British Army during the American Revolutionary War

423:, during which the armies' establishment strength had been increased to an unprecedented size. With the ascension of peace in 1763 the army was dramatically reduced to a peacetime home establishment of just over 11,000 men, with a further 9,750 for the Irish establishment and 10,000 for the colonies. This meant 20 regiments of infantry totaling just over 11,000 men were stationed in Great Britain, 21 regiments were stationed in Ireland, 18 regiments were stationed in the Americas, and 7 regiments were stationed in Gibraltar. Alongside this, the army could call on 16 regiments of the cavalrymen and 2,712 men in the artillery. This gave a theoretical strength of just over 46,000 men exclusive of the artillery. The British government deemed this troop strength to be inadequate to prosecute an insurrection in the Americas, as well as deal with defence of the rest of its territories. Treaties with German states (mainly Hesse-Kassel and Brunswick) were negotiated for a further 18,000 men half of which were stationed in garrisons to release regular British units from other theaters. This measure brought the Army’s total establishment strength to around 55,000 men. 991: 1205: 408: 614: 1546: 461:, essentially conscription by the "press gang", was a favored recruiting method, though it was unpopular with the public, leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular service. Attempts were made to draft such levies, much to the chagrin of the militia commanders. Competition between naval and army press gangs, and even between rival ships or regiments, frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure recruits for their unit. Men would maim themselves to avoid the press gangs, while many deserted at the first opportunity. Pressed men were militarily unreliable; regiments with large numbers of such men were deployed to remote garrisons such as Gibraltar or the West Indies, to make it harder to desert. 1390:

loose formations. British Lieutenant William Hale commented on the tactical limitations of the German tactical methods: "I believe them steady, but their slowness is of the greatest disadvantage in a country almost covered with woods, and against an enemy whose chief qualification is agility in running from fence to fence keeping up an irregular, but galling fire on troops who advance with the same pace as at their exercise... At Brandywine, when the first line formed, the Hessian Grenadiers were close to our rear, and began beating their march at the same time as us. From that minute we saw them no more until the action was over, and only one man of them was wounded, by a random shot which came over us."

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greater distance apart and three "orders" were used to specify the distance to be expanded or contracted as necessary; "order" (two intervals), "open order" (four intervals), and "extended order" (ten intervals). British infantry advanced at the 'Trott' and fought fluid battles primarily using the bayonet. Although this new formation increased the British army's mobility and tactical flexibility, the abandonment of linear formation was later blamed by some British officers for defeats in the later stages of the war, like the

23: 646: 892: 1136:. The full "marching order" a line infantryman was expected to carry on campaign was extensive, and British soldiers often dropped much of their equipment before battle. Soldiers were also issued with greatcoats to be worn in adverse conditions, which were often used as tents or blankets. Drummers usually wore colours in reverse of their regimental colour, they carried the coat of arms of their colonel and wore mitre caps. Most German regiments wore dark blue coats, while cavalry and loyalists often wore green. 1733: 2048: 1701: 1188:, which displayed colour of the regiment's facings. In 18th and 19th century warfare 'the colours' often became a rallying point in the most bitter actions. Both regimental standards were highly regarded and a source of pride each regiment. However, because of the tactical constraints in conducting the war and the adapted mode of fighting, it is likely that British regiments only used their colours for ceremonial purposes in America, particularly the armies commanded by Howe and Cornwallis. 1346: 2490: 1469: 2478:, wrote disparagingly, "their maneuvers were such as the worst general in England would be hooted at for practicing; two lines coming up within six yards of one another and firing until they had no ammunition left, nothing could be more ridiculous". The failure to formally absorb the tactical lessons of the American War of Independence contributed to the early difficulties experienced by the British army during the French Revolutionary Wars. 1229:

often suffered from poor discipline away from the battlefield, gambling and heavy drinking were common among all ranks. However, among the American civilian populations, reports indicated that British troops were generally scrupulous in their treatment of non-combatants. The soldiers' own families were permitted to join soldiers in the field. Wives often washed, cooked, mended uniforms and served as nurses in the time of battle or sickness.

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bayonet. Following the battle he ordered the retraining of his army. Burgoyne did not want to lose the initiative and immediately prepared a second assault to puncture the Gates' army scheduled for the following morning, however his subordinate General Fraser advised him of the fatigued state of the British light infantry and Grenadiers and that a renewed assault following a further night's rest would be carried out with greater vivacity.

1929: 1858:, Howe returned to the British winter quarters and resigned his command shortly thereafter, complaining that he had been inadequately supported. Command was subsequently given to Clinton who, after the French entered the war in support of American independence, carried out orders to evacuate the British army from Philadelphia in the south to New York in the north. He did this with an overland march, fighting a large action at the 662:. Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military leadership in America. Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief of North America at the outbreak of the war, was criticized for being too lenient on the rebellious colonists. Jeffrey Amherst was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in 1778, but he refused a direct command in America because he was unwilling to take sides in the war. Admiral 563:. Despite holding no formal position in the army, he appointed or relieved generals, took care of provisions and supplies, and directed much of the strategic planning. While some historians argue that Sackville performed effectively and even brilliantly, others argue that he made several miscalculations and struggled to hold genuine authority over his subordinates in the army. 1870:"...I do not think that there exists a more select corps than that which General Howe has assembled here. I am too young and have seen too few different corps, to ask others to take my word; but old Hessian and old English officers who have served a long time, say that they have never seen such a corps in respect to quality..." —Captain Muenchhausen, June, 1777 2028:"Whenever the Rebel Army is said to have been cut to pieces it would be more consonant with truth to say that they have been dispersed, determined to join again... in the meantime they take oaths of allegiance, and live comfortably among us, to drain us of our monies, get acquainted with our numbers and learn our intentions." —Brigadier General 1781:

rapidly enough through the difficult terrain, allowing the Americans too much time to gather an overwhelming force to oppose him. The defeat had far reaching consequences as the French (who had already been secretly supporting the colonists) decided to openly support the rebellion and eventually declared war on Britain in 1778.

950:, the elder brother of William Howe, had adapted their regiments to serve as light infantry on their own initiative. On becoming commander-in-chief in North America in 1758, General Jeffery Amherst ordered every regiment to form light infantry companies from their ranks. The 80th regiment was disbanded in 1764 and the other 2448:

Many British officers returned from America with the belief in the superiority of the firearm and formations adapted with a greater frontage of firepower. However officers who had not served in America questioned whether the irregular and loose system of fighting which had become prevalent in America

1760:

would advance from New York in support. Through poor co-ordination and unclear orders, the plan failed. Howe believed that he could not support a Northern army until the threat of Washington's army had been dealt with and moved on Philadelphia instead. The early stages of Burgoyne's campaign met with

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The German units were found to be different in tactics and approach to the regular British troops. Many British officers regarded the German regiments as slow in mobility, therefore British generals utilised them as heavy infantry. This is primarily because of the German officers' reluctance to adopt

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by ship was extremely difficult. Most of the horses died during the long journey and the ones that survived usually required several weeks to recuperate on landing. The British Army primarily adopted small numbers of dragoons who worked as scouts and were used extensively in irregular operations. One

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One militia officer wrote to his friend in August 1778: "We are frequently marched out in considerable bodies to the heaths or commons adjacent, escorted by the artillery, where we go through various movements, maneuvers and firings of a field of battle. In these expeditions, let me assure you, there

1228:

Despite the harsh discipline, a distinct lack of self-discipline pervaded all ranks of the British forces. Soldiers had an intense passion for gambling, reaching such excesses that troops would often wager their own uniforms. Many drank heavily, and this was not exclusive to the lower ranks. The army

1224:

was used to punish even trivial offences—and not used sparingly. For instance, two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery during the Saratoga campaign, while another received 800 lashes for striking a superior officer. Flogging was an even more common punishment in the Royal Navy and it came

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In battle the redcoats usually formed in two ranks rather than three, to increase mobility and firepower. The Army further adapted this formation during the American Revolution by forming and fighting in looser ranks, a tactic that was known as "loose files and American scramble". Soldiers stood at a

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and was much more open to promotion from the ranks. Officers were required to be literate, but there was no formal requirement on the level of education or their social standing, and most regimental officers did not come from the landed gentry, but from middle class private individuals in search of a

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were largely inexperienced, and by the time the redcoats began the return march to Boston, several thousand American militiamen had gathered along the road. A running battle ensued, and the British detachment suffered heavily before reaching Charlestown. The British army in Boston found itself under

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Grenadiers often wore bearskin headdress and usually carried hangers, a type of curved sword, as a side arm. Light infantry were issued with short coats, without lace, with an ammunition box containing nine cartridges lined up in a row for easy access worn across the stomach rather than at the side.

977:

and formed an experimental Light Infantry battalion trained at Salisbury camp. This became the pattern for all regular light infantry serving in North America. Howe's system differed in that it focused on development of composite battalions of light infantry more suited to large scale campaigning in

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which was issued to regiments on the Irish establishment and offered a practical guide for training light companies and guidance for tactics such as skirmishing in broken terrain when acting independently, in sections or in large groups. Townshend also introduced a new communication method for light

472:

The same year, the government passed the first of two recruiting acts which allowed a limited form of impressment in parts of England and Scotland under strict conditions, however the measure proved unpopular and both acts were repealed in May 1780, permanently discontinuing impressment in the army.

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Clayton describes how "...the use of light infantry, well led by their officers and NCOs, was of key importance in advance as skirmishers fired on French columns from behind cover; when the French attempted to extend they were threatened with bayonet charge... and when the French advanced they fell

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The standard uniform of the British army consisted of the traditional red coat with cocked hats, white breeches and black gaiters with leather knee caps. Hair was usually cut short or fixed in plaits at the top of the head. As the war progressed, many line regiments replaced their cocked hats with

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which officially governed the selection and promotion of officers was, in practice, considerably relaxed during wartime, with far more stringent requirements placed on promotion. Many British officers were professional soldiers rather than wealthy dilettantes and showed themselves ready to discard

1768:

After winning a hard fought battle at Freeman's Farm, bought with heavy casualties, Burgoyne complained at the inexperience of his soldiers, that his men were too impetuous and uncertain in their aim, and that his troops remained in position to exchange volleys too long, rather than switch to the

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That night, Burgoyne received word that Clinton would launch his own offensive. The news convinced Burgoyne to wait, believing that the American General Gates would be forced to commit part of his own force to oppose Clinton; however, Gates was being continually reinforced. Burgoyne launched the

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The light infantry companies of several regiments were usually combined in composite light infantry battalions. Similar composite battalions were often formed from the grenadier companies of line regiments. Grenadiers were historically chosen from the tallest soldiers, but as with light infantry

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The recruiting acts of 1778 and 1779 also provided greater incentives for voluntarily joining the regular army, including a bounty of £3 and the entitlement to discharge after three years unless the nation remained at war. Thousands of volunteer militia battalions were raised for home defence in

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captured Charleston along with 5,000 of the Continental army. Shortly afterwards Clinton returned to New York leaving Cornwallis with a force of less than 4,000 men and instructions to secure control of the southern colonies. At first Cornwallis was successful, winning a lopsided victory at the

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During the course of the war, the British army conducted large-scale mock battles at Warley and Coxheath camps in southern England. The primary motivation behind this was in preparation for the threatened invasion. By all accounts the camps were massive in scale involving upwards of 18,000 men.

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conducted a largely separate campaign in the southern states. Cornwallis was one of the most aristocratic of the British generals who served in America, but had been dedicated to a military career since an early age, and insisted on sharing his soldiers' hardships. After early victories, he was

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Heavy drinking among senior British officers is well documented. William Howe was said to have seen many "crapulous mornings" while campaigning in New York. John Burgoyne drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga campaign. The two generals were also reported to have found

1780:

Burgoyne was finally compelled surrender after it had become clear he was surrounded. Burgoyne's campaign tactics were greatly criticised, the composition of his force was disjointed, and his decision to overload his army with artillery (expecting a long siege) meant his army could not advance

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The distance between the colonies and the British Isles meant logistics were stretched to breaking point, with the army often running out of food and supplies in the field, and forced to live off the land. Soldiers spent a great deal of time cleaning and preparing their clothing and equipment.

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Fortescue similarly describes the action: "Advancing in skirmish order and keeping themselves always under cover, the light companies maintained at close range the most destructive fire on the Heavy French columns... At last one of the enemy's battalions fairly gave way and the light companies

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In 1771 and 1772, the British army began implementing a new training scheme for light infantry companies. Much of the early training was found to be inadequate, with officers unsure how to use light companies. Many of the brightest young officers of light companies sought commissions elsewhere

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Clinton was regarded as one of the most studious and well-read experts on tactics and strategy. However, even before becoming commander in chief, he had been reluctant to succeed Howe. He took command when the widening of the war compelled him to relinquish troops to other theatres, and became

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In the early years of the war, however, the Hessians continued to carry their colours on campaign. Major-General Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Lossberg wrote, "They have their colours with them only when quartered, while we carry them with us wherever the regiments go... the country is bad for

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Following the failure of the New York and New Jersey campaign to bring about a decisive victory over the Americans, the British army adopted a radically new strategy. Two armies would invade from the north to capture Albany, one of 8,000 men (British and Germans) under the command of General

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and the outbreak of hostilities with France and Spain, the existing voluntary enlistment measures were judged to be insufficient. Between 1775 and 1781, the regular army increased from 48,000 to 121,000. In 1778 the army adopted some non traditional recruiting measures to further augment its

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and light infantry and conducted raiding operations into enemy-held territory. The lack of cavalry had great tactical implications on how the war was fought. It meant that British forces could not fully exploit their victories when outmanoeuvring continental armies at battles like

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North America, rather than individual companies. On taking command in America, Howe gave orders that every regiment which had not already done so to form a company of light infantry. These men were generally hand picked from the fittest and most proficient of the rank and file.

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to ultimately lend considerable military support to the cause of American independence, and the withdrawal of a sizable number of British forces from North America in 1778 were all factors in the British Army's ultimate defeat. At Yorktown in 1781, the British Army, then led by

736:, who had defended Quebec in 1775, but had been passed over in favour of Burgoyne in 1777 as a result of his perceived over-caution. As commander in chief, his main concern was to secure the safety of the many Loyalists and former slaves in the British enclave in New York. 657:

In 1776, there were 119 generals of various grades in the British Army. However, since generals never retired, perhaps a third of this number were too old or infirm to command in the field. Others were opposed to war against the colonists or unwilling to serve for years in

481:, and some of the most competent of these were embodied to the regular army. The British government took a further step by releasing criminals and debtors from prison on the condition they joined the army. Three entire regiments were raised from this early release program. 1397:. These soldiers were the majority of the German regulars under General John Burgoyne in the Saratoga campaign of 1777, and were generally referred to as "Brunswickers." The combined forces from Braunschweig and Hesse-Hanau accounted for nearly half of Burgoyne's army. 2370:

In September 1782, the grand assault on the besieged Gibraltar garrison took place, which was the largest single battle of the war, involving over 60,000 soldiers, sailors and marines. France also twice unsuccessfully attempted to capture the British channel island of

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fighting. Nothing worries me more than the colours, for the regiments cannot stay together in an attack because of the many walls, swamps, and stone cliffs. The English cannot lose their colours, for they do not carry them with them." During the Saratoga campaign

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is much fatigue, and no little danger...the grandest and beautiful imitations of action are daily presented to us, and believe me, the army, in general, are becoming greatly enamored by war." The maneuvers carried out at Warley camp were subject of a painting by

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resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to America, while William Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to military solutions to the crisis. Howe and Henry Clinton both stated that they were unwilling participants and were only following orders.

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The following is the British Army's strength based on Lord North's reports. These figures exclude the Irish establishment, Hanoverians, militia, and the East India Company's private army. The totals in North America specifically are listed in parentheses.

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unable to destroy the American Continental armies opposing him or to raise substantial loyalist support. On Clinton's orders, he tried to create a fortified enclave on the Chesapeake coast, but was cut off by a French fleet and forced to surrender at the

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Royal authority had forbidden the practice since 1711, but it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions. Young boys were taken from their schooling, often orphans of deceased wealthy officers, and placed in positions of responsibility within

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embittered at the Government's demands that he bring the war to a successful conclusion with fewer troops and resources than had been available to Howe. He repeatedly tried to resign, and quarrelled with the Navy's commanders and his own subordinates.

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solace with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens of command. During the Philadelphia campaign, British officers deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in the houses where they had been quartered.

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In November 1778 the establishment was set at 121,000 men, of whom 24,000 were foreigners, along with 40,000 embodied militia. This was raised the next year to 104,000 men on the British establishment, 23,000 on the Irish establishment, 25,000

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The harsh conditions of life in the army meant that discipline was severe. Crimes such as theft or desertion could result in hanging and punishments such as lashings were administered publicly. Discipline was harsh in the armed forces, and

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A detailed order of battle for British Army forces in North America circa October 1778 is as follows (about one-third of its then-strength is discounted due to disease, desertion, and other causes; the listed troops are solely effectives):

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Approximately 9,000 Hessians arrived with Howe's army in 1776 and served with British forces through the campaigns in New York and New Jersey. In all 25,000 hired auxiliaries served with Britain in the various campaigns during the war.

1659:, where Washington regrouped and began planning a retaliatory attacks. After considering several options, Washington settled on what would prove one of Washington's most complex and unexpected military maneuvers. Washington chose to 1820:, however, Howe was unable to secure any notable military gain, and most of the Continental Army troops under Washington's command managed to escape. After inconclusive skirmishes with Washington and Continental Army troops in the 914:

In the middle of the eighteenth century, the Army's uniforms were highly elaborate, and maneuvers were ponderous and slow, with "innumerable words of command." Experience of the conditions and terrain in North America during the

1828:, eschewing their muskets in favor of bayonets to minimize the sound they made as they approached. All remaining resistance to Howe was eliminated in this attack, and the rest of Howe's army marched into Philadelphia unopposed. 1839:, who was responsible for defending New York. Howe remained garrisoned in Philadelphia with 9,000 troops. He came under heavy attack from Continental Army troops under Washington's command, but Washington was driven off at the 2467:

manoeuvres in Silesia in 1784, he pushed for drilled battalions of heavy infantry. He also pushed for uniformity in training, eliminating the ability of colonels to develop their own systems of training for their regiments.

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to ascend the ranks, and the practice was common in the Army. Values of commissions varied but were usually in line with social and military prestige; for example, regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices.

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On 1 April 1779, Lord Germain instructed Grant to establish small garrisons throughout the West Indies, Grant believed this would be unwise and instead concentrated defences to cover the major naval bases. He posted the

1679:"I cannot too much commend Lord Cornwallis's good services during this campaign, and particularly the ability and conduct he displayed in the pursuit of the enemy from Fort Lee to Trenton, a distance exceding [ 586:

Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education or practical experience often found their way into positions of high responsibility, diluting the effectiveness of a regiment. However, according to Reid, the

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in a nighttime raid. During this period the British army carried out a series of successful raiding operations, taking supplies, destroying military defences, outposts, stores, munitions, barracks, shops and houses.

1274:. He also drew detailed illustrations of the uniforms of the light infantry and grenadiers present at the camp which are considered some of the most accurate surviving illustrations of 18th-century British soldiers. 426:

Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient manpower, and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had set. The Army was a deeply unpopular profession with one contentious issue being pay. A

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The loyalist units were vital to the British primarily for their knowledge of local terrain. One of the most successful of these units was formed by an escaped slave, and veteran of the Ethiopian Regiment known as

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who held it until the end of the war. However, his role in advising the government on strategy was limited and Amherst found himself primarily occupied with the organisation of home forces to oppose the threatened

701:. After early success, he pushed ahead despite major supply difficulties, and was surrounded and forced to capitulate at Saratoga, an event which precipitated intervention by Britain's European rivals. Unlike his 572: 577:

Although a large portion of the rank and file were lower class and the officers upper class, the army of the mid-1700s recruited officers from a variety of social backgrounds. Officers in British service could

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for every recruit. As the war dragged on, Parliament became desperate for manpower; criminals were offered military service to escape legal penalties, and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their units.

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led another group of King's Rangers in the Southern colonies, defending East Florida from invasion, raiding the southern frontier and participating in the conquest of the southern colonies. Colonial Governor

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The Narrative of Lieutenant General Sir William Howe, in a committee of the House of Commons on the 29th of April 1779, relating to his conduct during his late command of the King's Troops in North America

690:, the Royal Navy's commander in chief in America. The two brothers gained much success in 1776, but failed to destroy Washington's Army. They also tried to initiate peace talks but these came to nothing. 1675:

on 3 January 1777. Cornwallis rallied and again drove Washington away, however the defeats showed the British army had become too overstretched and Howe abandoned most of his outposts in New Jersey.

686:. However, Gage was blamed for underestimating the strength of republican sympathy and was relieved in 1776. Howe had the advantage of large numbers of reinforcements, and was the brother of Admiral 2430:. Many in the South initially migrated to British Florida, including 2,000 whites and 4,000 blacks from Georgia. Further resettlement of Black Loyalists from Nova Scotia and Canada, Jamaica and the 1113:, who led the so-called Black Brigade in numerous raids in New York and New Jersey, interrupting supply lines, capturing rebel officers, and killing suspected leaders. He died from wounds in 1780. 1977:

existed in the southern colonies. Based on that flawed assumption, they believed, a large Loyalist army could be raised to occupy the territories that had been pacified by regular British troops.

1685:] eighty miles, in which he was well supported by the ardour of his corps, who cheerfully quitted their tents and heavy baggage as impediments to their march." —General Howe, 20 December 1776 439:

infantryman 130 years earlier. The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the rising costs of living which did not help entice potential recruits, as service was nominally for life.

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When the American Revolutionary War commenced, the British Army was a volunteer force that had suffered from a lack of peacetime spending and ineffective recruitment in the decade since the

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and sweeping most resistance aside. However, failing supplies and increasing partisan activity gradually wore down his occupying troops, and the destruction of a loyalist force under Major

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After the defeat at Saratoga, Parliament doubled the bounty to £3, and increased it again the following year, to £3.3s, as well as expanding the age limit from 17–45 to 16–50 years of age.

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Many in the North were relocated to Nova Scotia, British East Florida, the Caribbean, and London. The Loyalist refugees evacuated from New York City numbered 29,000, as well as over 3,000

2137:. After the French entered the Revolutionary War, several poorly defended British islands fell quickly. In December 1778, a force of veteran British troops under the command of General 2307:. In both cases initial British military success was defeated by tropical diseases, with the 2,500 dead of the San Juan Expedition giving it the highest British death toll of the war. 1594:, Howe immediately began preparations to seize New York, which was considered the 'hinge' of the colonies. In late August, 22,000 men (including 9,000 Hessians) were rapidly landed on 1479:

British troops had been stationed in Boston since 1769 amid rising tensions between colonial subjects and the parliament in Great Britain. Fearing the impending insurrection General

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were greatly prized by British commanders, their skill in skirmishing and scouting meant they continued to serve in the Southern campaigns under Cornwallis until the end of the war.

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launched a counter invasion which drove the colonial forces from the province entirely and reached all the way to Lake Chaplain, however came short of recapturing Fort Ticonderoga.

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infantry officers when in command of loosely deployed, scattered troops; whistle signals rather than drums would indicate movements such as advance, retire, extend or contract.

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The Hessians served in some capacity in most of the major battles of the war. Duke Karl I provided Great Britain with almost 4,000 foot soldiers and 350 dragoons under General

2008:. Cornwallis invaded North Carolina and engaged in a pursuit over hundreds of miles that became known as the "Race to the Dan". Cornwallis's ravaged army met Greene's army at 1306:. Several hundred officers and enlisted men of cavalry regiments which remained stationed in Britain volunteered for service in America and transferred to infantry regiments. 1009:

in 1778 a force of British infantry who were veterans of colonial fighting inflicted heavy casualties on a far larger force of regular French troops who advanced in columns.

1518:. Although successful in his objective, the British forces suffered heavy casualties in taking the position. Both sides remained at stalemate until guns were placed on the 1258:

The training was rigorous with firing, bayonet drills, movements, physical exercise, marching, and forming all part of the daily regimen to prepare for military campaigns.

934:, joined Howe's army in 1776 also adopted the two rank formation used by the British army, but retained the traditional close order system of fighting throughout the war. 498: 2145:, and successfully captured the high grounds of the islands. Three days later, 9,000 French reinforcements landed and attempted to assault the British position, but were 2089:

could not be subdued unless its supply lines in Virginia were cut, Cornwallis decided to join forces with Phillips and Arnold. Cornwallis's army fought a series of

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in Massachusetts on 1 September 1774. The next year on the night of 18 April 1775, Gage sent a further 700 men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at

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the same year, in which the British Army captured and occupied the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia, Howe failed to achieve decisive results in present-day

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The British Army was gain dramatically reduced in peacetime. Morale and discipline became extremely poor, and the number of troops at all levels fell. When the

2423:, that he was proceeding with the withdrawal of refugees, freed slaves and military personnel. More than 29,000 Loyalist refugees were evacuated from the city. 2197:. Grant also reinforced the fleet with 925 soldiers. Although Britain lost other islands, his dispositions provided the basis for the British successes in the 2012:, and although Cornwallis was victorious he suffered heavy casualties. With little hope of reinforcements from Clinton, Cornwallis then decided to move out of 1613:

fortifications. Not wanting to risk the lives of his men in a bloody frontal assault, Howe began to lay siege works. The navy failed to properly blockade the

748: 3140:, pp. 112–113 – "the British were unique in training their North American companies... to march and fight in open order, essentially as light infantry." 2113: 1660: 61: 4139: 2029: 1947:

The first major British operation in the Southern colonies occurred in 1776, when a force under General Henry Clinton unsuccessfully besieged the fort at

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strength, a system of private subscription was established, whereby some 12 new regiments totaling 15,000 men were raised by individual towns and nobles.

1126: 535:. However, the British Army had no formal command structure, so British commanders often worked on their own initiative during the war. The position of 1923: 682:

as Commander in Chief in North America, was only 111th in seniority. Gage and Howe had both served as light infantry commanders in America during the

5086: 2834: 2793: 1728:, where the Liberty Bell was successfully hidden under the church's floor boards for nine months until the British departed Philadelphia in June 1778 1162:

formed a small experimental company of riflemen armed with this weapon, but this was disbanded in 1778. In many instances, British forces relied on

755:, Britain turned Florida back to Spain, and the Royal Navy administered another mass migration of Loyalists to Bahamas, Jamaica, and Great Britain. 4795: 3404: 954:

light infantry units were converted back to "line" units, but infantry regiments retained their light companies until the mid-nineteenth century.

1786: 1785:"I fear it bears heavy on Burgoyne...If this campaign does not finish the war, I prophesy that there is an end of British dominion in America." — 1449:

served as Governor of Quebec in the later stages of the war. Huguenots, and exiled Corsicans also served amongst the regular and officers ranks.

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Manpower problems at the outbreak of war led to the British government employing large numbers of German mercenaries, primarily recruited from

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contingents, who supplemented their fighting capabilities and served with regular British units for the rest of the war. In 1778, limited army

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He chose to ignore the light infantry and flank battalions the British army had come to rely on in North America. Instead, after witnessing

2108:. Royal Navy Admiral Graves believed that the threat posed to New York was more critical and withdrew. Cornwallis then became surrounded by 1545: 1836: 4193: 2456:, an officer who had not served in America. Dundas wrote many training manuals which were adopted by the army, the first of which was the 3082:

Rinaldi, Richard A. "The British Army 1775–1783". Yumpu. Retrieved September 23, 2013. p. 18. Primarily sourced from J. B. M. Frederick,

2121: 2052: 1981: 1315: 1248: 1196:, the wife of a German officer, saved the colours of the Brunswick regiments by burning the staffs and hiding the flags in her mattress. 721: 579: 378: 144: 744: 398: 3488: 1955: 321: 316:

and lead them in a war against the British Army. The following year, in July 1776, the Second Continental Congress, representing the

4332:

Orderly book of Lieut. Gen. John Burgoyne, from his entry into the state of New York until his surrender at Saratoga, 16th Oct. 1777

2355:

Europe was the setting of three of the largest engagements of the entire war. With French and Spanish forces combined they firstly

962: 369:

to bolster the army's size, but the practice proved unpopular and was suspended until being reintroduced two years later, in 1780.

1309:

Because of the logistical limitations of campaigning in North America, cavalry played a limited role in the war. The transport of

2392: 2236: 2094: 2071: 1717: 1211:

was used as punishment in both the British Army and British Navy, as depicted in this illustration on board a British naval ship

2310:

The Spanish repeatedly attacked the British settlements on the Caribbean coast but failed to drive them out. The British under

1832: 1074:, who were heavily engaged in the Northern colonies during which they were accused of participating in Indian led-massacres at 560: 249: 154: 1831:

The capture of Philadelphia did not turn the war in Britain's favour, and Burgoyne's army was left isolated with only limited

1663:

However, in the pre-dawn hours of 26 December, Washington crossed back into New Jersey and captured a garrison of Hessians at

1185: 5048: 5018: 4876: 4857: 4831: 4752: 4706: 4687: 4643: 4591: 4341: 4297: 1148: 1039: 592: 170: 1382:, Prince Frederick of Waldeck, Margrave Karl Alexander of Ansbach-Bayreuth, and Prince Frederick Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst. 667: 663: 2541:

The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to high-ranking commissions by wealthier officers as "plums for consumption".

1282:

Cavalry played a smaller role in British armies than other European armies of the same era. Britain possessed no armoured

5091: 2453: 1640:

to "clear the rebel troops from New Jersey without a major engagement, and to do it quickly before the weather changed."

1522:, at which point Howe's position became untenable and the British abandoned Boston entirely. Howe wrote on 5 March 1776: 1519: 990: 903:

Infantry formed the backbone of crown forces throughout the war. Two of the most heavily engaged infantry regiments, the

556: 3691: 2146: 1408: 4812: 4391: 2989:

Riedesel, Mrs. General, Letters, and Journals, translated from the original German by W. L. Stone (Albany, 1867) p. 125

2408: 2138: 1573: 1340: 739:

Carleton successfully administered British removal from the American seaboard, beginning with the July 1782 withdrawal

733: 540: 508: 351: 215: 149: 92: 3512:

Riedesel, Mrs. General, Letters and Journals, translated from the original German by W. L. Stone (Albany, 1867) p. 125

2097:

prior to fortifying themselves with their back to the sea, believing the Royal Navy could maintain supremacy over the

1331:. Without a large cavalry force to follow up the infantry, retreating American forces could often escape destruction. 4999: 4956: 4937: 4918: 4733: 4551: 4532: 4502: 4467: 4448: 4372: 4278: 3993: 3722: 3220: 2231:

with 80,000 men, laying siege to British forts in Arcot. A British attempt to relieve the siege ended in disaster at

943: 638: 528: 4771: 3794: 3771: 3236: 2866: 2445:

its total strength stood at 40,000 men. In idleness the army again became riddled with corruption and inefficiency.

2407:, the British army began withdrawing from its remaining posts in the Thirteen Colonies. In mid-August 1783, General 1617:, which opened an escape route for Washington's army, which he used, managing a nighttime retreat through unguarded 4967: 4624: 4409: 4403: 4222: 2104:

The reinforcements took too long to arrive, and in September the French fleet successfully blockaded Cornwallis in

1598:

using flat bottomed boats, this would be the largest amphibious operation undertaken by the British army until the

1585: 1492: 1098: 536: 512: 432: 285: 118: 4969:

Letters and Memoirs relating to the war of American Independence, and the capture of the German troops at Saratoga

1441:, who had previously held commission in the Dutch service, was second in command during the successful defence of 4561:

Hagist, Don N. (Winter 2011). "Unpublished Writings of Roger Lamb, Soldier of the American War of Independence".

4492: 3736: 2376: 1633: 1527: 1511: 1147:

used with a fixed bayonet. However, some of the light companies were issued with the short barrel muskets or the

675: 634: 474: 402: 382: 332: 197: 3604: 4316: 2300: 2290: 2009: 1974: 1948: 1175: 1043: 947: 752: 66: 2651:

9th Report on Public Accounts (1783) in 39 House of Commons Journal, H.M. Stationery Office, 1803, pp. 325–344

1624:

British forces then fought a series of actions to consolidate control of Manhattan Island, culminating in the

1668: 942:

In 1758, Thomas Gage (then a lieutenant colonel) had formed an experimental light infantry regiment known as

309: 76: 22: 2513: 1994: 1761:

success, capturing the forts Crown Point, Ticonderoga and Anne. However, part of his army was destroyed at

1267: 1193: 1050:

Large numbers of scouts and skirmishers were also formed from loyalists and Native Americans. The renowned

1006: 192: 4636:

Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity Through the Twenty-first Century

4242: 2841: 2800: 1962:, beginning a campaign to bring the colony of Georgia under British control. A Franco-American attempt to 331:

led the British to conclude that the war was unwinnable, forcing them to forfeit the Thirteen Colonies in

4419: 2503: 2416: 2216: 2149:. Despite this victory, multiple other Caribbean islands under British control were lost during the war. 1557: 1371: 687: 293: 187: 3408: 1549:

A painting of British regulars and Canadian militia repulsing the American revolutionary militia in the

2360: 2335: 2304: 2294: 1610: 1496: 1360: 273: 263: 242: 2116:. Outnumbered and with no avenue of relief or escape, Cornwallis was compelled to surrender his army. 4197: 2442: 2412: 2315: 2232: 1625: 1550: 1540: 1438: 1429:. Foreigners were also present among the regular British officer corps. The Swiss-born Major General 1031: 520: 4773:

General Sir William Howe's Orderly Book at Charlestown, Boston and Halifax, June 1775 to 1776 26 May

2215:

In 1778 British forces began attacking French enclaves in India, first capturing the French port of

1609:

on 27 August 1776, the British outflanked the American positions, driving the Americans back to the

1379: 385:

gaining control of a parliamentary majority, which brought offensive British military operations in

327:

The war was indecisive for several years. But on October 19, 1781, the British Army's defeat at the

2364: 2349: 2339: 2105: 1565: 1394: 123: 5029: 4184:

Guide to the materials for American history, to 1783, in the Public Record Office of Great Britain

1411:

also formed part of the garrisons at Gibraltar and Minorca, and two regiments participated in the

4660: 2210: 1773:

second attempt to break through the American lines early in the following month, which failed at

1725: 1569: 1442: 1122: 1093: 1051: 478: 4609: 3212: 3206: 2359:

in 1779 but were unsuccessful due to misfortune and poor planning. They then succeeded with the

4402: 2435: 2404: 2398: 2249: 2090: 1941: 1898: 1488: 1352: 1079: 1059: 336: 4010: 3746: 982:

companies, were often selected from among the most proficient soldiers in their parent units.

339:, which they signed in 1783, though sporadic fighting continued for several additional years. 4488: 2495: 1910: 1855: 1851: 1809: 1799: 1709: 1606: 1515: 1473: 1324: 1067: 946:, considered to be the first such unit to serve in the British Army. Other officers, notably 916: 908: 904: 896: 702: 683: 284:, and elsewhere from April 19, 1775, to September 3, 1783. The war formally commenced at the 235: 225: 128: 113: 5034:. Vol. 1. Dublin : Printed for Messrs. P. Wogan, P. Byrne, J. Moore, and W. Jones. 2274: 2240: 2075: 1902: 1880: 1840: 1821: 1817: 1762: 1328: 108: 37: 5011:

With Zeal and with Bayonets Only: The British Army on Campaign in North America, 1775-1783

3881: 2560:

Initially from Georgia, there were only 400 whites with 5,000 blacks relocated to Jamaica.

2299:

Britain made two attempts to capture Spanish territory in Central America: in 1779 at the

1430: 8: 4654: 4478: 2262: 2244: 2235:. Ali continued his sieges taking fortresses, before another British force under General 2079: 1959: 1906: 1672: 1526:"The rebels have done more in one night than my whole army would have done in a month." — 1446: 1071: 995: 597: 465: 420: 343: 297: 2367:, which occurred in 1783 and involved over 100,000 men, and hundreds of guns and ships. 2344: 1401: 1163: 4789: 4570: 2475: 2471: 2278: 2268: 1859: 1847: 1804:

While Burgoyne invaded from the North, Howe led an army of 15,000 men, including 3,500

1637: 1599: 1561: 1412: 1349: 1241: 1237: 1102: 1055: 4133: 2612: 5044: 5014: 4995: 4989: 4952: 4933: 4914: 4872: 4853: 4827: 4808: 4758: 4748: 4729: 4712: 4702: 4683: 4664: 4639: 4620: 4605: 4587: 4547: 4528: 4498: 4463: 4444: 4433: 4387: 4368: 4330: 4312: 4293: 4274: 4218: 3989: 3718: 3216: 2056: 2042: 2001: 1970: 1963: 1805: 1750: 1695: 1664: 1434: 1419: 1356: 1295: 1252: 1244: 1075: 1063: 931: 927:, in which British troops engaged denser bodies of men deployed in successive lines. 924: 911:, earned enduring reputations for their competence and professionalism in the field. 726: 486: 373: 354: 328: 317: 305: 3668: 2277:

led a successful offensive to conquer British West Florida, which culminated in the

4144: 2717:

Statutes at Large, Ruffhead's Edition (London, 1763–1800), Volume XIII, pp. 273–280

2380: 2331: 2134: 2109: 2005: 1990: 1986: 1937: 1648: 1629: 1159: 706: 313: 4163: 813:

7th, 17th, 23rd, 26th, 33rd, 37th, 42nd, 44th, 57th, 63rd, and 64th Foot regiments

4887: 4677: 4513: 3543: 2228: 2067: 1892: 1888: 1825: 1753: 1749:, and another of 1,000 men (British, German, Indian, Loyalists, Canadians) under 1721: 1704:

In September 1777, fearing a British Army attack on the revolutionary capital of

1463: 1151:. The British army also conducted limited experimental use of the breech-loading 629: 618: 443: 4824:

SARATOGA: A Military History of the Decisive Campaign of the American Revolution

4251:

Black, Jeremy. "Could the British Have Won the American War of Independence?."

4039: 2735:

War Office Papers, 4:966, Jenkinson to John Livesey and E. Brewer, 13 April 1779

1732: 4544:

The War for American Independence: From 1760 to the Surrender at Yorktown in ..

3293: 2753:

War Office Papers. 1:998, Lieutenant General Parker to Barrington, 19 June 1778

2427: 2356: 2327: 2311: 2098: 2086: 2047: 2021: 2013: 1933: 1897:

In August 1778 a combined Franco-American attempt to drive British forces from

1884: 1652: 1303: 1299: 1181: 1152: 545: 436: 428: 4460:

Where a Man Can Go: Major General William Phillips, British Royal Artillery ..

4148: 2633:

War Office Papers, Manuscripts in the Public Record Office, 1:992–1008, passim

2220: 1700: 1564:

launched an invasion of British controlled Canada. They besieged and captured

1085:

The majority of Native Americans favoured the British cause and Mohawk leader

591:

army through necessity drew its officers from a far wider base than its later

5080: 4326: 4182: 2744:

War Office Papers, 1:996, Sir William Codrington to Barrington, December 1778

2464: 2243:. Fighting continued until 1783 when the British captured Mangalore, and the 1746: 1737: 1423: 1319: 1287: 999: 891: 694: 659: 447: 407: 386: 347: 289: 277: 4762: 4716: 2227:, an important ally of France, declared war on Britain in 1780. Ali invaded 2120:"If you cannot relieve me very soon, you must prepare to hear the worst." — 1166:

from among the German contingents to provide skirmishers armed with rifles.

666:

similarly opposed a command: "I cannot draw the sword in such a cause". The

573:

Social background of officers and other ranks in the British Army, 1750–1815

2420: 2074:

that raided and destroyed Continental Army supply bases. He later occupied

1901:

failed. One year later an American expedition to drive British forces from

1813: 1757: 1713: 1705: 1656: 1568:, while another army moved on Montreal. However, they were defeated at the 1484: 1367: 1221: 1208: 1086: 1035: 1013:

back to prepare for further skirmishing and ambushes from all directions."

830:

4th, 5th, 15th, 27th, 28th, 35th, 40th, 46th, 49th, and 55th Foot regiments

729:, which signalled the end of effective British attempts to retake America. 588: 549: 301: 54: 30: 4668: 3430: 1980:

In May 1780, an army of 11,000 men under the command of Henry Clinton and

1155:, which proved too difficult to mass-produce to be used more extensively. 499:

Military leadership in the American Revolutionary War § Great Britain

4991:

The Battle for New York: The City at the Heart of the American Revolution

4441:

Wellington's Rifles: The Origins, Development and Battles of the Rifle ..

3715:

The Battle for New York: The City at the Heart of the American Revolution

2182: 2166: 2101:. He then sent requests to Clinton to be either resupplied or evacuated. 2070:, then a brigadier in the British Army after defecting, led a force with 1595: 1480: 1375: 1345: 1110: 679: 622: 524: 458: 412: 358: 5031:

The history of the origin, progress, and termination of the American war

4574: 1909:

to drive Native Americans from the frontier of New York, and captured a

1089:

commanded Iroquois and Loyalists in campaigns on the New York Frontier.

2431: 1863: 1824:, a battalion of British light infantry made a surprise assault at the 1644: 1614: 1283: 1180:

British infantry regiments possessed two flags: the King's Colour (the

1144: 1133: 489:, and 42,000 embodied militia, for a total force of about 194,000 men. 4257:

online video lecture given at Ohio State in 2006; requires Real Player

3645: 2474:, an experienced American officer who witnessed the same maneuvers in 2085:

After hearing that British forces were in Virginia and believing that

1468: 1422:

serving in India consisted of regular British troops alongside native

697:

was allowed to mount an ambitious campaign southward from present-day

4421:

The military forces of the crown; their administration and government

2224: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2142: 1618: 281: 4012:

Naval and Military Memoirs of Great Britain, from 1727 to 1783 Vol I

4256: 2063: 2017: 2004:. Cornwallis then determined to destroy the Continental army under 1973:. British planners wrongly were convinced that a sizable number of 1928: 967:

Instructions, and Training and Equipping of the new Light Companies

645: 532: 451: 366: 1954:

In 1778, a British force of 3,000 troops under Lieutenant Colonel

1290:. British doctrine tended to favour the use of medium cavalry and 732:

The final effective British commander in chief in America was Sir

4584:

British Soldiers, American War: Voices of the American Revolution

2186: 1291: 1101:

raised a regiment composed entirely of freed slaves known as the

1090: 415:

at work in British ports, depicted in a 1780 British illustration

362: 3086:(2 vols), Wakefield, Yorks: Microform Academic Publishers, 1984. 2642:

War Officer Papers, 4:275, Jenkinson to Clinton, 5 December 1780

4430:

The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution

4015:. London: J. Strachan and P. Hill, Edinburgh. pp. 494–495. 2783:

War Office Papers, 4:966, Jenkinson to Amherst, 26 October 1779

2726:

Statutes at Large, Ruffhead's Edition, Volume XIII, pp. 316–317

2372: 2318:

in August 1782 with the surrender of the entire Spanish force.

2000:

In January 1781, Tarleton's cavalry force was destroyed at the

1591: 1503: 698: 555:

The direction of the British war effort ultimately fell to the

4384:

The British Officer: Leading the Army from 1660 to the Present

4290:

Trenton and Princeton 1776-77: Washington Crosses the Delaware

1905:

also failed. In the same year Americans launched a successful

1225:

to be associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors.

4903:

British Civil Wars, Commonwealth & Protectorate 1638-1660

4234:

A History of the Regiments & Uniforms of the British Army

4187:. Washington, D.C. : Carnegie Institution of Washington. 2920:, "The Purchase of Officers’ Commissions in the British Army" 1667:. Several days later, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis at 1426: 1310: 4600:

Harrington, Peter. "Portraying Maneuvers and Mock Battles".

2762:

War Office Papers, 1:1005, Oughton to Jenkinson, 27 May 1779

2434:

of London constituted the founders of the British colony of

2062:

In early 1781, the British army began conducting raids into

1294:. The cavalry establishment consisted of three regiments of 958:

because being a "light-bob" officer lacked social prestige.

601:

their drill manuals and use innovative methods and tactics.

4656:

The Yorktown Campaign and the Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781

4617:

Redcoat: The British Soldier in the Age of Horse and Musket

4194:"The Purchase of Officers' Commissions in the British Army" 2449:

was suitable for future campaigns against European powers.

1997:, all but ended any hopes of large scale loyalist support. 1643:

Cornwallis' force drove Washington's army from present-day

1140:

They did not use bayonets but carried naval boarding axes.

4726:

The Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton

2133:

In 1776, an American force captured the British island of

503: 324:

themselves free and independent from colonial governance.

4699:

Victory at Yorktown: the campaign that won the Revolution

4525:

British Infantry Uniforms: From Marlborough to Wellington

4309:

Paths of Glory: The Life and Death of General James Wolfe

4118: 4116: 4114: 4112: 4102: 4100: 3563: 3561: 2363:

in 1781 but the largest of them all was the unsuccessful

1681: 1969:

In 1780, the main British strategic focus turned to the

1105:, which served through the early skirmishes of the war. 419:

Britain had incurred a large national debt fighting the

372:

The attrition of constant fighting, the decision by the

4081: 4079: 2696:

War Office Papers, 3:5, Harvey to Elliot, 10 March 1775

2598: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2509:

List of British units in the American Revolutionary War

442:

To increase voluntary enrollment, Parliament offered a

4745:

Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War

4679:

Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War

4569:(360). Society for Army Historical Research: 280–290. 4109: 4097: 3835: 3833: 3831: 3558: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3331: 3329: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3146: 2786: 2386: 2112:

forces under command by Washington and French General

1483:

dispatched an expedition to remove gunpowder from the

1017:

followed them to complete the rout with the bayonet".

4263:

War for America: The Fight for Independence 1775-1783

3338: 3317: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3173: 3171: 3103: 3101: 2818: 2605: 2284: 2273:

Beginning in 1779, the governor of Spanish Louisiana

2093:

against Continental Army troops under the command of

1777:

with losses that Burgoyne's force could not sustain.

1514:

retaliated, seizing the Charlestown peninsula in the

4982:

archived at Harvard University Library Viewer online

4253:

Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research.

4244:

The first American Civil War, first period 1775–1778

4076: 3849: 3847: 3845: 2589: 2582: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2485: 1510:

On 17 June, British forces now under the command of

4563:

Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research

3828: 3796:

Correspondence of Charles, first Marquis Cornwallis

3773:

Correspondence of Charles, first Marquis Cornwallis

3365: 3326: 3143: 1854:. After probing Washington's fortifications at the 1334: 1127:

List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution

4143:(online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. 4132: 3251: 3168: 3098: 2958: 2956: 2452:In 1788, the British army was reformed by General 1924:Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War 270:British Army during the American Revolutionary War 5041:The Revolutionary War in the Southern Backcountry 4866: 3842: 2573: 5078: 2024:and began attacking the British outposts there. 1874: 1628:, which resulted in the capture of nearly 3,000 1579: 1572:and British forces under the command of General 539:remained vacant until 1778 when it was given to 4400: 2953: 2867:"Lord George Germain and the American Colonies" 1917: 1560:, American forces under the command of General 523:formally held command over crown forces in the 381:, was forced to surrender, contributing to the 4602:MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History 4192:Armatys, John; Cordery, Robert George (2005). 3084:Lineage Book of British Land Forces, 1660–1978 2247:was signed which restored both sides lands to 827:Expedition for West Indies (5,147 effectives) 608: 4966:Riedesel, Friederike Charlotte Luise (1827). 4728:. Holt Paperbacks; 1st Owl books ed edition. 3647:American and British Strengths and Weaknesses 3208:Montcalm and Wolfe: the French and Indian War 2908:Forteseue, The British Army, 1783–1802, p. 34 1632:troops. Following the conquest of Manhattan, 1027:Loyalists fighting in the American Revolution 994:The British Army's bayonet charge during the 849:Embarked for West Florida (1,102 effectives) 835:Embarked for East Florida (3,657 effectives) 548:in 1779, and suppress the outbreak of severe 243: 4794:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4255:(Fall 1996), Vol. 74 Issue 299, pp 145–154. 3883:Logistics and the Defeat of Gentleman Johnny 2415:of New York, informing the president of the 2348:The defeat of the floating batteries at the 1848:unsuccessful attempt to capture Fort Mifflin 801:16th and 17th Light Dragoons (two regiments) 392: 3972:Bernardo de Gálvez in Louisiana: 1776–1783 3279: 3277: 1472:A portrait depicting the British attack at 1314:of the most successful of these units, the 919:prompted changes to its tactics and dress. 4805:African Americans in the Revolutionary War 4480:History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery 4357:Revolution & Early Republic, 1775-1800 3237:"The Very Model of a Modern Major General" 1816:. Rapidly outflanked by Washington at the 1793: 1756:, while a third army under the command of 399:British soldiers in the eighteenth century 346:. In 1776, to offset this deficiency, the 250: 236: 4515:A History of the British Army: Volume III 2204: 2128: 874:22nd, 38th, 43rd, and 54th Foot regiments 871:Rhode Island garrison (5,740 effectives) 617:Military governors and staff officers in 5087:18th-century history of the British Army 4652: 3717:. Walker & Company. New York. 2002. 3274: 2443:wars with France commenced again in 1793 2343: 2256: 2046: 1927: 1731: 1699: 1544: 1507:siege by thousands of colonial militia. 1467: 1344: 1236: 1203: 1143:The most common infantry weapon was the 1116: 1070:raised the provincial regiment known as 1030: 989: 963:George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend 890: 644: 628: 612: 502: 406: 4850:Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650-1715 4723: 4659:. New York: Harper & Bros. p. 4487: 4271:Encyclopedia of the American Revolution 4140:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 4008: 3758: 3742: 3204: 2393:British Army during the Napoleonic Wars 2189:was held by an 800-man garrison of the 709:state. He was recalled and replaced by 5079: 4638:. Boston: Greenwood Publishing Group. 4586:. Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing. 4365:The Oxford History of the British Army 4231: 3983: 3503:, "Unpublished Writings of Rober Lamb" 1736:The October 1777 surrender of General 880:Four Hessian and two Anspach regiments 860:Embarked for Halifax (646 effectives) 798:New York garrison (17,452 effectives) 292:. Two months later, in June 1775, the 4847: 4770:Howe, William Howe, Viscount (1890). 4417: 3928: 3137: 3107: 2705: 2613:"The British Army – Chapter One" 1671:and overwhelmed a British outpost at 1437:in 1779. The former Jacobite officer 653:, British Commander from 1778 to 1782 431:infantryman was paid a wage of just 8 119:British Forces South Atlantic Islands 3431:"British Infantry Colours 1747–1800" 3407:. queensroyalsurreys. Archived from 3211:. New York: Da Capo Press. pp. 3131: 2321: 2020:. Meanwhile, Greene moved back into 1850:, Howe eventually took the forts of 1534: 1457: 1445:in 1775. Another Swiss-born officer 1433:commanded the successful defence of 841:Five provincial regiments/battalions 743:, and the subsequent evacuations of 566: 4340:Cashin, Edward J. (26 March 2005). 4196:. Colonial Wargames. Archived from 3986:Nelson: A Dream of Glory, 1758–1797 2387:Post-Treaty of Paris (1783 to 1788) 2316:retaking the Black River settlement 2201:during the final years of the war. 2185:. Meanwhile, the royal dockyard at 816:Six provincial regiments/battalions 557:Secretary of State for the Colonies 13: 5069:Cornwallis, The American Adventure 4329:(1860). O'Callaghan, E. B. (ed.). 4273:. Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books. 3914:Cornwallis, the American Adventure 3296:. Dictionary of National Biography 3061:O'Shaughnessy (2013), pp. 251, 267 2285:Spanish Central America, 1779–1780 2066:. Former Continental army officer 1341:Germans in the American Revolution 1272:Warley Camp: The Mock Attack, 1779 753:Anglo-Spanish Treaty of Versailles 541:Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst 14: 5103: 4988:Schecter, Barnet (October 2002). 4842:The siege of Gibraltar, 1779-1783 4424:. Vol. 2. London, J. Murray. 4404:"Howe, William (1729-1814)" 4401:Chichester, Henry M (1885–1900). 4325: 4247:. Vol. 1. London, MacMillan. 4027:The siege of Gibraltar, 1779–1783 3475: 3463: 2036: 1689: 1661:covertly cross the Delaware River 1418:Other than mercenary troops, the 944:80th Regiment of Light-Armed Foot 937: 529:Commander-in-Chief, North America 5013:. University of Oklahoma Press. 4994:. University of Oklahoma Press. 4546:. University of Illinois Press. 4413:. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 4410:Dictionary of National Biography 4181:Andrews, Charles McLean (1912). 4180: 4125: 4088: 4067: 4055: 4032: 4019: 4002: 3977: 3964: 3955: 3946: 3937: 3919: 3906: 3897: 3874: 3865: 3856: 3819: 3405:"Major Patrick Ferguson 1744–80" 3073:, "Revolutionary War in Georgia" 2771: 2554: 2488: 2458:Principles of Military Movements 1586:New York and New Jersey campaign 1502:The British troops stationed in 1493:Battles of Lexington and Concord 1335:Foreign units in British service 1099:John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore 973:In 1774, William Howe wrote the 930:The hired German regiments, the 786:September 1781: 149,282 (47,301) 783:September 1780: 147,152 (44,554) 678:, who was chosen to succeed Sir 537:Commander-in-Chief of the Forces 513:Commander-in-Chief of the Forces 286:Battles of Lexington and Concord 21: 5060:The War Office Past and Present 4972:. New York: G. & C. Carvill 4653:Johnston, Henry Phelps (1881). 4560: 4476: 4173: 3988:. New York: Holt. p. 173. 3810: 3787: 3764: 3752: 3727: 3707: 3684: 3670:Battle of Lexington and Concord 3661: 3638: 3629: 3620: 3597: 3588: 3579: 3570: 3536: 3524: 3515: 3506: 3494: 3481: 3469: 3457: 3445: 3423: 3397: 3388: 3379: 3356: 3347: 3308: 3286: 3265: 3229: 3198: 3189: 3180: 3159: 3122: 3113: 3089: 3076: 3064: 3055: 3046: 3037: 3028: 3016: 3004: 2992: 2983: 2974: 2965: 2944: 2932: 2923: 2911: 2902: 2890: 2881: 2859: 2827: 2777: 2765: 2756: 2747: 2738: 2729: 2720: 2711: 2699: 2690: 2544: 2535: 2526: 975:Manual for Light Infantry Drill 822:13 Hessian regiments plus Jäger 807:Light Infantry (two battalions) 435:per day, the same pay as for a 403:Recruitment in the British Army 4886:Plant, David (26 April 2007). 4867:O'Shaughnessy, Andrew (2013). 4675: 4511: 4342:"Revolutionary War in Georgia" 4217:. Cambridge University Press. 3530: 3489:Life at sea in the age of sail 3022: 3010: 2896: 2678: 2672: 2666: 2654: 2645: 2636: 2627: 2301:Battle of San Fernando de Omoa 2291:Battle of San Fernando de Omoa 2147:repulsed with heavy casualties 2010:Battle of Guilford Court House 1712:, American patriots moved the 1176:Colours, standards and guidons 777:October 1778: 112,239 (52,561) 751:in November 1783. At the 1783 531:commanded crown forces in the 276:, which was fought throughout 272:served for eight years in the 1: 5071:. Boston: Pelican Publishing. 5066: 5027: 4987: 4965: 4803:Lanning, Michael Lee (2005). 4633: 4541: 4457: 4362: 4306: 4292:. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. 4240: 3961:Boatner (1994), pp. 1184–1185 2998: 2980:O'Shaughnessy (2013), pp. 6–7 2567: 1875:Raiding operations, 1778–1779 1580:New York and New Jersey, 1776 1199: 720:While Clinton held New York, 492: 5057: 5038: 4930:King George's Army 1740-1793 4821: 4802: 4742: 4696: 4542:Griffith, Samuel B. (2002). 4522: 4381: 4268: 4191: 4164:UK public library membership 4061: 3052:O'Shaughnessy (2013), p. 216 2938: 2917: 2835:"The British Army 1775–1783" 2794:"The British Army 1775–1783" 2684: 2514:Timeline of the British Army 2365:attempt to capture Gibraltar 1918:Southern colonies, 1780–1781 1718:Zion United Church of Christ 1452: 1268:Philip James de Loutherbourg 1020: 789:March 1782: 150,310 (47,223) 774:August 1777: 57,637 (23,694) 7: 5067:Wickwire, Franklin (1970). 5062:. London: Methuen & Co. 5008: 4743:Ketchum, Richard M (1997). 4697:Ketchum, Richard M (2004). 4614: 4581: 4438: 4339: 4335:. Albany, N.Y., J. Munsell. 4232:Barnes, Major R.M. (1972). 4212: 3491:". National Maritime Museum 3294:"Howe, William (1729–1814)" 3070: 3043:O'Shaughnessy (2013), p. 86 3034:O'Shaughnessy (2013), p. 81 2504:History of the British Army 2481: 2417:Second Continental Congress 2357:attempted to invade England 2181:and 1,600 gunners defended 1495:, the first battles of the 1232: 886: 810:Grenadiers (two battalions) 780:July 1779: 131,691 (47,624) 771:March 1776: 45,130 (14,374) 758: 741:from Savannah to Charleston 609:British commands in America 294:Second Continental Congress 10: 5108: 5092:American Revolutionary War 5009:Spring, Matthew H (2008). 4885: 4619:. London: Harper Collins. 4418:Clode, Charles M. (1869). 4307:Brumwell, Stephen (2006). 3609:, history-of-american-wars 3500: 2660: 2396: 2390: 2336:Invasion of Minorca (1781) 2325: 2295:San Juan Expedition (1780) 2288: 2266: 2260: 2239:defeated the Mysoreans at 2219:, and seizing the port of 2208: 2122:General Charles Cornwallis 2040: 1966:in 1779 ended in failure. 1921: 1878: 1797: 1693: 1583: 1538: 1497:American Revolutionary War 1461: 1361:American Revolutionary War 1338: 1277: 1173: 1169: 1120: 1024: 998:depicted in a portrait by 985: 768:April 1775: 27,063 (6,991) 745:Charleston, South Carolina 570: 496: 396: 274:American Revolutionary War 264:American Revolutionary War 261: 5028:Stedman, Charles (1794). 4949:Redcoat Officer 1740-1815 4946: 4927: 4908: 4840:McGuffie, Tom Henderson. 4769: 4724:Ketchum, Richard (1999). 4582:Hagist, Donald N (2012). 4523:Funcken, Liliane (1977). 4458:P. Davis, Robert (1999). 4382:Clayton, Anthony (2007). 4287: 4025:Tom Henderson McGuffie, 3451: 3205:Parkman, Francis (1995). 2929:Belcher, Volume I, p. 270 2051:The surrender of General 1626:Battle of Fort Washington 1541:Invasion of Quebec (1775) 1439:Allan Maclean of Torloisk 521:Commander-in-Chief, India 393:Structure and recruitment 4869:The men who lost America 4848:Nolan, Cathal J (2008). 4844:(Dufour Editions, 1965). 4747:. New York: Henry Holt. 4701:. New York: Henry Holt. 4615:Holmes, Richard (2002). 4512:Fortescue, John (1902). 4477:Duncan, Francis (1879). 4363:Chandler, David (2003). 4346:New Georgia Encyclopedia 4269:Boatner, Mark M (1994). 4122:Fortescue (1902), p. 538 4106:Fortescue (1902), p. 537 4094:Chandler, p. 132, para 2 4073:Chandler, p. 132, para 1 4009:Beatson, Robert (1804). 3606:History of American Wars 3576:Harrington (2007), p. 78 3567:Harrington (2007), p. 77 3344:Fortescue (1902), p. 269 3323:Fortescue (1902), p. 268 3271:Cusick (2013), pp. 60–61 3119:Brumwell (2006), p. 277. 2950:Duncan, Volume II, p. 15 2840:. orbat/. Archived from 2824:Fortescue (1902), p. 506 2615:. Americanrevolution.org 2602:Fortescue (1902), p. 172 2519: 2350:Great Siege of Gibraltar 2340:Great Siege of Gibraltar 1602:almost 200 years later. 1395:Friedrich Adolf Riedesel 877:Two provincial regiments 852:Two provincial regiments 819:Queen's Rangers regiment 464:After the losses at the 124:British Forces Gibraltar 5039:Swisher, James (2007). 4911:British Redcoat 1740-93 4676:—— (1997). 4604:19, no. 3 (Spring 2007) 4311:. Hambledon Continuum. 4241:Belcher, Henry (1911). 4236:. London: Sphere Books. 4213:Atwood, Rodney (2002). 3594:Springer (2008), p. 270 2799:. orbat. Archived from 2211:Second Anglo-Mysore War 2078:and led a small battle 1808:, by sea to attack the 1794:Philadelphia, 1777–1778 1726:Allentown, Pennsylvania 1590:After withdrawing from 1123:Red coat (British army) 863:One provincial regiment 804:Guards (two battalions) 5058:Wheeler, Owen (1914). 5043:. Pelican Publishing. 4822:Luzader, John (2010). 4483:. London: John Murray. 4085:Clayton (2007), p. 65. 3943:Spring (2008), p. 131. 3871:Swisher (2007), p. 148 3635:Spring (2008), p. 148. 3626:Spring (2008), p. 147. 3585:Swisher (2007), p. 156 3521:Clayton (2007), p. 64. 3394:Funcken (1977), p. 42. 3385:Funcken (1977), p. 24. 3376:Spring (2008), p. 149. 3353:Funcken (1977), p. 46. 3335:Clayton (2007), p. 63. 3186:Spring (2008), p. 143. 3156:Spring (2008), p. 139. 2663:, "The New Model Army" 2399:Treaty of Paris (1783) 2352: 2250:Status quo ante bellum 2205:East Indies, 1778–1783 2129:West Indies, 1778–1783 2126: 2059: 2034: 1944: 1942:Camden, South Carolina 1872: 1791: 1741: 1729: 1687: 1553: 1532: 1476: 1380:Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel 1363: 1353:Wilhelm von Knyphausen 1255: 1212: 1047: 1002: 900: 654: 642: 626: 596:career. The system of 516: 416: 4951:. Osprey Publishing. 4947:Reid, Stuart (2002). 4932:. Osprey Publishing. 4928:Reid, Stuart (1995). 4913:. Osprey Publishing. 4909:Reid, Stuart (1997). 4634:Jaques, Tony (2007). 4494:Washington's Crossing 4367:. Oxford Paperbacks. 4149:10.1093/ref:odnb/8247 3984:Sudgen, John (2004). 3952:Jaques (2007), p. 882 3839:Grifth (2002), p. 423 3825:Ketchum (1997), p. 84 3816:Luzader (2010), p. 33 3544:"Soldier of the King" 3283:Cusick (2013), p. 61. 3262:Cusick (2013), p. 60. 3177:Atwood (2002), p. 96. 3095:Barnes (1972), p. 229 2673:Fortescue, Volume III 2496:British Empire portal 2397:Further information: 2347: 2314:however succeeded in 2267:Further information: 2257:Gulf Coast, 1779–1781 2223:. The Mysorean ruler 2165:and 1,500 gunners at 2118: 2050: 2026: 1932:The death of General 1931: 1868: 1856:Battle of White Marsh 1810:revolutionary capital 1800:Philadelphia campaign 1787:General Henry Clinton 1783: 1735: 1710:Philadelphia campaign 1703: 1677: 1647:. Washington and the 1607:Battle of Long Island 1548: 1524: 1516:Battle of Bunker Hill 1474:Battle of Bunker Hill 1471: 1370:. Units were sent by 1348: 1302:and six regiments of 1298:, seven regiments of 1240: 1207: 1117:Uniform and equipment 1034: 1007:Battle of Vigie Point 993: 917:French and Indian War 897:40th Regiment of Foot 894: 844:Two Hessian regiments 747:in December 1782 and 703:Philadelphia campaign 684:French and Indian War 648: 632: 616: 593:Victorian counterpart 550:anti-Catholic rioting 506: 410: 333:eastern North America 226:United Kingdom portal 129:British Forces Brunei 114:British Forces Cyprus 4888:"The New Model Army" 4871:. London: Oneworld. 4826:. New York: Oxford. 4527:. London: Wardlock. 4497:. New York: Oxford. 4439:Cusick, Ray (2013). 4288:Bonk, David (2009). 4041:The Battle of Jersey 3546:. americanrevolution 3411:on 27 September 2013 2847:on 27 September 2013 2806:on 27 September 2013 2586:Holmes (2002), p. 21 2124:, September 17, 1781 1881:Mount Hope Bay raids 1841:Battle of Germantown 1822:Battle of the Clouds 1818:Battle of Brandywine 1512:General William Howe 1378:, Duke Charles I of 1247:, who commanded the 1058:, while his brother 866:One Hessian regiment 580:purchase commissions 155:Other ranks insignia 109:British Army Germany 62:units and formations 38:British Armed Forces 4852:. Greenwood Press. 4462:. London: Praeger. 3925:Johnston, pp. 26–28 3362:Reid (1997), p. 54. 3314:Bonk (2009), p. 18. 3195:Bonk (2008), p. 18. 3165:Reid (1997), p. 45. 3128:Reid (1997), p. 32. 2708:, Vol. 2, pp. 13–14 2305:San Juan Expedition 2303:and in 1780 in the 2263:Gulf Coast campaign 2245:Treaty of Mangalore 2055:army following the 1740:'s army at Saratoga 1447:Frederick Haldimand 1066:. Loyalist pioneer 996:Battle of Princeton 895:A grenadier of the 598:sale of commissions 466:Battles of Saratoga 411:The British Army's 4428:Curtis, Edward E. 4134:"Sir David Dundas" 3713:Schecter, Barnet. 2962:Reid (2002), p. 11 2472:Charles Cornwallis 2361:capture of Minorca 2353: 2279:Siege of Pensacola 2275:Bernardo de Gálvez 2269:Siege of Pensacola 2060: 1982:Charles Cornwallis 1956:Archibald Campbell 1945: 1860:Battle of Monmouth 1852:Mifflin and Mercer 1742: 1730: 1638:Charles Cornwallis 1562:Richard Montgomery 1554: 1551:invasion of Canada 1520:Dorchester Heights 1477: 1413:Siege of Cuddalore 1364: 1359:forces during the 1350:Lieutenant General 1256: 1242:Lieutenant Colonel 1213: 1149:Pattern 1776 Rifle 1103:Ethiopian Regiment 1048: 1003: 901: 838:71st Foot regiment 655: 643: 627: 517: 417: 379:Charles Cornwallis 361:was introduced in 312:militias into the 296:, gathered in the 5050:978-15-898-0503-3 5020:978-0-806-141-527 4878:978-1-78074-246-5 4859:978-03-1333-046-9 4833:978-1-9327-148-52 4754:978-0-8050-6123-9 4708:978-0-8050-7396-6 4689:978-0-8050-4681-6 4645:978-0-313-33536-5 4593:978-15-941-616-74 4432:(Yale U.P. 1926) 4299:978-18-460-3350-6 4162:(Subscription or 3970:John W. Caughey, 2971:Reid (1995), p. 2 2322:Europe, 1779–1783 2057:Siege of Yorktown 2043:Yorktown campaign 2002:Battle of Cowpens 1971:Southern Colonies 1960:captured Savannah 1949:Sullivan's Island 1751:Brigadier General 1696:Saratoga campaign 1655:into present-day 1600:Normandy landings 1535:Canada, 1775–1776 1491:, leading to the 1458:Boston, 1774–1775 1431:Augustine Prévost 1296:Household Cavalry 1253:Southern Colonies 1245:Banastre Tarleton 1194:Baroness Riedesel 1186:regimental colour 961:In 1772, General 925:Battle of Cowpens 727:Siege of Yorktown 711:Sir Henry Clinton 693:In 1777, General 668:Earl of Effingham 641:from 1775 to 1778 567:The officer corps 515:from 1778 to 1782 374:Kingdom of France 329:Siege of Yorktown 318:Thirteen Colonies 306:George Washington 260: 259: 171:Current equipment 93:Army Headquarters 67:current regiments 5099: 5072: 5063: 5054: 5035: 5024: 5005: 4984: 4979: 4977: 4962: 4943: 4924: 4905: 4900: 4898: 4882: 4863: 4837: 4818: 4799: 4793: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4766: 4739: 4720: 4693: 4672: 4649: 4630: 4597: 4578: 4557: 4538: 4519: 4508: 4484: 4473: 4454: 4425: 4414: 4406: 4397: 4378: 4359: 4354: 4352: 4336: 4322: 4303: 4284: 4248: 4237: 4228: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4188: 4168: 4167: 4159: 4157: 4155: 4136: 4129: 4123: 4120: 4107: 4104: 4095: 4092: 4086: 4083: 4074: 4071: 4065: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4051: 4049: 4036: 4030: 4023: 4017: 4016: 4006: 4000: 3999: 3981: 3975: 3968: 3962: 3959: 3953: 3950: 3944: 3941: 3935: 3932: 3926: 3923: 3917: 3910: 3904: 3901: 3895: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3878: 3872: 3869: 3863: 3860: 3854: 3851: 3840: 3837: 3826: 3823: 3817: 3814: 3808: 3807: 3806: 3804: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3783: 3781: 3768: 3762: 3756: 3750: 3740: 3734: 3731: 3725: 3711: 3705: 3704: 3703: 3701: 3688: 3682: 3681: 3680: 3678: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3642: 3636: 3633: 3627: 3624: 3618: 3617: 3616: 3614: 3601: 3595: 3592: 3586: 3583: 3577: 3574: 3568: 3565: 3556: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3519: 3513: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3492: 3485: 3479: 3473: 3467: 3461: 3455: 3449: 3443: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3427: 3421: 3420: 3418: 3416: 3401: 3395: 3392: 3386: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3363: 3360: 3354: 3351: 3345: 3342: 3336: 3333: 3324: 3321: 3315: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3290: 3284: 3281: 3272: 3269: 3263: 3260: 3249: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3239:. amherstcollege 3233: 3227: 3226: 3202: 3196: 3193: 3187: 3184: 3178: 3175: 3166: 3163: 3157: 3154: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3126: 3120: 3117: 3111: 3105: 3096: 3093: 3087: 3080: 3074: 3068: 3062: 3059: 3053: 3050: 3044: 3041: 3035: 3032: 3026: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2987: 2981: 2978: 2972: 2969: 2963: 2960: 2951: 2948: 2942: 2936: 2930: 2927: 2921: 2915: 2909: 2906: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2863: 2857: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2846: 2839: 2831: 2825: 2822: 2816: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2805: 2798: 2790: 2784: 2781: 2775: 2769: 2763: 2760: 2754: 2751: 2745: 2742: 2736: 2733: 2727: 2724: 2718: 2715: 2709: 2703: 2697: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2676: 2670: 2664: 2658: 2652: 2649: 2643: 2640: 2634: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2609: 2603: 2600: 2587: 2584: 2561: 2558: 2552: 2548: 2542: 2539: 2533: 2530: 2498: 2493: 2492: 2491: 2438:in West Africa. 2332:Battle of Jersey 2110:Continental Army 2072:William Phillips 2006:Nathanael Greene 1987:Battle of Camden 1938:Battle of Camden 1649:Continental Army 1619:Manhattan Island 1611:Brooklyn Heights 1570:Battle of Quebec 1558:Fort Ticonderoga 1556:After capturing 1355:, who commanded 1160:Patrick Ferguson 1072:Butler's Rangers 1040:Native Americans 855:Waldeck regiment 625:in 1778 and 1784 421:Seven Years' War 344:Seven Years' War 314:Continental Army 252: 245: 238: 150:Officer insignia 41: 40: 25: 18: 17: 5107: 5106: 5102: 5101: 5100: 5098: 5097: 5096: 5077: 5076: 5075: 5051: 5021: 5002: 4975: 4973: 4959: 4940: 4921: 4896: 4894: 4879: 4860: 4834: 4815: 4787: 4786: 4779: 4777: 4755: 4736: 4709: 4690: 4646: 4627: 4594: 4554: 4535: 4505: 4470: 4451: 4394: 4375: 4350: 4348: 4319: 4300: 4281: 4261:Black, Jeremy. 4225: 4203: 4201: 4200:on 28 July 2012 4176: 4171: 4161: 4153: 4151: 4131: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4110: 4105: 4098: 4093: 4089: 4084: 4077: 4072: 4068: 4060: 4056: 4047: 4045: 4038: 4037: 4033: 4024: 4020: 4007: 4003: 3996: 3982: 3978: 3969: 3965: 3960: 3956: 3951: 3947: 3942: 3938: 3934:Ketchum, p. 208 3933: 3929: 3924: 3920: 3911: 3907: 3903:Willcox, p. 157 3902: 3898: 3889: 3887: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3870: 3866: 3862:P. Davis, p. 78 3861: 3857: 3853:P. Davis, p. 77 3852: 3843: 3838: 3829: 3824: 3820: 3815: 3811: 3802: 3800: 3793: 3792: 3788: 3779: 3777: 3770: 3769: 3765: 3757: 3753: 3741: 3737: 3732: 3728: 3712: 3708: 3699: 3697: 3690: 3689: 3685: 3676: 3674: 3667: 3666: 3662: 3653: 3651: 3644: 3643: 3639: 3634: 3630: 3625: 3621: 3612: 3610: 3603: 3602: 3598: 3593: 3589: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3571: 3566: 3559: 3549: 3547: 3542: 3541: 3537: 3531:Fortescue, 1902 3529: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3499: 3495: 3486: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3462: 3458: 3450: 3446: 3436: 3434: 3429: 3428: 3424: 3414: 3412: 3403: 3402: 3398: 3393: 3389: 3384: 3380: 3375: 3366: 3361: 3357: 3352: 3348: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3327: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3309: 3299: 3297: 3292: 3291: 3287: 3282: 3275: 3270: 3266: 3261: 3252: 3242: 3240: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3223: 3203: 3199: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3181: 3176: 3169: 3164: 3160: 3155: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3123: 3118: 3114: 3106: 3099: 3094: 3090: 3081: 3077: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3033: 3029: 3021: 3017: 3009: 3005: 2997: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2979: 2975: 2970: 2966: 2961: 2954: 2949: 2945: 2937: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2916: 2912: 2907: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2872: 2870: 2869:. History Today 2865: 2864: 2860: 2850: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2833: 2832: 2828: 2823: 2819: 2809: 2807: 2803: 2796: 2792: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2778: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2757: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2712: 2704: 2700: 2695: 2691: 2683: 2679: 2671: 2667: 2659: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2641: 2637: 2632: 2628: 2618: 2616: 2611: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2590: 2585: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2536: 2531: 2527: 2522: 2494: 2489: 2487: 2484: 2428:Black Loyalists 2405:Treaty of Paris 2401: 2395: 2389: 2342: 2326:Main articles: 2324: 2297: 2289:Main articles: 2287: 2271: 2265: 2259: 2213: 2207: 2131: 2068:Benedict Arnold 2045: 2039: 1995:King's Mountain 1964:retake Savannah 1940:in present-day 1926: 1920: 1911:British outpost 1895: 1893:Chesapeake raid 1877: 1866:along the way. 1862:in present-day 1826:Battle of Paoli 1802: 1796: 1754:Barry St. Leger 1722:Hamilton Street 1720:on present-day 1698: 1692: 1669:Assunpink Creek 1605:In the ensuing 1588: 1582: 1566:Fort Saint-Jean 1543: 1537: 1485:powder magazine 1466: 1464:Boston campaign 1460: 1455: 1343: 1337: 1280: 1235: 1202: 1178: 1172: 1129: 1119: 1056:Queen's Rangers 1029: 1023: 988: 940: 889: 761: 722:Lord Cornwallis 664:Augustus Keppel 619:British America 611: 575: 569: 509:Jeffery Amherst 501: 495: 405: 395: 337:Treaty of Paris 288:in present-day 266: 256: 220: 202: 145:Senior officers 73: 72: 35: 34: 33: 12: 11: 5: 5105: 5095: 5094: 5089: 5074: 5073: 5064: 5055: 5049: 5036: 5025: 5019: 5006: 5000: 4985: 4963: 4957: 4944: 4938: 4925: 4919: 4906: 4883: 4877: 4864: 4858: 4845: 4838: 4832: 4819: 4814:978-0806527161 4813: 4800: 4776:. B.F. Stevens 4767: 4753: 4740: 4734: 4721: 4707: 4694: 4688: 4673: 4650: 4644: 4631: 4625: 4612: 4598: 4592: 4579: 4558: 4552: 4539: 4533: 4520: 4509: 4503: 4489:Fischer, David 4485: 4474: 4468: 4455: 4449: 4436: 4426: 4415: 4398: 4393:978-1781592878 4392: 4379: 4373: 4360: 4337: 4327:Burgoyne, John 4323: 4317: 4304: 4298: 4285: 4279: 4266: 4259: 4249: 4238: 4229: 4223: 4210: 4189: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4169: 4124: 4108: 4096: 4087: 4075: 4066: 4054: 4044:, jersey.co.uk 4031: 4018: 4001: 3994: 3976: 3963: 3954: 3945: 3936: 3927: 3918: 3905: 3896: 3873: 3864: 3855: 3841: 3827: 3818: 3809: 3786: 3763: 3751: 3743:Fischer (2006) 3735: 3733:Ketchum p. 111 3726: 3706: 3683: 3660: 3637: 3628: 3619: 3596: 3587: 3578: 3569: 3557: 3535: 3523: 3514: 3505: 3493: 3480: 3478:, pp. 263, 288 3476:Burgoyne, 1860 3468: 3464:Burgoyne, 1860 3456: 3454:, pp. 263, 288 3444: 3433:. 62ndregiment 3422: 3396: 3387: 3378: 3364: 3355: 3346: 3337: 3325: 3316: 3307: 3285: 3273: 3264: 3250: 3228: 3221: 3197: 3188: 3179: 3167: 3158: 3142: 3130: 3121: 3112: 3110:, p. 112. 3097: 3088: 3075: 3063: 3054: 3045: 3036: 3027: 3015: 3003: 2991: 2982: 2973: 2964: 2952: 2943: 2931: 2922: 2910: 2901: 2889: 2880: 2858: 2826: 2817: 2785: 2776: 2764: 2755: 2746: 2737: 2728: 2719: 2710: 2698: 2689: 2677: 2665: 2653: 2644: 2635: 2626: 2604: 2588: 2571: 2569: 2566: 2563: 2562: 2553: 2543: 2534: 2524: 2523: 2521: 2518: 2517: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2500: 2499: 2483: 2480: 2403:Following the 2388: 2385: 2328:Armada of 1779 2323: 2320: 2312:Edward Despard 2286: 2283: 2261:Main article: 2258: 2255: 2209:Main article: 2206: 2203: 2130: 2127: 2106:Chesapeake Bay 2099:Chesapeake Bay 2087:North Carolina 2041:Main article: 2038: 2037:Yorktown, 1781 2035: 2030:Charles O’Hara 2022:South Carolina 2014:North Carolina 1934:Johann de Kalb 1922:Main article: 1919: 1916: 1876: 1873: 1798:Main article: 1795: 1792: 1694:Main article: 1691: 1690:Saratoga, 1777 1688: 1653:Delaware River 1584:Main article: 1581: 1578: 1539:Main article: 1536: 1533: 1530:, 5 March 1776 1462:Main article: 1459: 1456: 1454: 1451: 1420:Company armies 1407:Soldiers from 1339:Main article: 1336: 1333: 1316:British Legion 1304:Light Dragoons 1300:Dragoon Guards 1279: 1276: 1249:British Legion 1234: 1231: 1201: 1198: 1174:Main article: 1171: 1168: 1153:Ferguson Rifle 1118: 1115: 1064:King's Rangers 1022: 1019: 987: 984: 939: 938:Light infantry 936: 888: 885: 884: 883: 882: 881: 878: 875: 869: 868: 867: 864: 858: 857: 856: 853: 847: 846: 845: 842: 839: 833: 832: 831: 825: 824: 823: 820: 817: 814: 811: 808: 805: 802: 791: 790: 787: 784: 781: 778: 775: 772: 769: 760: 757: 610: 607: 571:Main article: 568: 565: 507:Field Marshal 497:Main article: 494: 491: 437:New Model Army 394: 391: 350:hastily hired 262:Main article: 258: 257: 255: 254: 247: 240: 232: 229: 228: 222: 221: 219: 218: 212: 209: 208: 204: 203: 201: 200: 195: 190: 184: 181: 180: 176: 175: 174: 173: 165: 164: 160: 159: 158: 157: 152: 147: 139: 138: 134: 133: 132: 131: 126: 121: 116: 111: 103: 102: 98: 97: 96: 95: 87: 86: 85:Administration 82: 81: 80: 79: 74: 71: 70: 64: 57: 53: 48: 47: 43: 42: 27: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5104: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5070: 5065: 5061: 5056: 5052: 5046: 5042: 5037: 5033: 5032: 5026: 5022: 5016: 5012: 5007: 5003: 5001:0-8027-1374-2 4997: 4993: 4992: 4986: 4983: 4971: 4970: 4964: 4960: 4958:18-41763-79-9 4954: 4950: 4945: 4941: 4939:18-55325-15-2 4935: 4931: 4926: 4922: 4920:18-55325-54-3 4916: 4912: 4907: 4904: 4893: 4889: 4884: 4880: 4874: 4870: 4865: 4861: 4855: 4851: 4846: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4829: 4825: 4820: 4816: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4791: 4775: 4774: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4750: 4746: 4741: 4737: 4735:0-8050-6098-7 4731: 4727: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4700: 4695: 4691: 4685: 4682:. Macmillan. 4681: 4680: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4657: 4651: 4647: 4641: 4637: 4632: 4628: 4622: 4618: 4613: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4589: 4585: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4559: 4555: 4553:025-20-70-607 4549: 4545: 4540: 4536: 4534:07-063-5181-9 4530: 4526: 4521: 4517: 4516: 4510: 4506: 4504:01-951-815-9X 4500: 4496: 4495: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4481: 4475: 4471: 4469:03-1331-020-3 4465: 4461: 4456: 4452: 4450:9781781592878 4446: 4442: 4437: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4422: 4416: 4412: 4411: 4405: 4399: 4395: 4389: 4386:. Routledge. 4385: 4380: 4376: 4374:01-9280-31-15 4370: 4366: 4361: 4358: 4347: 4343: 4338: 4334: 4333: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4314: 4310: 4305: 4301: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4280:0-8117-0578-1 4276: 4272: 4267: 4264: 4260: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4245: 4239: 4235: 4230: 4226: 4220: 4216: 4211: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4186: 4185: 4179: 4178: 4165: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4141: 4135: 4128: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4103: 4101: 4091: 4082: 4080: 4070: 4063: 4062:Lanning, 2005 4058: 4043: 4042: 4035: 4028: 4022: 4014: 4013: 4005: 3997: 3995:0-224-06097-X 3991: 3987: 3980: 3973: 3967: 3958: 3949: 3940: 3931: 3922: 3915: 3909: 3900: 3885: 3884: 3877: 3868: 3859: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3836: 3834: 3832: 3822: 3813: 3798: 3797: 3790: 3775: 3774: 3767: 3761:, p. 37. 3760: 3755: 3748: 3744: 3739: 3730: 3724: 3723:0-8027-1374-2 3720: 3716: 3710: 3695: 3694: 3687: 3672: 3671: 3664: 3649: 3648: 3641: 3632: 3623: 3608: 3607: 3600: 3591: 3582: 3573: 3564: 3562: 3545: 3539: 3532: 3527: 3518: 3509: 3502: 3497: 3490: 3484: 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2512: 2510: 2507: 2505: 2502: 2501: 2497: 2486: 2479: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2466: 2465:Prussian Army 2461: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2444: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2424: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2400: 2394: 2384: 2382: 2379:and again in 2378: 2374: 2368: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2319: 2317: 2313: 2308: 2306: 2302: 2296: 2292: 2282: 2280: 2276: 2270: 2264: 2254: 2252: 2251: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2212: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2150: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2125: 2123: 2117: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2102: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2083: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2058: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2033: 2031: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1958:successfully 1957: 1952: 1950: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1930: 1925: 1915: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1903:Penobscot Bay 1900: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1871: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1844: 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Retrieved 4968: 4948: 4929: 4910: 4902: 4897:21 September 4895:. Retrieved 4891: 4868: 4849: 4841: 4823: 4804: 4780:21 September 4778:. Retrieved 4772: 4744: 4725: 4698: 4678: 4655: 4635: 4626:0-00653-1520 4616: 4601: 4583: 4566: 4562: 4543: 4524: 4514: 4493: 4479: 4459: 4440: 4429: 4420: 4408: 4383: 4364: 4356: 4351:21 September 4349:. Retrieved 4345: 4331: 4308: 4289: 4270: 4262: 4252: 4243: 4233: 4224:0521-5263-7X 4215:The Hessians 4214: 4202:. Retrieved 4198:the original 4183: 4174:Bibliography 4154:21 September 4152:. Retrieved 4138: 4127: 4090: 4069: 4057: 4048:23 September 4046:, retrieved 4040: 4034: 4026: 4021: 4011: 4004: 3985: 3979: 3971: 3966: 3957: 3948: 3939: 3930: 3921: 3913: 3908: 3899: 3890:22 September 3888:, retrieved 3882: 3876: 3867: 3858: 3821: 3812: 3801:, retrieved 3795: 3789: 3778:, retrieved 3772: 3766: 3759:Fischer 2006 3754: 3738: 3729: 3714: 3709: 3698:, retrieved 3692: 3686: 3677:24 September 3675:, retrieved 3669: 3663: 3654:24 September 3652:, retrieved 3650:, ushistorys 3646: 3640: 3631: 3622: 3613:23 September 3611:, retrieved 3605: 3599: 3590: 3581: 3572: 3550:23 September 3548:. Retrieved 3538: 3526: 3517: 3508: 3501:Hagist, 2011 3496: 3483: 3471: 3459: 3447: 3437:23 September 3435:. Retrieved 3425: 3415:23 September 3413:. Retrieved 3409:the original 3399: 3390: 3381: 3358: 3349: 3340: 3319: 3310: 3300:23 September 3298:. Retrieved 3288: 3267: 3243:23 September 3241:. Retrieved 3231: 3207: 3200: 3191: 3182: 3161: 3133: 3124: 3115: 3091: 3083: 3078: 3071:Cashin, 2005 3066: 3057: 3048: 3039: 3030: 3018: 3006: 2994: 2985: 2976: 2967: 2946: 2934: 2925: 2913: 2904: 2892: 2883: 2873:23 September 2871:. Retrieved 2861: 2851:23 September 2849:. Retrieved 2842:the original 2829: 2820: 2810:23 September 2808:. Retrieved 2801:the original 2788: 2779: 2767: 2758: 2749: 2740: 2731: 2722: 2713: 2701: 2692: 2680: 2668: 2656: 2647: 2638: 2629: 2619:23 September 2617:. Retrieved 2607: 2556: 2546: 2537: 2528: 2470: 2462: 2457: 2454:David Dundas 2451: 2447: 2440: 2436:Sierra Leone 2425: 2421:Philadelphia 2409:Guy Carleton 2402: 2369: 2354: 2309: 2298: 2272: 2248: 2214: 2151: 2132: 2119: 2103: 2084: 2061: 2053:Cornwallis's 2032:, March 1781 2027: 1999: 1979: 1968: 1953: 1946: 1899:Rhode Island 1896: 1889:Tryon's raid 1869: 1845: 1830: 1814:Philadelphia 1803: 1784: 1779: 1771: 1767: 1758:General Howe 1743: 1714:Liberty Bell 1706:Philadelphia 1680: 1678: 1657:Pennsylvania 1651:crossed the 1642: 1623: 1604: 1589: 1574:Guy Carleton 1555: 1528:General Howe 1525: 1509: 1501: 1478: 1417: 1406: 1399: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1368:Hesse-Cassel 1365: 1308: 1281: 1271: 1264: 1260: 1257: 1227: 1218: 1214: 1209:Flagellation 1190: 1184:) and their 1179: 1157: 1142: 1138: 1130: 1107: 1094:Thomas Brown 1087:Joseph Brant 1084: 1060:James Rogers 1049: 1036:Joseph Brant 1015: 1011: 1004: 980: 974: 972: 966: 960: 956: 951: 941: 929: 921: 913: 902: 792: 762: 738: 734:Guy Carleton 731: 719: 715: 692: 688:Richard Howe 676:William Howe 673: 656: 635:William Howe 603: 585: 576: 554: 518: 483: 471: 463: 457: 441: 425: 418: 371: 341: 326: 308:to organize 304:, appointed 302:Philadelphia 269: 267: 77:Army Reserve 31:British Army 15: 4892:BCW Project 4807:. Citadel. 2706:Clode, 1869 2661:Plant, 2007 2217:Pondicherry 2183:Saint Lucia 2167:Saint Kitts 2139:James Grant 2016:and invade 1885:Grey's raid 1789:, July 1777 1630:Continental 1596:Long Island 1481:Thomas Gage 1376:Hesse-Hanau 1325:Long Island 1284:cuirassiers 1134:slouch hats 1111:Colonel Tye 1068:John Butler 1054:formed the 948:George Howe 680:Thomas Gage 623:West Indies 525:East Indies 459:Impressment 389:to an end. 359:impressment 300:capital of 198:Recruitment 5081:Categories 4443:. 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Oxford. 3916:; p. 315. 3799:, archive 3776:, archive 2281:in 1781. 2225:Hyder Ali 2199:Caribbean 2195:60th Foot 2179:49th Foot 2163:55th Foot 2143:St. Lucia 2095:Lafayette 2080:Blandford 1975:Loyalists 1846:After an 1835:from Sir 1673:Princeton 1453:Campaigns 1270:known as 1044:Loyalists 1021:Loyalists 639:Commander 552:in 1780. 282:Caribbean 163:Equipment 137:Personnel 4763:41397623 4717:54461977 4575:44232931 4491:(2006). 4064:, p. 161 3001:, p. 309 2482:See also 2233:Pollilur 2229:Carnatic 2064:Virginia 2018:Virginia 1991:Ferguson 1806:Hessians 1636:ordered 1435:Savannah 1292:dragoons 1233:Training 1222:the lash 1062:led the 932:Hessians 907:and the 887:Infantry 759:Strength 707:New York 621:and the 589:Georgian 546:invasion 533:Americas 527:and the 487:Hessians 367:Scotland 322:declared 207:Location 193:Timeline 101:Overseas 4265:(2001). 4204:10 June 4029:(1965). 3974:(1934). 3533:, p. 35 3466:, p. 74 3213:356–357 3025:, p. 77 3013:, p. 76 2899:, p. 61 2774:, p. 32 2687:, p. 90 2675:, p. 41 2476:Prussia 2187:Antigua 1936:at the 1833:support 1708:in the 1665:Trenton 1489:Concord 1409:Hanover 1357:Hessian 1278:Cavalry 1251:in the 1170:Colours 1091:Colonel 1076:Wyoming 1005:At the 986:Tactics 899:in 1767 479:England 475:Ireland 429:private 363:England 355:Hessian 335:in the 310:patriot 188:History 179:History 36:of the 5047: 5017: 4998: 4955: 4936: 4917: 4875: 4856: 4830: 4811: 4761: 4751: 4732: 4715: 4705: 4686: 4669:426009 4667: 4642: 4623: 4608: 4590: 4573: 4550: 4531: 4501: 4466: 4447: 4434:online 4390: 4371: 4315: 4296: 4277: 4221: 4160: 3992: 3886:, almc 3747:p. 121 3721: 3219: 2373:Jersey 2338:, and 2177:, and 2169:. 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British Army during the American Revolutionary War

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