2919:
1181:
2641:
2819:
2966:
851:
1553:
75:
2031:
2104:
992:
3160:
3799:
3502:
264:
3813:
1888:
7641:
7504:
277:
637:
7651:
7528:
1200:
3393:
2158:, which is based on the formation of new chemical bonds. Lewis theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to form a new bond. There are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept.
2734:
1056:
2529:
1338:
1195:
764:
7540:
1186:
1172:
7661:
7516:
1921:
3348:
561:
1167:
5763:"What makes these family likenesses among the elements? In the 1860s everyone was scratching their heads about that, and several scientists moved towards rather similar answers. The man who solved the problem most triumphantly was a young Russian called Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, who visited the salt mine at Wieliczka in 1859."
1107:) are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identifiable molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various
925:
1470:
2226:
A reductant transfers electrons to another substance and is thus oxidized itself. And because it "donates" electrons it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number—the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better
1852:
invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic
426:
Chemistry has existed under various names since ancient times. It has evolved, and now chemistry encompasses various areas of specialisation, or subdisciplines, that continue to increase in number and interrelate to create further interdisciplinary fields of study. The applications of various fields
2505:
considered the word "chemistry" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. This definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances – a
2249:
is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible, as for example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more than one kind
2768:
in 1556. His work, describing highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores and metal extraction, were the pinnacle of metallurgy during that time. His approach removed all mysticism associated with the subject, creating the practical base upon which others could and would build. The
1536:
An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the electrostatic
2440:, which operated a non-scientific approach to understanding the constituents of matter and their interactions. Despite being unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry by performing experiments and recording the results.
1351:
In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications, chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with
3084:
The year 2011 was declared by the United
Nations as the International Year of Chemistry. It was an initiative of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and involves chemical societies, academics, and
1027:
that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances (see below). Molecules are
2021:
is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events').
806:
which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons. The nucleus is dense; the mass of a nucleon is approximately 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus.
1564:), the carbon atom shares a pair of valence electrons with each of the four hydrogen atoms. Thus, the octet rule is satisfied for C-atom (it has eight electrons in its valence shell) and the duet rule is satisfied for the H-atoms (they have two electrons in their valence shells).
888:
is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number; atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as
1154:. While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra-atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature.
1114:
However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules. These other types of substances, such as
3284:
is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of solid state components or devices with a useful current or future function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry like
2993:
At the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical underpinnings of chemistry were finally understood due to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in probing and discovering the very nature of the internal structure of atoms. In 1897,
1493:
balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them. More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom.
2800:
began to reshape the old alchemical traditions into a scientific discipline. Boyle in particular questioned some commonly held chemical theories and argued for chemical practitioners to be more "philosophical" and less commercially focused in
3221:
is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds, such as metals and minerals. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of
661:, which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a
656:
is a transformation of some substances into one or more different substances. The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through a
1805:
of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to chemical reactions.
3416:
is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include
2408:
spans a period from the ancient past to the present. Since several millennia BC, civilizations were using technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include extracting
2361:, whenever non-material "energy" (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with it. High energy losses result in loss of weighable amounts of mass, an important topic in
2493:
described "chymistry" as a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection.
1048:. Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry. Some molecules contain one or more unpaired electrons, creating
1979:. While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons.
1955:
of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more molecules or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds.
5300:, Leiden: Brill, 1991, pp. 57–103. It has been argued by Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan that the pseudo-Geber works were actually translated into Latin from the Arabic (see Al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. "The Arabic Origin of the
1043:
or a polyatomic ion. However, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a
3898:
Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene Jr.; Bursten, Bruce E.; Murphey, Catherine J.; Woodward, Patrick M.; Stoltzfus, Matthew W.; Lufaso, Michael W. (2018). "Introduction: Matter, energy, and measurement".
3271:
creates isotactic polypropylene, which is hard and used in re-usable plastic containers.
2052:
is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or
1580:
electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the
1450:
materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in
2614:(On The Nature of Things). Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments.
2918:
2769:
work describes the many kinds of furnace used to smelt ore, and stimulated interest in minerals and their composition. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy" and the founder of
1944:; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often
949:
is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements. The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by the
5597:"On some new Phenomena of Chemical Changes produced by Electricity, particularly the Decomposition of the fixed Alkalies, and the Exhibition of the new Substances, which constitute their Bases"
2219:, oxidants or oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as
1729:– that is the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the
2169:
scale. Thus, solutions that have a low pH have a high hydronium ion concentration and can be said to be more acidic. The other measurement, based on the Brønsted–Lowry definition, is the
1752:, which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in
3157:. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.
5087:
2215:
changed by either gaining electrons (reduction) or losing electrons (oxidation). Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as
3319:; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system.
2633:(approx. 4th century BC): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed." and
4570:
3229:
2444:, although skeptical of elements and convinced of alchemy, played a key part in elevating the "sacred art" as an independent, fundamental and philosophical discipline in his work
1813:
of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H
5742:
4231:
2710:(such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means. Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") were later translated into Latin under the
2485:
The definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term "chymistry", in the view of noted scientist
1788:
5272:
2829:
In the following decades, many important discoveries were made, such as the nature of 'air' which was discovered to be composed of many different gases. The
Scottish chemist
2873:, the chemical analogue of Newton in physics. Lavoisier did more than any other to establish the new science on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle of
6082:
3778:
1727:
2891:
The development of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as the result of the work of two scientists in particular,
969:
system. When a compound has more than one component, then they are divided into two classes, the electropositive and the electronegative components. In addition the
2760:
Improvements of the refining of ores and their extractions to smelt metals was widely used source of information for early chemists in the 16th century, among them
5672:
5685:
3827:
3386:. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. Organic compounds can be classified, organized and understood in reactions by their
1936:
When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A
3030:
discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained the different types of radioactivity and successfully
1924:
During chemical reactions, bonds between atoms break and form, resulting in different substances with different properties. In a blast furnace, iron oxide, a
2663:
the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study of natural substances with the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into
3142:
Chemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.
1039:
Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions. When this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge, the result is sometimes named a
2371:, although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction.
2177:), which measures the relative ability of a substance to act as an acid under the Brønsted–Lowry definition of an acid. That is, substances with a higher K
5152:
4020:
5333:
An
Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina
1884:, etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects – like stars and distant galaxies – by analyzing their radiation spectra.
1485:, or common table salt. Ionic bonding involves one atom taking valence electrons from another (as opposed to sharing, which occurs in covalent bonding).
669:.) The type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as
2934:
first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen.
1381:, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions.
2501:, meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles. In 1837,
3753:
3267:with a free-flowing composition.
950:
5229:
Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque
4895:
2637:(3rd century BC), who, describing the nature of the Universe, wrote that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be".
2551:
2469:
that demanded careful measurement and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena. The history of chemistry afterwards is intertwined with the
1384:
Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary' in this case the matter is considered to be in a
2009:
gold book, a chemical reaction is "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species." Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an
6599:
6171:
4092:
633:. However glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it.
6571:
5505:
5312:
5091:
1642:. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an
4545:
4255:
6700:
6359:
1982:
The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its
308:
6705:
3852:
1654:
of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or
618:
and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of the
6378:
4223:
5738:
1940:
is therefore a concept related to the "reaction" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a
2141:
7578:
2417:, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into
3366:. By firing sub-critical uranium into another mass of sub-critical uranium within the bomb, a self-sustaining nuclear reaction (the
1513:. Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in
5269:
1844:
emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the
1545:(Cl), a non-metal, gains this electron to become Cl. The ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound
973:
has devised a method to index chemical substances. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as its
4324:
3958:
1489:
Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be visualized as the
1032:, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in
6683:
2038:(KCl), a salt which is formed due to the attraction of K cations and Cl anions. The overall charge of the ionic compound is zero.
4589:
4294:
2461:
employed in their work. Chemistry, as a body of knowledge distinct from alchemy, became an established science with the work of
6727:
5648:
4567:
3857:
1990:
with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the
247:
4954:
3988:
6443:
6339:
6323:
6260:
6237:
6214:
6142:
6041:
5906:
5831:
5780:
5579:
5236:
5128:
5071:
5046:
5016:
4877:
4852:
4801:
4768:
4359:
4123:
2698:
introduced a systematic classification of chemical substances, and provided instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (
872:
A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of
683:
considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of their
5681:
5618:
4985:
2453:
While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, the crucial difference was given by the
1797:
There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the rules of
1688:
of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the
Boltzmann's population factor
6739:
6678:
2718:, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name. Later influential Muslim philosophers, such as
1986:. A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many
2888:; that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights.
2719:
2554:
amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but did not develop a systematic theory.
1411:(alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principal difference between solid phases is the
1356:
is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as
6592:
3924:
3867:
3758:
3738:
1593:
need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow the
5669:
4737:
4430:
2275:
Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which have become fundamental concepts in chemistry. Some of them are:
2261:. Thus the concept describes the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time.
4929:
3908:
3763:
3716:
5304:
and Geber Latin Works: A Refutation of
Berthelot, Ruska, and Newman Based on Arabic Sources", in: Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan.
1998:
specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like the
7664:
6559:
6545:
6531:
6517:
6503:
6482:
6461:
6416:
6402:
6353:
6309:
6295:
5473:
5164:
4211:
4194:
4071:
4050:
2161:
Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods. One measurement, based on the
Arrhenius definition of acidity, is
2151:
to another substance in a chemical reaction; by extension, a base is the substance which receives that hydrogen ion.
17:
4651:
4630:
4608:
4278:
2057:. When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or
301:
1853:
radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.
7544:
3837:
3137:
1135:
as the smallest repeating structure within the substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts (such as
5872:
2926:
predicted the existence of 7 new elements, and placed all 60 elements known at the time in their correct places.
2253:
A system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even though having an unchanging composition, is most often not
7423:
6585:
5947:
4463:
4010:
2649:
6057:
3509:
featured foundational scientists to the field of theoretical chemistry and physics. This conference discussed
7571:
6866:
6620:
5847:
1830:
1809:
The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the
1180:
5922:
5679:: "...it is surely true that had Mendeleev never lived modern chemists would be using a Periodic Table" and
1680:
Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the
5796:
5527:
Eagle, Cassandra T.; Jennifer Sloan (1998). "Marie Anne Paulze
Lavoisier: The Mother of Modern Chemistry".
5389:
5260:
Darmstaedter, Ernst. "Liber
Misericordiae Geber: Eine lateinische Übersetzung des gröβeren Kitâb l-raḥma",
4831:
Dumas, J.B. (1837). 'Affinite' (lecture notes), vii, p 4. "Statique chimique", Paris: Académie des
Sciences
3773:
3743:
3491:
for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental)
2822:
1431:
737:. The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well – not all particles have rest mass, such as the
4892:
2640:
7621:
7143:
6630:
3832:
3783:
2374:
2368:
2358:
2346:
2313:
2302:
1999:
294:
100:
90:
5064:
The
Hellenistic Philosophers. Vol 1: Translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary
395:
scientific disciplines at a fundamental level. For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant growth (
7598:
7520:
7069:
7040:
7020:
6973:
6159:
5038:
3768:
3571:
3085:
institutions worldwide and relied on individual initiatives to organize local and regional activities.
2170:
1965:
970:
242:
39:
32:
2165:, which is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative
1902:
is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a
1763:
1733:. The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of heat, light,
7644:
7611:
6658:
6167:
5716:
4084:
4015:
3733:
3555:
3171:
is a machine used to measure the effect light has on matter. The model pictured is the Beckman DU-640
2582:
2578:
2470:
1749:
6108:
5501:
1415:, or arrangement, of the atoms. Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the
7626:
7564:
7413:
7329:
6968:
5571:
3748:
3587:
3559:
3492:
3223:
3027:
2818:
2626:
2570:
2018:
1961:
1952:
1848:
responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than
579:
237:
6036:(1st ed.). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands Springer e-books Imprint: Springer. pp. 1–4.
5973:
5309:
4541:
4252:
2869:
in the early 18th century and was only overturned by the end of the century by the French chemist
2514:
broadened the definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
2095:
is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature.
7351:
7262:
7225:
7109:
7035:
6856:
6839:
6782:
6287:
6229:
6206:
5712:
4206:
Weekley, Ernest (1967). Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: Dover Publications.
3872:
3634:
3484:
3418:
2999:
2834:
2574:
2511:
1881:
1753:
909:
486:. Alchemy is often associated with the quest to turn lead or other base metals into gold, though
6363:
2892:
7269:
7257:
7148:
7013:
6787:
6653:
5484:
5198:
3547:
2727:
2684:
2328:
2115:
2074:
1987:
1969:
1873:
1802:
1691:
1052:. Most radicals are comparatively reactive, but some, such as nitric oxide (NO) can be stable.
966:
859:
440:
156:
5147:
4921:
1572:
are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a
1407:. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid
1375:
tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the
7616:
7418:
7315:
7300:
7230:
7153:
6985:
6935:
6844:
6769:
6668:
5772:
5766:
5202:
3686:
3618:
3460:
3430:
3326:
3306:
3031:
2811:, rejected the classical "four elements" and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and
2803:
2777:
2711:
2645:
2446:
2398:
2155:
1869:
1254:
568:
113:
5563:
4913:
2489:
in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies. In 1663, the chemist
1829:
S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker
7408:
7363:
7138:
6958:
6888:
6645:
6625:
5224:
4689:
3862:
3720:
3622:
3539:
3150:
3146:
2874:
2854:
2676:
2618:
2466:
2405:
2392:
2332:
2285:
2246:
2240:
1945:
1941:
1810:
1791:
1674:
1643:
1630:
In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its
1435:
1341:
Diagram showing relationships among the phases and the terms used to describe phase changes
1322:
1246:
958:
905:
819:
688:
630:
583:
189:
166:
109:
95:
2965:
893:. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element
8:
7431:
7385:
7310:
7283:
7181:
7163:
7116:
7054:
6950:
6930:
6799:
6794:
6695:
6372:
5564:
5264:, 17/4, 1925, pp. 181–197; Berthelot, Marcellin. "Archéologie et Histoire des sciences",
5120:
5114:
3662:
3602:
3591:
3551:
3405:
3338:
3290:
3281:
3218:
3192:
2947:
2502:
2258:
2128:. There are several different theories which explain acid–base behavior. The simplest is
2010:
1670:
1666:
1647:
1635:
1609:
1522:
1510:
1385:
1318:
1276:
1250:
1151:
1049:
974:
827:
811:
384:
356:: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during
204:
6133:
Brown, William Henry; Iverson, Brent L.; Anslyn, Eric V.; Foote, Christopher S. (2018).
5184:(3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888, p. 161); F. Sherwood Taylor, "The Origins of Greek Alchemy",
4693:
3093:
7685:
7508:
7474:
7336:
7305:
7186:
7128:
6826:
6809:
6804:
6759:
6722:
6712:
6673:
5544:
5354:
5175:
4842:
4715:
4453:
4320:
4140:
3950:
3413:
3301:. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids,
3154:
2977:
2622:
2490:
2354:
2257:; molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a
2254:
2035:
1983:
1857:
1730:
1665:
if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of
1662:
1639:
1608:
can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as
1236:
1060:
1024:
962:
742:
641:
595:
361:
281:
209:
462:
which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry,
7650:
7527:
7489:
7454:
7437:
7375:
7293:
7288:
7216:
7201:
7171:
7092:
7059:
7030:
7025:
7000:
6990:
6910:
6898:
6777:
6690:
6555:
6541:
6527:
6513:
6499:
6478:
6457:
6439:
6412:
6398:
6349:
6335:
6319:
6305:
6291:
6256:
6252:
6233:
6224:
Burrows, Andrew; Holman, John; Parsons, Andrew; Pilling, Gwen; Price, Gareth (2009).
6210:
6138:
6037:
5989:
5902:
5827:
5776:
5575:
5469:
5412:
5404:
5242:
5232:
5213:
5179:
5160:
5124:
5067:
5042:
5012:
4925:
4914:
4873:
4848:
4797:
4764:
4707:
4586:
4459:
4355:
4298:
4207:
4190:
4168:
4160:
4119:
4067:
4046:
3904:
3847:
3712:
3706:
3666:
3654:
3630:
3575:
3506:
3496:
3476:
3472:
3450:
3442:
3422:
3390:, unit atoms or molecules that show characteristic chemical properties in a compound.
3379:
3375:
3330:
3322:
3286:
3233:
3200:
3184:
3180:
3168:
3089:
3070:
3058:
3023:
2870:
2866:
2812:
2781:
2737:
2714:
name "Geber", and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as
2703:
2660:
2653:
2498:
2462:
2454:
2362:
2340:
2280:
2208:
2181:
are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions than those with lower K
2014:
1991:
1976:
1925:
1915:
1903:
1798:
1757:
1681:
1613:
1605:
1412:
1314:
1144:
1045:
940:
850:
815:
692:
666:
658:
653:
615:
514:
428:
369:
357:
341:
199:
146:
5640:
5548:
7532:
7449:
7104:
6963:
6940:
6893:
6834:
6423:
5981:
5608:
5536:
5371:
5346:
4946:
4719:
4697:
4152:
3980:
3842:
3804:
3658:
3650:
3626:
3523:
3488:
3454:
3426:
3397:
3387:
3383:
3334:
3204:
3109:
3101:
3078:
3045:
His work on atomic structure was improved on by his students, the Danish physicist
2943:
2923:
2904:
2850:
2707:
2695:
2558:
2296:
2228:
2216:
2125:
2107:
2092:
2062:
1929:
1822:
1658:; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants.
1631:
1569:
1530:
1420:
1392:
and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions.
1377:
1372:
954:
867:
768:
662:
611:
447:
337:
333:
329:
268:
231:
5440:
5062:
Long, A. A.; D. N. Sedley (1987). "Epicureanism: The principals of conservation".
4490:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 37.
2667:
and discovering the elixir of eternal life. Work, particularly the development of
403:), how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded (
7587:
7390:
7346:
7341:
7235:
7211:
7045:
7008:
6861:
6851:
6734:
5676:
5596:
5316:
5276:
5156:
4899:
4634:
4612:
4593:
4574:
4485:
4282:
4259:
3877:
3694:
3690:
3646:
3642:
3363:
3294:
3264:
3245:
3100:. Other crucial 19th century advances were; an understanding of valence bonding (
3062:
2935:
2842:
2765:
2741:
2610:
2379:
2350:
2220:
2212:
2066:
2017:. An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the
1612:, valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the
1546:
1482:
1310:
1232:
1123:, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules
1116:
913:
823:
392:
375:
In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between
3463:
is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within
2962:
at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table.
2585:
were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination.
1597:, and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas
7654:
7274:
7252:
7247:
7242:
7197:
7193:
7176:
7133:
7064:
6925:
6920:
6905:
6717:
6635:
5306:
Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry
4452:
Connelly, Neil G.; Damhus, Ture; Hartshom, Richard M.; Hutton, Alan T. (2005).
3818:
3682:
3670:
3614:
3610:
3579:
3567:
3563:
3535:
3527:
3438:
3356:
3316:
3312:
3196:
3039:
2986:
2973:
2955:
2939:
2838:
2808:
2761:
2586:
2336:
2318:
2290:
2129:
2070:
1899:
1861:
1818:
1655:
1443:
1427:
1346:
1150:
One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its
1120:
1108:
928:
901:
855:
783:
779:
726:
700:
408:
388:
136:
3928:
3325:
is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern
2985:
Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected, indicating
2687:, and from there, and from the Byzantine remnants, diffused into medieval and
2675:
period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian
2030:
1552:
7679:
7479:
7368:
7324:
7049:
6883:
6878:
6871:
6749:
6431:
6427:
5993:
5408:
5298:
The Summa perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber: A critical ed., translation and study
5246:
5217:
4733:
4711:
4426:
4164:
3606:
3583:
3543:
3367:
3342:
3252:
3208:
3167:
studies interactions between electromagnetic radiation (light) and matter. A
3074:
3066:
3050:
3019:
2959:
2938:
devised an early table of elements, which was then developed into the modern
2931:
2908:
2885:
2562:
2544:
2507:
2474:
2323:
2137:
2133:
1836:
The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the
1506:
1498:
1464:
1439:
1040:
1029:
877:
619:
535:
524:
365:
141:
74:
3453:
and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from
3128:
applies that knowledge to develop technology and solve real-world problems.
904:, which orders elements by atomic number. The periodic table is arranged in
540:, which is the ancient name of Egypt in the Egyptian language. Alternately,
7356:
7206:
7121:
7097:
7087:
7079:
6980:
6915:
6814:
6663:
6198:
5613:
5416:
5330:
5143:
4172:
3678:
3638:
3480:
3434:
3176:
3164:
3011:
2995:
2900:
2896:
2830:
2793:
2789:
2715:
2699:
2668:
2601:
2486:
2441:
2307:
2270:
1865:
1389:
1253:. A collection of substances is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are
1128:
924:
696:
670:
412:
194:
171:
5540:
4395:
3276:
creates syndiotactic polypropylene, which is rubbery and semi-crystalline.
3159:
2103:
1469:
6754:
6334:(Penguin Books) translated from the Italian by Raymond Rosenthal (1984)
4647:
4509:
4407:
4368:
4351:
3501:
3464:
3360:
3105:
3015:
2881:
2865:(a substance at the root of all combustion) was propounded by the German
2688:
2547:
2002:
often come in handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction.
1734:
1361:
1270:
885:
810:
The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the
645:
452:
6577:
4627:
4605:
4275:
3378:
is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and
3370:). It generated an explosive force of over 15,000 tons of equivalent TNT
1388:
state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a
7380:
6328:
5358:
3483:, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of
3352:
3046:
2877:
and developing a new system of chemical nomenclature used to this day.
2862:
2797:
2680:
2630:
2593:
2532:
1887:
1742:
1582:
1502:
1207:
Examples of pure chemical substances. From left to right: the elements
1136:
991:
778:
is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a dense core called the
623:
564:
487:
467:
463:
3812:
3149:
is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their
1279:(also called chemical amount). One mole is defined to contain exactly
636:
7442:
6744:
6316:
The Disappearing Spoon – and Other True Tales from the Periodic Table
5985:
4794:
Affinity, That Elusive Dream – A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution
4624:
4272:
3531:
3256:
3237:
3054:
3007:
2951:
2672:
2605:
2566:
2166:
2082:
2078:
1577:
1490:
1326:
1220:
1199:
1132:
1080:
1033:
684:
622:
which hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry
479:
475:
471:
6393:
Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M. and Armstrong, F.
5566:
Affinity, that Elusive Dream: A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution
5350:
5090:. G.I.T. Laboratory Journal Europe. 25 February 2011. Archived from
4702:
4677:
4062:
Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene Lemay, Bruce Edward Bursten, H. Lemay.
2733:
1817:
O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by
490:
were also interested in many of the questions of modern chemistry.
7464:
4156:
3674:
3510:
3446:
3401:
3392:
3302:
3298:
3212:
3188:
3035:
3003:
2846:
2723:
2634:
2597:
2536:
2145:
1995:
1586:
1573:
1542:
1514:
1478:
1357:
1306:
1298:
996:
986:
839:
803:
799:
791:
734:
707:. Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several
704:
591:
483:
420:
349:
49:
7556:
5308:. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 2009, pp. 53–104; also available
2528:
1673:
if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of
1576:. Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a
1055:
7484:
5112:
4141:"What Have We Learned from the Recent Historiography of Alchemy?"
3468:
3241:
2770:
2726:
disputed the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the
2679:. Alchemy continued to be developed and practised throughout the
2589:
2523:
2458:
2437:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1590:
1557:
1518:
1452:
1368:
1228:
1216:
1096:
1064:
890:
795:
787:
746:
708:
680:
603:
572:
457:
404:
400:
380:
376:
227:
6524:
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry
6371:
6007:
5897:
Skoog, Douglas A.; Holler, F. James; Crouch, Stanley R. (2018).
5032:
4977:
4486:
Hill, J.W.; Petrucci, R.H.; McCreary, T.W.; Perry, S.S. (2005).
4385:
4383:
3228:
3187:
and interactions that take place at a molecular level in living
1790:; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at
1616:
theory, are generally used. See diagram on electronic orbitals.
1337:
1185:
1171:
5974:"Highly active metallocene catalysts for olefin polymerization"
5800:
3514:
3333:
is an important result and tool for this field. In addition to
3248:
3124:
is the study of the fundamental principles of chemistry, while
2858:
2785:
2592:
dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as
2430:
2136:
when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces
2061:. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral
2054:
1651:
1625:
1598:
1541:(Na), a metal, loses one electron to become an Na cation while
1538:
1474:
1447:
1400:
1224:
1212:
1140:
1084:
894:
873:
763:
738:
730:
720:
676:
629:
The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of
607:
498:
396:
325:
131:
5708:
4455:
Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry IUPAC Recommendations 2005
1920:
1194:
427:
of chemistry are used frequently for economic purposes in the
4380:
3347:
3104:
in 1852) and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry (
2912:
2426:
2422:
2410:
2194:
2058:
2006:
1957:
1738:
1526:
1396:
1258:
1104:
1100:
1092:
900:
The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the
831:
599:
547:
527:
161:
5466:
Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks
5088:"International Year of Chemistry – The History of Chemistry"
4458:. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing / IUPAC.
4451:
3244:
metal centers. Depending on the placement of the catalyst's
1856:
The existence of characteristic energy levels for different
1533:
can be used to explain molecular structure and composition.
711:
are essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:
560:
7459:
6422:
6223:
5266:
Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de l'Institut de France
4521:
4515:
4413:
4401:
4374:
3779:
World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists
3097:
2664:
2418:
2121:
1975:
A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a
1892:
1408:
1294:
1166:
1088:
775:
758:
587:
345:
6137:(8th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. p. 19.
5901:(7th ed.). Australia: Cengage Learning. p. 120.
5197:
4043:
Chemical Sciences in the 20th Century: Bridging Boundaries
324:
is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of
7469:
5388:
Marshall, James L.; Marshall, Virginia R. (Autumn 2005).
5292:
Newman, William R. "New Light on the Identity of Geber",
5066:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–26.
4189:, J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989,
3715:
represents an important economic activity worldwide. The
2414:
2148:
2043:
1877:
1756:. A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the
1404:
1302:
1245:
A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite
1208:
897:, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13.
835:
610:. Matter can be studied in solid, liquid, gas and plasma
416:
353:
151:
5203:"Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D."
3897:
2946:
and independently by several other scientists including
2497:
The 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by
1864:. Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical
1139:), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar
387:
because it provides a foundation for understanding both
38:"Chemical science" redirects here. For the journal, see
6572:
General Chemistry principles, patterns and applications
6132:
4734:"Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry"
4348:
General, Organic, and Biochemistry: An Applied Approach
3828:
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling
2162:
1928:, reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron, one of the
1669:
the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be
912:, or rows. The periodic table is useful in identifying
703:. Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as
5641:"A Brief History of the Development of Periodic Table"
5468:. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 10.
5460:
5458:
3297:
with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to
2132:, which states that acid is a substance that produces
1860:
is useful for their identification by the analysis of
1321:
is the amount of a particular substance per volume of
1127:. Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of
640:
Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including
533:
3449:
in deriving equations. It is usually associated with
3191:. Biochemistry is highly interdisciplinary, covering
1766:
1694:
1473:
An animation of the process of ionic bonding between
1419:
phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in
858:
of chemical elements. The colors represent different
725:
In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has
6382:. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 33–76.
5978:
Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions
5739:"Julius Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev"
5231:. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale.
5033:
Kirk, G. S.; J. E. Raven; Malcolm Schofield (1983).
4500:
4321:"General Chemistry Online – Companion Notes: Matter"
3903:(14th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 46–85.
3794:
2744:, was the first to drop the Arabic definite article
614:, in isolation or in combination. The interactions,
541:
518:
502:
6247:Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2008) .
5700:
5526:
5455:
5443:. University of California - Museum of Paleontology
5268:, 49, 1906, pp. 308–363; see also Forster, Regula.
4295:"California Occupational Guide Number 22: Chemists"
3329:is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the
3022:. In a series of pioneering scattering experiments
2231:, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number.
1677:, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings.
1525:, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model (
6468:Advanced undergraduate-level or graduate textbooks
6160:"C&EN's Global Top 50 Chemical Firms For 2014"
5329:Marmura, Michael E.; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1965).
3236:is an organometallic complex that features either
2907:. Davy discovered nine new elements including the
1951:Chemical reactions can result in the formation or
1782:
1721:
1275:The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an
5896:
5113:Bryan H. Bunch & Alexander Hellemans (2004).
3754:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
3263:creates atactic polypropylene, which is soft and
3138:Outline of chemistry § Branches of chemistry
1994:and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many
951:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
582:. Traditional chemistry starts with the study of
7677:
6246:
5821:
5764:
5387:
5061:
4763:. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. (reprint).
4389:
4297:. Calmis.ca.gov. 29 October 1999. Archived from
1972:are some examples of common chemical reactions.
5601:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
4819:Philosophical Principles of Universal Chemistry
2825:is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry".
2110:exists in the gas phase as a diatomic molecule.
1537:force of attraction between them. For example,
1264:
786:. The nucleus is made up of positively charged
6197:
4867:
4527:
3487:, which is the art of developing and applying
2899:, made possible by the prior invention of the
2815:that could be subject to rigorous experiment.
2144:, acids are substances that donate a positive
1601:, which has two electrons in its outer shell.
1239:(baking soda), which are both ionic compounds.
1023:is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure
830:, and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g.,
7572:
6593:
3723:980.5 billion with a profit margin of 10.3%.
2557:A basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in
578:The current model of atomic structure is the
302:
6151:
5709:"WebElements: the periodic table on the web"
5561:
5011:. New York: Penguin Classics. pp. 7–8.
3441:. Physical chemistry has large overlap with
2841:, or what Black called 'fixed air' in 1754;
2436:Chemistry was preceded by its protoscience,
508:
5826:. Courier Dover Publications. p. 164.
5381:
5328:
4947:"de Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things)"
3853:List of important publications in chemistry
1906:or to transform other chemical substances.
1028:typically a set of atoms bound together by
407:), the properties of the soil on the Moon (
7579:
7565:
6600:
6586:
5296:, 1985, 69, pp. 76–90; Newman, William R.
5223:
4568:Mechanical force induces chemical reaction
4539:
3981:"Definition of chemistry | Dictionary.com"
3457:, but again, there is very strong overlap.
2764:(1494–1555), who published his major work
2535:' atomist philosophy was later adopted by
2120:A substance can often be classified as an
691:. They can be analyzed using the tools of
309:
295:
6607:
6552:Mathematical Methods for Science Students
6438:(1st ed.). Oxford University Press.
6397:(4th ed.) 2006 (Oxford University Press)
6109:"Little Boy and Fat Man - Nuclear Museum"
5612:
4953:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
4701:
4427:"IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry"
4345:
3917:
3726:
3445:. Physical chemistry involves the use of
3073:was developed by the American scientists
2310:(1809, relating pressure and temperature)
1779:
1568:In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of
1549:(NaCl), or common table salt, is formed.
1395:The most familiar examples of phases are
876:in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the
532:, which is in turn derived from the word
364:. Chemistry also addresses the nature of
5971:
5741:. Science History Institute. June 2016.
5206:Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
5201:; Azo, R.F.; Hidayat Husain, M. (1927).
5181:Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs
5006:
4675:
3891:
3500:
3391:
3346:
3259:.
3227:
3158:
2964:
2917:
2817:
2732:
2639:
2527:
2102:
2029:
1919:
1886:
1551:
1468:
1336:
1157:
1054:
990:
923:
849:
762:
635:
559:
6031:
5435:
5433:
5390:"Rediscovery of the Elements: Agricola"
4975:
4840:
4577:, NewScientist.com news service, Reilly
4542:"Chemical Bonding by Anthony Carpi, Ph"
4253:Matter: Atoms from Democritus to Dalton
2299:(1787, relating volume and temperature)
2098:
995:A ball-and-stick representation of the
14:
7678:
6538:Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction
6411:6th ed. Boston: James M. Smith, 1998.
6395:Shriver and Atkins Inorganic Chemistry
5159:. Courier Dover Publications. p. 284.
4911:
4783:
4740:from the original on 17 September 2018
4678:"In retrospect: The Sceptical Chymist"
4138:
3858:List of unsolved problems in chemistry
2140:when dissolved in water. According to
733:(it takes up space) and is made up of
7560:
6581:
6157:
5771:. Little, Brown and Company. p.
5119:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p.
5116:The History of Science and Technology
4944:
4816:
4758:
4671:
4669:
4654:from the original on 27 February 2009
4445:
4023:from the original on 29 November 2020
3057:, who went on to father the emerging
2608:expanded upon the theory in his poem
2065:, such as the Na and Cl ions forming
802:cloud consists of negatively charged
782:surrounded by a space occupied by an
451:comes from a modification during the
7660:
7515:
6388:Introductory undergraduate textbooks
6360:"Dictionary of the History of Ideas"
6158:Tullo, Alexander H. (28 July 2014).
5651:from the original on 9 February 2020
5594:
5502:"History – Robert Boyle (1627–1691)"
5489:History of Geology and Palaeontology
5430:
5149:Mathematics for the nonmathematician
4113:
3597:
3471:). In particular the application of
3006:and soon after the French scientist
2950:. The inert gases, later called the
2644:15th-century artistic impression of
2510:. More recently, in 1998, Professor
2293:(1662, relating pressure and volume)
935:), an example of a chemical compound
555:
7586:
7539:
6174:from the original on 26 August 2014
5972:Kaminsky, Walter (1 January 1998).
5899:Principles of instrumental analysis
5824:The Development of Modern Chemistry
5799:. Chemistry2011.org. Archived from
5719:from the original on 4 January 2014
5508:from the original on 9 January 2011
4791:
4179:
4116:The development of modern chemistry
4085:"Chemistry – Chemistry and society"
3868:Periodic systems of small molecules
3759:Royal Australian Chemical Institute
3739:American Society for Neurochemistry
3088:Organic chemistry was developed by
2784:and others, a group of chemists at
2756:, giving chemistry its modern name.
2691:Europe through Latin translations.
2353:, even in modern physics. However,
2331:leads to the important concepts of
509:
399:), the formation of igneous rocks (
24:
6271:
5745:from the original on 21 March 2018
5706:
5621:from the original on 18 April 2021
4982:The Internet History of Philosophy
4916:Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies
4902:, February 13, 1999, New Scientist
4666:
4234:from the original on 26 April 2012
3961:from the original on 7 August 2020
3764:Royal Netherlands Chemical Society
3341:which explores the topic of using
2849:and elucidated its properties and
1767:
1325:, and is commonly reported in mol/
767:A diagram of an atom based on the
25:
7697:
6565:
5262:Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin
4957:from the original on 29 June 2011
4548:from the original on 17 July 2011
4327:from the original on 24 June 2011
3991:from the original on 5 March 2016
3131:
2543:Early civilizations, such as the
2473:, especially through the work of
2034:The crystal lattice structure of
2025:
648:, illuminated in different colors
7659:
7649:
7640:
7639:
7538:
7526:
7514:
7503:
7502:
5688:from the original on 2 July 2014
4988:from the original on 28 May 2010
4505:. ASM International. p. 59.
4433:from the original on 8 June 2011
3927:. Chemweb.ucc.ie. Archived from
3811:
3797:
3717:global top 50 chemical producers
3404:(right) functional group and an
3337:, nuclear chemistry encompasses
3034:the first element by bombarding
2264:
1783:{\displaystyle \Delta G\leq 0\,}
1198:
1193:
1184:
1179:
1170:
1165:
276:
275:
262:
73:
6510:The Nature of the chemical bond
6251:(3rd ed.). Harlow, Essex:
6190:
6164:Chemical & Engineering News
6126:
6101:
6075:
6050:
6025:
6000:
5965:
5940:
5915:
5890:
5865:
5840:
5815:
5789:
5757:
5731:
5663:
5633:
5588:
5555:
5520:
5494:
5478:
5365:
5322:
5286:
5254:
5191:
5169:
5137:
5106:
5080:
5055:
5025:
5000:
4976:Simpson, David (29 June 2005).
4969:
4938:
4905:
4886:
4861:
4834:
4825:
4810:
4777:
4752:
4726:
4640:
4618:
4599:
4580:
4560:
4533:
4494:
4479:
4419:
4339:
4313:
4287:
4265:
4246:
4216:
4200:
4132:
4095:from the original on 6 May 2023
4066:. Prentice Hall; 8 ed. (1999).
3838:International Year of Chemistry
3018:investigated the phenomenon of
2694:The Arabic works attributed to
2397:For a chronological guide, see
2207:idation) reactions include all
2142:Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory
1352:certain chemical properties. A
6522:Pauling, L., and Wilson, E.B.
6498:(Oxford Science Publications)
6203:Elements of Physical Chemistry
5852:www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
5684:. Royal Society of Chemistry.
4503:Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys
4107:
4077:
4064:Chemistry: The Central Science
4056:
4035:
4003:
3973:
3943:
3901:Chemistry: The Central Science
3120:In the practice of chemistry,
2911:by extracting them from their
2565:as propounded definitively by
2234:
1585:. However, some elements like
880:and represented by the symbol
13:
1:
6867:Interface and colloid science
6621:Glossary of chemical formulae
6304:(Cambridge University Press)
5647:. Western Oregon University.
5281:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three
4951:The Internet Classics Archive
4187:The Oxford English Dictionary
3884:
3345:sources for generating energy
2617:An early form of the idea of
2517:
2506:characterization accepted by
2480:
2349:continues to be conserved in
2329:Law of conservation of energy
2019:interconversion of conformers
1426:Less familiar phases include
1367:Physical properties, such as
965:are created according to the
567:, Institute of Biochemistry,
6032:Fahlman, Bradley D. (2011).
5035:The Presocratic Philosophers
5007:Strodach, George K. (2012).
4784:Glaser, Christopher (1663).
4501:M.M. Avedesian; Hugh Baker.
4390:Housecroft & Sharpe 2008
3774:Society of Chemical Industry
3744:Chemical Institute of Canada
3522:Others subdivisions include
2987:a small, concentrated charge
2942:of elements in the 1860s by
2823:Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier
2773:as a scientific discipline.
2073:that do not split up during
1521:. In many simple compounds,
1265:Mole and amount of substance
1147:such as quartz and granite.
497:in turn is derived from the
434:
7:
7144:Bioorganometallic chemistry
6631:List of inorganic compounds
6512:(Cornell University Press)
6489:Molecular Quantum Mechanics
6201:; de Paula, Julio (2009) .
5037:(2nd ed.). Cambridge:
4847:. Dover Publications, Inc.
4230:. Encyclopædia Britannica.
4139:Newman, William R. (2011).
3833:Glossary of chemistry terms
3790:
3784:List of chemistry societies
3700:
3115:
3065:. The electronic theory of
2776:Under the influence of the
2375:Law of multiple proportions
2369:Law of definite composition
2347:Law of conservation of mass
2223:, reductants, or reducers.
1909:
1497:The chemical bond can be a
980:
957:are named according to the
919:
542:
519:
503:
419:evidence at a crime scene (
10:
7702:
7070:Dynamic covalent chemistry
7041:Enantioselective synthesis
7021:Physical organic chemistry
6974:Organolanthanide chemistry
6477:(Oxford University Press)
6348:(Oxford University Press)
6318:(Black Swan) London, 2010
6205:(5th ed.). New York:
5848:"Chemistry Subdisciplines"
5645:Chemistry 412 course notes
5464:Rafferty, John P. (2012).
5403:(3). Alpha Chi Sigma: 59.
5039:Cambridge University Press
4978:"Lucretius (c. 99–55 BCE)"
4606:Chemical Reaction Equation
4528:Atkins & de Paula 2009
3769:Royal Society of Chemistry
3704:
3572:physical organic chemistry
3135:
2623:Nothing comes from nothing
2521:
2396:
2390:
2386:
2268:
2238:
2227:defined as an increase in
2211:in which atoms have their
2192:
2171:acid dissociation constant
2113:
2041:
1913:
1831:dipole–dipole interactions
1623:
1462:
1458:
1344:
1268:
984:
971:Chemical Abstracts Service
938:
865:
845:
756:
718:
687:, phase, as well as their
548:
528:
438:
33:Chemistry (disambiguation)
29:
7635:
7607:
7594:
7498:
7401:
7162:
7078:
6999:
6949:
6825:
6768:
6659:Electroanalytical methods
6644:
6616:
6491:(Oxford University Press)
6168:American Chemical Society
6062:American Chemical Society
5952:American Chemical Society
5877:American Chemical Society
5822:Ihde, Aaron John (1984).
5765:Bronowski, Jacob (1973).
5675:24 September 2015 at the
4872:. New York: McGraw Hill.
4587:Changing States of Matter
4566:Reilly, Michael. (2007).
4346:Armstrong, James (2012).
4323:. Antoine.frostburg.edu.
4016:American Chemical Society
4011:"Chemistry Is Everywhere"
3951:"Definition of CHEMISTRY"
3734:American Chemical Society
3556:natural product chemistry
3507:Solvay Conference of 1927
3309:between different phases.
3163:In analytical chemistry,
2671:, continued in the early
2471:history of thermodynamics
2465:, who developed a law of
2154:A third common theory is
1722:{\displaystyle e^{-E/kT}}
1661:A reaction is said to be
1619:
1604:Similarly, theories from
1432:Bose–Einstein condensates
1313:per mole is known as the
1206:
1192:
1178:
1164:
714:
411:), how medications work (
383:. It is sometimes called
248:List of unsolved problems
27:Scientific field of study
7414:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
7330:Supramolecular chemistry
6969:Organometallic chemistry
5315:25 February 2021 at the
5155:5 September 2015 at the
5031:Fr. 12; see pp.291–2 of
4258:28 February 2007 at the
3749:Chemical Society of Peru
3588:supramolecular chemistry
3560:organometallic chemistry
3493:condensed matter physics
3408:(left) functional group.
3224:organometallic chemistry
3028:University of Manchester
2980:of the atom undisturbed.
2629:, which can be found in
2627:Ancient Greek philosophy
2314:Le Chatelier's principle
2303:Fick's laws of diffusion
2245:Although the concept of
2188:
1332:
814:of the element, such as
606:and other aggregates of
580:quantum mechanical model
340:that make up matter and
238:List of chemistry awards
48:Not to be confused with
7352:Combinatorial chemistry
7263:Food physical chemistry
7226:Environmental chemistry
7110:Bioorthogonal chemistry
7036:Retrosynthetic analysis
6857:Chemical thermodynamics
6840:Spectroelectrochemistry
6783:Computational chemistry
6379:Encyclopædia Britannica
6346:A Guide to the Elements
6288:Oxford University Press
6230:Oxford University Press
6207:Oxford University Press
6083:"21: Nuclear Chemistry"
5923:"Studying Biochemistry"
5713:University of Sheffield
5335:by Seyyed Hossein Nasr"
4868:Chang, Raymond (1998).
4841:Pauling, Linus (1947).
4611:12 October 2007 at the
4262:by Anthony Carpi, Ph.D.
4114:Ihde, Aaron J. (1984).
3873:Philosophy of chemistry
3635:environmental chemistry
3544:hydrogenation chemistry
3485:computational chemistry
3479:. Since the end of the
3475:to chemistry is called
3419:chemical thermodynamics
3396:4-Hydroxybutanal is an
3000:University of Cambridge
2922:In his periodic table,
2915:with electric current.
2835:Jan Baptist van Helmont
2728:transmutation of metals
2720:Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
2359:mass–energy equivalence
2069:, or NaCl. Examples of
2000:Woodward–Hoffmann rules
1754:chemical thermodynamics
752:
741:. Matter can be a pure
534:
7424:of element discoveries
7270:Agricultural chemistry
7258:Carbohydrate chemistry
7149:Bioinorganic chemistry
7014:Alkane stereochemistry
6959:Coordination chemistry
6788:Mathematical chemistry
6654:Instrumental chemistry
6113:ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/
5873:"Analytical Chemistry"
5614:10.1098/rstl.1808.0001
5595:Davy, Humphry (1808).
5485:Karl Alfred von Zittel
5376:The Making of Humanity
4898:8 January 2015 at the
4817:Stahl, George (1730).
4792:Kim, Mi Gyung (2003).
4759:Boyle, Robert (1661).
4573:14 August 2014 at the
3727:Professional societies
3548:mathematical chemistry
3517:
3447:infinitesimal calculus
3409:
3371:
3277:
3172:
3092:and others, following
3010:as well as the couple
2990:
2958:in collaboration with
2927:
2826:
2757:
2748:, exclusively writing
2656:
2540:
2156:Lewis acid–base theory
2111:
2039:
1988:reaction intermediates
1933:
1895:
1784:
1723:
1565:
1529:), and the concept of
1486:
1342:
1076:
1016:
967:inorganic nomenclature
961:system. The names for
936:
863:
771:
649:
575:
441:Etymology of chemistry
415:), and how to collect
7419:Timeline of chemistry
7316:Post-mortem chemistry
7301:Clandestine chemistry
7231:Atmospheric chemistry
7154:Biophysical chemistry
6986:Solid-state chemistry
6936:Equilibrium chemistry
6845:Photoelectrochemistry
6526:(Dover Publications)
6487:Atkins, P. W. et al.
5948:"Inorganic Chemistry"
5570:. MIT Press. p.
5562:Mi Gyung Kim (2003).
5541:10.1007/s00897980249a
5529:The Chemical Educator
5275:18 April 2021 at the
4920:. Routledge. p.
4912:Barnes, Ruth (2004).
4761:The Sceptical Chymist
4676:Principe, L. (2011).
4592:28 April 2007 at the
3719:in 2013 had sales of
3687:solid-state chemistry
3619:atmospheric chemistry
3504:
3461:Theoretical chemistry
3437:, and more recently,
3431:statistical mechanics
3395:
3350:
3231:
3162:
2968:
2921:
2821:
2804:The Sceptical Chemyst
2778:new empirical methods
2736:
2643:
2531:
2447:The Sceptical Chymist
2399:Timeline of chemistry
2106:
2033:
1932:, and carbon dioxide.
1923:
1891:Emission spectrum of
1890:
1811:intermolecular forces
1785:
1724:
1675:endothermic reactions
1555:
1472:
1436:fermionic condensates
1423:(that is, in water).
1340:
1158:Substance and mixture
1058:
994:
927:
854:Standard form of the
853:
766:
689:chemical compositions
639:
569:University of Cologne
563:
7409:History of chemistry
7364:Chemical engineering
7139:Bioorganic chemistry
6889:Structural chemistry
6626:List of biomolecules
5927:www.biochemistry.org
5009:The Art of Happiness
4650:. BBC. 27 May 2004.
4648:"History of Acidity"
4633:4 March 2007 at the
4281:4 March 2007 at the
4185:"alchemy", entry in
3925:"What is Chemistry?"
3863:Outline of chemistry
3623:chemical engineering
3540:immunohistochemistry
3335:medical applications
3179:is the study of the
3151:chemical composition
3147:Analytical chemistry
2976:passing through the
2893:Jöns Jacob Berzelius
2884:proposed the modern
2875:conservation of mass
2855:Carl Wilhelm Scheele
2853:and, independently,
2677:Zosimos of Panopolis
2650:Perso-Arab alchemist
2621:is the notion that "
2619:conservation of mass
2467:conservation of mass
2406:history of chemistry
2393:History of chemistry
2241:Chemical equilibrium
2099:Acidity and basicity
1958:Oxidation, reduction
1946:laboratory glassware
1764:
1692:
1667:endergonic reactions
959:organic nomenclature
820:ionization potential
631:laboratory glassware
584:elementary particles
523:is derived from the
269:Chemistry portal
190:Analytical chemistry
167:Chemical equilibrium
31:For other uses, see
7432:The central science
7386:Ceramic engineering
7311:Forensic toxicology
7284:Chemistry education
7182:Radiation chemistry
7164:Interdisciplinarity
7117:Medicinal chemistry
7055:Fullerene chemistry
6931:Microwave chemistry
6800:Molecular mechanics
6795:Molecular modelling
6540:(Chapman and Hall)
6249:Inorganic Chemistry
6058:"Nuclear Chemistry"
6034:Materials Chemistry
5441:"Georgius Agricola"
5251:vol. II, pp. 41–42.
5199:Stapleton, Henry E.
4786:Traite de la chymie
4694:2011Natur.469...30P
4516:Burrows et al. 2009
4414:Burrows et al. 2009
4402:Burrows et al. 2009
4375:Burrows et al. 2009
4118:. New York: Dover.
4045:. Wiley-VCH, 2001.
4041:Carsten Reinhardt.
3697:, and many others.
3663:medicinal chemistry
3594:, and many others.
3592:synthetic chemistry
3552:molecular mechanics
3339:nuclear engineering
3291:inorganic chemistry
3282:Materials chemistry
3219:Inorganic chemistry
3193:medicinal chemistry
2954:were discovered by
2948:Julius Lothar Meyer
2561:with the theory of
2503:Jean-Baptiste Dumas
2259:dynamic equilibrium
2075:acid–base reactions
2011:elementary reaction
1858:chemical substances
1523:valence bond theory
1511:Van der Waals force
1509:or just because of
1319:Molar concentration
1311:number of particles
1277:amount of substance
975:CAS registry number
963:inorganic compounds
828:coordination number
812:chemical properties
385:the central science
205:Inorganic chemistry
61:Part of a series on
7475:Chemical substance
7337:Chemical synthesis
7306:Forensic chemistry
7187:Actinide chemistry
7129:Clinical chemistry
6810:Molecular geometry
6805:Molecular dynamics
6760:Elemental analysis
6713:Separation process
6475:Physical Chemistry
6332:The Periodic Table
6089:. 18 November 2014
5682:"Dmitri Mendeleev"
5176:Marcelin Berthelot
4544:. visionlearning.
4224:"chemical bonding"
3985:www.dictionary.com
3518:
3414:Physical chemistry
3410:
3372:
3278:
3185:chemical reactions
3173:
3071:molecular orbitals
2991:
2978:plum pudding model
2972:Expected results:
2928:
2880:English scientist
2827:
2813:chemical reactions
2758:
2708:organic substances
2657:
2541:
2491:Christopher Glaser
2357:shows that due to
2355:special relativity
2209:chemical reactions
2116:Acid–base reaction
2112:
2040:
2036:potassium chloride
1934:
1896:
1780:
1748:A related concept
1731:Arrhenius equation
1719:
1566:
1487:
1343:
1237:sodium bicarbonate
1231:(pure sugar), and
1081:noble gas elements
1077:
1061:structural formula
1025:chemical substance
1017:
937:
908:, or columns, and
864:
772:
743:chemical substance
650:
642:ammonium hydroxide
576:
370:chemical compounds
210:Physical chemistry
157:Acid–base reaction
7673:
7672:
7554:
7553:
7490:Quantum mechanics
7455:Chemical compound
7438:Chemical reaction
7376:Materials science
7294:General chemistry
7289:Amateur chemistry
7217:Photogeochemistry
7202:Stellar chemistry
7172:Nuclear chemistry
7093:Molecular biology
7060:Polymer chemistry
7031:Organic synthesis
7026:Organic reactions
6991:Ceramic chemistry
6981:Cluster chemistry
6911:Chemical kinetics
6899:Molecular physics
6778:Quantum chemistry
6691:Mass spectrometry
6536:Smart and Moore.
6496:Coulson's Valence
6445:978-0-19-850346-0
6436:Organic Chemistry
6426:; Greeves, Nick;
6424:Clayden, Jonathan
6373:"Chemistry"
6366:on 10 March 2008.
6340:978-0-14-139944-7
6324:978-0-552-77750-6
6302:Atkins' Molecules
6262:978-0-13-175553-6
6253:Pearson Education
6239:978-0-19-927789-6
6216:978-0-19-922672-6
6144:978-1-305-58035-0
6135:Organic chemistry
6043:978-94-007-0693-4
5908:978-1-305-57721-3
5833:978-0-486-64235-2
5803:on 8 October 2011
5782:978-0-316-10930-7
5768:The Ascent of Man
5581:978-0-262-11273-4
5270:"Jābir b. Ḥayyān"
5238:978-3-487-09115-0
5130:978-0-618-22123-3
5073:978-0-521-27556-9
5048:978-0-521-27455-5
5018:978-0-14-310721-7
4879:978-0-07-115221-1
4870:Chemistry, 6th Ed
4854:978-0-486-65622-9
4844:General Chemistry
4803:978-0-262-11273-4
4796:. The MIT Press.
4770:978-0-486-42825-3
4628:Chemical Reaction
4596:– Chemforkids.com
4488:General Chemistry
4361:978-0-534-49349-3
4125:978-0-486-64235-2
3931:on 3 October 2018
3848:List of compounds
3713:chemical industry
3707:Chemical industry
3667:molecular biology
3655:materials science
3631:chemo-informatics
3603:Interdisciplinary
3598:Interdisciplinary
3576:polymer chemistry
3497:molecular physics
3489:computer programs
3477:quantum chemistry
3473:quantum mechanics
3451:quantum chemistry
3443:molecular physics
3423:chemical kinetics
3388:functional groups
3384:organic compounds
3376:Organic chemistry
3331:table of nuclides
3323:Nuclear chemistry
3287:organic chemistry
3251:, it can produce
3234:Kaminsky catalyst
3201:molecular biology
3169:spectrophotometer
3126:applied chemistry
3090:Justus von Liebig
3059:nuclear chemistry
3049:, the Englishman
3024:Ernest Rutherford
2871:Antoine Lavoisier
2867:Georg Ernst Stahl
2782:Sir Francis Bacon
2738:Georgius Agricola
2704:ammonium chloride
2661:Hellenistic world
2654:organic chemistry
2600:. In 50 BCE, the
2499:Georg Ernst Stahl
2463:Antoine Lavoisier
2455:scientific method
2363:nuclear chemistry
2015:stepwise reaction
2005:According to the
1996:physical chemists
1977:chemical equation
1938:chemical reaction
1930:chemical elements
1916:Chemical reaction
1904:chemical reaction
1799:quantum mechanics
1758:Gibbs free energy
1682:activation energy
1614:molecular orbital
1606:classical physics
1570:valence electrons
1413:crystal structure
1315:Avogadro constant
1243:
1242:
1145:silicate minerals
1046:mass spectrometer
955:Organic compounds
941:Chemical compound
816:electronegativity
794:(together called
693:chemical analysis
667:radioactive decay
659:chemical equation
654:chemical reaction
556:Modern principles
552:'cast together'.
513:). This may have
429:chemical industry
338:chemical elements
336:that studies the
319:
318:
200:Organic chemistry
147:Chemical reaction
80:Science of matter
18:Applied chemistry
16:(Redirected from
7693:
7663:
7662:
7653:
7643:
7642:
7622:Physical science
7581:
7574:
7567:
7558:
7557:
7542:
7541:
7530:
7518:
7517:
7506:
7505:
7450:Chemical element
7105:Chemical biology
6964:Magnetochemistry
6941:Mechanochemistry
6894:Chemical physics
6835:Electrochemistry
6740:Characterization
6602:
6595:
6588:
6579:
6578:
6449:
6407:Chang, Raymond.
6383:
6375:
6367:
6362:. Archived from
6284:Galileo's Finger
6266:
6243:
6220:
6184:
6183:
6181:
6179:
6155:
6149:
6148:
6130:
6124:
6123:
6121:
6119:
6105:
6099:
6098:
6096:
6094:
6079:
6073:
6072:
6070:
6068:
6054:
6048:
6047:
6029:
6023:
6022:
6020:
6018:
6004:
5998:
5997:
5986:10.1039/A800056E
5980:(9): 1413–1418.
5969:
5963:
5962:
5960:
5958:
5944:
5938:
5937:
5935:
5933:
5919:
5913:
5912:
5894:
5888:
5887:
5885:
5883:
5869:
5863:
5862:
5860:
5858:
5844:
5838:
5837:
5819:
5813:
5812:
5810:
5808:
5793:
5787:
5786:
5761:
5755:
5754:
5752:
5750:
5735:
5729:
5728:
5726:
5724:
5704:
5698:
5697:
5695:
5693:
5667:
5661:
5660:
5658:
5656:
5637:
5631:
5630:
5628:
5626:
5616:
5592:
5586:
5585:
5569:
5559:
5553:
5552:
5524:
5518:
5517:
5515:
5513:
5498:
5492:
5482:
5476:
5462:
5453:
5452:
5450:
5448:
5437:
5428:
5427:
5425:
5423:
5394:
5385:
5379:
5372:Robert Briffault
5369:
5363:
5362:
5326:
5320:
5290:
5284:
5258:
5252:
5250:
5221:
5195:
5189:
5173:
5167:
5141:
5135:
5134:
5110:
5104:
5103:
5101:
5099:
5084:
5078:
5077:
5059:
5053:
5052:
5029:
5023:
5022:
5004:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4993:
4973:
4967:
4966:
4964:
4962:
4942:
4936:
4935:
4919:
4909:
4903:
4890:
4884:
4883:
4865:
4859:
4858:
4838:
4832:
4829:
4823:
4822:
4814:
4808:
4807:
4789:
4781:
4775:
4774:
4756:
4750:
4749:
4747:
4745:
4730:
4724:
4723:
4705:
4673:
4664:
4663:
4661:
4659:
4644:
4638:
4622:
4616:
4615:– IUPAC Goldbook
4603:
4597:
4584:
4578:
4564:
4558:
4557:
4555:
4553:
4540:Visionlearning.
4537:
4531:
4525:
4519:
4513:
4507:
4506:
4498:
4492:
4491:
4483:
4477:
4476:
4474:
4472:
4449:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4423:
4417:
4411:
4405:
4399:
4393:
4387:
4378:
4372:
4366:
4365:
4343:
4337:
4336:
4334:
4332:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4308:
4306:
4291:
4285:
4269:
4263:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4239:
4220:
4214:
4204:
4198:
4183:
4177:
4176:
4136:
4130:
4129:
4111:
4105:
4104:
4102:
4100:
4081:
4075:
4060:
4054:
4039:
4033:
4032:
4030:
4028:
4007:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3996:
3977:
3971:
3970:
3968:
3966:
3947:
3941:
3940:
3938:
3936:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3895:
3843:List of chemists
3821:
3816:
3815:
3807:
3805:Chemistry portal
3802:
3801:
3800:
3659:mechanochemistry
3651:marine chemistry
3627:chemical biology
3532:flavor chemistry
3524:electrochemistry
3481:Second World War
3455:chemical physics
3427:electrochemistry
3398:organic compound
3364:fission reaction
3315:is the study of
3110:Svante Arrhenius
3102:Edward Frankland
3096:'s synthesis of
3094:Friedrich Wöhler
3079:Gilbert N. Lewis
2944:Dmitri Mendeleev
2924:Dmitri Mendeleev
2905:Alessandro Volta
2861:. The theory of
2851:Joseph Priestley
2833:and the Flemish
2807:. He formulated
2696:Jabir ibn Hayyan
2685:Muslim conquests
2646:Jābir ibn Hayyān
2559:Classical Greece
2351:isolated systems
2308:Gay-Lussac's law
2286:Beer–Lambert law
2229:oxidation number
2217:oxidizing agents
2130:Arrhenius theory
2108:Hydrogen bromide
1823:hydrogen sulfide
1801:, which require
1789:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1728:
1726:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1717:
1710:
1531:oxidation number
1421:aqueous solution
1378:phase transition
1373:refractive index
1292:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1202:
1197:
1188:
1183:
1174:
1169:
1162:
1161:
868:Chemical element
769:Rutherford model
663:nuclear reaction
551:
550:
546:may derive from
545:
539:
531:
530:
522:
512:
511:
506:
493:The modern word
334:natural sciences
330:physical science
311:
304:
297:
284:
279:
278:
271:
267:
266:
265:
243:List of journals
77:
58:
57:
53:
46:
41:Chemical Science
36:
21:
7701:
7700:
7696:
7695:
7694:
7692:
7691:
7690:
7676:
7675:
7674:
7669:
7631:
7603:
7590:
7588:Natural science
7585:
7555:
7550:
7494:
7397:
7391:Polymer science
7347:Click chemistry
7342:Green chemistry
7236:Ocean chemistry
7212:Biogeochemistry
7158:
7074:
7046:Total synthesis
7009:Stereochemistry
6995:
6945:
6862:Surface science
6852:Thermochemistry
6821:
6764:
6735:Crystallography
6640:
6612:
6606:
6568:
6550:Stephenson, G.
6452:Voet and Voet.
6446:
6370:
6358:
6277:Popular reading
6274:
6272:Further reading
6269:
6263:
6240:
6217:
6193:
6188:
6187:
6177:
6175:
6156:
6152:
6145:
6131:
6127:
6117:
6115:
6107:
6106:
6102:
6092:
6090:
6081:
6080:
6076:
6066:
6064:
6056:
6055:
6051:
6044:
6030:
6026:
6016:
6014:
6008:"Polypropylene"
6006:
6005:
6001:
5970:
5966:
5956:
5954:
5946:
5945:
5941:
5931:
5929:
5921:
5920:
5916:
5909:
5895:
5891:
5881:
5879:
5871:
5870:
5866:
5856:
5854:
5846:
5845:
5841:
5834:
5820:
5816:
5806:
5804:
5795:
5794:
5790:
5783:
5762:
5758:
5748:
5746:
5737:
5736:
5732:
5722:
5720:
5705:
5701:
5691:
5689:
5680:
5677:Wayback Machine
5668:
5664:
5654:
5652:
5639:
5638:
5634:
5624:
5622:
5593:
5589:
5582:
5560:
5556:
5525:
5521:
5511:
5509:
5500:
5499:
5495:
5483:
5479:
5463:
5456:
5446:
5444:
5439:
5438:
5431:
5421:
5419:
5392:
5386:
5382:
5370:
5366:
5351:10.2307/2851429
5327:
5323:
5317:Wayback Machine
5294:Sudhoffs Archiv
5291:
5287:
5277:Wayback Machine
5259:
5255:
5239:
5196:
5192:
5174:
5170:
5157:Wayback Machine
5142:
5138:
5131:
5111:
5107:
5097:
5095:
5094:on 15 June 2013
5086:
5085:
5081:
5074:
5060:
5056:
5049:
5030:
5026:
5019:
5005:
5001:
4991:
4989:
4974:
4970:
4960:
4958:
4943:
4939:
4932:
4910:
4906:
4900:Wayback Machine
4891:
4887:
4880:
4866:
4862:
4855:
4839:
4835:
4830:
4826:
4815:
4811:
4804:
4782:
4778:
4771:
4757:
4753:
4743:
4741:
4732:
4731:
4727:
4703:10.1038/469030a
4688:(7328): 30–31.
4674:
4667:
4657:
4655:
4646:
4645:
4641:
4635:Wayback Machine
4623:
4619:
4613:Wayback Machine
4604:
4600:
4594:Wayback Machine
4585:
4581:
4575:Wayback Machine
4565:
4561:
4551:
4549:
4538:
4534:
4526:
4522:
4514:
4510:
4499:
4495:
4484:
4480:
4470:
4468:
4466:
4450:
4446:
4436:
4434:
4429:. Acdlabs.com.
4425:
4424:
4420:
4412:
4408:
4400:
4396:
4388:
4381:
4373:
4369:
4362:
4344:
4340:
4330:
4328:
4319:
4318:
4314:
4304:
4302:
4301:on 10 June 2011
4293:
4292:
4288:
4283:Wayback Machine
4270:
4266:
4260:Wayback Machine
4251:
4247:
4237:
4235:
4222:
4221:
4217:
4205:
4201:
4184:
4180:
4137:
4133:
4126:
4112:
4108:
4098:
4096:
4083:
4082:
4078:
4074:. pp. 3–4.
4061:
4057:
4053:. pp. 1–2.
4040:
4036:
4026:
4024:
4009:
4008:
4004:
3994:
3992:
3979:
3978:
3974:
3964:
3962:
3955:Merriam-Webster
3949:
3948:
3944:
3934:
3932:
3923:
3922:
3918:
3911:
3896:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3878:Science tourism
3817:
3810:
3803:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3788:
3729:
3709:
3703:
3695:thermochemistry
3691:surface science
3647:immunochemistry
3643:green chemistry
3605:fields include
3600:
3295:crystallography
3255:with different
3246:cyclopentadiene
3140:
3134:
3118:
3112:in the 1870s).
3063:nuclear fission
3061:and discovered
3053:and the German
3040:alpha particles
3002:discovered the
2981:
2974:alpha particles
2936:J.A.R. Newlands
2886:theory of atoms
2843:Henry Cavendish
2766:De re metallica
2742:De re metallica
2652:and pioneer in
2611:De rerum natura
2526:
2520:
2483:
2402:
2395:
2389:
2384:
2273:
2267:
2243:
2237:
2221:reducing agents
2213:oxidation state
2197:
2191:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2118:
2101:
2088:
2071:polyatomic ions
2067:sodium chloride
2046:
2028:
1918:
1912:
1900:chemical energy
1828:
1816:
1765:
1762:
1761:
1741:in the form of
1706:
1699:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1628:
1622:
1610:metal complexes
1563:
1547:sodium chloride
1483:sodium chloride
1467:
1461:
1349:
1335:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1273:
1267:
1233:sodium chloride
1160:
1117:ionic compounds
1109:pharmaceuticals
1079:The "inert" or
1074:
1070:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
989:
983:
943:
934:
922:
914:periodic trends
870:
848:
824:oxidation state
761:
755:
749:of substances.
723:
717:
558:
443:
437:
315:
274:
263:
261:
260:
253:
252:
223:
215:
214:
185:
177:
176:
127:
119:
105:
82:
54:
47:
37:
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7699:
7689:
7688:
7671:
7670:
7668:
7667:
7657:
7655:Science Portal
7647:
7636:
7633:
7632:
7630:
7629:
7624:
7619:
7614:
7608:
7605:
7604:
7602:
7601:
7595:
7592:
7591:
7584:
7583:
7576:
7569:
7561:
7552:
7551:
7549:
7548:
7536:
7524:
7512:
7499:
7496:
7495:
7493:
7492:
7487:
7482:
7477:
7472:
7467:
7462:
7457:
7452:
7447:
7446:
7445:
7435:
7428:
7427:
7426:
7416:
7411:
7405:
7403:
7399:
7398:
7396:
7395:
7394:
7393:
7388:
7383:
7373:
7372:
7371:
7361:
7360:
7359:
7354:
7349:
7344:
7334:
7333:
7332:
7321:
7320:
7319:
7318:
7313:
7303:
7298:
7297:
7296:
7291:
7280:
7279:
7278:
7277:
7275:Soil chemistry
7267:
7266:
7265:
7260:
7253:Food chemistry
7250:
7248:Carbochemistry
7245:
7243:Clay chemistry
7240:
7239:
7238:
7233:
7222:
7221:
7220:
7219:
7214:
7204:
7198:Astrochemistry
7194:Cosmochemistry
7191:
7190:
7189:
7184:
7179:
7177:Radiochemistry
7168:
7166:
7160:
7159:
7157:
7156:
7151:
7146:
7141:
7136:
7134:Neurochemistry
7131:
7126:
7125:
7124:
7114:
7113:
7112:
7102:
7101:
7100:
7095:
7084:
7082:
7076:
7075:
7073:
7072:
7067:
7065:Petrochemistry
7062:
7057:
7052:
7043:
7038:
7033:
7028:
7023:
7018:
7017:
7016:
7005:
7003:
6997:
6996:
6994:
6993:
6988:
6983:
6978:
6977:
6976:
6966:
6961:
6955:
6953:
6947:
6946:
6944:
6943:
6938:
6933:
6928:
6926:Spin chemistry
6923:
6921:Photochemistry
6918:
6913:
6908:
6906:Femtochemistry
6903:
6902:
6901:
6891:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6875:
6874:
6864:
6859:
6854:
6849:
6848:
6847:
6842:
6831:
6829:
6823:
6822:
6820:
6819:
6818:
6817:
6807:
6802:
6797:
6792:
6791:
6790:
6780:
6774:
6772:
6766:
6765:
6763:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6732:
6731:
6730:
6725:
6718:Chromatography
6715:
6710:
6709:
6708:
6703:
6698:
6688:
6687:
6686:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6661:
6656:
6650:
6648:
6642:
6641:
6639:
6638:
6636:Periodic table
6633:
6628:
6623:
6617:
6614:
6613:
6605:
6604:
6597:
6590:
6582:
6576:
6575:
6567:
6566:External links
6564:
6563:
6562:
6548:
6534:
6520:
6506:
6492:
6485:
6473:Atkins, P. W.
6465:
6464:
6450:
6444:
6432:Wothers, Peter
6428:Warren, Stuart
6420:
6405:
6385:
6384:
6368:
6356:
6342:
6326:
6312:
6298:
6273:
6270:
6268:
6267:
6261:
6244:
6238:
6221:
6215:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6186:
6185:
6150:
6143:
6125:
6100:
6074:
6049:
6042:
6024:
5999:
5964:
5939:
5914:
5907:
5889:
5864:
5839:
5832:
5814:
5788:
5781:
5756:
5730:
5707:Winter, Mark.
5699:
5662:
5632:
5587:
5580:
5554:
5519:
5493:
5477:
5454:
5429:
5380:
5378:, pp. 196–197.
5364:
5345:(4): 744–746.
5321:
5285:
5253:
5237:
5212:(6): 317–418.
5190:
5168:
5136:
5129:
5105:
5079:
5072:
5054:
5047:
5024:
5017:
4999:
4968:
4937:
4931:978-0415297660
4930:
4904:
4893:First chemists
4885:
4878:
4860:
4853:
4833:
4824:
4809:
4802:
4776:
4769:
4751:
4725:
4665:
4639:
4637:IUPAC Goldbook
4617:
4598:
4579:
4559:
4532:
4520:
4508:
4493:
4478:
4464:
4444:
4418:
4406:
4404:, p. 110.
4394:
4379:
4367:
4360:
4354:. p. 48.
4338:
4312:
4286:
4264:
4245:
4215:
4199:
4178:
4157:10.1086/660140
4151:(2): 313–321.
4131:
4124:
4106:
4076:
4055:
4034:
4002:
3972:
3942:
3916:
3910:978-0134414232
3909:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3824:
3823:
3822:
3819:Science portal
3808:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3705:Main article:
3702:
3699:
3683:phytochemistry
3671:nanotechnology
3615:cosmochemistry
3611:astrochemistry
3599:
3596:
3580:radiochemistry
3568:photochemistry
3564:petrochemistry
3536:flow chemistry
3528:femtochemistry
3520:
3519:
3458:
3439:astrochemistry
3411:
3373:
3320:
3317:neurochemicals
3313:Neurochemistry
3310:
3279:
3253:polypropylenes
3216:
3197:neurochemistry
3174:
3133:
3132:Subdisciplines
3130:
3122:pure chemistry
3117:
3114:
3067:chemical bonds
2956:William Ramsay
2940:periodic table
2857:isolated pure
2839:carbon dioxide
2780:propounded by
2762:Georg Agricola
2539:(341–270 BCE).
2519:
2516:
2482:
2479:
2391:Main article:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2366:
2344:
2337:thermodynamics
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2305:
2300:
2294:
2288:
2283:
2281:Avogadro's law
2277:
2269:Main article:
2266:
2263:
2239:Main article:
2236:
2233:
2206:
2202:
2193:Main article:
2190:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2138:hydroxide ions
2134:hydronium ions
2114:Main article:
2100:
2097:
2086:
2042:Main article:
2027:
2026:Ions and salts
2024:
1968:and molecular
1966:neutralization
1914:Main article:
1911:
1908:
1862:spectral lines
1826:
1819:hydrogen bonds
1814:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1737:or mechanical
1716:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1702:
1698:
1624:Main article:
1621:
1618:
1561:
1463:Main article:
1460:
1457:
1345:Main article:
1334:
1331:
1269:Main article:
1266:
1263:
1241:
1240:
1204:
1203:
1190:
1189:
1176:
1175:
1159:
1156:
1121:network solids
1072:
1068:
1030:covalent bonds
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
985:Main article:
982:
979:
939:Main article:
932:
929:Carbon dioxide
921:
918:
902:periodic table
866:Main article:
856:periodic table
847:
844:
790:and uncharged
784:electron cloud
780:atomic nucleus
757:Main article:
754:
751:
719:Main article:
716:
713:
701:chromatography
620:chemical bonds
557:
554:
517:origins since
439:Main article:
436:
433:
409:cosmochemistry
366:chemical bonds
317:
316:
314:
313:
306:
299:
291:
288:
287:
286:
285:
272:
255:
254:
251:
250:
245:
240:
235:
224:
221:
220:
217:
216:
213:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
186:
183:
182:
179:
178:
175:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
128:
126:Key components
125:
124:
121:
120:
118:
117:
106:
104:
103:
98:
93:
87:
84:
83:
78:
70:
69:
63:
62:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7698:
7687:
7684:
7683:
7681:
7666:
7658:
7656:
7652:
7648:
7646:
7638:
7637:
7634:
7628:
7627:Space science
7625:
7623:
7620:
7618:
7617:Life sciences
7615:
7613:
7612:Earth science
7610:
7609:
7606:
7600:
7597:
7596:
7593:
7589:
7582:
7577:
7575:
7570:
7568:
7563:
7562:
7559:
7547:
7546:
7537:
7535:
7534:
7529:
7525:
7523:
7522:
7513:
7511:
7510:
7501:
7500:
7497:
7491:
7488:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7480:Chemical bond
7478:
7476:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7448:
7444:
7441:
7440:
7439:
7436:
7433:
7429:
7425:
7422:
7421:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7406:
7404:
7400:
7392:
7389:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7379:
7378:
7377:
7374:
7370:
7369:Stoichiometry
7367:
7366:
7365:
7362:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7339:
7338:
7335:
7331:
7328:
7327:
7326:
7325:Nanochemistry
7323:
7322:
7317:
7314:
7312:
7309:
7308:
7307:
7304:
7302:
7299:
7295:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7286:
7285:
7282:
7281:
7276:
7273:
7272:
7271:
7268:
7264:
7261:
7259:
7256:
7255:
7254:
7251:
7249:
7246:
7244:
7241:
7237:
7234:
7232:
7229:
7228:
7227:
7224:
7223:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7209:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7199:
7195:
7192:
7188:
7185:
7183:
7180:
7178:
7175:
7174:
7173:
7170:
7169:
7167:
7165:
7161:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7145:
7142:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7123:
7120:
7119:
7118:
7115:
7111:
7108:
7107:
7106:
7103:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7090:
7089:
7086:
7085:
7083:
7081:
7077:
7071:
7068:
7066:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7050:Semisynthesis
7047:
7044:
7042:
7039:
7037:
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7022:
7019:
7015:
7012:
7011:
7010:
7007:
7006:
7004:
7002:
6998:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6979:
6975:
6972:
6971:
6970:
6967:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6956:
6954:
6952:
6948:
6942:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6929:
6927:
6924:
6922:
6919:
6917:
6914:
6912:
6909:
6907:
6904:
6900:
6897:
6896:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6884:Sonochemistry
6882:
6880:
6879:Cryochemistry
6877:
6873:
6872:Micromeritics
6870:
6869:
6868:
6865:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6853:
6850:
6846:
6843:
6841:
6838:
6837:
6836:
6833:
6832:
6830:
6828:
6824:
6816:
6813:
6812:
6811:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6801:
6798:
6796:
6793:
6789:
6786:
6785:
6784:
6781:
6779:
6776:
6775:
6773:
6771:
6767:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6750:Wet chemistry
6748:
6746:
6743:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6729:
6726:
6724:
6721:
6720:
6719:
6716:
6714:
6711:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6697:
6694:
6693:
6692:
6689:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6666:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6651:
6649:
6647:
6643:
6637:
6634:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6618:
6615:
6611:
6603:
6598:
6596:
6591:
6589:
6584:
6583:
6580:
6573:
6570:
6569:
6561:
6560:0-582-44416-0
6557:
6553:
6549:
6547:
6546:0-412-40040-5
6543:
6539:
6535:
6533:
6532:0-486-64871-0
6529:
6525:
6521:
6519:
6518:0-8014-0333-2
6515:
6511:
6507:
6505:
6504:0-19-855144-4
6501:
6497:
6493:
6490:
6486:
6484:
6483:0-19-879285-9
6480:
6476:
6472:
6471:
6470:
6469:
6463:
6462:0-471-58651-X
6459:
6455:
6451:
6447:
6441:
6437:
6433:
6429:
6425:
6421:
6418:
6417:0-07-115221-0
6414:
6410:
6406:
6404:
6403:0-19-926463-5
6400:
6396:
6392:
6391:
6390:
6389:
6381:
6380:
6374:
6369:
6365:
6361:
6357:
6355:
6354:0-19-515027-9
6351:
6347:
6344:Stwertka, A.
6343:
6341:
6337:
6333:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6321:
6317:
6313:
6311:
6310:0-521-82397-8
6307:
6303:
6300:Atkins, P.W.
6299:
6297:
6296:0-19-860941-8
6293:
6289:
6285:
6282:Atkins, P.W.
6281:
6280:
6279:
6278:
6264:
6258:
6254:
6250:
6245:
6241:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6222:
6218:
6212:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6199:Atkins, Peter
6196:
6195:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6154:
6146:
6140:
6136:
6129:
6114:
6110:
6104:
6088:
6084:
6078:
6063:
6059:
6053:
6045:
6039:
6035:
6028:
6013:
6009:
6003:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5968:
5953:
5949:
5943:
5928:
5924:
5918:
5910:
5904:
5900:
5893:
5878:
5874:
5868:
5853:
5849:
5843:
5835:
5829:
5825:
5818:
5802:
5798:
5792:
5784:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5769:
5760:
5744:
5740:
5734:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5703:
5687:
5683:
5678:
5674:
5671:
5666:
5650:
5646:
5642:
5636:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5591:
5583:
5577:
5573:
5568:
5567:
5558:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5523:
5507:
5503:
5497:
5490:
5486:
5481:
5475:
5474:9781615305445
5471:
5467:
5461:
5459:
5442:
5436:
5434:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5391:
5384:
5377:
5373:
5368:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5334:
5325:
5318:
5314:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5289:
5282:
5278:
5274:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5257:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5234:
5230:
5227:(1942–1943).
5226:
5222:pp. 338–340;
5219:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5204:
5200:
5194:
5188:1 (1937), 40.
5187:
5183:
5182:
5177:
5172:
5166:
5165:0-486-24823-2
5162:
5158:
5154:
5151:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5132:
5126:
5122:
5118:
5117:
5109:
5093:
5089:
5083:
5075:
5069:
5065:
5058:
5050:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5028:
5020:
5014:
5010:
5003:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4972:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4941:
4933:
4927:
4923:
4918:
4917:
4908:
4901:
4897:
4894:
4889:
4881:
4875:
4871:
4864:
4856:
4850:
4846:
4845:
4837:
4828:
4820:
4813:
4805:
4799:
4795:
4790:as found in:
4787:
4780:
4772:
4766:
4762:
4755:
4739:
4735:
4729:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4672:
4670:
4653:
4649:
4643:
4636:
4632:
4629:
4626:
4621:
4614:
4610:
4607:
4602:
4595:
4591:
4588:
4583:
4576:
4572:
4569:
4563:
4547:
4543:
4536:
4529:
4524:
4518:, p. 16.
4517:
4512:
4504:
4497:
4489:
4482:
4467:
4461:
4457:
4456:
4448:
4432:
4428:
4422:
4416:, p. 12.
4415:
4410:
4403:
4398:
4391:
4386:
4384:
4377:, p. 13.
4376:
4371:
4363:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4342:
4326:
4322:
4316:
4300:
4296:
4290:
4284:
4280:
4277:
4274:
4268:
4261:
4257:
4254:
4249:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4219:
4213:
4212:0-486-21873-2
4209:
4203:
4196:
4195:0-19-861213-3
4192:
4188:
4182:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4135:
4127:
4121:
4117:
4110:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4080:
4073:
4072:0-13-010310-1
4069:
4065:
4059:
4052:
4051:3-527-30271-9
4048:
4044:
4038:
4022:
4018:
4017:
4012:
4006:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3976:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3946:
3930:
3926:
3920:
3912:
3906:
3902:
3894:
3890:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3825:
3820:
3814:
3809:
3806:
3795:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3724:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3708:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3607:agrochemistry
3604:
3595:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3584:sonochemistry
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3459:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3415:
3412:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3374:
3369:
3368:critical mass
3365:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3343:nuclear power
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3327:transmutation
3324:
3321:
3318:
3314:
3311:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3283:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3217:
3214:
3210:
3209:plant science
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3175:
3170:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3129:
3127:
3123:
3113:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3086:
3082:
3080:
3076:
3075:Linus Pauling
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3051:Henry Moseley
3048:
3043:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3020:radioactivity
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2988:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2961:
2960:Lord Rayleigh
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2932:William Prout
2925:
2920:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2909:alkali metals
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2887:
2883:
2878:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2805:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2772:
2767:
2763:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2642:
2638:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2569:stating that
2568:
2564:
2563:four elements
2560:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2546:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2515:
2513:
2512:Raymond Chang
2509:
2508:Linus Pauling
2504:
2500:
2495:
2492:
2488:
2478:
2476:
2475:Willard Gibbs
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2451:
2449:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2425:, and making
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2407:
2400:
2394:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2298:
2297:Charles's law
2295:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2272:
2265:Chemical laws
2262:
2260:
2256:
2251:
2248:
2242:
2232:
2230:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2186:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2159:
2157:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2117:
2109:
2105:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2045:
2037:
2032:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1978:
1973:
1971:
1970:rearrangement
1967:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1834:
1832:
1824:
1820:
1812:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1793:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1760:is negative,
1759:
1755:
1751:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1714:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1696:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1659:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1638:or aggregate
1637:
1633:
1627:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1559:
1554:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1534:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1507:hydrogen bond
1504:
1500:
1499:covalent bond
1495:
1492:
1484:
1481:(Cl) to form
1480:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1465:Chemical bond
1456:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1444:ferromagnetic
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1424:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1386:supercritical
1382:
1380:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1339:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1309:), where the
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1278:
1272:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1155:
1153:
1148:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1129:formula units
1126:
1122:
1118:
1112:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1042:
1041:molecular ion
1037:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1022:
998:
993:
988:
978:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
942:
930:
926:
917:
915:
911:
907:
903:
898:
896:
892:
887:
883:
879:
878:atomic number
875:
869:
861:
857:
852:
843:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
808:
805:
801:
798:), while the
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
770:
765:
760:
750:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
722:
712:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
672:
671:chemical laws
668:
664:
660:
655:
647:
643:
638:
634:
632:
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
574:
570:
566:
562:
553:
544:
538:
537:
526:
525:Ancient Greek
521:
516:
505:
500:
496:
491:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
459:
454:
450:
449:
442:
432:
430:
424:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
312:
307:
305:
300:
298:
293:
292:
290:
289:
283:
273:
270:
259:
258:
257:
256:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
233:
229:
226:
225:
219:
218:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
187:
181:
180:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
129:
123:
122:
115:
111:
108:
107:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
88:
86:
85:
81:
76:
72:
71:
68:
65:
64:
60:
59:
56:
51:
44:
42:
34:
19:
7543:
7531:
7519:
7507:
7357:Biosynthesis
7207:Geochemistry
7122:Pharmacology
7098:Cell biology
7088:Biochemistry
6916:Spectroscopy
6815:VSEPR theory
6664:Spectroscopy
6609:
6608:Branches of
6551:
6537:
6523:
6509:
6508:Pauling, L.
6495:
6494:McWeeny, R.
6488:
6474:
6467:
6466:
6454:Biochemistry
6453:
6435:
6408:
6394:
6387:
6386:
6377:
6364:the original
6345:
6331:
6315:
6301:
6283:
6276:
6275:
6248:
6225:
6202:
6191:Bibliography
6176:. Retrieved
6163:
6153:
6134:
6128:
6116:. Retrieved
6112:
6103:
6091:. Retrieved
6086:
6077:
6065:. Retrieved
6061:
6052:
6033:
6027:
6015:. Retrieved
6011:
6002:
5977:
5967:
5955:. Retrieved
5951:
5942:
5930:. Retrieved
5926:
5917:
5898:
5892:
5880:. Retrieved
5876:
5867:
5855:. Retrieved
5851:
5842:
5823:
5817:
5805:. Retrieved
5801:the original
5791:
5767:
5759:
5747:. Retrieved
5733:
5721:. Retrieved
5702:
5690:. Retrieved
5665:
5653:. Retrieved
5644:
5635:
5623:. Retrieved
5604:
5600:
5590:
5565:
5557:
5532:
5528:
5522:
5510:. Retrieved
5496:
5488:
5480:
5465:
5445:. Retrieved
5420:. Retrieved
5400:
5396:
5383:
5375:
5367:
5342:
5338:
5332:
5324:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5293:
5288:
5280:
5265:
5261:
5256:
5228:
5209:
5205:
5193:
5185:
5180:
5171:
5148:
5144:Morris Kline
5139:
5115:
5108:
5096:. Retrieved
5092:the original
5082:
5063:
5057:
5034:
5027:
5008:
5002:
4990:. Retrieved
4981:
4971:
4959:. Retrieved
4950:
4940:
4915:
4907:
4888:
4869:
4863:
4843:
4836:
4827:
4818:
4812:
4793:
4785:
4779:
4760:
4754:
4742:. Retrieved
4728:
4685:
4681:
4656:. Retrieved
4642:
4620:
4601:
4582:
4562:
4550:. Retrieved
4535:
4530:, p. 9.
4523:
4511:
4502:
4496:
4487:
4481:
4469:. Retrieved
4454:
4447:
4435:. Retrieved
4421:
4409:
4397:
4392:, p. 2.
4370:
4347:
4341:
4329:. Retrieved
4315:
4303:. Retrieved
4299:the original
4289:
4267:
4248:
4236:. Retrieved
4227:
4218:
4202:
4186:
4181:
4148:
4144:
4134:
4115:
4109:
4097:. Retrieved
4088:
4079:
4063:
4058:
4042:
4037:
4025:. Retrieved
4014:
4005:
3993:. Retrieved
3984:
3975:
3963:. Retrieved
3954:
3945:
3933:. Retrieved
3929:the original
3919:
3900:
3893:
3710:
3679:pharmacology
3639:geochemistry
3601:
3521:
3435:spectroscopy
3359:utilizing a
3273:
3268:
3260:
3177:Biochemistry
3165:spectroscopy
3141:
3125:
3121:
3119:
3087:
3083:
3044:
2996:J.J. Thomson
2992:
2982:
2969:
2929:
2901:voltaic pile
2897:Humphry Davy
2890:
2879:
2831:Joseph Black
2828:
2802:
2794:Robert Hooke
2790:Robert Boyle
2775:
2759:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2740:, author of
2716:pseudo-Geber
2700:sal ammoniac
2693:
2669:distillation
2658:
2616:
2609:
2604:philosopher
2556:
2542:
2496:
2487:Robert Boyle
2484:
2452:
2445:
2442:Robert Boyle
2435:
2403:
2380:Raoult's law
2274:
2271:Chemical law
2252:
2244:
2225:
2198:
2160:
2153:
2119:
2091:
2049:
2047:
2004:
1981:
1974:
1964:, acid–base
1962:dissociation
1953:dissociation
1950:
1937:
1935:
1897:
1866:spectroscopy
1855:
1837:
1835:
1808:
1803:quantization
1796:
1747:
1685:
1679:
1660:
1629:
1603:
1594:
1567:
1560:molecule (CH
1535:
1496:
1488:
1440:paramagnetic
1425:
1416:
1394:
1390:triple point
1383:
1376:
1366:
1353:
1350:
1274:
1244:
1149:
1124:
1113:
1078:
1038:
1020:
1018:
946:
944:
899:
881:
871:
862:of elements.
822:, preferred
809:
773:
724:
697:spectroscopy
675:
651:
628:
577:
494:
492:
456:
455:of the word
446:
444:
425:
413:pharmacology
374:
321:
320:
195:Biochemistry
172:Chemical law
79:
66:
55:
40:
7545:WikiProject
6770:Theoretical
6755:Calorimetry
6329:Levi, Primo
6314:Kean, Sam.
5797:"Chemistry"
5625:30 November
5535:(5): 1–18.
5397:The Hexagon
5225:Kraus, Paul
4992:10 November
4945:Lucretius.
4352:Brooks/Cole
3465:mathematics
3361:uranium-235
3357:atomic bomb
3106:J. W. Gibbs
3016:Marie Curie
2952:noble gases
2882:John Dalton
2845:discovered
2837:discovered
2809:Boyle's law
2689:Renaissance
2648:(Geber), a
2548:Babylonians
2333:equilibrium
2319:Henry's law
2291:Boyle's law
2247:equilibrium
2235:Equilibrium
2167:logarithmic
1792:equilibrium
1750:free energy
1735:electricity
1362:temperature
1293:particles (
1249:and set of
1247:composition
1235:(salt) and
1067:molecule (C
999:molecule (C
886:mass number
646:nitric acid
453:Renaissance
360:with other
332:within the
7381:Metallurgy
7080:Biological
6646:Analytical
6554:(Longman)
6087:Libretexts
5723:27 January
4465:0854044388
4276:Definition
4238:1 November
4228:Britannica
4089:Britannica
4027:1 December
3885:References
3353:Little Boy
3307:interfaces
3136:See also:
3047:Niels Bohr
3032:transmuted
2863:phlogiston
2798:John Mayow
2683:after the
2681:Arab world
2631:Empedocles
2594:Democritus
2533:Democritus
2522:See also:
2518:Background
2481:Definition
2324:Hess's law
2250:of phase.
1840:of energy
1821:. Whereas
1743:ultrasound
1671:exothermic
1583:octet rule
1503:ionic bond
1446:phases of
1251:properties
1137:table salt
1133:unit cells
1034:lone pairs
624:laboratory
596:substances
565:Laboratory
488:alchemists
468:philosophy
464:metallurgy
362:substances
328:. It is a
7686:Chemistry
7443:Catalysis
6951:Inorganic
6745:Titration
6610:chemistry
6409:Chemistry
6228:. Italy:
6226:Chemistry
6178:22 August
5994:1364-5447
5422:7 January
5409:0164-6109
5247:468740510
5218:706947607
4961:9 January
4821:. London.
4744:8 October
4712:1476-4687
4625:Gold Book
4273:Gold Book
4165:0021-1753
3995:24 August
3965:24 August
3511:electrons
3380:reactions
3299:materials
3265:amorphous
3257:tacticity
3238:zirconium
3205:forensics
3189:organisms
3181:chemicals
3155:structure
3055:Otto Hahn
3008:Becquerel
2712:Latinized
2673:Byzantine
2606:Lucretius
2567:Aristotle
2545:Egyptians
2421:, making
2083:phosphate
2081:(OH) and
2079:hydroxide
1984:mechanism
1898:The term
1874:microwave
1774:≤
1768:Δ
1701:−
1663:exergonic
1640:structure
1636:molecular
1595:duet rule
1578:noble gas
1515:molecules
1491:multipole
1477:(Na) and
1307:electrons
1299:molecules
1221:allotrope
1211:(Sn) and
1152:structure
953:(IUPAC).
804:electrons
735:particles
727:rest mass
685:structure
616:reactions
592:molecules
480:mysticism
476:astronomy
472:astrology
448:chemistry
445:The word
435:Etymology
421:forensics
358:reactions
350:molecules
342:compounds
322:Chemistry
67:Chemistry
43:(journal)
7680:Category
7645:Category
7509:Category
7465:Molecule
7402:See also
6827:Physical
6456:(Wiley)
6434:(2001).
6172:Archived
6118:11 April
6093:11 April
6067:11 April
6017:11 April
5932:11 April
5807:10 March
5749:20 March
5743:Archived
5717:Archived
5686:Archived
5673:Archived
5649:Archived
5619:Archived
5607:: 1–45.
5549:97557390
5506:Archived
5374:(1938).
5339:Speculum
5313:Archived
5273:Archived
5153:Archived
5098:12 March
4986:Archived
4955:Archived
4896:Archived
4788:. Paris.
4738:Archived
4652:Archived
4631:Archived
4609:Archived
4590:Archived
4571:Archived
4546:Archived
4431:Archived
4325:Archived
4279:Archived
4256:Archived
4232:Archived
4173:21874691
4093:Archived
4021:Archived
3989:Archived
3959:Archived
3791:See also
3701:Industry
3675:oenology
3402:aldehyde
3400:with an
3303:polymers
3213:genetics
3116:Practice
3036:nitrogen
3004:electron
2930:British
2847:hydrogen
2754:chymista
2724:Avicenna
2635:Epicurus
2598:Epicurus
2537:Epicurus
2459:chemists
2450:(1661).
2341:kinetics
2185:values.
2146:hydrogen
1992:kinetics
1942:solution
1926:compound
1910:Reaction
1648:decrease
1644:increase
1587:hydrogen
1574:molecule
1543:chlorine
1519:crystals
1479:chlorine
1448:magnetic
1438:and the
1358:pressure
1323:solution
1050:radicals
1021:molecule
997:caffeine
987:Molecule
981:Molecule
947:compound
920:Compound
891:isotopes
840:covalent
832:metallic
800:electron
796:nucleons
792:neutrons
709:concepts
705:chemists
604:crystals
543:al-kīmīā
520:al-kīmīā
515:Egyptian
510:الكیمیاء
504:al-kīmīā
484:medicine
344:made of
282:Category
222:Research
184:Branches
114:timeline
101:Glossary
50:Kemistry
7665:Commons
7599:Outline
7521:Commons
7485:Alchemy
7001:Organic
6012:pslc.ws
5957:1 April
5882:1 April
5857:1 April
5692:18 July
5655:20 July
5512:12 June
5504:. BBC.
5491:, p. 15
5487:(1901)
5447:4 April
5417:4478114
5359:2851429
5146:(1985)
4720:6490305
4690:Bibcode
4658:12 June
4552:12 June
4471:13 June
4437:12 June
4331:12 June
4305:12 June
3935:12 June
3515:photons
3469:physics
3406:alcohol
3249:ligands
3242:hafnium
3026:at the
2998:of the
2983:Bottom:
2771:geology
2706:) from
2659:In the
2590:atomism
2552:Indians
2524:Alchemy
2438:alchemy
2387:History
2203:uction-
2199:Redox (
1868:, e.g.
1850:photons
1846:phonons
1591:lithium
1558:methane
1556:In the
1459:Bonding
1453:biology
1428:plasmas
1417:aqueous
1401:liquids
1369:density
1229:sucrose
1217:diamond
1097:krypton
1065:benzene
910:periods
874:protons
846:Element
788:protons
747:mixture
695:, e.g.
681:entropy
573:Germany
495:alchemy
458:alchemy
405:ecology
401:geology
393:applied
381:biology
377:physics
228:Chemist
110:History
96:Outline
7533:Portal
6679:UV-Vis
6558:
6544:
6530:
6516:
6502:
6481:
6460:
6442:
6415:
6401:
6352:
6338:
6322:
6308:
6294:
6259:
6236:
6213:
6141:
6040:
5992:
5905:
5830:
5779:
5711:. The
5578:
5547:
5472:
5415:
5407:
5357:
5310:online
5245:
5235:
5216:
5163:
5127:
5070:
5045:
5015:
4928:
4876:
4851:
4800:
4767:
4718:
4710:
4682:Nature
4462:
4358:
4271:IUPAC
4210:
4193:
4171:
4163:
4122:
4070:
4049:
3907:
3355:is an
3305:) and
3293:, and
3012:Pierre
2913:oxides
2859:oxygen
2786:Oxford
2750:chymia
2431:bronze
2427:alloys
2411:metals
2339:, and
2255:static
2093:Plasma
2055:cation
1842:quanta
1684:. The
1652:energy
1632:atomic
1626:Energy
1620:Energy
1599:helium
1539:sodium
1475:sodium
1403:, and
1397:solids
1259:alloys
1225:carbon
1213:sulfur
1141:silica
1125:per se
1085:helium
1059:A 2-D
906:groups
895:carbon
884:. The
860:blocks
739:photon
731:volume
721:Matter
715:Matter
677:Energy
612:states
608:matter
600:metals
549:χημεία
499:Arabic
482:, and
397:botany
326:matter
280:
132:Matter
6706:MALDI
6674:Raman
5545:S2CID
5393:(PDF)
5355:JSTOR
5302:Summa
5186:Ambix
4716:S2CID
4099:6 May
3613:(and
3038:with
2625:" in
2602:Roman
2587:Greek
2583:water
2579:earth
2457:that
2429:like
2423:glass
2413:from
2195:Redox
2189:Redox
2124:or a
2063:salts
2059:anion
2013:or a
2007:IUPAC
1739:force
1686:speed
1656:light
1527:VSEPR
1501:, an
1405:gases
1354:phase
1347:Phase
1333:Phase
1305:, or
1295:atoms
1281:6.022
1215:(S),
1105:radon
1101:xenon
1093:argon
1063:of a
836:ionic
826:(s),
745:or a
588:atoms
536:Kemet
529:χημία
501:word
389:basic
346:atoms
162:Redox
137:Phase
91:Index
7460:Atom
6728:HPLC
6556:ISBN
6542:ISBN
6528:ISBN
6514:ISBN
6500:ISBN
6479:ISBN
6458:ISBN
6440:ISBN
6413:ISBN
6399:ISBN
6350:ISBN
6336:ISBN
6320:ISBN
6306:ISBN
6292:ISBN
6257:ISBN
6234:ISBN
6211:ISBN
6180:2014
6139:ISBN
6120:2024
6095:2024
6069:2024
6038:ISBN
6019:2024
5990:ISSN
5959:2024
5934:2024
5903:ISBN
5884:2024
5859:2024
5828:ISBN
5809:2012
5777:ISBN
5751:2018
5725:2014
5694:2015
5670:Note
5657:2015
5627:2020
5576:ISBN
5514:2011
5470:ISBN
5449:2019
5424:2024
5413:OCLC
5405:ISSN
5243:OCLC
5233:ISBN
5214:OCLC
5210:VIII
5161:ISBN
5125:ISBN
5100:2013
5068:ISBN
5043:ISBN
5013:ISBN
4994:2020
4963:2007
4926:ISBN
4874:ISBN
4849:ISBN
4798:ISBN
4765:ISBN
4746:2017
4708:ISSN
4660:2011
4554:2011
4473:2022
4460:ISBN
4439:2011
4356:ISBN
4333:2011
4307:2011
4240:2012
4208:ISBN
4191:ISBN
4169:PMID
4161:ISSN
4145:Isis
4120:ISBN
4101:2023
4068:ISBN
4047:ISBN
4029:2020
3997:2020
3967:2020
3937:2011
3905:ISBN
3721:US$
3711:The
3513:and
3505:The
3495:and
3351:The
3232:The
3211:and
3153:and
3108:and
3098:urea
3077:and
3069:and
3014:and
2970:Top:
2895:and
2796:and
2752:and
2722:and
2665:gold
2596:and
2581:and
2571:fire
2550:and
2419:soap
2415:ores
2404:The
2126:base
2122:acid
2077:are
1893:iron
1838:size
1589:and
1505:, a
1442:and
1434:and
1409:iron
1371:and
1303:ions
1271:Mole
1257:and
1219:(an
1143:and
1119:and
1103:and
1089:neon
776:atom
774:The
759:Atom
753:Atom
729:and
699:and
679:and
644:and
391:and
379:and
354:ions
352:and
232:list
142:Bond
7470:Ion
6701:ICP
6684:NMR
5982:doi
5773:322
5609:doi
5572:440
5537:doi
5347:doi
4698:doi
4686:469
4153:doi
4149:102
3617:),
3467:or
3382:of
3240:or
2903:by
2746:al-
2702:or
2575:air
2201:red
2149:ion
2089:).
2085:(PO
2050:ion
2048:An
2044:Ion
1882:ESR
1878:NMR
1650:of
1646:or
1517:or
1360:or
1283:140
1255:air
1227:),
1223:of
1209:tin
1131:or
931:(CO
842:).
665:or
571:in
423:).
417:DNA
368:in
152:Ion
7682::
7200:/
7196:/
7048:/
6723:GC
6696:EI
6669:IR
6430:;
6376:.
6290:)
6255:.
6232:.
6209:.
6170:.
6166:.
6162:.
6111:.
6085:.
6060:.
6010:.
5988:.
5976:.
5950:.
5925:.
5875:.
5850:.
5775:.
5715:.
5643:.
5617:.
5605:98
5603:.
5599:.
5574:.
5543:.
5531:.
5457:^
5432:^
5411:.
5401:96
5399:.
5395:.
5353:.
5343:40
5341:.
5337:.
5319:).
5279:,
5241:.
5208:.
5178:,
5123:.
5121:88
5041:.
4984:.
4980:.
4949:.
4924:.
4736:.
4714:.
4706:.
4696:.
4684:.
4680:.
4668:^
4382:^
4350:.
4226:.
4167:.
4159:.
4147:.
4143:.
4091:.
4087:.
4019:.
4013:.
3987:.
3983:.
3957:.
3953:.
3693:,
3689:,
3685:,
3681:,
3677:,
3673:,
3669:,
3665:,
3661:,
3657:,
3653:,
3649:,
3645:,
3641:,
3637:,
3633:,
3629:,
3625:,
3621:,
3609:,
3590:,
3586:,
3582:,
3578:,
3574:,
3570:,
3566:,
3562:,
3558:,
3554:,
3550:,
3546:,
3542:,
3538:,
3534:,
3530:,
3526:,
3433:,
3429:,
3425:,
3421:,
3289:,
3207:,
3203:,
3199:,
3195:,
3183:,
3081:.
3042:.
2792:,
2788:,
2730:.
2577:,
2573:,
2477:.
2433:.
2335:,
2205:ox
2173:(K
2163:pH
1960:,
1948:.
1880:,
1876:,
1872:,
1870:IR
1833:.
1825:(H
1794:.
1745:.
1634:,
1455:.
1430:,
1399:,
1364:.
1329:.
1327:dm
1317:.
1301:,
1297:,
1291:10
1286:76
1261:.
1111:.
1099:,
1095:,
1091:,
1087:,
1036:.
1019:A
1005:10
977:.
945:A
916:.
838:,
834:,
818:,
673:.
652:A
626:.
602:,
598:,
594:,
590:,
586:,
478:,
474:,
470:,
466:,
431:.
372:.
348:,
7580:e
7573:t
7566:v
7434:"
7430:"
6601:e
6594:t
6587:v
6574:.
6448:.
6419:.
6286:(
6265:.
6242:.
6219:.
6182:.
6147:.
6122:.
6097:.
6071:.
6046:.
6021:.
5996:.
5984::
5961:.
5936:.
5911:.
5886:.
5861:.
5836:.
5811:.
5785:.
5753:.
5727:.
5696:.
5659:.
5629:.
5611::
5584:.
5551:.
5539::
5533:3
5516:.
5451:.
5426:.
5361:.
5349::
5331:"
5283:.
5249:.
5220:.
5133:.
5102:.
5076:.
5051:.
5021:.
4996:.
4965:.
4934:.
4922:1
4882:.
4857:.
4806:.
4773:.
4748:.
4722:.
4700::
4692::
4662:.
4556:.
4475:.
4441:.
4364:.
4335:.
4309:.
4242:.
4197:.
4175:.
4155::
4128:.
4103:.
4031:.
3999:.
3969:.
3939:.
3913:.
3499:.
3274:3
3269:2
3261:1
3226:.
3215:.
2989:.
2401:.
2365:.
2343:.
2183:a
2179:a
2175:a
2087:4
1827:2
1815:2
1777:0
1771:G
1715:T
1712:k
1708:/
1704:E
1697:e
1562:4
1289:×
1083:(
1075:)
1073:6
1071:H
1069:6
1015:)
1013:2
1011:O
1009:4
1007:N
1003:H
1001:8
933:2
882:Z
507:(
460:,
310:e
303:t
296:v
234:)
230:(
116:)
112:(
52:.
45:.
35:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.