32:
459:
447:
535:. In younger patients (less than 3–4 years of age), chemotherapy can delay, or in some cases possibly even eliminate, the need for radiotherapy. However, both chemotherapy and radiotherapy often have long-term toxicity effects, including delays in physical and cognitive development, higher risk of second cancers, and increased cardiac disease risks.
623:
background mortality). Before the fourth year, survival probabilities are nearly identical. Long-term sequelae of standard treatment include hypothalamic-pituitary and thyroid dysfunction and intellectual impairment. The hormonal and intellectual deficits created by these therapies causes significant impairment of the survivors.
341:, Group 3, and Group 4. Of these subgroups, WNT patients have an excellent prognosis and group 3 patients have a poor prognosis. Also, a subgroup-specific alternative splicing further confirms the existence of distinct subgroups and highlights the transcriptional heterogeneity between subgroups. Amplification of the
683:
Using gene transfer of SV40 large T-antigen in neuronal precursor cells of rats, a brain tumor model was established. The PNETs were histologically indistinguishable from the human counterparts and have been used to identify new genes involved in human brain tumor carcinogenesis. The model was used
641:
between the ages of four and 21 from several
European countries participated, the 5-year survival rate was between 85% and 87% depending on the randomization. Around 78% of the patients remained without relapse for 5 years and are therefore considered to be cured. After a relapse, the prognosis was
674:
The rate of new cases of childhood medulloblastoma is higher in males (62%) than females (38%), a feature that is not seen in adults. Medulloblastoma and other PNET`s are more prevalent in younger children than older children. About 40% of medulloblastoma patients are diagnosed before the age of
320:
Although medulloblastomas are thought to originate from immature or embryonal cells at their earliest stage of development, the cell of origin depends on the subgroup of medulloblastoma. WNT tumors originate from the lower rhombic lip of the brainstem, while SHH tumors originate from the external
622:
indicated 69% overall: 72% in children (1–9 years) and 67% in adults (20+ years). The 20-year survival rate is 51% in children. Children and adults have different survival profiles, with adults faring worse than children only after the fourth year after diagnosis (after controlling for increased
617:
The historical cumulative relative survival rate for all age groups and histology follow-up was 60%, 52%, and 47% at 5 years, 10 years, and 20 years, respectively. Patients diagnosed with a medulloblastoma or PNET are 50 times more likely to die than a matched member of the general population. A
489:
The presence of desmoplastic features such as connective tissue formation offers a better prognosis. Prognosis is worse if the child is less than 3 years old, degree of resection is inadequate, or if any CSF, spinal, supratentorial, or systemic spread occurs. Dementia after radiotherapy and
1576:
Burger PC, Yu IT, Tihan T, Friedman HS, Strother DR, Kepner JL, et al. (September 1998). "Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor of the central nervous system: a highly malignant tumor of infancy and childhood frequently mistaken for medulloblastoma: a
Pediatric Oncology Group study".
653:
daily during the radiation. The 5-year survival rate of patients with carboplatin was 82%, those without 68%. The
European SIOP PNET 5 study is currently taking place and will run until April 2024, in which an attempt is made to confirm the promising results with carboplatin during
490:
chemotherapy is a common outcome appearing two to four years following treatment. Side effects from radiation treatment can include cognitive impairment, psychiatric illness, bone growth retardation, hearing loss, and endocrine disruption. Increased
269:
and tumors are usually present for 1 to 5 months before diagnosis is made. The child typically becomes listless, with repeated episodes of vomiting, and a morning headache, which may lead to a misdiagnosis of gastrointestinal disease or
1612:
Merchant TE, Hua CH, Shukla H, Ying X, Nill S, Oelfke U (July 2008). "Proton versus photon radiotherapy for common pediatric brain tumors: comparison of models of dose characteristics and their relationship to cognitive function".
688:
as one of the genes involved in human medulloblastomas, but since only about 10% of the human tumors showed mutations in that gene, the model can be used to identify the other binding partners of SV40 Large T- antigen, other than
418:
with heterogeneous enhancement and a typical location adjacent to and extension into the fourth ventricle. Histologically, the tumor is solid, pink-gray in color, and is well circumscribed. The tumor is very cellular, with high
324:
Currently, medulloblastomas are thought to arise from cerebellar stem cells that have been prevented from dividing and differentiating into their normal cell types. This accounts for the histologic variants seen on biopsy. Both
3087:
2805:
345:
pathway is the best characterized subgroup, with 25% of human tumors having mutations in
Patched, Sufu (Suppressor of Fused Homolog), Smoothened, or other genes in this pathway. Medulloblastomas are also seen in
336:
In the past, medulloblastoma was classified using histology, but integrated genomic studies have revealed that medulloblastoma is composed of four distinct molecular and clinical variants termed WNT/β-catenin,
634:(usually WNT-activated). The current efforts are therefore moving in the direction of reducing the intensity of the therapy and thus the negative long-term consequences while confirming the high healing rates.
2746:
1526:
Schwalbe EC, Williamson D, Lindsey JC, Hamilton D, Ryan SL, Megahed H, Garami M, Hauser P, Dembowska-Baginska B, Perek D, Northcott PA, Taylor MD, Taylor RE, Ellison DW, Bailey S, Clifford SC (March 2013).
514:
Chemotherapy is often used as part of treatment. Evidence of benefit, however, is not clear as of 2013. A few different chemotherapeutic regimens for medulloblastoma are used; most involve a combination of
2566:
697:. Consistently, the treatment with Cxcl3 completely prevents the growth of medulloblastoma lesions in a Shh-type mouse model of medulloblastoma. Thus, CXCL3 is a target for medulloblastoma therapy.
253:
The cumulative relative survival rate for all age groups and histology follow-up was 60%, 52%, and 47% at 5 years, 10 years, and 20 years, respectively, with children doing better than adults.
667:
Medulloblastomas affect just under two people per million per year, and affect children 10 times more than adults. Medulloblastoma is the second-most frequent brain tumor in children after
671:
and the most common malignant brain tumor in children, comprising 14.5% of newly diagnosed brain tumors. In adults, medulloblastoma is rare, comprising fewer than 2% of CNS malignancies.
1923:
3187:
1995:"Hyperfractionated versus conventional radiotherapy followed by chemotherapy in standard-risk medulloblastoma: results from the randomized multicenter HIT-SIOP PNET 4 trial"
333:
formations are highly characteristic of medulloblastomas and are seen in up to half of cases. The classic rosette with tumor cells around a central lumen can be seen.
2558:
305:
Extraneural metastasis to the rest of the body is rare, and when it occurs, it is in the setting of relapse, more commonly in the era prior to routine chemotherapy.
2563:
317:
and the cerebellum. Tumors with similar appearance and characteristics originate in other parts of the brain, but they are not identical to medulloblastoma.
2594:
2085:"Outcome of children with metastatic medulloblastoma treated with carboplatin during craniospinal radiotherapy: a Children's Oncology Group Phase I/II study"
2457:"Tis21 knock-out enhances the frequency of medulloblastoma in Patched1 heterozygous mice by inhibiting the Cxcl3-dependent migration of cerebellar neurons"
2506:"Suppression of Medulloblastoma Lesions by Forced Migration of Preneoplastic Precursor Cells with Intracerebellar Administration of the Chemokine Cxcl3"
2178:
1795:
Fossati P, Ricardi U, Orecchia R (February 2009). "Pediatric medulloblastoma: toxicity of current treatment and potential role of protontherapy".
2718:
925:
Polkinghorn WR, Tarbell NJ (May 2007). "Medulloblastoma: tumorigenesis, current clinical paradigm, and efforts to improve risk stratification".
482:
may increase the disease-free survival. This combination may permit a 5-year survival in more than 80% of cases. Some evidence indicates that
433:
DNA methylation profiling of medulloblastoma allows robust sub-classification and improved outcome prediction using formalin-fixed biopsies.
1927:
1529:"DNA methylation profiling of medulloblastoma allows robust subclassification and improved outcome prediction using formalin-fixed biopsies"
235:(PNET), but it is now known that medulloblastoma is distinct from supratentorial PNETs and they are no longer considered similar entities.
1875:"Outcome prediction in pediatric medulloblastoma based on DNA copy-number aberrations of chromosomes 6q and 17q and the MYC and MYCN loci"
3050:
458:
446:
2135:
Smoll NR, Drummond KJ (November 2012). "The incidence of medulloblastomas and primitive neurectodermal tumours in adults and children".
486:
reduces the impact of radiation on the cochlear and cardiovascular areas and reduces the cognitive late effects of cranial irradiation.
2263:"Selected Childhood Primary Brain and Central Nervous System Tumor Incidence Rates by Major Histology Groupings, Histology and Gender"
1658:"Estimated clinical benefit of protecting neurogenesis in the developing brain during radiation therapy for pediatric medulloblastoma"
693:. In a mouse model, high medulloblastoma frequency appears to be caused by the down regulation of Cxcl3, with Cxcl3 being induced by
724:
3171:
3095:
3019:
2297:
2262:
2227:
675:
five, 31% are between the ages of 5 and 9, 18.3% are between the ages of 10 and 14, and 12.7% are between the ages of 15 and 19.
201:
in children. It originates in the part of the brain that is towards the back and the bottom, on the floor of the skull, in the
3222:
1309:
Ellison DW (September 2010). "Childhood medulloblastoma: novel approaches to the classification of a heterogeneous disease".
1656:
Blomstrand M, Brodin NP, Munck Af
Rosenschöld P, Vogelius IR, Sánchez Merino G, Kiil-Berthlesen A, et al. (July 2012).
31:
2857:
2711:
2605:
330:
326:
2036:"Relapse patterns and outcome after relapse in standard risk medulloblastoma: a report from the HIT-SIOP-PNET4 study"
841:
796:
390:
were identified in individuals with medulloblastoma. Additional pathways disrupted in some medulloblastomas include
3045:
1354:"Integrative genomic analysis of medulloblastoma identifies a molecular subgroup that drives poor clinical outcome"
2334:"A model for primitive neuroectodermal tumors in transgenic neural transplants harboring the SV40 large T antigen"
403:
232:
2704:
1830:
Crawford JR, MacDonald TJ, Packer RJ (December 2007). "Medulloblastoma in childhood: new biological advances".
224:. Tumors that originate in the cerebellum or the surrounding region below the tentorium are, therefore, called
2374:
2852:
3024:
2897:
3199:
Note: Not all brain tumors are of nervous tissue, and not all nervous tissue tumors are in the brain (see
642:
very poor. Despite intensive treatment, only four of 66 patients were still alive 5 years after a relapse.
246:
to different locations along the surface of the brain and spinal cord. Metastasis all the way down to the
2455:
Farioli-Vecchioli S, Cinà I, Ceccarelli M, Micheli L, Leonardi L, Ciotti MT, et al. (October 2012).
238:
Medulloblastomas are invasive, rapidly growing tumors that, unlike most brain tumors, spread through the
2684:
2559:
Brain and Spinal Tumors: Hope
Through Research (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke)
873:"Relative survival of childhood and adult medulloblastomas and primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs)"
3232:
2186:
746:
567:
Transcriptional profiling shows the existence of four main subgroups (Wnt, Shh, Group 3, and Group 4).
399:
831:
694:
3109:
751:
546:
of 260 medulloblastomas resulted in the following clinical subgroups based on cytogenetic profiles:
2948:
2943:
2735:
2616:
342:
338:
225:
2210:
Cancer
Incidence and Survival among Children and Adolescents: United States SEER Program 1975–1995
2034:
Sabel M, Fleischhack G, Tippelt S, Gustafsson G, Doz F, Kortmann R, et al. (September 2016).
2727:
1993:
Lannering B, Rutkowski S, Doz F, Pizer B, Gustafsson G, Navajas A, et al. (September 2012).
626:
In current clinical studies, the patients are divided into low-, standard- and high-risk groups:
619:
395:
206:
177:
40:
2298:"Selected Childhood Primary Brain and Central Nervous System Tumor Age-Specific Incidence Rates"
2867:
2862:
2796:
1401:
Northcott PA, Shih DJ, Peacock J, Garzia L, Morrissy AS, Zichner T, et al. (August 2012).
1102:
Dubuc AM, Morrissy AS, Kloosterhof NK, Northcott PA, Yu EP, Shih D, et al. (April 2012).
1053:
Taylor MD, Northcott PA, Korshunov A, Remke M, Cho YJ, Clifford SC, et al. (April 2012).
3164:
3123:
2847:
668:
491:
262:
1508:
3227:
3128:
2938:
1414:
1352:
Cho YJ, Tsherniak A, Tamayo P, Santagata S, Ligon A, Greulich H, et al. (April 2011).
1262:
1205:
1192:
Gibson P, Tong Y, Robinson G, Thompson MC, Currle DS, Eden C, et al. (December 2010).
551:
295:
8:
2971:
2201:
1873:
Pfister S, Remke M, Benner A, Mendrzyk F, Toedt G, Felsberg J, et al. (April 2009).
1032:
1013:
560:
Intermediate: gain of 17q or an i(17q) without gain of 6q or amplification of MYC or MYCN
475:
239:
221:
1772:
1747:
1746:
Michiels EM, Schouten-Van
Meeteren AY, Doz F, Janssens GO, van Dalen EC (January 2015).
1418:
1266:
1209:
313:
Medulloblastomas are usually found in the vicinity of the fourth ventricle, between the
3135:
3077:
2599:
2532:
2505:
2481:
2456:
2432:
2405:
2350:
2333:
2160:
2109:
2084:
2060:
2035:
1981:
1904:
1855:
1728:
1682:
1657:
1638:
1553:
1528:
1484:
1459:
1435:
1402:
1378:
1353:
1334:
1283:
1250:
1226:
1193:
1128:
1103:
1079:
1054:
950:
902:
807:
788:
291:
140:
2308:
2273:
2238:
2228:"Selected Primary Brain and Central Nervous System Tumor Age-Specific Incidence Rates"
1843:
719:
3148:
2892:
2757:
2627:
2537:
2486:
2437:
2386:
2373:
Ohgaki H, Eibl RH, Wiestler OD, Yasargil MG, Newcomb EW, Kleihues P (November 1991).
2355:
2152:
2114:
2065:
2016:
1896:
1847:
1812:
1777:
1732:
1687:
1630:
1594:
1590:
1558:
1489:
1440:
1383:
1326:
1288:
1249:
Jones DT, Jäger N, Kool M, Zichner T, Hutter B, Sultan M, et al. (August 2012).
1231:
1171:
1154:
Marino S (January 2005). "Medulloblastoma: developmental mechanisms out of control".
1133:
1084:
987:
942:
894:
837:
812:
792:
655:
543:
287:
124:
2667:
2083:
Jakacki RI, Burger PC, Zhou T, Holmes EJ, Kocak M, Onar A, et al. (July 2012).
1980:
for "International
Society of Paediatric Oncology (SIOP) PNET 5 Medulloblastoma" at
1908:
1859:
1642:
1338:
954:
3200:
2966:
2527:
2517:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2427:
2417:
2345:
2164:
2144:
2104:
2096:
2055:
2047:
2006:
1886:
1839:
1804:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1718:
1677:
1669:
1622:
1586:
1548:
1540:
1479:
1471:
1430:
1422:
1373:
1365:
1318:
1278:
1270:
1221:
1213:
1163:
1123:
1115:
1074:
1066:
934:
906:
884:
802:
784:
532:
266:
60:
2208:
1976:
2884:
2621:
2570:
1167:
499:
495:
351:
347:
2696:
2673:
2207:. In Ries LA, Smith MA, Gurney JG, Linet M, Tamra T, Young JL, Bunin GR (eds.).
1016:. In Wolff K, Goldsmith LA, Katz SI, Gilchrest B, Paller AS, Leffell DJ (eds.).
3009:
3000:
2930:
2670:
2632:
2148:
1808:
1475:
483:
275:
129:
2051:
1544:
1322:
1119:
1070:
3216:
3118:
3004:
2920:
2522:
2100:
2011:
1994:
1948:
1891:
1874:
1403:"Subgroup-specific structural variation across 1,000 medulloblastoma genomes"
1369:
649:. Depending on the randomization, half of the patients additionally received
503:
298:
are also frequent, and facial sensory loss or motor weakness may be present.
44:
2422:
1673:
1655:
600:
Intermediate prognosis: Group 4, gene expression of neuronal/glutamatergic,
3155:
3143:
2872:
2815:
2541:
2490:
2441:
2156:
2118:
2069:
2020:
1900:
1851:
1816:
1781:
1723:
1706:
1691:
1634:
1562:
1493:
1444:
1387:
1330:
1292:
1235:
1175:
1137:
1088:
946:
898:
816:
637:
In the HIT-SIOP PNET 4 study, in which 340 children and adolescents of the
479:
247:
133:
2390:
2359:
1598:
783:. Current Topics in Developmental Biology. Vol. 94. pp. 235–82.
3014:
2976:
2842:
2810:
2762:
650:
645:
A US study involved 161 patients between the ages of three and 21 with a
528:
524:
299:
283:
198:
2586:
1745:
1426:
1274:
1217:
630:
Depending on the study, healing rates of up to 100% are achieved in the
3159:
3072:
2915:
969:
938:
889:
872:
243:
217:
202:
2454:
1626:
1048:
1046:
2834:
2782:
2662:
2638:
520:
516:
502:. An approach to monitor tumor development and treatment response by
424:
314:
172:
1014:"Ch. 127. Neoplasias and Hyperplasias of Muscular and Neural Origin"
220:
below towards the back. They are separated by a membrane called the
3064:
2907:
2679:
2406:"From TP53 Mutations to Molecular Classification and Liquid Biopsy"
1043:
478:
of the tumor. The addition of radiation to the entire neuraxis and
279:
271:
213:
2643:
2033:
1525:
1194:"Subtypes of medulloblastoma have distinct developmental origins"
1101:
420:
376:
368:
2610:
2992:
2825:
2216:. Bethesda MD: National Cancer Institute. NIH Pub. No. 99-4649.
1055:"Molecular subgroups of medulloblastoma: the current consensus"
356:
3188:
WHO classification of the tumors of the central nervous system
2202:"CNS and Miscellaneous Intracranial and Intraspinal Neoplasms"
1251:"Dissecting the genomic complexity underlying medulloblastoma"
430:
The Chang staging system can be used in making the diagnosis.
1949:"Identifying Low-Risk Medulloblastoma to De-escalate Therapy"
1052:
1033:"Ch. 31. Intracranial Neoplasms and Paraneoplastic Disorders"
380:
372:
360:
2305:
Central Brain Tumor
Registry of the United States, 1998–2002
2270:
Central Brain Tumor Registry of the United States, 1998–2002
2235:
Central Brain Tumor Registry of the United States, 1998–2002
436:
Correct diagnosis of medulloblastoma may require ruling out
250:
at the base of the spinal cord is termed "drop metastasis".
1351:
1104:"Subgroup-specific alternative splicing in medulloblastoma"
847:
555:
437:
386:
364:
108:
102:
81:
66:
2372:
1992:
1872:
1400:
1191:
974:
Clinical Trials and Noteworthy Treatments for Brain Tumors
188:
About 500 children diagnosed annually in the United States
415:
391:
261:
Signs and symptoms are mainly due to secondary increased
231:
Historically, medulloblastomas have been classified as a
90:
75:
578:
Infants good prognosis, others intermediate: SHH group,
2503:
2332:
Eibl RH, Kleihues P, Jat PS, Wiestler OD (March 1994).
2331:
2082:
1829:
563:
Excellent prognosis: 6q and 17q balanced or 6q deletion
274:. Soon after, the child will develop a stumbling gait,
1794:
597:
amplification, photoreceptor/GABAergic gene expression
1611:
1575:
1248:
212:
The brain is divided into two main parts, the larger
96:
69:
2576:
99:
87:
84:
78:
72:
16:
Most common type of primary brain cancer in children
2375:"p53 mutations in nonastrocytic human brain tumors"
105:
93:
63:
924:
2726:
2179:"Chapter 7: Tumors of the Central Nervous System"
3214:
2199:
1748:"Chemotherapy for children with medulloblastoma"
427:, and a tendency to form clusters and rosettes.
414:The tumor is distinctive on T1- and T2-weighted
1704:
1304:
1302:
2403:
1970:
1968:
1707:"Liquid biopsy for monitoring medulloblastoma"
2712:
2134:
2130:
2128:
1457:
1018:Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine
1011:
778:
2448:
1519:
1299:
779:Roussel MF, Hatten ME (2011). "Cerebellum".
3051:Embryonal tumour with multilayered rosettes
1965:
1752:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
2719:
2705:
2504:Ceccarelli M, Micheli L, Tirone F (2016).
2125:
1579:The American Journal of Surgical Pathology
1460:"Development and cancer of the cerebellum"
1037:Adams and Victor's Principles of Neurology
829:
781:Cerebellum development and medulloblastoma
30:
2531:
2521:
2480:
2431:
2421:
2349:
2108:
2059:
2010:
1890:
1771:
1722:
1681:
1552:
1483:
1434:
1377:
1282:
1225:
1127:
1078:
1030:
888:
833:Focusing On Brain Tumors: Medulloblastoma
806:
747:"Medulloblastoma Diagnosis and Treatment"
714:
712:
710:
39:CT scan, showing a tumorous mass in the
3172:Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor
3096:Primary central nervous system lymphoma
3020:Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour
2404:Eibl RH, Schneemann M (February 2023).
1308:
866:
864:
506:is promising, but remains challenging.
3215:
2200:Gurney JG, Smith MA, Bunin GR (1999).
1921:
1153:
967:
464:Cerebellar medulloblastoma in an adult
452:Cerebellar medulloblastoma in an adult
2700:
1711:Extracell Vesicles Circ Nucleic Acids
1187:
1185:
1149:
1147:
870:
725:St. Jude Children's Research Hospital
707:
256:
2193:
1458:Hatten ME, Roussel MF (March 2011).
992:The Lecturio Medical Concept Library
920:
918:
916:
861:
836:. American Brain Tumor Association.
774:
772:
770:
302:attacks appear late in the disease.
2858:Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma
1705:Eibl RH, Schneemann, M (Sep 2022).
1506:
1035:. In Ropper AH, Samuels MA (eds.).
1020:(7e ed.). McGraw-Hill Medical.
354:. Recurrent mutations in the genes
13:
1182:
1144:
1012:White LE, Levy RM, Alam M (2008).
927:Nature Clinical Practice. Oncology
789:10.1016/B978-0-12-380916-2.00008-5
739:
678:
14:
3244:
2552:
2338:The American Journal of Pathology
913:
767:
3046:Atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumor
2137:Journal of Clinical Neuroscience
1591:10.1097/00000478-199809000-00007
457:
445:
438:atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumor
59:
2497:
2397:
2366:
2325:
2290:
2255:
2220:
2171:
2076:
2027:
1986:
1941:
1915:
1866:
1823:
1788:
1739:
1698:
1649:
1605:
1569:
1500:
1451:
1394:
1345:
1242:
1095:
1024:
662:
571:Very good prognosis: WNT group,
509:
308:
233:primitive neuroectodermal tumor
3140:Cranial and paraspinal nerves
2473:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0412-12.2012
1764:10.1002/14651858.CD006678.pub2
1005:
980:
961:
823:
620:5-year relative survival rates
474:Treatment begins with maximal
1:
2853:Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma
2728:Tumours of the nervous system
2573:MedPix Medical Image Database
1844:10.1016/S1474-4422(07)70289-2
700:
43:, giving rise to obstructive
3223:Small-blue-round-cell tumors
2898:Anaplastic oligodendroglioma
2089:Journal of Clinical Oncology
1999:Journal of Clinical Oncology
1879:Journal of Clinical Oncology
1615:Pediatric Blood & Cancer
1358:Journal of Clinical Oncology
1168:10.1016/j.molmed.2004.11.008
1156:Trends in Molecular Medicine
469:
409:
197:is a common type of primary
7:
2461:The Journal of Neuroscience
658:in the standard risk group.
612:
554:or amplification of MYC or
538:
10:
3249:
2149:10.1016/j.jocn.2012.04.009
1809:10.1016/j.ctrv.2008.09.002
1476:10.1016/j.tins.2011.01.002
498:or a ventriculoperitoneal
331:Homer Wright pseudorosette
327:perivascular pseudorosette
3196:
3180:
3108:
3086:
3063:
3033:
2989:
2959:
2929:
2906:
2883:
2833:
2824:
2804:
2795:
2771:
2743:
2734:
2653:
2580:
2510:Frontiers in Pharmacology
2052:10.1007/s11060-016-2202-1
2040:Journal of Neuro-Oncology
1922:Packer, Roger J. (2010).
1545:10.1007/s00401-012-1077-2
1509:"Medulloblastoma staging"
1323:10.1007/s00401-010-0726-6
1120:10.1007/s00401-012-0959-7
1071:10.1007/s00401-011-0922-z
830:Hinz C, Hesser D (2006).
752:National Cancer Institute
593:Poor prognosis: Group 3,
288:sixth cranial nerve palsy
184:
171:
167:Between 5 and 9 years old
163:
139:
123:
51:
38:
29:
24:
3025:Lhermitte–Duclos disease
2949:Choroid plexus carcinoma
2944:Choroid plexus papilloma
2523:10.3389/fphar.2016.00484
2185:. NEOMED. Archived from
2101:10.1200/JCO.2011.40.2792
2012:10.1200/JCO.2011.39.8719
1892:10.1200/JCO.2008.17.9432
1797:Cancer Treatment Reviews
1370:10.1200/JCO.2010.28.5148
618:population-based (SEER)
550:Poor prognosis: gain of
47:, in a six-year-old girl
2423:10.3390/biology12020267
1464:Trends in Neurosciences
1031:Ropper AH, Samuels MA.
871:Smoll NR (March 2012).
544:Array-based karyotyping
494:may be controlled with
484:proton beam irradiation
265:due to blockage of the
216:on top and the smaller
178:Five-year survival rate
2868:Anaplastic astrocytoma
2863:Fibrillary astrocytoma
2564:Medulloblastoma Images
1974:Clinical trial number
1724:10.20517/evcna.2022.36
3124:Esthesioneuroblastoma
2848:Pilocytic astrocytoma
1832:The Lancet. Neurology
1674:10.1093/neuonc/nos120
1311:Acta Neuropathologica
1108:Acta Neuropathologica
1059:Acta Neuropathologica
669:pilocytic astrocytoma
492:intracranial pressure
263:intracranial pressure
3129:Ganglioneuroblastoma
3034:CNS embryonal tumors
2939:Choroid plexus tumor
406:signaling pathways.
159:Handwriting problems
2972:Gliomatosis cerebri
1427:10.1038/nature11327
1419:2012Natur.488...49N
1275:10.1038/nature11284
1267:2012Natur.488..100J
1218:10.1038/nature09587
1210:2010Natur.468.1095G
755:. 17 September 2018
639:standard-risk group
240:cerebrospinal fluid
3136:Nerve sheath tumor
3078:Hemangiopericytoma
2654:External resources
2569:2009-01-30 at the
1982:ClinicalTrials.gov
939:10.1038/ncponc0794
890:10.1002/cncr.26387
586:amplification, or
292:Positional vertigo
278:, frequent falls,
257:Signs and symptoms
3233:Pediatric cancers
3210:
3209:
3149:Neurofibromatosis
3104:
3103:
3059:
3058:
2985:
2984:
2893:Oligodendroglioma
2791:
2790:
2758:Craniopharyngioma
2694:
2693:
2189:on 12 March 2012.
1924:"Medulloblastoma"
1627:10.1002/pbc.21530
988:"Medulloblastoma"
970:"Medulloblastoma"
968:Packer R (2002).
720:"Medulloblastoma"
647:high-risk profile
192:
191:
19:Medical condition
3240:
3201:brain metastasis
3165:Acoustic neuroma
2967:Oligoastrocytoma
2960:Multiple/unknown
2831:
2830:
2822:
2821:
2802:
2801:
2776:
2751:
2741:
2740:
2721:
2714:
2707:
2698:
2697:
2578:
2577:
2546:
2545:
2535:
2525:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2484:
2467:(44): 15547–64.
2452:
2446:
2445:
2435:
2425:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2353:
2329:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2319:
2313:
2307:. Archived from
2302:
2294:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2284:
2278:
2272:. Archived from
2267:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2249:
2243:
2237:. Archived from
2232:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2206:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2132:
2123:
2122:
2112:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2063:
2031:
2025:
2024:
2014:
1990:
1984:
1972:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1959:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1936:
1935:
1926:. Archived from
1919:
1913:
1912:
1894:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1792:
1786:
1785:
1775:
1743:
1737:
1736:
1726:
1702:
1696:
1695:
1685:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1573:
1567:
1566:
1556:
1533:Acta Neuropathol
1523:
1517:
1516:
1504:
1498:
1497:
1487:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1438:
1398:
1392:
1391:
1381:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1306:
1297:
1296:
1286:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1229:
1204:(7327): 1095–9.
1189:
1180:
1179:
1151:
1142:
1141:
1131:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1082:
1050:
1041:
1040:
1028:
1022:
1021:
1009:
1003:
1002:
1000:
998:
984:
978:
977:
965:
959:
958:
922:
911:
910:
892:
868:
859:
858:
856:
855:
846:. Archived from
827:
821:
820:
810:
776:
765:
764:
762:
760:
743:
737:
736:
734:
732:
716:
533:cyclophosphamide
476:surgical removal
461:
449:
421:mitotic activity
321:granular layer.
267:fourth ventricle
157:Change in vision
115:
114:
111:
110:
107:
104:
101:
98:
95:
92:
89:
86:
83:
80:
77:
74:
71:
68:
65:
34:
22:
21:
3248:
3247:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3213:
3212:
3211:
3206:
3205:
3192:
3176:
3100:
3082:
3055:
3041:Medulloblastoma
3029:
2991:
2981:
2955:
2925:
2902:
2885:Oligodendrocyte
2879:
2814:
2808:
2806:Neuroepithelial
2787:
2772:
2767:
2744:
2730:
2725:
2695:
2690:
2689:
2649:
2648:
2589:
2571:Wayback Machine
2555:
2550:
2549:
2502:
2498:
2453:
2449:
2402:
2398:
2379:Cancer Research
2371:
2367:
2330:
2326:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2300:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2265:
2261:
2260:
2256:
2247:
2245:
2241:
2230:
2226:
2225:
2221:
2213:
2204:
2198:
2194:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2133:
2126:
2095:(21): 2648–53.
2081:
2077:
2032:
2028:
2005:(26): 3187–93.
1991:
1987:
1973:
1966:
1957:
1955:
1947:
1946:
1942:
1933:
1931:
1920:
1916:
1885:(10): 1627–36.
1871:
1867:
1838:(12): 1073–85.
1828:
1824:
1793:
1789:
1758:(1): CD006678.
1744:
1740:
1703:
1699:
1654:
1650:
1610:
1606:
1574:
1570:
1524:
1520:
1505:
1501:
1456:
1452:
1413:(7409): 49–56.
1399:
1395:
1364:(11): 1424–30.
1350:
1346:
1307:
1300:
1261:(7409): 100–5.
1247:
1243:
1190:
1183:
1152:
1145:
1100:
1096:
1051:
1044:
1029:
1025:
1010:
1006:
996:
994:
986:
985:
981:
966:
962:
923:
914:
869:
862:
853:
851:
844:
828:
824:
799:
777:
768:
758:
756:
745:
744:
740:
730:
728:
718:
717:
708:
703:
681:
679:Research models
665:
615:
604:amplification,
541:
512:
496:corticosteroids
472:
465:
462:
453:
450:
412:
352:Turcot syndrome
348:Gorlin syndrome
311:
259:
242:and frequently
207:posterior fossa
195:Medulloblastoma
158:
156:
154:
152:
150:
148:
146:
119:
62:
58:
41:posterior fossa
25:Medulloblastoma
20:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3246:
3236:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3208:
3207:
3197:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3190:
3184:
3182:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3138:
3133:
3132:
3131:
3126:
3115:
3113:
3106:
3105:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3098:
3092:
3090:
3084:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3075:
3069:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3010:Retinoblastoma
3007:
3001:Ganglioneuroma
2997:
2995:
2987:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2980:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2963:
2961:
2957:
2956:
2954:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2946:
2935:
2933:
2931:Choroid plexus
2927:
2926:
2924:
2923:
2918:
2912:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2900:
2895:
2889:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2839:
2837:
2828:
2819:
2799:
2793:
2792:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2785:
2779:
2777:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2754:
2752:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2724:
2723:
2716:
2709:
2701:
2692:
2691:
2688:
2687:
2676:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2651:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2635:
2624:
2613:
2602:
2590:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2581:Classification
2575:
2574:
2561:
2554:
2553:External links
2551:
2548:
2547:
2496:
2447:
2396:
2385:(22): 6202–5.
2365:
2324:
2289:
2254:
2219:
2192:
2183:Neuropathology
2170:
2143:(11): 1541–4.
2124:
2075:
2046:(3): 515–524.
2026:
1985:
1964:
1940:
1914:
1865:
1822:
1787:
1738:
1697:
1662:Neuro-Oncology
1648:
1604:
1585:(9): 1083–92.
1568:
1518:
1499:
1450:
1393:
1344:
1298:
1241:
1181:
1143:
1114:(4): 485–499.
1094:
1042:
1039:(9e ed.).
1023:
1004:
979:
960:
933:(5): 295–304.
912:
883:(5): 1313–22.
860:
842:
822:
797:
766:
738:
705:
704:
702:
699:
680:
677:
664:
661:
660:
659:
643:
635:
632:low-risk group
614:
611:
610:
609:
598:
591:
580:PTCH1/SMO/SUFU
576:
565:
564:
561:
558:
540:
537:
511:
508:
471:
468:
467:
466:
463:
456:
454:
451:
444:
411:
408:
343:Sonic Hedgehog
339:Sonic Hedgehog
310:
307:
276:truncal ataxia
258:
255:
226:infratentorial
190:
189:
186:
182:
181:
175:
169:
168:
165:
161:
160:
143:
137:
136:
130:Neuro-oncology
127:
121:
120:
118:
117:
55:
53:
49:
48:
36:
35:
27:
26:
18:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3245:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3204:
3202:
3195:
3189:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3179:
3173:
3170:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3157:
3154:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3141:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3119:Neuroblastoma
3117:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3107:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3091:
3089:
3088:Hematopoietic
3085:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3066:
3062:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3032:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3005:Ganglioglioma
3002:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2988:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2941:
2940:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2932:
2928:
2922:
2921:Subependymoma
2919:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2909:
2905:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2816:spinal tumors
2812:
2807:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2770:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2722:
2717:
2715:
2710:
2708:
2703:
2702:
2699:
2686:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2669:
2665:
2664:
2660:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2634:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2623:
2619:
2618:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2601:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2591:
2588:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2543:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2492:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2451:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2400:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2369:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2344:(3): 556–64.
2343:
2339:
2335:
2328:
2314:on 2007-09-27
2310:
2306:
2299:
2293:
2279:on 2007-09-27
2275:
2271:
2264:
2258:
2244:on 2007-09-27
2240:
2236:
2229:
2223:
2212:
2211:
2203:
2196:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2131:
2129:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2079:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2030:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1983:
1979:
1978:
1971:
1969:
1954:
1950:
1944:
1930:on 2017-11-07
1929:
1925:
1918:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1826:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1742:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1717:(3): 263–74.
1716:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1572:
1564:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1539:(3): 359–71.
1538:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1495:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1470:(3): 134–42.
1469:
1465:
1461:
1454:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1317:(3): 305–16.
1316:
1312:
1305:
1303:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1237:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1188:
1186:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1148:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1098:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1065:(4): 465–72.
1064:
1060:
1056:
1049:
1047:
1038:
1034:
1027:
1019:
1015:
1008:
993:
989:
983:
975:
971:
964:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
921:
919:
917:
908:
904:
900:
896:
891:
886:
882:
878:
874:
867:
865:
850:on 2008-09-08
849:
845:
843:0-944093-67-1
839:
835:
834:
826:
818:
814:
809:
804:
800:
798:9780123809162
794:
790:
786:
782:
775:
773:
771:
754:
753:
748:
742:
727:
726:
721:
715:
713:
711:
706:
698:
696:
692:
687:
676:
672:
670:
657:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
633:
629:
628:
627:
624:
621:
608:amplification
607:
603:
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3228:Brain tumor
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2763:Pituicytoma
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1507:Allaham H.
656:irradiation
651:carboplatin
529:vincristine
525:carboplatin
350:as well as
300:Decerebrate
284:papilledema
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2916:Ependymoma
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684:to confirm
582:mutation,
575:1 mutation
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2674:radio/434
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521:cisplatin
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470:Treatment
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423:, little
410:Diagnosis
315:brainstem
296:nystagmus
222:tentorium
185:Frequency
173:Prognosis
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151:Tiredness
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