514:
8492:Adams v. Tanner
8452:Holden v. Hardy
8426:
8415:
8398:
8376:Afroyim v. Rusk
8326:
8313:
8307:
8277:
8272:
8261:
8254:
8235:Thomas E. Ricks
8225:Diane McWhorter
8210:Vincent Harding
8195:Adam Fairclough
8162:
8156:
8058:
8013:Freedom Schools
7872:
7805:
7753:
7747:
7738:Omaha, Nebraska
7726:
7642:Hartman Turnbow
7632:Dorothy Tillman
7592:Glenn E. Smiley
7572:Charles Sherrod
7532:Jo Ann Robinson
7407:Charles Neblett
7397:Elijah Muhammad
7362:Harriette Moore
7322:Floyd McKissick
7307:Franklin McCain
7242:Stanley Levison
7107:T. R. M. Howard
7057:Vincent Harding
6987:Walter Fauntroy
6872:Xernona Clayton
6822:John H. Calhoun
6807:Aurelia Browder
6797:Stanley Branche
6792:Raylawni Branch
6772:Joseph E. Boone
6757:Ezell Blair Jr.
6752:Unita Blackwell
6727:Harry Belafonte
6667:Ralph Abernathy
6655:
6591:Nation of Islam
6467:
6457:
6296:
6253:Birmingham riot
6194:Albany Movement
6116:Atlanta sit-ins
6096:Sit-in movement
6079:
6075:Biloxi wade-ins
6047:Cooper v. Aaron
5937:
5883:
5877:
5871:
5833:
5831:
5754:Wayback Machine
5710:Case Brief for
5702:
5696:
5693:
5687:
5684:
5678:
5675:
5669:
5666:
5660:
5657:
5651:
5631:
5625:
5622:
5616:
5613:
5607:
5604:
5598:
5595:
5589:
5573:
5556:
5554:Primary sources
5546:
5484:
5460:
5444:Kluger, Richard
5405:
5399:External videos
5394:
5392:Further reading
5389:
5375:10.2307/3504874
5337:
5311:
5292:
5272:
5267:
5257:
5255:
5244:
5240:
5224:
5223:
5216:
5214:
5207:KTWU Channel 11
5201:
5200:
5196:
5186:
5184:
5175:
5174:
5170:
5165:Wayback Machine
5154:
5150:
5133:
5132:
5128:
5115:
5114:
5110:
5095:
5091:
5081:
5079:
5064:
5060:
5050:
5048:
5026:
5022:
5001:
4997:
4975:
4971:
4961:
4959:
4944:
4940:
4930:
4928:
4915:
4914:
4910:
4891:
4887:
4878:
4874:
4866:
4862:
4856:
4833:
4829:
4819:
4817:
4795:
4782:
4766:
4765:
4758:
4756:
4740:
4736:
4715:10.2307/1073644
4670:10.2307/1073643
4628:
4626:
4611:10.2307/1073539
4605:(4): 947–1140.
4586:
4582:
4561:
4557:
4547:Wayback Machine
4527:
4523:
4517:Wayback Machine
4503:Michael Klarman
4501:
4497:
4484:
4482:
4462:
4458:
4452:Wayback Machine
4439:
4435:
4419:
4418:
4411:
4409:
4393:
4389:
4373:
4355:
4339:
4335:
4299:
4297:
4293:
4287:Wayback Machine
4277:
4273:
4257:
4253:
4218:
4214:
4199:
4192:
4182:
4171:The Plessy Case
4166:
4162:
4148:
4132:
4128:
4118:
4116:
4107:
4106:
4102:
4092:Wayback Machine
4082:Erin Adamson, "
4081:
4077:
4058:
4057:
4053:
4034:
4033:
4029:
4010:
4009:
4005:
3995:
3993:
3978:
3977:
3973:
3963:
3961:
3946:
3945:
3941:
3924:
3923:
3914:
3912:
3904:
3894:
3890:
3883:
3867:
3863:
3853:
3851:
3838:
3837:
3833:
3823:
3821:
3808:
3807:
3803:
3793:
3791:
3778:
3777:
3773:
3763:
3761:
3752:
3751:
3747:
3737:
3735:
3734:on May 15, 2014
3722:
3721:
3717:
3707:
3705:
3690:
3681:
3671:
3669:
3656:
3655:
3651:
3641:
3639:
3624:
3620:
3610:
3608:
3599:
3598:
3594:
3582:
3578:
3573:Wayback Machine
3559:Michael Klarman
3557:
3553:
3543:
3541:
3526:
3522:
3516:
3512:
3481:
3477:
3467:
3465:
3450:
3446:
3439:
3431:. p. 201.
3419:
3415:
3406:
3399:
3391:
3380:
3371:
3367:
3359:
3355:
3347:
3343:
3331:
3327:
3319:
3315:
3307:
3303:
3294:
3290:
3282:
3273:
3266:
3258:. p. 696.
3246:Caro, Robert A.
3243:
3239:
3232:
3207:
3203:
3196:
3176:
3172:
3146:
3142:
3132:
3130:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3102:
3100:
3085:
3081:
3074:
3052:
3048:
3038:
3036:
3021:(May 3, 2004).
3016:
3003:
2998:Wayback Machine
2985:
2981:
2976:on May 1, 2015.
2973:
2966:
2962:
2961:
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2798:
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2748:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2714:
2713:
2706:
2704:
2688:
2684:
2674:
2672:
2665:brownvboard.org
2659:
2658:
2654:
2644:
2642:
2627:
2626:
2622:
2612:
2610:
2595:
2591:
2581:
2579:
2566:
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2551:
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2532:
2528:
2509:
2505:
2495:
2493:
2475:
2471:
2455:
2451:
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2426:
2422:
2412:
2410:
2397:
2396:
2392:
2382:
2380:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2352:
2350:
2335:
2331:
2323:
2316:
2309:
2301:. p. 104.
2289:
2285:
2275:
2273:
2258:
2254:
2246:
2242:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2204:
2199:
2195:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2089:
2059:
2009:
1952:
1706:Clarence Thomas
1631:Sonia Sotomayor
1612:
1590:hereditarianism
1524:
1511:Freedom Schools
1506:
1480:
1457:Gray Commission
1406:
1390:John F. Kennedy
1382:Henry V. Graham
1292:called out the
1275:
1222:
1206:
1200:
1176:
1170:
1157:
1151:
1125:
1119:
1086:
1010:Stanley F. Reed
958:
806:
784:
776:Zelma Henderson
713:
708:
608:graduate school
550:
537:Cooper v. Aaron
383:
376:
365:
320:
308:
296:
294:Stanley F. Reed
110:
60:
58:
52:
33:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
12836:
12826:
12825:
12820:
12815:
12810:
12805:
12800:
12795:
12790:
12785:
12780:
12775:
12770:
12765:
12760:
12755:
12750:
12745:
12740:
12735:
12733:1954 in Kansas
12730:
12713:
12712:
12710:
12709:
12697:
12691:
12688:
12687:
12685:
12684:
12679:
12674:
12669:
12664:
12659:
12654:
12649:
12648:
12647:
12642:
12637:
12627:
12626:
12625:
12620:
12618:Visual artists
12615:
12610:
12605:
12600:
12595:
12590:
12585:
12580:
12578:Mathematicians
12575:
12570:
12565:
12560:
12555:
12550:
12539:
12537:
12533:
12532:
12530:
12529:
12528:
12527:
12519:
12514:
12513:
12512:
12507:
12502:
12497:
12492:
12484:
12483:
12482:
12477:
12472:
12467:
12456:
12454:
12448:
12447:
12445:
12444:
12439:
12434:
12429:
12428:
12427:
12422:
12417:
12412:
12402:
12397:
12395:South Carolina
12392:
12387:
12386:
12385:
12377:
12372:
12367:
12365:North Carolina
12362:
12361:
12360:
12350:
12345:
12344:
12343:
12333:
12328:
12327:
12326:
12318:
12317:
12316:
12310:Massachusetts
12308:
12307:
12306:
12296:
12291:
12290:
12289:
12279:
12274:
12273:
12272:
12262:
12257:
12256:
12255:
12245:
12240:
12239:
12238:
12228:
12227:
12226:
12221:
12211:
12206:
12205:
12204:
12199:
12189:
12184:
12178:
12176:
12172:
12171:
12169:
12168:
12163:
12158:
12157:
12156:
12155:
12154:
12152:social context
12149:
12139:
12129:
12128:
12127:
12117:
12111:
12109:
12105:
12104:
12102:
12101:
12100:
12099:
12094:
12084:
12079:
12078:
12077:
12072:
12062:
12061:
12060:
12049:
12047:
12043:
12042:
12040:
12039:
12034:
12033:
12032:
12022:
12017:
12012:
12007:
12006:
12005:
12003:Creek Freedmen
12000:
11995:
11990:
11980:
11978:Alabama Creole
11975:
11974:
11973:
11968:
11963:
11958:
11949:
11947:
11943:
11942:
11939:
11938:
11936:
11935:
11930:
11925:
11920:
11918:Central (CIAA)
11914:
11912:
11907:
11904:
11903:
11901:
11900:
11895:
11890:
11885:
11880:
11875:
11870:
11865:
11860:
11855:
11850:
11845:
11839:
11833:
11829:
11828:
11826:
11825:
11820:
11815:
11810:
11805:
11800:
11795:
11790:
11785:
11780:
11775:
11770:
11765:
11760:
11754:
11752:
11747:
11744:
11743:
11741:
11740:
11735:
11734:
11733:
11723:
11718:
11713:
11711:Pan-Africanism
11708:
11703:
11698:
11693:
11692:
11691:
11681:
11676:
11670:
11668:
11664:
11663:
11661:
11660:
11655:
11653:Black theology
11650:
11645:
11644:
11643:
11633:
11632:
11631:
11626:
11616:
11610:
11608:
11602:
11601:
11599:
11598:
11597:
11596:
11594:in STEM fields
11591:
11586:
11578:
11573:
11568:
11563:
11558:
11552:
11550:
11549:and technology
11544:
11543:
11541:
11540:
11535:
11530:
11525:
11520:
11515:
11510:
11505:
11500:
11495:
11490:
11488:Harriet Tubman
11485:
11480:
11475:
11470:
11465:
11460:
11455:
11450:
11445:
11440:
11435:
11430:
11425:
11420:
11418:Michelle Obama
11415:
11410:
11405:
11400:
11395:
11390:
11385:
11380:
11375:
11370:
11365:
11360:
11355:
11350:
11348:Barbara Jordan
11345:
11343:Harriet Jacobs
11340:
11335:
11330:
11325:
11320:
11315:
11310:
11305:
11300:
11295:
11290:
11285:
11280:
11275:
11270:
11265:
11260:
11255:
11250:
11245:
11240:
11235:
11233:Amelia Boynton
11230:
11225:
11220:
11215:
11210:
11205:
11199:
11197:
11196:Notable people
11193:
11192:
11190:
11189:
11184:
11179:
11174:
11169:
11164:
11159:
11154:
11149:
11144:
11139:
11134:
11132:LGBT community
11129:
11124:
11119:
11114:
11113:
11112:
11102:
11097:
11092:
11087:
11082:
11077:
11072:
11067:
11062:
11056:
11054:
11048:
11047:
11045:
11044:
11039:
11034:
11029:
11028:
11027:
11017:
11012:
11007:
11002:
10997:
10992:
10984:
10979:
10972:
10965:
10960:
10955:
10950:
10945:
10940:
10931:
10926:
10925:
10924:
10919:
10909:
10904:
10899:
10894:
10886:
10881:
10876:
10875:
10874:
10869:
10864:
10859:
10854:
10849:
10847:Freedom Riders
10844:
10839:
10831:
10821:
10816:
10811:
10810:
10809:
10804:
10799:
10791:
10786:
10778:
10773:
10771:Black genocide
10768:
10763:
10758:
10753:
10748:
10743:
10738:
10733:
10727:
10725:
10719:
10718:
10711:
10710:
10703:
10696:
10688:
10679:
10678:
10675:
10674:
10672:
10671:
10663:
10654:
10651:
10650:
10640:
10639:
10636:
10635:
10633:
10632:
10624:
10616:
10608:
10600:
10592:
10584:
10576:
10568:
10560:
10552:
10544:
10536:
10527:
10524:
10523:
10511:
10510:
10507:
10506:
10503:
10502:
10500:
10499:
10491:
10483:
10479:Vacco v. Quill
10475:
10467:
10459:
10455:Clark v. Jeter
10451:
10443:
10435:
10427:
10419:
10411:
10403:
10395:
10387:
10379:
10371:
10363:
10355:
10347:
10339:
10331:
10323:
10315:
10311:Oyler v. Boles
10307:
10299:
10291:
10283:
10275:
10267:
10258:
10256:
10252:
10251:
10249:
10248:
10240:
10232:
10223:
10221:
10217:
10216:
10214:
10213:
10205:
10197:
10189:
10181:
10173:
10165:
10157:
10149:
10141:
10133:
10125:
10117:
10109:
10101:
10093:
10085:
10077:
10069:
10065:Heim v. McCall
10061:
10057:Truax v. Raich
10053:
10044:
10042:
10038:
10037:
10035:
10034:
10026:
10022:Romer v. Evans
10018:
10009:
10007:
10003:
10002:
10000:
9999:
9991:
9983:
9975:
9967:
9959:
9951:
9943:
9935:
9927:
9919:
9911:
9903:
9899:Craig v. Boren
9895:
9887:
9879:
9871:
9867:Kahn v. Shevin
9863:
9855:
9847:
9839:
9830:
9828:
9824:
9823:
9821:
9820:
9812:
9804:
9796:
9788:
9780:
9772:
9764:
9756:
9748:
9740:
9732:
9724:
9716:
9708:
9700:
9692:
9684:
9676:
9668:
9660:
9652:
9644:
9636:
9628:
9620:
9612:
9604:
9596:
9588:
9580:
9572:
9564:
9556:
9548:
9540:
9532:
9524:
9516:
9508:
9500:
9492:
9484:
9476:
9468:
9460:
9459:
9458:
9451:
9444:
9429:
9421:
9413:
9409:Perez v. Sharp
9405:
9397:
9389:
9381:
9373:
9369:Smith v. Texas
9365:
9357:
9349:
9341:
9333:
9324:
9322:
9314:
9313:
9301:
9300:
9297:
9296:
9293:
9292:
9290:
9289:
9281:
9273:
9265:
9257:
9249:
9241:
9233:
9225:
9217:
9209:
9201:
9193:
9185:
9177:
9169:
9165:Parham v. J.R.
9161:
9153:
9145:
9137:
9129:
9121:
9113:
9105:
9097:
9089:
9081:
9077:Oyler v. Boles
9073:
9065:
9057:
9049:
9041:
9033:
9025:
9016:
9014:
9010:
9009:
9007:
9006:
8998:
8990:
8982:
8974:
8966:
8958:
8950:
8942:
8934:
8926:
8918:
8912:
8904:
8896:
8888:
8880:
8874:
8868:
8862:
8859:Pierson v. Ray
8856:
8850:
8846:Monroe v. Pape
8841:
8839:
8830:
8829:
8827:
8826:
8818:
8810:
8802:
8794:
8786:
8778:
8770:
8762:
8754:
8746:
8738:
8730:
8722:
8714:
8706:
8698:
8690:
8682:
8674:
8666:
8658:
8650:
8642:
8634:
8625:
8623:
8617:
8616:
8614:
8613:
8605:
8597:
8589:
8581:
8573:
8565:
8557:
8549:
8541:
8533:
8524:
8522:
8516:
8515:
8513:
8512:
8504:
8496:
8488:
8480:
8472:
8464:
8456:
8448:
8440:
8431:
8429:
8417:
8416:
8404:
8403:
8400:
8399:
8397:
8396:
8388:
8380:
8372:
8364:
8356:
8352:Elk v. Wilkins
8348:
8340:
8331:
8328:
8327:
8315:
8314:
8306:
8305:
8298:
8291:
8283:
8274:
8273:
8259:
8256:
8255:
8253:
8252:
8247:
8245:Akinyele Umoja
8242:
8237:
8232:
8227:
8222:
8217:
8212:
8207:
8202:
8197:
8192:
8187:
8182:
8177:
8172:
8166:
8164:
8158:
8157:
8155:
8154:
8149:
8144:
8139:
8134:
8133:
8132:
8122:
8117:
8112:
8107:
8102:
8097:
8092:
8087:
8082:
8077:
8072:
8066:
8064:
8060:
8059:
8057:
8056:
8049:
8044:
8039:
8034:
8033:
8032:
8020:
8015:
8010:
8005:
8000:
7995:
7990:
7985:
7980:
7975:
7970:
7965:
7960:
7955:
7950:
7945:
7940:
7933:
7926:
7919:
7912:
7905:
7904:
7903:
7891:
7886:
7880:
7878:
7874:
7873:
7871:
7870:
7865:
7860:
7855:
7848:
7847:
7846:
7841:
7834:Mahatma Gandhi
7831:
7826:
7825:
7824:
7813:
7811:
7807:
7806:
7804:
7803:
7798:
7793:
7788:
7783:
7778:
7773:
7768:
7763:
7757:
7755:
7749:
7748:
7746:
7745:
7743:South Carolina
7740:
7734:
7732:
7728:
7727:
7725:
7724:
7719:
7714:
7709:
7704:
7699:
7694:
7689:
7684:
7682:Hosea Williams
7679:
7674:
7669:
7667:Hollis Watkins
7664:
7659:
7654:
7649:
7644:
7639:
7634:
7629:
7624:
7619:
7614:
7609:
7604:
7599:
7597:A. Maceo Smith
7594:
7589:
7584:
7579:
7574:
7569:
7564:
7559:
7554:
7549:
7547:Bernie Sanders
7544:
7539:
7537:Angela Russell
7534:
7529:
7524:
7522:David Richmond
7519:
7514:
7512:Walter Reuther
7509:
7504:
7499:
7497:Cordell Reagon
7494:
7489:
7484:
7482:George Raymond
7479:
7474:
7469:
7464:
7459:
7454:
7449:
7444:
7442:Charles Person
7439:
7434:
7429:
7424:
7419:
7414:
7412:Huey P. Newton
7409:
7404:
7399:
7394:
7389:
7384:
7379:
7374:
7369:
7367:Harry T. Moore
7364:
7359:
7354:
7352:Cecil B. Moore
7349:
7344:
7339:
7334:
7332:James Meredith
7329:
7324:
7319:
7314:
7309:
7304:
7299:
7294:
7289:
7284:
7279:
7274:
7269:
7264:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7214:
7209:
7204:
7199:
7194:
7189:
7184:
7179:
7174:
7169:
7164:
7162:Clarence Jones
7159:
7154:
7149:
7144:
7139:
7134:
7129:
7124:
7119:
7114:
7109:
7104:
7102:Zilphia Horton
7099:
7094:
7089:
7084:
7079:
7074:
7072:Lola Hendricks
7069:
7064:
7062:Dorothy Height
7059:
7054:
7049:
7044:
7039:
7034:
7032:Lawrence Guyot
7029:
7024:
7022:Jack Greenberg
7019:
7014:
7009:
7007:Andrew Goodman
7004:
6999:
6994:
6989:
6984:
6979:
6974:
6969:
6964:
6959:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6932:Joseph DeLaine
6929:
6924:
6919:
6914:
6909:
6904:
6902:Dorothy Cotton
6899:
6894:
6889:
6884:
6879:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6859:
6854:
6849:
6847:J. L. Chestnut
6844:
6839:
6834:
6829:
6824:
6819:
6814:
6809:
6804:
6799:
6794:
6789:
6784:
6782:Amelia Boynton
6779:
6774:
6769:
6764:
6759:
6754:
6749:
6744:
6739:
6734:
6729:
6724:
6719:
6714:
6709:
6704:
6702:Arnold Aronson
6699:
6694:
6689:
6684:
6679:
6674:
6669:
6663:
6661:
6657:
6656:
6654:
6653:
6648:
6643:
6638:
6633:
6628:
6623:
6618:
6613:
6608:
6603:
6598:
6593:
6588:
6583:
6582:
6581:
6571:
6566:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6536:
6531:
6526:
6521:
6520:
6519:
6507:
6502:
6497:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6477:
6471:
6469:
6463:
6462:
6459:
6458:
6456:
6455:
6448:
6441:
6436:
6431:
6430:
6429:
6424:
6414:
6409:
6402:
6397:
6392:
6387:
6380:
6375:
6374:
6373:
6361:
6356:
6349:
6342:
6337:
6336:
6335:
6328:Freedom Summer
6325:
6320:
6318:Bloody Tuesday
6315:
6310:
6304:
6302:
6298:
6297:
6295:
6294:
6289:
6288:
6287:
6282:
6272:
6267:
6262:
6261:
6260:
6255:
6250:
6245:
6235:
6234:
6233:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6191:
6184:
6183:
6182:
6177:
6167:
6162:
6157:
6152:
6145:
6138:
6133:
6128:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6087:
6085:
6081:
6080:
6078:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6051:
6050:
6038:
6033:
6032:
6031:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6008:
6007:
5995:
5990:
5983:
5982:
5981:
5974:
5967:
5960:
5945:
5943:
5939:
5938:
5936:
5935:
5930:
5922:
5914:
5909:
5904:
5898:
5896:
5889:
5879:
5878:
5870:
5869:
5862:
5855:
5847:
5841:
5840:
5815:
5796:
5788:
5779:
5770:
5765:
5756:
5740:
5730:
5721:
5716:
5706:
5705:
5673:Google Scholar
5635:
5634:
5611:Google Scholar
5572:
5571:External links
5569:
5568:
5567:
5555:
5552:
5551:
5550:
5544:
5522:, ed. (2008).
5516:
5506:
5488:
5482:
5464:
5458:
5440:
5424:
5423:
5401:
5400:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5387:
5369:(3): 279–297.
5358:
5341:
5335:
5315:
5309:
5296:
5290:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5265:
5238:
5194:
5183:on May 9, 2014
5168:
5148:
5126:
5108:
5089:
5058:
5020:
4995:
4978:Sowell, Thomas
4969:
4938:
4908:
4885:
4872:
4860:
4854:
4827:
4780:
4734:
4732:
4731:
4730:
4729:
4728:
4727:
4683:
4682:
4580:
4555:
4521:
4495:
4467:(April 2005).
4465:Rosen, Jeffery
4456:
4433:
4387:
4353:
4333:
4291:
4271:
4251:
4232:(2): 253–278.
4212:
4190:
4180:
4160:
4146:
4126:
4100:
4098:(May 11, 2003)
4075:
4051:
4027:
4003:
3971:
3939:
3888:
3881:
3861:
3831:
3801:
3771:
3745:
3715:
3698:People's World
3679:
3649:
3618:
3592:
3576:
3551:
3520:
3510:
3475:
3444:
3437:
3413:
3397:
3378:
3365:
3353:
3341:
3325:
3313:
3301:
3288:
3271:
3264:
3237:
3230:
3201:
3194:
3170:
3140:
3110:
3079:
3072:
3046:
3027:The New Yorker
3001:
2979:
2952:
2933:
2926:
2906:
2891:
2860:
2828:
2792:
2770:
2746:
2728:
2682:
2652:
2620:
2589:
2559:
2526:
2503:
2469:
2458:Myrdal, Gunnar
2449:
2420:
2390:
2360:
2329:
2327:, p. 144.
2314:
2307:
2283:
2252:
2250:, p. 280.
2248:Schauer (1997)
2240:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2202:
2193:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2146:
2141:
2133:
2125:
2120:
2114:
2109:
2101:
2096:
2088:
2085:
2063:Simple Justice
2058:
2057:Other comments
2055:
2047:magnet schools
2008:
2003:
1951:
1946:
1907:George W. Bush
1896:In June 1987,
1756:14th Amendment
1627:Damon J. Keith
1611:
1608:
1523:
1520:
1479:
1476:
1453:Thomas Stanley
1405:
1402:
1366:George Wallace
1360:In June 1963,
1274:
1271:
1257:organized the
1221:
1218:
1198:
1168:
1149:
1147:opportunities?
1117:
1085:
1082:
1018:states' rights
1006:Fred M. Vinson
998:Sherman Minton
957:
954:
946:Anthony Lester
921:foreign-policy
892:Walter Reuther
824:South Carolina
805:
802:
783:
780:
721:Topeka, Kansas
712:
709:
707:
704:
574:race relations
549:
546:
481:chief counsel
455:Topeka, Kansas
418:public schools
391:
390:
367:
366:
363:
360:
359:
353:
352:
348:
347:
344:
340:
339:
335:
334:
333:
332:
330:Sherman Minton
283:
280:
275:
269:
268:
264:
263:
248:public schools
243:
242:
238:
237:
236:(D. Kan. 1999)
161:
157:
156:
131:
127:
126:
122:
121:
116:
112:
111:
96:
80:
76:
75:
67:
66:Full case name
63:
62:
54:
53:
48:
40:
39:
31:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12835:
12824:
12821:
12819:
12816:
12814:
12811:
12809:
12806:
12804:
12801:
12799:
12796:
12794:
12791:
12789:
12786:
12784:
12781:
12779:
12776:
12774:
12771:
12769:
12766:
12764:
12761:
12759:
12756:
12754:
12751:
12749:
12746:
12744:
12741:
12739:
12736:
12734:
12731:
12729:
12726:
12725:
12723:
12708:
12698:
12696:
12693:
12692:
12689:
12683:
12680:
12678:
12677:Neighborhoods
12675:
12673:
12670:
12668:
12665:
12663:
12660:
12658:
12655:
12653:
12650:
12646:
12643:
12641:
12640:Sports firsts
12638:
12636:
12633:
12632:
12631:
12628:
12624:
12621:
12619:
12616:
12614:
12611:
12609:
12606:
12604:
12601:
12599:
12596:
12594:
12591:
12589:
12586:
12584:
12581:
12579:
12576:
12574:
12571:
12569:
12566:
12564:
12561:
12559:
12556:
12554:
12551:
12549:
12546:
12545:
12544:
12541:
12540:
12538:
12534:
12526:
12523:
12522:
12520:
12518:
12515:
12511:
12508:
12506:
12503:
12501:
12498:
12496:
12493:
12491:
12488:
12487:
12485:
12481:
12478:
12476:
12473:
12471:
12468:
12466:
12463:
12462:
12461:
12458:
12457:
12455:
12453:
12449:
12443:
12442:West Virginia
12440:
12438:
12435:
12433:
12430:
12426:
12423:
12421:
12418:
12416:
12413:
12411:
12408:
12407:
12406:
12403:
12401:
12398:
12396:
12393:
12391:
12388:
12384:
12381:
12380:
12379:Pennsylvania
12378:
12376:
12373:
12371:
12368:
12366:
12363:
12359:
12358:New York City
12356:
12355:
12354:
12351:
12349:
12346:
12342:
12339:
12338:
12337:
12334:
12332:
12329:
12325:
12322:
12321:
12319:
12315:
12312:
12311:
12309:
12305:
12302:
12301:
12300:
12297:
12295:
12292:
12288:
12285:
12284:
12283:
12280:
12278:
12275:
12271:
12268:
12267:
12266:
12263:
12261:
12258:
12254:
12251:
12250:
12249:
12246:
12244:
12241:
12237:
12234:
12233:
12232:
12229:
12225:
12222:
12220:
12217:
12216:
12215:
12212:
12210:
12207:
12203:
12202:San Francisco
12200:
12198:
12195:
12194:
12193:
12190:
12188:
12185:
12183:
12180:
12179:
12177:
12175:By state/city
12173:
12167:
12164:
12162:
12159:
12153:
12150:
12148:
12145:
12144:
12143:
12140:
12138:
12135:
12134:
12133:
12130:
12126:
12123:
12122:
12121:
12120:American Sign
12118:
12116:
12113:
12112:
12110:
12106:
12098:
12095:
12093:
12090:
12089:
12088:
12085:
12083:
12080:
12076:
12073:
12071:
12068:
12067:
12066:
12063:
12059:
12056:
12055:
12054:
12053:Neighborhoods
12051:
12050:
12048:
12044:
12038:
12035:
12031:
12028:
12027:
12026:
12023:
12021:
12018:
12016:
12013:
12011:
12008:
12004:
12001:
11999:
11996:
11994:
11991:
11989:
11986:
11985:
11984:
11983:Black Indians
11981:
11979:
11976:
11972:
11969:
11967:
11964:
11962:
11959:
11957:
11954:
11953:
11951:
11950:
11948:
11944:
11934:
11931:
11929:
11926:
11924:
11921:
11919:
11916:
11915:
11913:
11905:
11899:
11896:
11894:
11891:
11889:
11886:
11884:
11881:
11879:
11876:
11874:
11871:
11869:
11866:
11864:
11861:
11859:
11856:
11854:
11851:
11849:
11846:
11844:
11841:
11840:
11837:
11834:
11830:
11824:
11821:
11819:
11816:
11814:
11811:
11809:
11806:
11804:
11801:
11799:
11796:
11794:
11791:
11789:
11786:
11784:
11781:
11779:
11776:
11774:
11771:
11769:
11766:
11764:
11761:
11759:
11756:
11755:
11753:
11745:
11739:
11736:
11732:
11729:
11728:
11727:
11724:
11722:
11719:
11717:
11714:
11712:
11709:
11707:
11704:
11702:
11699:
11697:
11694:
11690:
11687:
11686:
11685:
11682:
11680:
11677:
11675:
11672:
11671:
11669:
11665:
11659:
11656:
11654:
11651:
11649:
11646:
11642:
11639:
11638:
11637:
11634:
11630:
11627:
11625:
11622:
11621:
11620:
11617:
11615:
11612:
11611:
11609:
11607:
11603:
11595:
11592:
11590:
11587:
11585:
11582:
11581:
11579:
11577:
11574:
11572:
11569:
11567:
11564:
11562:
11561:Black schools
11559:
11557:
11556:Black studies
11554:
11553:
11551:
11545:
11539:
11538:Whitney Young
11536:
11534:
11531:
11529:
11528:Oprah Winfrey
11526:
11524:
11521:
11519:
11516:
11514:
11511:
11509:
11506:
11504:
11501:
11499:
11498:Denmark Vesey
11496:
11494:
11491:
11489:
11486:
11484:
11481:
11479:
11476:
11474:
11471:
11469:
11466:
11464:
11461:
11459:
11456:
11454:
11451:
11449:
11446:
11444:
11443:Joseph Rainey
11441:
11439:
11436:
11434:
11431:
11429:
11426:
11424:
11421:
11419:
11416:
11414:
11411:
11409:
11406:
11404:
11401:
11399:
11398:Toni Morrison
11396:
11394:
11391:
11389:
11386:
11384:
11383:Joseph Lowery
11381:
11379:
11376:
11374:
11371:
11369:
11366:
11364:
11361:
11359:
11356:
11354:
11351:
11349:
11346:
11344:
11341:
11339:
11336:
11334:
11331:
11329:
11328:Jesse Jackson
11326:
11324:
11321:
11319:
11318:Kamala Harris
11316:
11314:
11311:
11309:
11306:
11304:
11303:Marcus Garvey
11301:
11299:
11296:
11294:
11291:
11289:
11286:
11284:
11281:
11279:
11276:
11274:
11271:
11269:
11266:
11264:
11261:
11259:
11256:
11254:
11253:Blanche Bruce
11251:
11249:
11248:Edward Brooke
11246:
11244:
11241:
11239:
11238:James Bradley
11236:
11234:
11231:
11229:
11226:
11224:
11221:
11219:
11218:James Baldwin
11216:
11214:
11211:
11209:
11206:
11204:
11201:
11200:
11198:
11194:
11188:
11185:
11183:
11180:
11178:
11175:
11173:
11170:
11168:
11165:
11163:
11162:Neighborhoods
11160:
11158:
11155:
11153:
11150:
11148:
11145:
11143:
11140:
11138:
11135:
11133:
11130:
11128:
11125:
11123:
11120:
11118:
11115:
11111:
11108:
11107:
11106:
11103:
11101:
11098:
11096:
11093:
11091:
11088:
11086:
11083:
11081:
11078:
11076:
11073:
11071:
11068:
11066:
11063:
11061:
11058:
11057:
11055:
11053:
11049:
11043:
11040:
11038:
11035:
11033:
11030:
11026:
11023:
11022:
11021:
11018:
11016:
11015:Silent Parade
11013:
11011:
11008:
11006:
11003:
11001:
10998:
10996:
10993:
10990:
10989:
10985:
10983:
10980:
10978:
10977:
10973:
10971:
10970:
10966:
10964:
10961:
10959:
10956:
10954:
10951:
10949:
10946:
10944:
10943:Jim Crow laws
10941:
10939:
10935:
10932:
10930:
10927:
10923:
10920:
10918:
10915:
10914:
10913:
10910:
10908:
10905:
10903:
10900:
10898:
10895:
10892:
10891:
10887:
10885:
10882:
10880:
10877:
10873:
10870:
10868:
10865:
10863:
10860:
10858:
10855:
10853:
10850:
10848:
10845:
10843:
10840:
10837:
10836:
10832:
10830:
10827:
10826:
10825:
10822:
10820:
10817:
10815:
10812:
10808:
10805:
10803:
10800:
10798:
10795:
10794:
10792:
10790:
10787:
10784:
10783:
10779:
10777:
10774:
10772:
10769:
10767:
10766:Black cowboys
10764:
10762:
10759:
10757:
10754:
10752:
10749:
10747:
10744:
10742:
10739:
10737:
10734:
10732:
10729:
10728:
10726:
10724:
10720:
10716:
10709:
10704:
10702:
10697:
10695:
10690:
10689:
10686:
10669:
10668:
10664:
10661:
10660:
10656:
10655:
10652:
10645:
10641:
10630:
10629:
10625:
10622:
10621:
10617:
10614:
10613:
10609:
10606:
10605:
10601:
10598:
10597:
10593:
10590:
10589:
10585:
10582:
10581:
10577:
10574:
10573:
10569:
10566:
10565:
10561:
10558:
10557:
10553:
10550:
10549:
10545:
10542:
10541:
10537:
10534:
10533:
10529:
10528:
10525:
10521:
10516:
10512:
10497:
10496:
10492:
10489:
10488:
10484:
10481:
10480:
10476:
10473:
10472:
10468:
10465:
10464:
10460:
10457:
10456:
10452:
10449:
10448:
10444:
10441:
10440:
10436:
10433:
10432:
10428:
10425:
10424:
10420:
10417:
10416:
10412:
10409:
10408:
10404:
10401:
10400:
10396:
10393:
10392:
10388:
10385:
10384:
10380:
10377:
10376:
10372:
10369:
10368:
10364:
10361:
10360:
10356:
10353:
10352:
10348:
10345:
10344:
10340:
10337:
10336:
10332:
10329:
10328:
10324:
10321:
10320:
10316:
10313:
10312:
10308:
10305:
10304:
10300:
10297:
10296:
10292:
10289:
10288:
10284:
10281:
10280:
10276:
10273:
10272:
10268:
10265:
10264:
10260:
10259:
10257:
10253:
10246:
10245:
10241:
10238:
10237:
10233:
10230:
10229:
10225:
10224:
10222:
10218:
10211:
10210:
10206:
10203:
10202:
10201:Plyler v. Doe
10198:
10195:
10194:
10190:
10187:
10186:
10182:
10179:
10178:
10174:
10171:
10170:
10166:
10163:
10162:
10158:
10155:
10154:
10150:
10147:
10146:
10142:
10139:
10138:
10134:
10131:
10130:
10126:
10123:
10122:
10118:
10115:
10114:
10110:
10107:
10106:
10105:Frick v. Webb
10102:
10099:
10098:
10094:
10091:
10090:
10086:
10083:
10082:
10078:
10075:
10074:
10070:
10067:
10066:
10062:
10059:
10058:
10054:
10051:
10050:
10046:
10045:
10043:
10039:
10032:
10031:
10027:
10024:
10023:
10019:
10016:
10015:
10011:
10010:
10008:
10004:
9997:
9996:
9992:
9989:
9988:
9984:
9981:
9980:
9976:
9973:
9972:
9968:
9965:
9964:
9960:
9957:
9956:
9952:
9949:
9948:
9944:
9941:
9940:
9936:
9933:
9932:
9928:
9925:
9924:
9920:
9917:
9916:
9912:
9909:
9908:
9904:
9901:
9900:
9896:
9893:
9892:
9888:
9885:
9884:
9880:
9877:
9876:
9872:
9869:
9868:
9864:
9861:
9860:
9856:
9853:
9852:
9848:
9845:
9844:
9840:
9837:
9836:
9832:
9831:
9829:
9825:
9818:
9817:
9813:
9810:
9809:
9805:
9802:
9801:
9797:
9794:
9793:
9789:
9786:
9785:
9781:
9778:
9777:
9773:
9770:
9769:
9765:
9762:
9761:
9757:
9754:
9753:
9749:
9746:
9745:
9741:
9738:
9737:
9733:
9730:
9729:
9725:
9722:
9721:
9717:
9714:
9713:
9709:
9706:
9705:
9701:
9698:
9697:
9693:
9690:
9689:
9685:
9682:
9681:
9677:
9674:
9673:
9669:
9666:
9665:
9661:
9658:
9657:
9653:
9650:
9649:
9645:
9642:
9641:
9637:
9634:
9633:
9629:
9626:
9625:
9621:
9618:
9617:
9613:
9610:
9609:
9605:
9602:
9601:
9597:
9594:
9593:
9592:Coit v. Green
9589:
9586:
9585:
9581:
9578:
9577:
9573:
9570:
9569:
9565:
9562:
9561:
9557:
9554:
9553:
9549:
9546:
9545:
9541:
9538:
9537:
9533:
9530:
9529:
9525:
9522:
9521:
9517:
9514:
9513:
9509:
9506:
9505:
9501:
9498:
9497:
9493:
9490:
9489:
9485:
9482:
9481:
9477:
9474:
9473:
9469:
9466:
9465:
9464:Lucy v. Adams
9461:
9457:
9456:
9452:
9450:
9449:
9445:
9443:
9442:
9438:
9437:
9435:
9434:
9430:
9427:
9426:
9422:
9419:
9418:
9414:
9411:
9410:
9406:
9403:
9402:
9398:
9395:
9394:
9390:
9387:
9386:
9382:
9379:
9378:
9374:
9371:
9370:
9366:
9363:
9362:
9358:
9355:
9354:
9350:
9347:
9346:
9342:
9339:
9338:
9334:
9331:
9330:
9326:
9325:
9323:
9319:
9315:
9311:
9306:
9302:
9287:
9286:
9282:
9279:
9278:
9274:
9271:
9270:
9266:
9263:
9262:
9258:
9255:
9254:
9250:
9247:
9246:
9242:
9239:
9238:
9234:
9231:
9230:
9226:
9223:
9222:
9218:
9215:
9214:
9210:
9207:
9206:
9202:
9199:
9198:
9194:
9191:
9190:
9186:
9183:
9182:
9178:
9175:
9174:
9170:
9167:
9166:
9162:
9159:
9158:
9154:
9151:
9150:
9146:
9143:
9142:
9138:
9135:
9134:
9133:Goss v. Lopez
9130:
9127:
9126:
9122:
9119:
9118:
9114:
9111:
9110:
9106:
9103:
9102:
9101:In re Winship
9098:
9095:
9094:
9090:
9087:
9086:
9082:
9079:
9078:
9074:
9071:
9070:
9066:
9063:
9062:
9058:
9055:
9054:
9050:
9047:
9046:
9042:
9039:
9038:
9034:
9031:
9030:
9029:Zucht v. King
9026:
9023:
9022:
9018:
9017:
9015:
9011:
9004:
9003:
8999:
8996:
8995:
8991:
8988:
8987:
8983:
8980:
8979:
8975:
8972:
8971:
8967:
8964:
8963:
8959:
8956:
8955:
8951:
8948:
8947:
8943:
8940:
8939:
8935:
8932:
8931:
8927:
8924:
8923:
8919:
8916:
8913:
8910:
8909:
8905:
8902:
8901:
8897:
8894:
8893:
8892:Paul v. Davis
8889:
8886:
8885:
8881:
8878:
8875:
8872:
8869:
8866:
8863:
8860:
8857:
8854:
8851:
8848:
8847:
8843:
8842:
8840:
8838:
8831:
8824:
8823:
8819:
8816:
8815:
8811:
8808:
8807:
8803:
8800:
8799:
8798:Azar v. Garza
8795:
8792:
8791:
8787:
8784:
8783:
8779:
8776:
8775:
8771:
8768:
8767:
8763:
8760:
8759:
8755:
8752:
8751:
8747:
8744:
8743:
8739:
8736:
8735:
8731:
8728:
8727:
8723:
8720:
8719:
8715:
8712:
8711:
8707:
8704:
8703:
8699:
8696:
8695:
8691:
8688:
8687:
8683:
8680:
8679:
8675:
8672:
8671:
8667:
8664:
8663:
8659:
8656:
8655:
8651:
8648:
8647:
8646:Doe v. Bolton
8643:
8640:
8639:
8635:
8632:
8631:
8627:
8626:
8624:
8622:
8618:
8611:
8610:
8606:
8603:
8602:
8598:
8595:
8594:
8590:
8587:
8586:
8582:
8579:
8578:
8574:
8571:
8570:
8566:
8563:
8562:
8561:Doe v. Bolton
8558:
8555:
8554:
8550:
8547:
8546:
8542:
8539:
8538:
8534:
8531:
8530:
8526:
8525:
8523:
8521:
8517:
8510:
8509:
8505:
8502:
8501:
8497:
8494:
8493:
8489:
8486:
8485:
8481:
8478:
8477:
8473:
8470:
8469:
8465:
8462:
8461:
8457:
8454:
8453:
8449:
8446:
8445:
8441:
8438:
8437:
8433:
8432:
8430:
8428:
8422:
8418:
8414:
8409:
8405:
8394:
8393:
8389:
8386:
8385:
8381:
8378:
8377:
8373:
8370:
8369:
8365:
8362:
8361:
8357:
8354:
8353:
8349:
8346:
8345:
8341:
8338:
8337:
8333:
8332:
8329:
8325:
8320:
8316:
8311:
8304:
8299:
8297:
8292:
8290:
8285:
8284:
8281:
8271:
8270:
8265:
8257:
8251:
8248:
8246:
8243:
8241:
8240:Timothy Tyson
8238:
8236:
8233:
8231:
8228:
8226:
8223:
8221:
8218:
8216:
8213:
8211:
8208:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8196:
8193:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8183:
8181:
8178:
8176:
8173:
8171:
8170:Taylor Branch
8168:
8167:
8165:
8159:
8153:
8150:
8148:
8145:
8143:
8140:
8138:
8135:
8131:
8128:
8127:
8126:
8123:
8121:
8118:
8116:
8113:
8111:
8108:
8106:
8103:
8101:
8098:
8096:
8093:
8091:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8081:
8078:
8076:
8073:
8071:
8068:
8067:
8065:
8061:
8055:
8054:
8050:
8048:
8045:
8043:
8040:
8038:
8035:
8030:
8026:
8025:
8024:
8021:
8019:
8018:Freedom songs
8016:
8014:
8011:
8009:
8006:
8004:
8001:
7999:
7996:
7994:
7991:
7989:
7986:
7984:
7981:
7979:
7976:
7974:
7971:
7969:
7966:
7964:
7961:
7959:
7956:
7954:
7951:
7949:
7946:
7944:
7941:
7939:
7938:
7934:
7932:
7931:
7927:
7925:
7924:
7920:
7918:
7917:
7913:
7911:
7910:
7906:
7902:
7899:
7898:
7897:
7896:
7892:
7890:
7887:
7885:
7884:Jim Crow laws
7882:
7881:
7879:
7875:
7869:
7866:
7864:
7861:
7859:
7856:
7854:
7853:
7849:
7845:
7842:
7840:
7837:
7836:
7835:
7832:
7830:
7827:
7823:
7820:
7819:
7818:
7815:
7814:
7812:
7808:
7802:
7799:
7797:
7794:
7792:
7789:
7787:
7784:
7782:
7781:"Oh, Freedom"
7779:
7777:
7774:
7772:
7769:
7767:
7764:
7762:
7759:
7758:
7756:
7750:
7744:
7741:
7739:
7736:
7735:
7733:
7729:
7723:
7720:
7718:
7715:
7713:
7710:
7708:
7707:Whitney Young
7705:
7703:
7700:
7698:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7688:
7687:Kale Williams
7685:
7683:
7680:
7678:
7675:
7673:
7670:
7668:
7665:
7663:
7660:
7658:
7655:
7653:
7650:
7648:
7647:Albert Turner
7645:
7643:
7640:
7638:
7637:A. P. Tureaud
7635:
7633:
7630:
7628:
7625:
7623:
7620:
7618:
7615:
7613:
7610:
7608:
7605:
7603:
7600:
7598:
7595:
7593:
7590:
7588:
7585:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7570:
7568:
7565:
7563:
7560:
7558:
7555:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7545:
7543:
7542:Bayard Rustin
7540:
7538:
7535:
7533:
7530:
7528:
7525:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7513:
7510:
7508:
7505:
7503:
7500:
7498:
7495:
7493:
7490:
7488:
7485:
7483:
7480:
7478:
7475:
7473:
7470:
7468:
7465:
7463:
7460:
7458:
7455:
7453:
7450:
7448:
7445:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7433:
7430:
7428:
7425:
7423:
7420:
7418:
7415:
7413:
7410:
7408:
7405:
7403:
7400:
7398:
7395:
7393:
7392:William Moyer
7390:
7388:
7385:
7383:
7380:
7378:
7375:
7373:
7370:
7368:
7365:
7363:
7360:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7338:
7335:
7333:
7330:
7328:
7327:Joseph McNeil
7325:
7323:
7320:
7318:
7315:
7313:
7312:Charles McDew
7310:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7302:Benjamin Mays
7300:
7298:
7295:
7293:
7290:
7288:
7287:Vivian Malone
7285:
7283:
7280:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7265:
7263:
7262:Joseph Lowery
7260:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7250:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7195:
7193:
7190:
7188:
7187:Clyde Kennard
7185:
7183:
7180:
7178:
7177:Vernon Jordan
7175:
7173:
7172:Matthew Jones
7170:
7168:
7165:
7163:
7160:
7158:
7155:
7153:
7150:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7138:
7137:T. J. Jemison
7135:
7133:
7130:
7128:
7125:
7123:
7122:Jesse Jackson
7120:
7118:
7115:
7113:
7110:
7108:
7105:
7103:
7100:
7098:
7095:
7093:
7090:
7088:
7085:
7083:
7080:
7078:
7075:
7073:
7070:
7068:
7065:
7063:
7060:
7058:
7055:
7053:
7050:
7048:
7045:
7043:
7040:
7038:
7035:
7033:
7030:
7028:
7025:
7023:
7020:
7018:
7015:
7013:
7012:Robert Graetz
7010:
7008:
7005:
7003:
7002:Golden Frinks
7000:
6998:
6995:
6993:
6990:
6988:
6985:
6983:
6980:
6978:
6975:
6973:
6970:
6968:
6965:
6963:
6962:Charles Evers
6960:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6913:
6912:Vernon Dahmer
6910:
6908:
6905:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6893:
6890:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6867:Septima Clark
6865:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6853:
6850:
6848:
6845:
6843:
6840:
6838:
6835:
6833:
6830:
6828:
6825:
6823:
6820:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6798:
6795:
6793:
6790:
6788:
6787:Bruce Boynton
6785:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6763:
6760:
6758:
6755:
6753:
6750:
6748:
6745:
6743:
6740:
6738:
6735:
6733:
6730:
6728:
6725:
6723:
6720:
6718:
6715:
6713:
6712:James Baldwin
6710:
6708:
6705:
6703:
6700:
6698:
6695:
6693:
6690:
6688:
6685:
6683:
6682:Mathew Ahmann
6680:
6678:
6675:
6673:
6670:
6668:
6665:
6664:
6662:
6658:
6652:
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6597:
6594:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6580:
6579:Youth Council
6577:
6576:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6522:
6518:
6517:
6513:
6512:
6511:
6508:
6506:
6503:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6472:
6470:
6464:
6454:
6453:
6449:
6447:
6446:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6419:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6407:
6403:
6401:
6398:
6396:
6393:
6391:
6388:
6386:
6385:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6371:
6367:
6366:
6365:
6362:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6354:
6350:
6348:
6347:
6343:
6341:
6338:
6334:
6331:
6330:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6305:
6303:
6299:
6293:
6290:
6286:
6283:
6281:
6278:
6277:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6259:
6256:
6254:
6251:
6249:
6246:
6244:
6241:
6240:
6239:
6236:
6232:
6229:
6228:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6217:
6214:
6211:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6189:
6185:
6181:
6178:
6176:
6173:
6172:
6171:
6170:Freedom Rides
6168:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6150:
6146:
6144:
6143:
6139:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6129:
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6119:
6117:
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6112:
6109:
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5923:
5920:
5919:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5903:
5900:
5899:
5897:
5895:Prior to 1954
5893:
5890:
5887:
5880:
5875:
5868:
5863:
5861:
5856:
5854:
5849:
5848:
5845:
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5808:
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5777:
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5764:
5762:
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5748:
5746:
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5731:
5728:
5726:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5715:
5714:at Lawnix.com
5713:
5708:
5707:
5701:
5692:
5683:
5674:
5665:
5664:CourtListener
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5602:CourtListener
5594:
5587:
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5574:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5557:
5547:
5545:9780807000366
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5517:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5504:
5500:
5496:
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5489:
5485:
5483:9780393058970
5479:
5475:
5474:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5459:9780394472898
5455:
5451:
5450:
5445:
5441:
5438:
5434:
5433:
5429:Keppel, Ben.
5428:
5427:
5422:
5418:
5417:, May 9, 2004
5416:
5412:
5402:
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5376:
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5332:
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5325:. Revised by
5324:
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4906:
4905:0-671-76787-9
4902:
4898:
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4864:
4857:
4855:9780814798904
4851:
4847:
4846:
4841:
4837:
4831:
4815:
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4807:
4803:
4799:
4798:Berger, Raoul
4793:
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4787:
4785:
4776:
4770:
4754:
4753:
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4570:
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4539:
4534:
4533:Pamela Karlan
4530:
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4288:
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4268:
4267:0-8147-4271-8
4264:
4260:
4255:
4247:
4243:
4239:
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4231:
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4216:
4210:
4209:0-19-510622-9
4206:
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3882:9780813547725
3878:
3874:
3873:
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3854:September 26,
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3298:
3292:
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3280:
3278:
3276:
3267:
3265:9780394720951
3261:
3257:
3256:Vintage Books
3253:
3252:
3247:
3241:
3233:
3231:0-19-515632-3
3227:
3223:
3218:
3217:
3211:
3205:
3197:
3191:
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3182:
3174:
3165:
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3128:
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3120:
3114:
3098:
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3083:
3075:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3050:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3014:
3012:
3010:
3008:
3006:
2999:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2988:Smithsonian,
2983:
2972:
2965:
2959:
2957:
2948:
2944:
2937:
2929:
2923:
2919:
2918:
2910:
2903:
2898:
2896:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2864:
2848:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2832:
2816:
2812:
2811:
2810:Famous Trials
2806:
2802:
2796:
2789:
2785:
2780:
2774:
2766:
2762:
2761:
2756:
2750:
2742:
2738:
2732:
2724:
2718:
2702:
2701:
2696:
2692:
2691:Fox, Margalit
2686:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2656:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2630:
2624:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2593:
2577:
2573:
2572:PBS NewsHour'
2569:
2563:
2547:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2530:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2491:
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2408:
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2400:
2394:
2378:
2374:
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2364:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2333:
2326:
2321:
2319:
2310:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2295:
2287:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2256:
2249:
2244:
2237:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2197:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2168:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2030:
2029:Tenth Circuit
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2007:
2002:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1988:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1973:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1945:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1933:Thomas Sowell
1930:
1926:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1888:
1886:
1883:endorsed the
1882:
1878:
1873:
1871:
1870:
1864:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1845:
1841:
1839:
1834:
1830:
1827:
1826:Chief Justice
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1782:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1712:
1707:
1703:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1669:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
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1607:
1605:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1528:
1519:
1517:
1512:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1475:
1473:
1472:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1445:Harry F. Byrd
1442:
1438:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1422:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1401:
1399:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1333:
1332:LeRoy Collins
1330:
1326:
1325:Interposition
1321:
1319:
1318:Fort Campbell
1316:stationed at
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1282:
1280:
1270:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1255:Harry F. Byrd
1250:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1203:
1197:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1173:
1167:
1162:
1154:
1148:
1143:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1122:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1101:chief justice
1095:
1090:
1081:
1078:
1074:
1068:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
982:
979:
975:
970:
962:
953:
951:
947:
942:
939:
936:
931:
926:
922:
918:
917:
916:amicus curiae
912:
907:
905:
901:
897:
893:
888:
886:
880:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
857:
855:
851:
850:
845:
841:
840:
835:
831:
830:
825:
821:
820:
815:
811:
801:
798:
793:
792:Walter Huxman
789:
779:
777:
771:
767:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
744:
742:
738:
734:
728:
726:
722:
718:
703:
701:
697:
693:
688:
684:
680:
676:
671:
669:
668:
663:
662:Gunnar Myrdal
659:
655:
654:
649:
645:
640:
636:
632:
627:
625:
621:
620:
615:
614:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
588:
583:
579:
575:
571:
563:
559:
554:
545:
543:
539:
538:
533:
532:Harry F. Byrd
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
508:
506:
505:
500:
496:
492:
486:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
451:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
424:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
398:
388:
387:
381:
380:
374:
373:
368:
361:
358:
354:
349:
345:
341:
336:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:Chief Justice
273:
272:
270:
265:
261:
257:
253:
250:violates the
249:
244:
239:
235:
232:
228:
225:
221:
218: (1992) (
217:
214:
210:
206:
202:
199:
195:
192:
188:
184:
181:
177:
174: (1955) (
173:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
151:
147:
143:
139:
136:
132:
128:
123:
120:
117:
113:
108:
104:
100:
94:
93:
88:
85:
81:
77:
74:
72:
68:
64:
55:
51:
41:
36:
30:
19:
12593:Sportspeople
12563:Billionaires
12480:Sierra Leone
12383:Philadelphia
12219:Jacksonville
12046:Demographics
11878:Jack Johnson
11868:Muhammad Ali
11701:Conservatism
11636:Black church
11533:Andrew Young
11518:Ida B. Wells
11508:David Walker
11503:C. T. Vivian
11458:Paul Robeson
11453:Hiram Revels
11433:Colin Powell
11413:Barack Obama
11368:James Lawson
11323:Jimi Hendrix
11293:James Farmer
11288:Medgar Evers
11258:Ralph Bunche
11208:Maya Angelou
11182:Middle class
11060:Afrofuturism
10986:
10974:
10967:
10888:
10833:
10781:
10780:
10746:Afrocentrism
10736:Abolitionism
10665:
10657:
10626:
10618:
10610:
10602:
10594:
10586:
10578:
10570:
10562:
10554:
10546:
10538:
10530:
10493:
10487:Bush v. Gore
10485:
10477:
10469:
10461:
10453:
10445:
10437:
10429:
10421:
10413:
10405:
10397:
10389:
10381:
10373:
10365:
10357:
10349:
10341:
10333:
10325:
10317:
10309:
10301:
10293:
10285:
10277:
10269:
10261:
10242:
10234:
10226:
10207:
10199:
10191:
10183:
10175:
10167:
10159:
10151:
10143:
10135:
10127:
10119:
10111:
10103:
10095:
10087:
10079:
10071:
10063:
10055:
10047:
10028:
10020:
10012:
9993:
9985:
9977:
9969:
9961:
9953:
9945:
9937:
9929:
9921:
9913:
9905:
9897:
9889:
9881:
9873:
9865:
9857:
9851:Reed v. Reed
9849:
9841:
9833:
9814:
9806:
9798:
9790:
9782:
9774:
9766:
9758:
9750:
9742:
9734:
9726:
9718:
9710:
9702:
9694:
9686:
9678:
9670:
9662:
9654:
9646:
9638:
9630:
9622:
9614:
9606:
9598:
9590:
9582:
9574:
9566:
9558:
9550:
9542:
9534:
9526:
9518:
9510:
9502:
9494:
9486:
9478:
9470:
9462:
9453:
9446:
9439:
9432:
9431:
9423:
9415:
9407:
9399:
9391:
9383:
9375:
9367:
9359:
9351:
9343:
9335:
9327:
9283:
9275:
9267:
9259:
9251:
9243:
9235:
9227:
9219:
9211:
9203:
9195:
9187:
9179:
9171:
9163:
9155:
9147:
9139:
9131:
9123:
9115:
9107:
9099:
9091:
9083:
9075:
9067:
9059:
9051:
9043:
9037:Buck v. Bell
9035:
9027:
9019:
9000:
8992:
8984:
8976:
8968:
8960:
8952:
8944:
8936:
8928:
8920:
8914:
8906:
8898:
8890:
8882:
8876:
8870:
8864:
8858:
8852:
8844:
8820:
8812:
8804:
8796:
8788:
8780:
8772:
8764:
8756:
8748:
8740:
8732:
8724:
8716:
8708:
8700:
8692:
8684:
8676:
8668:
8660:
8652:
8644:
8636:
8628:
8607:
8599:
8591:
8583:
8575:
8567:
8559:
8551:
8543:
8535:
8527:
8506:
8498:
8490:
8482:
8474:
8466:
8458:
8450:
8442:
8434:
8392:Saenz v. Roe
8390:
8382:
8374:
8366:
8358:
8350:
8342:
8334:
8260:
8200:David Garrow
8180:John Dittmer
8051:
7978:Brown Chapel
7935:
7928:
7921:
7914:
7907:
7893:
7850:
7702:Andrew Young
7657:A. T. Walden
7652:C. T. Vivian
7612:Maxine Smith
7447:Homer Plessy
7427:James Orange
7382:Irene Morgan
7337:William Ming
7317:Ralph McGill
7252:Viola Liuzzo
7237:Jim Letherer
7222:James Lawson
7152:Vernon Johns
7142:Esau Jenkins
7097:Myles Horton
7047:Fred Hampton
7037:Prathia Hall
7027:Dick Gregory
6997:Marie Foster
6992:James Forman
6982:James Farmer
6967:Medgar Evers
6927:Angela Davis
6862:Ramsey Clark
6842:James Chaney
6837:Johnnie Carr
6817:Ralph Bunche
6812:H. Rap Brown
6802:Ruby Bridges
6762:Joanne Bland
6737:Claude Black
6717:Marion Barry
6687:Muhammad Ali
6514:
6450:
6443:
6404:
6382:
6351:
6344:
6186:
6147:
6140:
6070:Kissing Case
6045:
6002:
5985:
5976:
5969:
5962:
5955:
5949:
5948:
5924:
5916:
5832:. Retrieved
5827:
5823:
5810:
5800:
5791:
5782:
5774:
5760:
5744:
5734:
5724:
5711:
5639:
5577:
5560:
5533:
5525:
5509:
5498:
5472:
5448:
5430:
5414:
5410:
5366:
5362:
5345:
5322:
5300:
5281:
5256:. Retrieved
5241:
5215:. Retrieved
5211:the original
5206:
5197:
5185:. Retrieved
5181:the original
5171:
5156:
5151:
5134:
5129:
5116:
5111:
5100:
5092:
5082:February 23,
5080:. Retrieved
5069:
5061:
5049:. Retrieved
5040:
5036:
5023:
5002:
4998:
4990:the original
4986:townhall.com
4985:
4972:
4962:February 23,
4960:. Retrieved
4951:
4941:
4929:. Retrieved
4921:pbs.org/wnet
4920:
4911:
4892:
4888:
4880:
4875:
4867:
4863:
4844:
4830:
4818:. Retrieved
4809:
4805:
4757:. Retrieved
4750:
4743:Liptak, Adam
4737:
4706:
4700:
4696:
4688:
4661:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4639:
4629:December 10,
4627:. Retrieved
4602:
4596:
4591:(May 1995).
4583:
4562:
4558:
4550:
4537:
4528:
4524:
4507:
4498:
4490:
4483:. Retrieved
4472:
4459:
4442:
4436:
4410:. Retrieved
4403:
4396:Liptak, Adam
4390:
4381:the original
4366:
4358:
4343:
4336:
4325:
4320:
4316:
4314:
4311:the original
4304:
4294:
4274:
4258:
4254:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4215:
4200:
4185:
4170:
4163:
4153:
4151:
4136:
4129:
4117:. Retrieved
4113:the original
4103:
4095:
4078:
4070:the original
4063:
4054:
4046:the original
4039:
4030:
4022:the original
4015:
4006:
3994:. Retrieved
3990:the original
3983:
3974:
3962:. Retrieved
3958:the original
3951:
3942:
3922:
3915:September 5,
3913:. Retrieved
3903:
3899:
3891:
3871:
3864:
3852:. Retrieved
3843:
3834:
3822:. Retrieved
3813:
3804:
3792:. Retrieved
3783:
3774:
3762:. Retrieved
3758:the original
3748:
3736:. Retrieved
3732:the original
3727:
3718:
3708:November 25,
3706:. Retrieved
3697:
3672:February 23,
3670:. Retrieved
3661:
3652:
3642:February 23,
3640:. Retrieved
3631:
3621:
3609:. Retrieved
3595:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3563:
3554:
3544:February 23,
3542:. Retrieved
3533:
3523:
3513:
3488:
3484:
3478:
3468:February 23,
3466:. Retrieved
3457:
3447:
3423:
3416:
3368:
3356:
3344:
3336:
3328:
3320:
3316:
3308:
3304:
3291:
3249:
3240:
3220:. New York:
3215:
3204:
3180:
3173:
3164:the original
3156:
3143:
3131:. Retrieved
3122:
3113:
3101:. Retrieved
3093:The Atlantic
3092:
3082:
3059:
3049:
3037:. Retrieved
3032:the original
3026:
2989:
2982:
2971:the original
2947:the original
2936:
2916:
2909:
2901:
2884:February 23,
2882:. Retrieved
2873:
2863:
2851:. Retrieved
2840:
2831:
2819:. Retrieved
2808:
2795:
2778:
2773:
2765:the original
2758:
2749:
2741:the original
2731:
2705:. Retrieved
2698:
2685:
2675:February 23,
2673:. Retrieved
2669:the original
2664:
2655:
2643:. Retrieved
2639:the original
2632:
2623:
2613:February 23,
2611:. Retrieved
2607:the original
2602:
2592:
2580:. Retrieved
2576:the original
2571:
2562:
2550:. Retrieved
2546:the original
2539:
2529:
2521:the original
2516:
2506:
2496:February 23,
2494:. Retrieved
2485:
2472:
2462:
2452:
2446:(in English)
2440:
2437:the original
2423:
2411:. Retrieved
2402:
2393:
2381:. Retrieved
2372:
2363:
2353:February 23,
2351:. Retrieved
2342:
2332:
2293:
2286:
2276:February 23,
2274:. Retrieved
2265:
2255:
2243:
2224:
2220:
2196:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2148:
2135:
2127:
2103:
2093:Ruby Bridges
2082:
2078:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2060:
2050:
2039:
2032:
2024:
2020:
2012:
2010:
2005:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1979:
1977:
1971:
1968:
1955:
1953:
1948:
1936:
1931:, economist
1925:Townhall.com
1922:
1917:
1911:
1898:Philip Elman
1895:
1890:
1884:
1876:
1875:In his book
1874:
1867:
1859:
1855:John Bingham
1835:
1831:in his 1880
1777:
1751:
1748:Raoul Berger
1744:originalists
1741:
1736:
1732:
1726:
1722:
1721:
1715:
1709:
1701:
1699:
1694:
1687:Learned Hand
1684:
1679:
1675:
1672:
1667:
1660:
1656:
1647:
1642:
1603:
1597:
1593:
1587:
1578:
1560:
1558:
1548:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1518:, however.)
1516:white flight
1503:
1495:
1481:
1469:
1461:Garland Gray
1440:
1436:
1434:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1409:
1407:
1394:
1359:
1343:Medgar Evers
1336:
1322:
1304:. President
1290:Orval Faubus
1283:
1276:
1265:
1263:
1252:
1247:
1238:Pearl Harbor
1234:Black Monday
1229:
1225:
1223:
1211:
1208:
1201:
1194:
1190:
1178:
1171:
1164:
1159:
1152:
1145:
1142:education.
1133:
1131:
1127:
1120:
1113:
1108:
1098:
1093:
1072:
1069:
1057:
1045:
1022:Tom C. Clark
1001:
983:
977:
971:
967:
949:
943:
938:Dean Acheson
914:
908:
889:
884:
881:
872:
860:
858:
847:
837:
827:
817:
813:
809:
808:The case of
807:
787:
785:
772:
768:
748:Oliver Brown
745:
741:Lucinda Todd
729:
717:class-action
714:
685:traveled to
675:Soviet Union
672:
665:
651:
643:
634:
628:
623:
617:
611:
585:
569:
567:
557:
541:
535:
520:white people
515:
509:
502:
487:
474:
467:class-action
463:Oliver Brown
452:
435:
421:
408:ruling that
396:
395:
394:
384:
377:
370:
351:Laws applied
338:Case opinion
325:
322:Tom C. Clark
313:
301:
289:
219:
175:
155: (1952).
125:Case history
90:
71:Oliver Brown
69:
29:
12613:US senators
12583:Republicans
12568:Journalists
12425:San Antonio
12390:Puerto Rico
12331:Mississippi
12224:Tallahassee
12197:Los Angeles
11888:Jesse Owens
11873:Arthur Ashe
11731:Nationalism
11721:Raised fist
11684:Black power
11589:in medicine
11523:Roy Wilkins
11478:Emmett Till
11463:Al Sharpton
11228:Julian Bond
11223:James Bevel
11187:Upper class
11177:Stereotypes
11070:Black mecca
10982:Plantations
10761:Black Codes
9412:(Cal. 1948)
9361:Lum v. Rice
8638:Roe v. Wade
8553:Roe v. Wade
8427:due process
8220:Doug McAdam
8190:Chuck Fager
7817:Nonviolence
7722:James Zwerg
7717:Bob Zellner
7677:Roy Wilkins
7627:Hank Thomas
7562:Pete Seeger
7557:Bobby Seale
7422:Jack O'Dell
7417:Edgar Nixon
7347:Amzie Moore
7342:Jack Minnis
7282:Mae Mallory
7267:Clara Luper
7227:Bernard Lee
7117:Cecil Ivory
7112:Ruby Hurley
7082:Oliver Hill
7077:Aaron Henry
6977:Chuck Fager
6937:Dave Dennis
6827:Guy Carawan
6767:Julian Bond
6732:James Bevel
6722:Daisy Bates
5993:Emmett Till
5876:(1954–1968)
5834:February 8,
5270:Works cited
5018: (1955)
4899:, page 11;
4119:November 5,
3996:October 15,
3964:October 15,
3840:"SOL Guide"
3764:December 4,
3738:December 4,
3662:www.pbs.org
3103:October 30,
3039:January 22,
2645:October 15,
2603:MSN Encarta
2238: (1954)
2137:Lum v. Rice
1881:Robert Bork
1879:(page 82),
1583:footnote 11
1500:Mae Mallory
1451:. Governor
1404:Upper South
1339:Mississippi
1244:described:
1104:Earl Warren
1052:White House
1042:Earl Warren
800:this case.
715:In 1951, a
692:Earl Warren
518:among most
440:integration
278:Earl Warren
231:F. Supp. 2d
12722:Categories
12558:Astronauts
12348:New Jersey
12192:California
11696:Capitalism
11493:Nat Turner
11423:Rosa Parks
11408:Diane Nash
11378:John Lewis
11167:Newspapers
11137:Literature
11122:Juneteenth
11075:Businesses
10929:Exodusters
10897:Free Negro
9907:Orr v. Orr
8163:historians
7844:Satyagraha
7810:Influences
7502:James Reeb
7437:James Peck
7432:Rosa Parks
7402:Diane Nash
7272:Danny Lyon
7247:John Lewis
7192:A. D. King
7092:James Hood
6707:Ella Baker
6677:Zev Aelony
4931:August 25,
4759:October 6,
4576:70, 120-22
4412:October 6,
3794:August 29,
3784:Justia Law
3438:082032051X
3372:Quoted in
3295:Quoted in
3195:0385128355
3133:January 9,
2853:January 9,
2821:January 9,
2707:October 6,
2582:August 25,
2552:October 7,
2486:SCOTUSblog
2208:References
2191:overruled.
2034:certiorari
1916:, calling
1811:California
1746:, notably
1606:decision.
1596:decision.
1273:Deep South
1040:appointed
990:Hugo Black
852:(filed in
842:(filed in
832:(filed in
822:(filed in
631:plaintiffs
584:ruling in
548:Background
524:Deep South
410:U.S. state
286:Hugo Black
160:Subsequent
103:U.S. LEXIS
101:873; 1954
12672:Monuments
12548:Activists
12400:Tennessee
12320:Michigan
12304:Baltimore
12294:Louisiana
12287:Lexington
12270:Davenport
12209:Cleveland
12108:Languages
12037:Melungeon
12015:Blaxicans
11883:Joe Louis
11738:Socialism
11674:Anarchism
11403:Bob Moses
11388:Malcolm X
11308:Fred Gray
11172:Soul food
11110:New Negro
11095:Folktales
11005:Redlining
10220:Residency
7822:Padayatra
7771:"Kumbaya"
7731:By region
7387:Bob Moses
7292:Bob Mants
7277:Malcolm X
7197:C.B. King
7017:Fred Gray
6660:Activists
6301:1964–1968
6084:1960–1963
5942:1954–1959
5785:Revisited
5437:LSU Press
5411:Booknotes
5354:798148265
5258:March 27,
5227:cite news
5217:April 15,
5187:April 15,
4769:cite news
4422:cite news
4246:145322934
3611:April 30,
3505:143127021
3491:(1): 14.
2717:cite news
2413:March 23,
2383:March 23,
2213:Citations
2006:Brown III
1962:'s poem "
1781:US states
1364:governor
1310:U.S. Army
1288:governor
913:filed an
723:, in the
461:resident
262:reversed.
220:Brown III
205:10th Cir.
79:Citations
12695:Category
12486:America
12452:Diaspora
12437:Virginia
12370:Oklahoma
12353:New York
12336:Nebraska
12299:Maryland
12282:Kentucky
12248:Illinois
12187:Arkansas
12092:Illinois
12030:of color
11716:Populism
11689:Movement
11606:Religion
10948:Lynching
10731:Timeline
10041:Alienage
8312:case law
7752:Movement
7182:Tom Kahn
6466:Activist
5886:timeline
5750:Archived
5638:Text of
5576:Text of
5505:, 2001).
5470:(2004).
5446:(1975).
5321:(2010).
5280:(2019).
5252:Archived
5161:Archived
5144:archived
5076:Archived
5070:Brown II
5051:July 23,
5045:Archived
4956:Archived
4925:Archived
4842:(eds.),
4820:April 6,
4814:Archived
4648:Response
4623:Archived
4543:Archived
4513:Archived
4485:March 5,
4479:Archived
4448:Archived
4359:Justice
4283:Archived
4269:Page 148
4088:Archived
3985:CJOnline
3953:CJOnline
3927:cite web
3848:Archived
3818:Archived
3788:Archived
3702:Archived
3666:Archived
3636:Archived
3605:Archived
3569:Archived
3538:Archived
3462:Archived
3248:(2002).
3212:(2001).
3127:Archived
3097:Archived
2994:Archived
2878:Archived
2847:Archived
2815:Archived
2788:archived
2634:CJOnline
2541:CJOnline
2490:Archived
2460:(1944).
2407:Archived
2377:Archived
2347:Archived
2270:Archived
2189:de facto
2087:See also
1993:Brown II
1980:Brown II
1972:Brown II
1956:Brown II
1949:Brown II
1833:treatise
1819:New York
1693:finding
1286:Arkansas
1213:Brown II
1199:—
1169:—
1150:—
1118:—
1077:Southern
844:Delaware
834:Virginia
816:itself,
790:. Judge
679:Cold War
504:Brown II
402:landmark
343:Majority
191:F. Supp.
180:F. Supp.
176:Brown II
135:F. Supp.
115:Decision
107:A.L.R.2d
12623:Writers
12588:Singers
12573:Jurists
12521:Europe
12475:Liberia
12420:Houston
12324:Detroit
12260:Indiana
12253:Chicago
12236:Atlanta
12231:Georgia
12214:Florida
12182:Alabama
12132:English
11706:Leftism
11576:Museums
11127:Kwanzaa
11052:Culture
11020:Slavery
10723:History
9436:(1954)
7877:Related
7467:Al Raby
6422:funeral
6285:Big Six
5655:Cornell
5593:Cornell
5563:(2004)
5383:3504874
5250:. NPR.
4723:1073644
4678:1073643
4619:1073539
3824:July 5,
1815:Indiana
1727:Brown I
1723:Brown I
1716:Brown I
1384:of the
1362:Alabama
1353:member
1166:undone.
885:Gebhart
873:Gebhart
846:), and
510:In the
497:of the
493:of the
450:cases.
254:of the
241:Holding
142:D. Kan.
119:Opinion
12635:Mayors
12553:Actors
12525:France
12517:Israel
12505:Mexico
12490:Canada
12465:Gambia
12460:Africa
12410:Austin
12375:Oregon
12314:Boston
12277:Kansas
12243:Hawaii
12161:Gullah
11971:Yoruba
11961:Gullah
11832:Sports
11750:groups
11580:Women
11117:Hoodoo
10991:(1896)
10917:Second
10893:(1857)
10838:(1956)
10785:(1954)
10670:(2024)
10662:(1935)
10631:(2013)
10623:(2006)
10615:(2004)
10607:(2003)
10599:(2001)
10591:(2000)
10583:(2000)
10575:(1999)
10567:(1997)
10559:(1989)
10551:(1976)
10543:(1966)
10535:(1883)
10498:(2012)
10490:(2000)
10482:(1997)
10474:(1991)
10466:(1988)
10458:(1988)
10450:(1985)
10442:(1982)
10434:(1979)
10426:(1978)
10418:(1977)
10410:(1976)
10402:(1974)
10394:(1974)
10386:(1973)
10378:(1973)
10370:(1972)
10362:(1971)
10354:(1970)
10346:(1968)
10338:(1968)
10330:(1966)
10322:(1966)
10314:(1962)
10306:(1948)
10298:(1942)
10290:(1937)
10282:(1928)
10274:(1886)
10266:(1876)
10247:(1985)
10239:(1977)
10231:(1969)
10212:(1984)
10204:(1982)
10196:(1982)
10188:(1979)
10180:(1978)
10172:(1977)
10164:(1976)
10156:(1973)
10148:(1973)
10140:(1971)
10132:(1954)
10124:(1948)
10116:(1927)
10108:(1923)
10100:(1923)
10092:(1923)
10084:(1923)
10076:(1915)
10068:(1915)
10060:(1915)
10052:(1914)
10033:(2015)
10025:(1996)
10017:(1986)
9998:(2024)
9990:(1996)
9982:(1994)
9974:(1983)
9966:(1982)
9958:(1981)
9950:(1981)
9942:(1980)
9934:(1979)
9926:(1979)
9918:(1979)
9910:(1979)
9902:(1976)
9894:(1975)
9886:(1975)
9878:(1974)
9870:(1974)
9862:(1972)
9854:(1971)
9846:(1948)
9838:(1937)
9819:(2023)
9811:(2016)
9803:(2014)
9795:(2013)
9787:(2007)
9779:(2005)
9771:(2003)
9763:(2003)
9755:(1999)
9747:(1995)
9739:(1993)
9731:(1992)
9723:(1992)
9715:(1991)
9707:(1989)
9699:(1986)
9691:(1985)
9683:(1984)
9675:(1982)
9667:(1982)
9659:(1978)
9651:(1977)
9643:(1977)
9635:(1974)
9627:(1973)
9619:(1973)
9611:(1972)
9603:(1971)
9595:(1971)
9587:(1971)
9579:(1971)
9571:(1971)
9563:(1969)
9555:(1969)
9547:(1969)
9539:(1969)
9531:(1968)
9523:(1968)
9515:(1967)
9507:(1967)
9499:(1964)
9491:(1964)
9483:(1964)
9467:(1955)
9428:(1950)
9420:(1950)
9404:(1948)
9396:(1948)
9388:(1944)
9380:(1943)
9372:(1940)
9364:(1927)
9356:(1899)
9348:(1896)
9340:(1886)
9332:(1883)
9288:(2016)
9280:(2015)
9272:(2009)
9264:(2000)
9256:(1997)
9248:(1990)
9240:(1989)
9232:(1989)
9224:(1987)
9216:(1987)
9208:(1985)
9200:(1984)
9192:(1983)
9184:(1982)
9176:(1981)
9168:(1979)
9160:(1979)
9152:(1977)
9144:(1976)
9136:(1975)
9128:(1975)
9120:(1974)
9112:(1974)
9104:(1971)
9096:(1968)
9088:(1967)
9080:(1962)
9072:(1961)
9064:(1958)
9056:(1950)
9048:(1932)
9040:(1927)
9032:(1922)
9024:(1905)
9005:(2011)
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