332:(PVD) technique. In the sputter deposition, a tungsten target is bombarded with ionized gas molecules (usually Ar), causing the tungsten atoms to be “sputtered” off into the plasma. These vaporized atoms are then deposited when they condense as a thin film on the substrate to be coated. The formation of β-W through sputter deposition depends on the base pressure, Ar pressure, substrate temperature, impurity gas, deposition rate, film thickness, substrate type, etc. It has been widely observed that oxygen or nitrogen gas flow can assist and is necessary for the formation of β-W, but recently there have also been reports on preparing β-W without putting into any impurity gas during deposition.
20:
303:
Thin films of β-W display a giant spin Hall effect with a spin Hall angle of 0.30 ± 0.02 and a spin-diffusion length of around 3.5 nm. In contrast, α-W exhibits a much smaller spin Hall angle of less than 0.07 and a comparable spin-diffusion length. In the spin Hall effect, the application of a
102:
melts below 650°C. In the beginning stages of research into β-W, oxygen was commonly found to promote the formation of the β-W structure, thus discussions of whether the β-W structure is a phase of single-element tungsten or a tungsten suboxide were long-standing, but ever since the 1950s there has
295:
Although the exact value depends on the preparation conditions, β-W has an electrical resistivity of at least five to ten times higher than that of α-W (5.3 μΩ.cm), and this high conductivity will remain almost unchanged in a temperature range of 5 to 380 K, making β-W a potential thin film
118:
properties at low temperatures, the discovery of giant spin Hall effect in β-W thin films by
Burhman et al. in 2012 has generated new interest in the material for potential applications in spintronic magnetic random access memories and spin-logic devices.
172:
family. Each unit cell contains eight tungsten atoms. The structure can be seen as a cubic lattice with one atom at each corner, one atom in the center, and two atoms on each face. There are two inequivalent tungsten sites corresponding to
308:, and the spin Hall angle is defined as the ratio of the transverse spin current density and the longitudinal electric current density. The spin Hall angle of β-W is large enough to generate spin torques capable of flipping or setting the
324:
While there have been some reports about preparing β-W with chemical methods such as hydrogen reduction reaction, almost all the reported β-W in the recent thirty years are prepared through
166:
272:, each tungsten atom is bonded to fourteen neighboring tungsten atoms, and there is a spread of W–W bond lengths ranging from 2.54 to 3.12 Å. The experimentally measured
270:
243:
220:
197:
1072:
Chattaraj, Ananya; Asirvatham, Joshua; Das, Gangadhar; Manna, Gouranga; Saha, Pinku; Kumar, Vijay; Kanjilal, Aloke (2022-03-28).
289:
944:"Transformation of topologically close-packed β-W to body-centered cubic α-W: Comparison of experiments and computations"
55:
837:
1192:
Vink, T. J.; Walrave, W.; Daams, J. L. C.; Dirks, A. G.; Somers, M. A. J.; van den Aker, K. J. A. (1993-07-15).
1272:"Elastic constants of beta tungsten thin films studied by picosecond ultrasonics and density functional theory"
942:
Barmak, Katayun; Liu, Jiaxing; Harlan, Liam; Xiao, Penghao; Duncan, Juliana; Henkelman, Graeme (2017-10-21).
63:
62:
structure containing eight atoms per unit cell, and it irreversibly transforms to the stable α phase through
304:
longitudinal electric current through a nonmagnetic material generates a transverse spin current due to the
1155:"Impact of deposition rate, underlayers, and substrates on β-tungsten formation in sputter deposited films"
443:
Donaldson, Olivia K.; Hattar, Khalid; Kaub, Tyler; Thompson, Gregory B.; Trelewicz, Jason R. (2017-09-05).
245:, each tungsten atom is bonded to twelve equivalent W atoms to form a mixture of edge- and face-sharing WW
1321:"Phase control and Young's modulus of tungsten thin film prepared by dual ion beam sputtering deposition"
358:"Topologically close-packed phases: Deposition and formation mechanism of metastable β-W in thin films"
305:
673:"Microstructure, growth, resistivity, and stresses in thin tungsten films deposited by rf sputtering"
329:
277:
1074:"Growth-dependent structural ordering and stability in β-tungsten films for spintronic applications"
133:
169:
1194:"Stress, strain, and microstructure in thin tungsten films deposited by dc magnetron sputtering"
491:
Pai, Chi-Feng; Liu, Luqiao; Li, Y.; Tseng, H. W.; Ralph, D. C.; Buhrman, R. A. (2012-09-17).
542:"Elektrolysen in Phosphatschmelzen. I. Die elektrolytische Gewinnung von α- und β-Wolfram"
8:
1363:
991:"Beta (β) tungsten thin films: Structure, electron transport, and giant spin Hall effect"
104:
51:
671:
Petroff, P.; Sheng, T. T.; Sinha, A. K.; Rozgonyi, G. A.; Alexander, F. B. (June 1973).
252:
225:
202:
179:
103:
been a lot of experimental proof showing that the oxygen in β-W thin films is in a zero
1271:
1154:
504:
325:
771:
1358:
1301:
1252:
1213:
1174:
1132:
1093:
1049:
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816:
775:
731:
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648:
607:
561:
522:
466:
425:
379:
174:
115:
75:
1113:"Magnetron sputter deposition of A-15 and bcc crystal structure tungsten thin films"
588:"The preparation and characterization of beta-tungsten, a metastable tungsten phase"
1332:
1291:
1283:
1244:
1205:
1166:
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1085:
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273:
87:
67:
862:
374:
357:
1231:
Weerasekera, I. A.; Shah, S. Ismat; Baxter, David V.; Unruh, K. M. (1994-06-13).
445:"Solute stabilization of nanocrystalline tungsten against abnormal grain growth"
493:"Spin transfer torque devices utilizing the giant spin Hall effect of tungsten"
421:
643:
626:
541:
401:
1352:
1305:
1256:
1217:
1178:
1136:
1097:
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735:
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611:
565:
557:
526:
470:
429:
383:
309:
39:
19:
975:
756:"Influences of oxygen on the formation and stability of A15 β-W thin films"
95:
71:
586:
Morcom, W. R.; Worrell, W. L.; Sell, H. G.; Kaplan, H. I. (January 1974).
711:
461:
444:
128:
1112:
727:
587:
1296:
1270:
Nagakubo, A.; Lee, H. T.; Ogi, H.; Moriyama, T.; Ono, T. (2020-01-13).
1233:"Structure and stability of sputter deposited beta-tungsten thin films"
1128:
1073:
990:
943:
672:
603:
492:
313:
59:
1337:
1320:
1287:
1232:
1193:
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959:
901:
811:
794:
688:
518:
1248:
1209:
1045:
917:
108:
99:
66:
of up to 650 °C. It has been found that β-W possesses the giant
47:
24:
1030:"Identification of a Beta-Tungsten Phase in Tungsten–Rhenium Alloys"
540:
Hartmann, Hellmuth; Ebert, Fritz; Bretschneider, Otto (1931-05-28).
297:
43:
900:
Desai, P. D.; Chu, T. K.; James, H. M.; Ho, C. Y. (October 1984).
863:"Resistivity behavior and phase transformations in β-W thin films"
509:
91:
86:β-W was first observed by Hartmann et al. in 1931 as part of the
249:
cuboctahedratungsten. On the second site, with
Wyckoff position
50:. While the commonly existing stable alpha-tungsten (α-W) has a
400:
Costa, M; Costa, A T; Hu, J; Wu, R Q; Muniz, R B (2018-07-03).
288:
Two key properties of β-W have been well-established: the high
114:
While the initial interest in β-W thin films was driven by its
1111:
O’Keefe, M. J.; Grant, J. T.; Solomon, J. S. (August 1995).
70:, wherein the applied charge current generates a transverse
1071:
442:
1230:
539:
670:
585:
58:) structure, β-W adopts the topologically close-packed
1269:
1191:
255:
228:
205:
182:
136:
1319:
Zhu, Fei; Xie, Zheng; Zhang, Zhengjun (2018-03-01).
222:, respectively. On the first site, Wyckoff position
1110:
989:Hao, Qiang; Chen, Wenzhe; Xiao, Gang (2015-05-04).
941:
546:Zeitschrift fĂĽr anorganische und allgemeine Chemie
264:
237:
214:
191:
160:
1350:
795:"Superconductivity in Evaporated Tungsten Films"
792:
1028:FEDERER, J. I.; STEELE, R. M. (February 1965).
906:Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data
899:
356:Liu, Jiaxing; Barmak, Katayun (February 2016).
712:""β-Tungsten" as a Product of Oxide Reduction"
709:
399:
74:, and this leads to potential applications in
1027:
902:"Electrical Resistivity of Selected Elements"
624:
490:
406:-tungsten: a promising metal for spintronics"
1159:Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A
1153:Barmak, Katayun; Liu, Jiaxing (2017-11-01).
793:Basavaiah, S.; Pollack, S. R. (1968-04-15).
1318:
988:
860:
710:Mannella, G.; Hougen, J. O. (August 1956).
1336:
1295:
1152:
810:
642:
508:
460:
373:
355:
861:Petroff, P.M.; Reed, W.A. (March 1974).
107:state, and thus the structure is a true
18:
753:
1351:
625:Hägg, G.; Schönberg, N. (1954-04-01).
1148:
1146:
1067:
1065:
1063:
937:
935:
832:
830:
749:
747:
745:
300:while α-W is a thin film conductor.
760:Materials Science and Engineering: A
666:
664:
662:
581:
579:
577:
575:
486:
484:
482:
480:
410:Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter
395:
393:
351:
349:
347:
345:
127:β-W has a cubic A15 structure with
13:
1143:
1060:
932:
827:
742:
627:"'β-Tungsten' as a tungsten oxide"
316:by means of the spin Hall effect.
14:
1375:
838:"mp-11334: W (Cubic, Pm-3n, 223)"
716:The Journal of Physical Chemistry
659:
572:
477:
390:
342:
312:of adjacent magnetic layers into
292:and the giant spin Hall effect.
754:Shen, Y.G; Mai, Y.W (May 2000).
1312:
1263:
1224:
1185:
1117:Journal of Electronic Materials
1104:
1021:
982:
948:The Journal of Chemical Physics
893:
854:
786:
90:metallic deposit formed on the
703:
618:
533:
436:
319:
149:
78:random access memory devices.
1:
772:10.1016/s0921-5093(00)00745-0
449:Journal of Materials Research
375:10.1016/j.actamat.2015.11.049
335:
283:
276:of β-W is 5.036 Å, while the
161:{\displaystyle Pm{\bar {3}}n}
879:10.1016/0040-6090(74)90092-3
280:calculated value is 5.09 Ă….
122:
46:widely observed in tungsten
16:Metastable phase of tungsten
7:
10:
1380:
1198:Journal of Applied Physics
1078:Journal of Applied Physics
677:Journal of Applied Physics
592:Metallurgical Transactions
81:
644:10.1107/s0365110x54000989
330:physical vapor deposition
558:10.1002/zaac.19311980111
422:10.1088/1361-648x/aacc08
1276:Applied Physics Letters
1237:Applied Physics Letters
995:Applied Physics Letters
799:Applied Physics Letters
497:Applied Physics Letters
168:, which belongs to the
631:Acta Crystallographica
306:spin–orbit interaction
290:electrical resistivity
266:
239:
216:
193:
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28:
267:
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217:
194:
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22:
462:10.1557/jmr.2017.296
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728:10.1021/j150542a035
170:Frank–Kasper phases
52:body-centered cubic
1129:10.1007/bf02652968
604:10.1007/bf02642939
328:, an atom-by-atom
326:sputter deposition
265:{\displaystyle 6c}
262:
238:{\displaystyle 2a}
235:
215:{\displaystyle 6c}
212:
192:{\displaystyle 2a}
189:
158:
29:
1338:10.1063/1.5021009
1288:10.1063/1.5131768
1243:(24): 3231–3233.
1171:10.1116/1.5003628
1090:10.1063/5.0087436
1040:(4971): 587–588.
1007:10.1063/1.4919867
960:10.1063/1.4995261
842:Materials Project
812:10.1063/1.1651982
689:10.1063/1.1662611
519:10.1063/1.4753947
274:lattice parameter
175:Wyckoff positions
152:
64:thermal annealing
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918:10.1063/1.555723
912:(4): 1069–1096.
897:
891:
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867:Thin Solid Films
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852:
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825:
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790:
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783:
766:(1–2): 176–183.
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683:(6): 2545–2554.
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76:magnetoresistive
68:spin Hall effect
40:metastable phase
27:of beta-tungsten
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1204:(2): 988–995.
1184:
1142:
1123:(8): 961–967.
1103:
1084:(12): 125301.
1059:
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1001:(18): 182403.
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954:(15): 152709.
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805:(8): 259–260.
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637:(4): 351–352.
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598:(1): 155–161.
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32:Beta-tungsten
26:
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1325:AIP Advances
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873:(1): 73–81.
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845:. Retrieved
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126:
113:
96:electrolysis
85:
72:spin current
35:
31:
30:
1297:11094/83934
368:: 223–227.
320:Preparation
129:space group
1364:Allotropes
1353:Categories
847:2022-12-13
336:References
314:precession
284:Properties
48:thin films
1306:0003-6951
1257:0003-6951
1218:0021-8979
1179:0734-2101
1137:0361-5235
1098:0021-8979
1054:0028-0836
1015:0003-6951
968:0021-9606
926:0047-2689
887:0040-6090
821:0003-6951
780:0921-5093
736:0022-3654
697:0021-8979
653:0365-110X
612:0026-086X
566:0863-1786
527:0003-6951
510:1208.1711
471:0884-2914
430:0953-8984
384:1359-6454
150:¯
123:Structure
109:allotrope
100:phosphate
88:dendritic
25:unit cell
1359:Tungsten
976:29055319
298:resistor
44:tungsten
105:valence
92:cathode
82:History
38:) is a
1304:
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1096:
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1034:Nature
1013:
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94:after
505:arXiv
1302:ISSN
1253:ISSN
1214:ISSN
1175:ISSN
1133:ISSN
1094:ISSN
1050:ISSN
1011:ISSN
972:PMID
964:ISSN
922:ISSN
883:ISSN
817:ISSN
776:ISSN
732:ISSN
693:ISSN
649:ISSN
608:ISSN
562:ISSN
523:ISSN
467:ISSN
426:ISSN
380:ISSN
199:and
23:The
1333:doi
1292:hdl
1284:doi
1280:116
1245:doi
1206:doi
1167:doi
1125:doi
1086:doi
1082:131
1042:doi
1038:205
1003:doi
999:106
956:doi
952:147
914:doi
875:doi
807:doi
768:doi
764:284
724:doi
685:doi
639:doi
600:doi
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