375:
nerve. Indirect injuries, like blunt trauma to the forehead during a motor vehicle accident, transmit force to the optic nerve without transgressing tissue planes. This type of force causes the optic nerve to absorb excess energy at the time of impact. The most common site of injury of the optic nerve is the intracanalicular portion of the nerve. Deceleration injuries from motor vehicle or bicycle accidents account for 17 to 63 percent of cases. Falls are also a common cause, and optic neuropathy most commonly occurs when there is a loss of consciousness associated with multi-system trauma and serious brain injury. In less than three percent of patients, an orbital hemorrhage after an injection behind the eye (retrobulbar block) can cause injury to the optic nerve, but this is readily manageable if it does not involve direct optic nerve injury and is caught early. The role of high-dose steroids and orbital decompression in treating these patients is controversial and, if administered, must be done very soon after injury with minimal effects. In patients with an orbital fracture, vomiting or
283:, and rheumatoid arthritis can cause arteritic AIONs (AAION). The vast majority of AIONs are nonarteritic AIONs (NAION). The most common acute optic neuropathy in patients over 50 years of age, NAION has an annual incidence of 2.3-10.2/100,000. NAION presents as a painless loss of vision, often when awakening, that occurs over hours to days. Most patients lose the lower half of their visual field (an inferior altitudinal loss), though superior altitudinal loss is also common. The pathophysiology of NAION is unknown, but it is related to poor circulation in the optic nerve head. NAION is often associated with diabetes mellitus, elevated intraocular pressure (acute glaucoma, eye surgery), high cholesterol, hypercoagulable states, a drop in blood pressure (bleeding, cardiac arrest, peri-operative esp. cardiac and spine procedures), and sleep apnea. Rarely, amiodarone, interferon-alpha, and erectile dysfunction drugs have been associated with this disease.
464:, a drug commonly used to treat tuberculosis, is notorious for causing toxic optic neuropathy. People with vision loss from ethambutol toxicity lose vision in both eyes equally. This initially presents with problems with colors (dyschromatopsia) and can leave central visual deficits. If vision loss occurs while using ethambutol, it would be best to discontinue this medication under a doctor's supervision. Vision can improve slowly after discontinuing ethambutol but rarely returns to baseline.
458:, a component of automobile antifreeze, is a poison that is toxic to the whole body including the optic nerve. Consumption can be fatal, or recovery can occur with permanent neurologic and ophthalmologic deficits. While the visual loss is not very common, increased intracranial pressure can cause bilateral optic disc swelling from cerebral edema. A clue to the cause of intoxication is the presence of oxalate crystals in the urine. Like methanol intoxication, treatment is ethanol consumption.
294:
be associated with damage to the retina (radiation retinopathy). This is thought to be due to damage to dividing glial and vascular endothelial cells. RON can present with a transient visual loss followed by an acute painless visual loss in one or both eyes several weeks later. The risk of RON is significantly increased with radiation doses over 50 Gy.
501:
is an autosomal dominant disease caused by a defect in the nuclear gene OPA1. A slowly progressive optic neuropathy, dominant optic atrophy, usually presents in the first decade of life and is bilaterally symmetrical. Examination of these patients shows loss of visual acuity, temporal pallor of the
470:
is an antiarrhythmic medication commonly used for abnormal heart rhythms (atrial or ventricular tachyarrhythmias). Most patients on this medication get corneal epithelial deposits, but this medication has also been controversially associated with NAION. Patients on amiodarone with new visual symptoms
424:
Patients who have nutritional optic neuropathy may notice that colors are not as vivid or bright as before and that the color red is washed out. This normally occurs in both eyes at the same time and is not associated with any eye pain. They might initially notice a blur or fog, followed by a drop in
352:
Tumors, infections, and inflammatory processes can cause lesions within the orbit and, less commonly, the optic canal. These lesions may compress the optic nerve, resulting optic disc swelling and progressive visual loss. Implicated orbital disorders include optic gliomas, meningiomas, hemangiomas,
523:
While optic neuropathy cannot be outright cured, there are surgical options to alleviate pain and symptoms associated with such diseases. The
Endoscopic Endonasal Approach method (EEA) is a method of relieving pressure associated with tumors formed in the brain that press upon the optic nerve. It is
494:
is the most frequently occurring mitochondrial disease, and this inherited form of acute or subacute vision loss predominantly affects young males. LHON usually presents with rapid vision loss in one eye followed by involvement of the second eye (usually within months). Visual acuity often remains
396:
play a central role in maintaining the life cycle of retinal ganglion cells because of their high energy dependence. Mitochondria are made within the central somata of the retinal ganglion cell, transported down axons, and distributed where they are needed. Genetic mutations in mitochondrial DNA,
293:
Radiation optic neuropathy (RON) is also thought to be due to ischemia of the optic nerve that occurs 3 months to 8 or more years after radiation therapy to the brain and orbit. It occurs most often around 1.5 years after treatment and results in irreversible and severe vision loss, which may also
259:
In ischemic optic neuropathies, there is insufficient blood flow (ischemia) to the optic nerve. The anterior optic nerve is supplied by the short posterior ciliary artery and choroidal circulation, while the retrobulbar optic nerve is supplied intraorbitally by a pial plexus, which arises from the
215:
The main symptom is loss of vision, with colors appearing subtly washed out in the affected eye. In many cases, only one eye is affected and the person may not be aware of the loss of color vision until the examiner asks them to cover the healthy eye. People may also engage in "eccentric viewing"
477:
exposure, most commonly through pipe and cigar smoking, can cause optic neuropathy. Middle-aged or elderly men are often affected and present with painless, slowly progressive, color distortion and visual loss in both eyes. The mechanism is unclear, but this has been reported to be more common in
203:
Damage and death of these nerve cells, or neurons, leads to characteristic features of optic neuropathy. The main symptom is loss of vision, with colors appearing subtly washed out in the affected eye. A pale disc is characteristic of long-standing optic neuropathy. In many cases, only one eye is
374:
The optic nerve can be damaged when exposed to direct or indirect injury. Direct optic nerve injuries are caused by trauma to the head or orbit that crosses normal tissue planes and disrupts the anatomy and function of the optic nerve; e.g., a bullet or forceps that physically injures the optic
361:
The optic nerve can be infiltrated by a variety of processes, including tumors, inflammation, and infections. Tumors that can infiltrate the optic nerve can be primary (optic gliomas, capillary hemangiomas, and cavernous hemangiomas) or secondary (metastatic carcinoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma,
306:
is inflammation of the optic nerve, which is associated with swelling and destruction of the myelin sheath covering the optic nerve. Young adults, usually females, are most commonly affected. Symptoms of optic neuritis in the affected eye include pain on eye movement, sudden loss of vision, and
289:
is a syndrome of sudden visual loss with optic neuropathy without initial disc swelling with subsequent development of optic atrophy. This can occur in patients who are predisposed to AAION and NAION as described above as well as those who had cardiac and spine surgery or serious episodes of
366:. Opportunistic fungi, viruses, and bacteria may also infiltrate the optic nerve. The optic nerve may be elevated if the infiltration occurs in the proximal portion of the nerve. The appearance of the nerve on examination depends on the portion of the nerve that is affected.
353:
lymphangiomas, dermoid cysts, carcinoma, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, inflammatory orbital pseudotumor, and thyroid ophthalmopathy. Patients often have bulging out of the eye (proptosis) with mild color deficits and almost normal vision with disc swelling.
736:
Gaier ED, Jaimes C, Gise RA, Armstrong-Javors AE, Kadzielski SM (August 2024). Cabot RC, Rosenberg ES, Dudzinski DM, Baggett MV, Tran KM, Sgroi DC, Shepard JA, McDonald EK, Corpuz (eds.). "Case 25-2024: A 12-Year-Old Boy with Autism and
Decreased Vision".
344:, decreased color vision, and visual field loss (often central) are suggestive of optic neuritis. Recovery of visual function is expected within 10 weeks. However, attacks may lead to permanent axonal loss and thinning of the retinal nerve fiber layer.
425:
vision. While vision loss may be rapid, progression to blindness is unusual. These patients tend to have blind spots in the center of their vision with preserved peripheral vision. In most cases, the pupils continue to respond normally to light.
409:. Months of depletion are usually necessary to deplete body stores of most nutrients. Undernourished patients often have many vitamin and nutrient deficiencies and have low serum protein levels. However, the optic neuropathy associated with
452:. The person initially has nausea and vomiting, followed by respiratory distress, headache, and visual loss 18–48 hours after consumption. Without treatment, people can go blind, and their pupils will dilate and stop reacting to light.
260:
ophthalmic artery, internal carotid artery, anterior cerebral artery, and anterior communicating arteries. Ischemic optic neuropathies are classified based on the location of the damage and the cause of reduced blood flow if known.
1013:
267:(AION) includes diseases that affect the optic nerve head and cause swelling of the optic disc. These diseases often cause sudden rapid visual loss in one eye. Inflammatory diseases of the blood vessels, like
397:
vitamin depletion, alcohol and tobacco abuse, and use of certain drugs can cause derangements in efficient transport of mitochondria, which can cause a primary or secondary optic neuropathy.
487:
The inherited optic neuropathies typically manifest asa symmetric bilateral central visual loss. Optic nerve damage in most inherited optic neuropathies is permanent and progressive.
405:
A nutritional optic neuropathy may be present in a patient with obvious evidence of under-nutrition (weight loss and wasting), but also malnutrition due to picky eating as in
307:
decrease in color vision (especially reds). Optic neuritis, when combined with the presence of multiple demyelinating white matter brain lesions on MRI, is suspicious for
495:
stable and poor (around or below 20/200) with a residual central visual field defect. Patients with the 14484/ND6 mutation are most likely to have visual recovery.
606:
Sadun AA (August 1986). "Neuroanatomy of the human visual system: Part I Retinal projections to the LGN and pretectum as demonstrated with a new method".
340:
Medical examination of the optic nerve with an ophthalmoscope may reveal a swollen optic nerve, but the nerve may also appear normal. Presence of an
2100:
324:
1497:
276:
2169:
2095:
514:
is a condition that shows symptoms of short stature, congenital optic atrophy and brachytelephalangy. This condition is extremely rare.
1109:
216:
using peripheral vision,to compensate for central vision loss characteristic in genetic, toxic, or nutritional optic neuropathy.
2117:
2112:
1937:
491:
642:
1977:
204:
affected and a person may not be aware of the loss of color vision until the examiner asks them to cover the healthy eye.
2090:
286:
200:
from any cause. The optic nerve is a bundle of millions of fibers in the retina that sends visual signals to the brain.
2085:
1972:
1539:
264:
207:
Optic neuropathy is often called optic atrophy, to describe the loss of some or most of the fibers of the optic nerve.
1840:
1700:
693:
Carelli V, Ross-Cisneros FN, Sadun AA (January 2004). "Mitochondrial dysfunction as a cause of optic neuropathies".
1805:
388:
280:
444:. This can be a life-threatening event that normally accidentally occurs when the person mistook or substituted,
247:
where input from the eye is processed into vision. There are 1.2 million optic nerve fibers that derive from the
2380:
1898:
1810:
872:
1800:
1529:
1893:
1784:
1650:
17:
417:
deficiency can even be seen in well-nourished individuals. Gastric bypass surgery may also cause a vitamin B
105:
Vascular issues, inflammation, trauma, toxins, genetic mutations (e.g., Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy)
2291:
1982:
1967:
508:
is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by early-onset optic atrophy, ataxia, and spasticity.
1179:
1137:
1102:
511:
187:
None directly from optic neuropathy, but complications from underlying causes (e.g., stroke) can be fatal
151:
Addressing underlying cause (e.g., steroids for inflammation, surgery for trauma), vision rehabilitation
2107:
1903:
1877:
1835:
1830:
1695:
1568:
1556:
1512:
2286:
2174:
2080:
1927:
1772:
1573:
1519:
825:"Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy: correlations between mitochondrial genotype and visual outcome"
341:
219:
On examination of the fundus, a pale optic disc is characteristic of long-standing optic neuropathy.
362:
lymphoma, and leukemia). The most common inflammatory disorder that infiltrates the optic nerve is
1825:
1796:
1420:
1385:
1028:
527:
In genetic and developmental causes of optic neuropathy, no surgeries have been proven treatments.
314:
Several causes and clinical courses are possible for the optic neuritis. It can be classified in:
1082:
502:
optic discs, centrocecal scotomas with peripheral sparing, and subtle impairments in color vision.
97:
Ischemic optic neuropathy, optic neuritis, traumatic optic neuropathy, hereditary optic neuropathy
2296:
2050:
1850:
1370:
1363:
68:
2565:
2535:
2470:
2465:
2192:
1470:
1335:
1095:
498:
248:
130:
1057:
2650:
2508:
2184:
2152:
2281:
1867:
1862:
1820:
1635:
1551:
658:
Petzold A, Plant GT (2014). "Diagnosis and classification of autoimmune optic neuropathy".
272:
268:
8:
2586:
2460:
2260:
2143:
2135:
1923:
1887:
1872:
1727:
1507:
1287:
2216:
2197:
1947:
1855:
1779:
1732:
1544:
1480:
1465:
1325:
1274:
973:
948:
930:
903:
849:
824:
800:
773:
718:
505:
441:
379:
can force air into the orbit and possibly compromise the integrity of the optic nerve.
308:
58:
2540:
2437:
2202:
2062:
1845:
1502:
1408:
978:
935:
854:
805:
754:
710:
706:
675:
638:
588:
410:
120:
48:
823:
Oostra RJ, Bolhuis PA, Wijburg FA, Zorn-Ende G, Bleeker-Wagemakers EM (April 1994).
722:
633:
Miller NR, Newman NJ, Biousse V, Kerrison JB (2000). "Ischemic optic neuropathies".
437:
Lead, mercury, cobalt, arsenic, organic solvents, and pesticides have been reported.
2328:
2318:
2164:
2139:
2038:
1957:
1588:
1578:
1475:
1330:
1217:
1207:
968:
960:
925:
915:
844:
836:
795:
785:
746:
702:
667:
615:
578:
772:
Baj J, Forma A, Kobak J, Tyczyńska M, Dudek I, Maani A, et al. (March 2022).
2395:
2359:
2323:
1942:
1767:
1754:
1688:
1645:
1563:
1375:
1307:
1227:
1212:
1033:
671:
541:
455:
2625:
2477:
2422:
2265:
2033:
1962:
1744:
1714:
1660:
1614:
1485:
1358:
1292:
1282:
536:
303:
964:
619:
161:
Corticosteroids (for optic neuritis), other medications depending on the cause
143:
Managing risk factors like blood pressure, avoiding smoking, regular eye exams
2644:
2545:
2400:
2340:
2057:
2005:
1952:
1882:
1791:
1678:
1655:
1583:
1492:
1297:
1202:
449:
244:
1087:
1068:
1022:
2410:
2238:
1619:
1534:
1442:
1320:
1315:
1260:
1255:
982:
939:
809:
790:
758:
750:
714:
679:
592:
393:
376:
858:
251:
of the inner retina. Damage to the optic nerve can have different causes:
125:
Clinical evaluation, visual field tests, optical coherence tomography, MRI
2609:
2560:
2503:
2498:
2455:
2433:
2344:
2335:
2255:
2233:
2045:
2017:
1815:
1683:
1524:
1345:
1222:
1174:
1121:
1052:
840:
583:
566:
363:
228:
197:
110:
1005:
2530:
2493:
2417:
2405:
2349:
2310:
2131:
2021:
1380:
1245:
1063:
467:
461:
240:
156:
2581:
2555:
2429:
2375:
2363:
2248:
2243:
2228:
2224:
1762:
1460:
1437:
1250:
1197:
1192:
1169:
637:(2nd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 162–175.
179:
Common in individuals with risk factors (e.g., older adults, smokers)
166:
2620:
2385:
1919:
1722:
1353:
546:
445:
171:
Variable; some cases recover, others lead to permanent vision loss
2447:
2390:
1932:
1739:
1670:
1640:
1630:
1237:
920:
778:
International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
774:"Toxic and Nutritional Optic Neuropathies-An Updated Mini-Review"
474:
2550:
1452:
1429:
1149:
1017:
735:
635:
Walsh & Hoyt's
Clinical Neuro-Ophthalmology: The Essentials
406:
236:
2522:
822:
232:
433:
Many heavy metals and toxicants can cause optic neuropathy:
115:
Age, smoking, cardiovascular disease, genetic predisposition
1602:
1164:
632:
692:
478:
individuals who are already suffering from malnutrition.
440:
The most recognized cause of toxic optic neuropathy is
771:
995:
2151:
877:
Genetic and Rare
Diseases Information Center (GARD)
333:
multiple sclerosis associated optic neuritis (MSON)
564:
2096:arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)
63:Vision loss, reduced color vision, blurred vision
2642:
330:the neuromyelitis optica (NMO) spectrum disorder
949:"The Diagnosis and Treatment of Optic Neuritis"
325:chronic relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy
946:
1117:
1103:
277:eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis
2170:Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia
657:
1498:Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy
1157:
686:
651:
558:
1110:
1096:
816:
492:Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON)
471:should be evaluated by an ophthalmologist.
972:
929:
919:
904:"Clinical approach to optic neuropathies"
901:
848:
799:
789:
582:
567:"Steroid Treatment of Optic Neuropathies"
336:unclassified optic neuritis (UCON) forms.
321:relapsing isolated optic neuritis (RION)
135:Glaucoma, retinal disease, brain lesions
947:Wilhelm H, Schabet M (September 2015).
14:
2643:
2607:
2003:
1406:
1135:
1091:
605:
571:Asia-Pacific Journal of Ophthalmology
318:Single isolated optic neuritis (SION)
210:
1978:Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy
879:. U.S. National Institutes of Health
695:Progress in Retinal and Eye Research
235:of nerve cells that emerge from the
2101:non-arteritic anterior (NAION)
1938:Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
739:The New England Journal of Medicine
729:
287:Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy
24:
1973:Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis
953:Deutsches Arzteblatt International
894:
565:Stunkel L, Van Stavern GP (2018).
265:Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy
25:
2662:
1701:Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy
991:
577:(4). Philadelphia, Pa.: 218–228.
421:deficiency from poor absorption.
1806:Central retinal artery occlusion
707:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2003.10.003
389:Mitochondrial optic neuropathies
382:
281:granulomatosis with polyangiitis
73:Permanent vision loss, blindness
1811:Branch retinal artery occlusion
1540:Terrien's marginal degeneration
524:a minimally invasive surgery.
356:
298:
2608:
1841:Bietti's crystalline dystrophy
1801:Central retinal vein occlusion
1530:Pellucid marginal degeneration
914:(3). Auckland, N.Z.: 233–246.
902:Behbehani R (September 2007).
865:
765:
626:
599:
400:
347:
13:
1:
1894:Vitelliform macular dystrophy
1785:Posterior vitreous detachment
1651:Persistent pupillary membrane
1083:NCBI Genetic Testing Registry
552:
518:
482:
2381:Leber's congenital amaurosis
2292:Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
2004:
1983:Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease
1968:Persistent fetal vasculature
1899:Leber's congenital amaurosis
672:10.1016/j.autrev.2014.01.009
369:
89:Variable, depending on cause
7:
1180:Meibomian gland dysfunction
829:Journal of Medical Genetics
530:
254:
10:
2667:
1904:Birdshot chorioretinopathy
1878:Central serous retinopathy
1696:Focal choroidal excavation
1569:Corneal neovascularization
1386:Subconjunctival hemorrhage
1136:
386:
2616:
2603:
2574:
2521:
2486:
2446:
2371:
2358:
2309:
2287:Convergence insufficiency
2274:
2215:
2183:
2160:
2130:
2071:
2029:
2016:
2012:
1999:
1928:Primary juvenile glaucoma
1912:
1773:Cytomegalovirus retinitis
1753:
1713:
1669:
1610:
1601:
1451:
1428:
1419:
1415:
1407:
1402:
1344:
1306:
1273:
1236:
1188:
1148:
1144:
1131:
1122:Diseases of the human eye
1043:
999:
965:10.3238/arztebl.2015.0616
873:"Berk-Tabatznik syndrome"
620:10.3109/01658108609016475
428:
342:afferent pupillary defect
222:
183:
175:
165:
155:
147:
139:
129:
119:
109:
101:
93:
85:
77:
67:
57:
47:
39:
34:
1797:Ocular ischemic syndrome
959:(37): 616–25, quiz 626.
53:Neurology, Ophthalmology
2297:One and a half syndrome
2051:Foster Kennedy syndrome
512:Berk–Tabatznik syndrome
239:, leave the eye at the
2536:Argyll Robertson pupil
1336:Periorbital cellulitis
908:Clinical Ophthalmology
791:10.3390/ijerph19053092
751:10.1056/NEJMcpc2309726
499:Dominant optic atrophy
249:retinal ganglion cells
131:Differential diagnosis
2509:Scintillating scotoma
2175:Kearns–Sayre syndrome
2118:Toxic and nutritional
2091:posterior (PION)
1574:Kayser–Fleischer ring
2282:Conjugate gaze palsy
2153:Paralytic strabismus
2086:anterior (AION)
1868:Retinitis pigmentosa
1863:Macular degeneration
1636:Intermediate uveitis
1552:Keratoconjunctivitis
841:10.1136/jmg.31.4.280
660:Autoimmunity Reviews
584:10.22608/APO.2018127
273:polyarteritis nodosa
269:giant-cell arteritis
43:Optic nerve disorder
2587:Childhood blindness
2566:Parinaud's syndrome
2136:Extraocular muscles
1924:Ocular hypertension
1888:Epiretinal membrane
1873:Retinal haemorrhage
1728:Congenital cataract
608:Neuro-Ophthalmology
2113:Leber's hereditary
1780:Retinal detachment
1733:Childhood cataract
1545:Post-LASIK ectasia
1326:Orbital cellulitis
1275:Lacrimal apparatus
1044:External resources
442:methanol poisoning
309:multiple sclerosis
211:Signs and symptoms
2638:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2599:
2598:
2595:
2594:
2541:Marcus Gunn pupil
2517:
2516:
2438:Visual impairment
2305:
2304:
2211:
2210:
2198:Fourth-nerve (IV)
2126:
2125:
2063:Optic disc drusen
1995:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1709:
1708:
1597:
1596:
1503:Corneal dystrophy
1398:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1269:
1268:
1078:
1077:
644:978-0-7817-6379-0
411:pernicious anemia
196:is damage to the
191:
190:
121:Diagnostic method
81:Sudden or gradual
29:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
2658:
2605:
2604:
2369:
2368:
2360:Vision disorders
2319:Refractive error
2261:Brown's syndrome
2217:Other strabismus
2203:Sixth-nerve (VI)
2193:Oculomotor (III)
2165:Ophthalmoparesis
2158:
2157:
2149:
2148:
2140:Binocular vision
2073:Optic neuropathy
2039:optic papillitis
2027:
2026:
2014:
2013:
2001:
2000:
1890:(Macular pucker)
1608:
1607:
1589:Band keratopathy
1426:
1425:
1417:
1416:
1404:
1403:
1331:Orbital lymphoma
1218:Blepharophimosis
1208:Blepharochalasis
1155:
1154:
1146:
1145:
1133:
1132:
1112:
1105:
1098:
1089:
1088:
1069:Optic neuropathy
997:
996:
986:
976:
943:
933:
923:
889:
888:
886:
884:
869:
863:
862:
852:
820:
814:
813:
803:
793:
769:
763:
762:
733:
727:
726:
690:
684:
683:
666:(4–5): 539–545.
655:
649:
648:
630:
624:
623:
603:
597:
596:
586:
562:
243:, and go to the
194:Optic neuropathy
35:Optic neuropathy
32:
31:
21:
2666:
2665:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2657:
2656:
2655:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2630:
2612:
2591:
2570:
2513:
2482:
2442:
2396:Color blindness
2362:
2354:
2301:
2275:Other binocular
2270:
2207:
2179:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2122:
2067:
2020:
2008:
1987:
1943:Ocular hypotony
1908:
1768:Chorioretinitis
1749:
1705:
1689:Chorioretinitis
1665:
1646:Rubeosis iridis
1624:
1593:
1564:Corneal opacity
1520:Corneal ectasia
1447:
1411:
1390:
1376:Pseudopterygium
1340:
1302:
1265:
1232:
1228:Ankyloblepharon
1184:
1140:
1127:
1126:
1116:
1079:
1074:
1073:
1039:
1038:
1008:
994:
989:
897:
895:Further reading
892:
882:
880:
871:
870:
866:
821:
817:
770:
766:
734:
730:
691:
687:
656:
652:
645:
631:
627:
604:
600:
563:
559:
555:
542:Ophthalmoplegia
533:
521:
506:Behr's syndrome
485:
456:Ethylene glycol
431:
420:
416:
403:
391:
385:
372:
359:
350:
301:
257:
225:
213:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2664:
2654:
2653:
2636:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2626:Onchocerciasis
2623:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2601:
2600:
2597:
2596:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2578:
2576:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2527:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2490:
2488:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2478:Quadrantanopia
2475:
2474:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2452:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2423:Oguchi disease
2415:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2372:
2366:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2352:
2347:
2338:
2333:
2332:
2331:
2326:
2315:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2278:
2276:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2268:
2266:Duane syndrome
2263:
2258:
2253:
2252:
2251:
2246:
2236:
2231:
2221:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2189:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2146:
2128:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2077:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2043:
2042:
2041:
2034:Optic neuritis
2030:
2024:
2010:
2009:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1963:Phthisis bulbi
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1916:
1914:
1910:
1909:
1907:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1846:Coats' disease
1843:
1838:
1836:of prematurity
1833:
1828:
1823:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1794:
1789:
1788:
1787:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1770:
1759:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1745:Ectopia lentis
1742:
1737:
1736:
1735:
1730:
1719:
1717:
1711:
1710:
1707:
1706:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1681:
1675:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1603:Vascular tunic
1599:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1549:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1510:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1489:
1488:
1486:Photokeratitis
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1457:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1445:
1440:
1434:
1432:
1423:
1413:
1412:
1400:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1367:
1366:
1359:Conjunctivitis
1356:
1350:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1312:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1300:
1295:
1293:Dacryocystitis
1290:
1285:
1283:Dacryoadenitis
1279:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1242:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1231:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1161:
1159:
1152:
1142:
1141:
1129:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1107:
1100:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1076:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1060:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1025:
1009:
1004:
1003:
1001:
1000:Classification
993:
992:External links
990:
988:
987:
944:
898:
896:
893:
891:
890:
864:
835:(4): 280–286.
815:
764:
745:(7): 641–650.
728:
685:
650:
643:
625:
614:(6): 353–361.
598:
556:
554:
551:
550:
549:
544:
539:
537:Optic neuritis
532:
529:
520:
517:
516:
515:
509:
503:
496:
484:
481:
480:
479:
472:
465:
459:
453:
438:
430:
427:
418:
414:
402:
399:
387:Main article:
384:
381:
371:
368:
358:
355:
349:
346:
338:
337:
334:
331:
328:
322:
319:
304:Optic neuritis
300:
297:
296:
295:
291:
284:
256:
253:
224:
221:
212:
209:
189:
188:
185:
181:
180:
177:
173:
172:
169:
163:
162:
159:
153:
152:
149:
145:
144:
141:
137:
136:
133:
127:
126:
123:
117:
116:
113:
107:
106:
103:
99:
98:
95:
91:
90:
87:
83:
82:
79:
75:
74:
71:
65:
64:
61:
55:
54:
51:
45:
44:
41:
37:
36:
28:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2663:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2615:
2611:
2606:
2602:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2573:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2546:Adie syndrome
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2479:
2476:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2449:
2445:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2428:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2416:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2401:Achromatopsia
2399:
2398:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2341:Anisometropia
2339:
2337:
2334:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2320:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2277:
2273:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2182:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2144:Accommodation
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2058:Optic atrophy
2056:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2032:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1958:Keratomycosis
1956:
1954:
1953:Globe rupture
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1883:Macular edema
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1818:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1792:Retinoschisis
1790:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1781:
1778:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1712:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1687:
1686:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1679:Choroideremia
1677:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1668:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1656:Iridodialysis
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1626:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1600:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1584:Arcus senilis
1582:
1580:
1579:Haab's striae
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1550:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1493:Corneal ulcer
1491:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1471:acanthamoebic
1469:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1421:Fibrous tunic
1418:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1305:
1299:
1298:Xerophthalmia
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1203:Lagophthalmos
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1187:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1160:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1113:
1108:
1106:
1101:
1099:
1094:
1093:
1090:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1070:
1066:
1065:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1054:
1050:
1049:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1010:
1007:
1002:
998:
984:
980:
975:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
945:
941:
937:
932:
927:
922:
917:
913:
909:
905:
900:
899:
878:
874:
868:
860:
856:
851:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
819:
811:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
783:
779:
775:
768:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
732:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
689:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
654:
646:
640:
636:
629:
621:
617:
613:
609:
602:
594:
590:
585:
580:
576:
572:
568:
561:
557:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
534:
528:
525:
513:
510:
507:
504:
500:
497:
493:
490:
489:
488:
476:
473:
469:
466:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
450:ethyl alcohol
447:
443:
439:
436:
435:
434:
426:
422:
413:and vitamin B
412:
408:
398:
395:
390:
383:Mitochondrial
380:
378:
367:
365:
354:
345:
343:
335:
332:
329:
326:
323:
320:
317:
316:
315:
312:
310:
305:
292:
288:
285:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
263:
262:
261:
252:
250:
246:
245:visual cortex
242:
238:
234:
230:
220:
217:
208:
205:
201:
199:
195:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
168:
164:
160:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
132:
128:
124:
122:
118:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
70:
69:Complications
66:
62:
60:
56:
52:
50:
46:
42:
38:
33:
27:
19:
18:Optic atrophy
2651:Eye diseases
2436: /
2432: /
2411:Monochromacy
2343: /
2239:Heterophoria
2227: /
2072:
1926: /
1922: /
1826:hypertensive
1799: /
1620:Ciliary body
1535:Keratoglobus
1443:Episcleritis
1321:Enophthalmos
1316:Exophthalmos
1261:Trichomegaly
1256:Distichiasis
1158:Inflammation
1062:
1051:
1027:
1012:
956:
952:
921:10.2147/opth
911:
907:
883:28 September
881:. Retrieved
876:
867:
832:
828:
818:
781:
777:
767:
742:
738:
731:
701:(1): 53–89.
698:
694:
688:
663:
659:
653:
634:
628:
611:
607:
601:
574:
570:
560:
526:
522:
486:
432:
423:
404:
394:Mitochondria
392:
377:nose blowing
373:
360:
357:Infiltrative
351:
339:
313:
302:
299:Inflammatory
290:hypotension.
258:
226:
218:
214:
206:
202:
193:
192:
111:Risk factors
26:
2561:Cycloplegia
2504:Photophobia
2499:Hemeralopia
2456:Hemianopsia
2434:Vision loss
2345:Aniseikonia
2336:Astigmatism
2256:Cyclotropia
2234:Hypertropia
2046:Papilledema
2018:Optic nerve
1851:Sickle cell
1831:Purtscher's
1816:Retinopathy
1684:Choroiditis
1525:Keratoconus
1346:Conjunctiva
1223:Xanthelasma
1175:Blepharitis
1053:MedlinePlus
784:(5): 3092.
401:Nutritional
364:sarcoidosis
348:Compressive
229:optic nerve
198:optic nerve
78:Usual onset
40:Other names
2610:Infections
2531:Anisocoria
2494:Asthenopia
2487:subjective
2471:homonymous
2466:bitemporal
2418:Nyctalopia
2406:Dichromacy
2350:Presbyopia
2311:Refraction
2132:Strabismus
2022:Optic disc
1381:Pinguecula
1246:Trichiasis
1064:Patient UK
553:References
519:Treatments
483:Hereditary
468:Amiodarone
462:Ethambutol
241:optic disc
157:Medication
140:Prevention
2582:Nystagmus
2556:Mydriasis
2430:Blindness
2376:Amblyopia
2364:Blindness
2324:Hyperopia
2249:Exophoria
2244:Esophoria
2229:Exotropia
2225:Esotropia
1763:Retinitis
1461:Keratitis
1438:Scleritis
1371:Pterygium
1251:Madarosis
1198:Ectropion
1193:Entropion
1170:Chalazion
370:Traumatic
231:contains
176:Frequency
167:Prognosis
148:Treatment
49:Specialty
2645:Category
2621:Trachoma
2386:Diplopia
2081:Ischemic
2006:Pathways
1920:Glaucoma
1821:diabetic
1723:Cataract
1661:Synechia
1513:Meesmann
1481:Exposure
1466:herpetic
1364:allergic
1354:Chemosis
1288:Epiphora
983:26396053
940:19668477
810:35270784
759:39141857
723:15862778
715:14766317
680:24424177
593:29962119
547:Glaucoma
531:See also
446:methanol
255:Ischemic
86:Duration
59:Symptoms
2461:binasal
2448:Anopsia
2391:Scotoma
2185:palsies
1948:Red eye
1933:Floater
1740:Aphakia
1671:Choroid
1641:Hyphema
1631:Uveitis
1238:Eyelash
1034:D009901
974:4581115
931:2701125
859:8071952
850:1049799
801:8910489
475:Tobacco
327:(CRION)
2551:Miosis
2329:Myopia
2108:Kjer's
1856:photic
1755:Retina
1508:Fuchs'
1476:fungal
1453:Cornea
1430:Sclera
1213:Ptosis
1150:Eyelid
1138:Adnexa
1058:001622
981:
971:
938:
928:
857:
847:
808:
798:
757:
721:
713:
678:
641:
591:
429:Toxins
407:autism
237:retina
223:Causes
184:Deaths
102:Causes
2575:Other
2523:Pupil
1913:Other
1557:sicca
1409:Globe
1308:Orbit
719:S2CID
233:axons
94:Types
1715:Lens
1615:Iris
1165:Stye
1029:MeSH
979:PMID
936:PMID
885:2013
855:PMID
806:PMID
755:PMID
711:PMID
676:PMID
639:ISBN
589:PMID
448:for
227:The
1023:H46
1014:ICD
969:PMC
961:doi
957:112
926:PMC
916:doi
845:PMC
837:doi
796:PMC
786:doi
747:doi
743:391
703:doi
668:doi
616:doi
579:doi
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