467:
440:
827:
496:
152:
1379:
2848:
31:
1334:(執帛, silk bearer). Their political offices also differed in name even where scope of responsibilities did not. Noble ranks, bestowed primarily as reward for military and civil service, and not in principle heritable, came with a state stipend. Holders of the highest ranks also received fiefs and the honorific title
1322:, the aristocratic ancestral temples and clan lineages sufficing to determine social position, without an additional expressly political dimension. Chu's formal system of rank appeared around the late Spring and Autumn period, similar to the remainder of the Zhou confederation, but with different titles such as
117:, this system retained its essential character, albeit with modifications in titles and their relative rankings, and fluctuating power dynamics between the great families, the imperial house, the ministerial and mercantile classes, and other stakeholders in the political economy of the times. After the
1418:
Other titles might be tailored down to a single individual being officially honored for a particular achievement, with or without executive portfolio following the granting of the title, and might truly be titles outside the executive government structure, even when words used in their phrasing would
246:
Titles translated in
English as "prince" and "princess" were generally immediate or recent descendants of sovereigns, with increasing distance at birth from an ancestral sovereign in succeeding generations resulting in degradations of the particular grade of prince or princess, eventually to nullity.
866:
as a model precedent in principles of government, so ranks of nobility in later regimes both in periods of unified sovereignty and of competing smaller states would typically draw from its catalog of peerage. From Zhouli, later
Confucian political philosophy and government publications, and from the
193:, denoted overlordship of several subordinate kings while refraining from claiming the title of emperor. Sovereigns holding the title of king of an individual state within and without the shifting borders of the Chinese political realm might be fully independent heads of foreign states, such as the
1004:
period, ranks were not systematized. There were titles that indicated political authority as well as those concerned with seniority in the ancestral temple. These were not mutually exclusive, and the names of some ranks could also be used as generic terms of respect to varying degrees in different
1120:
As central authority crumbled, the aristocracy found itself needing to signal who had more land, power, and resources. During this time the titles they had been using started to take on a more systematized structure. After a few hundred years, political thinkers saw this emergent structure and
349:
innovated the new term huangdi which would become the new standard term for "emperor." The title "Wang" should not be confused with the common surname, which, at least by middle and later
Chinese historical usage, has no definite royal implications. Rulers of these dynasties are conventionally
1432:
On the other hand, victorious generals were often granted official praise-names or names implying particular old and new duties or some combination of these, which would be quasi-executive or fully executive titles honored as much like peerage as like actual military rank, as in the case of
242:
Family members of individual sovereigns were also born to titles – or granted them – largely according to family tree proximity. This included blood relatives and affinal relatives. Frequently, the parents of a founding dynast would be posthumously elevated to honorary sovereignty.
525:, "Grand Empress") regardless of which spousal ranking she bore prior to the emperor's accession. In practice, many Chinese Empresses Dowager wielded great power— either as official regent for a young sovereign or with the influence of position within family social ranks. From
247:
Rulers of smaller states were typically styled with lesser titles of aristocracy, which could be upgraded or downgraded with or without royal assent. Sometimes such an alteration in grade reflected real power dynamics; in other cases it was merely an act of public relations.
219:, a term for king or prince, although the sovereignty of such relatives was limited. Local tribal chiefs could also be termed "king" of a particular territory ranging from vast to tiny, using convenient terms of the form "(locality)" + "king" such as Changshawang, "King of
830:
Funeral Drape of Lady Dai, personal name (married surname Li though in
Chinese custom she may have used a maiden surname even after marriage) Xinzhui (辛追), Marchioness of Dai, wife of the first Marquis of Dai, personal name Li Cang (利蒼) who was appointed chancellor of
317:. For the lists of the earliest, mythological rulers, both titles are conventionally translated in English as "Sovereigns", though translation as "Emperor" is also seen, which continues backwards in time the concept of an enduring political unity.
660:
It was a custom in China for the new dynasty to ennoble and enfeoff a member of the dynasty which they overthrew, so that they could maintain sacrifices to their ancestors. This practice was referred to as "the two crownings and three respects."
1030:. A term of highest respect, certain rulers (typically senior in the ancestral temple to the royal house), a term of address for any ruler within their own state, any ancestor within their own ancestral shrine, the highest government ministers.
1185:
present in its roughly analogous translations. These lineages, granted some of the largest and most promising peerages at the beginning of the
Western Zhou, tended to possess the most political resources, despite being technically second
1100:
could be used as a term of respect for anybody, could indicate the son of an extremely high-ranking aristocrat or minister, or could be used as a title for any ruler who did not accept the authority of the Zhou royal house over
809:
of 1911, when the
Republic of China allowed the last Qing Emperor to stay in the Forbidden City and keep his title, treating him as a foreign monarch until 1924. The descendants of Confucius were maintained in the title of
1243:
Titles of female members of the aristocracies varied in different dynasties and eras, each having unique classifications for the spouses of the emperor. Any female member excluding a spouse of an emperor can be called a
142:
ended the official imperial system. Though some noble families maintained their titles and prestige for a time, new political and economic circumstances forced their decline. Today, this class has virtually disappeared.
513:: Empress, Queen, Empress Consort) was a title granted to an official primary spouse of the polygynous male Chinese Emperor. It was also used for the mother of the Emperor, typically elevated to the rank of
1137:) below the royal ranks. This idealized structure was later implemented as policy during the early imperial period. Much later English translators attempted to map European-style feudal titles onto these.
272:
wielded varying degrees of power between different emperors and different dynasties, with some emperors being absolute rulers and others being figureheads with actual power in the hands of court factions,
1448:(modern-day Indonesia), the Dutch authorities appointed Chinese officers to the colonial administration to oversee the governance of the colony's Chinese subjects. These officials bore the ranks of
1161:: "duke", "lord"), held by some of the oldest lineages, still a term of highest respect in the Eastern Zhou, but with a more political character than the old sense of aristocratic honour.
1298:
eventually evolved into the generic honorific for all young gentry. Today it is either used as a flattering way to address an interlocutor's son, or a pejorative term for a wealthy man.
802:
170:. The title of the sovereign has changed over time, together with the connotations of the respective titles. Three levels of sovereignty could be distinguished: supreme rule over
638:, spurred by a royal house too militarily weak to defend its own lands, in combination with an aristocracy flexing its power in novel ways. A later example of this title is
1218:: "viscount", "master", "unratified lord"). Still a term pregnant with multiple meanings, by the late Eastern Zhou this title had found a place in the new graded hierarchy.
424:
allowed for a change in dynasty, and an emperor could be replaced by a rebel leader. The overthrow of an imperial house was sufficient evidence of the loss of the
Mandate.
420:
or consort of lower rank, but this rule was not universal and disputed succession was the cause of a number of civil wars. The emperor's regime in the political theory of
484:, rather than playing the role of a sovereign's consort or regent for a sovereign during his age of minority. Official Chinese histories list only one reigning empress,
1996:
Khayutina, Maria (2014). "Marital alliances and affinal relatives (sheng 甥 and 婚購) in the society and politics of Zhou China in the light of bronze inscriptions".
1070:. A birth order term of seniority within the aristocracy indicating the most senior male member of a sublineage along the primary (patrilineal) line of descent.
854:, the first empire whose realm would subsequently be considered to extend broadly enough to be national in the context of the territorial concept of China, the
2202:
1547:
634:-protector), asserted official overlordship of several subordinate rulers while refraining from claiming the royal title. This practice began in the
1318:
surnamed Xiong and its branch lineages of Qu, Jing, and Zhao formed the main nobility of Chu. Within the elite, Chu's early period mirrored that of
814:
until 1935 when the title was changed to
Sacrificial Official to Confucius (大成至聖先師奉祀官), which remains as a position to this day, currently held by
174:, relatively autonomous local sovereignty, and tributary vassalage. The supreme sovereign is the only office translated into English as the term "
2166:
Tackett, Nicolas. "Violence and the 1 Percent: The Fall of the
Medieval Chinese Aristocracy in Comparison to the Fall of the French Nobility."
2613:
2474:
2381:
867:
surrounding historical literature of particular individuals, localities and events, the following social classifications have been attested.
2751:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2638:
2509:
1290:
These honorifics occasionally became heritable titles, no longer indicating relation with the reigning king. Some clans even took them as
416:. Most often, the first-born son of the primary wife inherited the office, failing which the post was taken up by the first-born son of a
1488:
1390:
1462:, and had extensive political and legal jurisdiction over the local Chinese community. Their descendants bore the hereditary title of
489:
2633:
2587:
2195:
1493:
1368:
1987:
Li Feng (2008). "Transmitting
Antiquity: The Origin and Paradigmization of the "Five Ranks"". In Kuhn, Dieter; Stahl, Helga (eds.).
2804:
102:, by the end of which a clear delineation of ranks had emerged. This process was a function of the interface between the ancient
2791:
1977:
1628:
1594:
2826:
2537:
2522:
2272:
2188:
3176:
601:
481:
1121:
projected it idealistically and anachronistically backwards into a past where it had not actually held. This was called
328:
called themselves Di (Chinese: 帝 dì); titles of these rulers are generally translated as "king" and rarely as "emperor".
2542:
1915:
314:
2431:
1881:
1537:
1441:
to a rank phrased as General Who Exterminates Bandits (蕩寇將軍) during the active course of Guan Yu's military career.
769:
period were enfeoffed by their overthrowers and subsequently killed anyway. This specific vicissitude was shared by
3522:
3365:
2744:
2532:
1339:
1498:
1202:: "earl", "count"). This birth order term (meaning "eldest") came to carry a fully independent political meaning.
2718:
2680:
2663:
2414:
1871:
474:
1260:
Besides the systematized ranks listed above, there were also other familial appellations used as titles, e.g.
3517:
3421:
3388:
3340:
3235:
2698:
2628:
2572:
2284:
1620:
Empresses and Consorts: Selections from Chen Shou's Records of the Three States With Pei Songzhi's Commentary
2798:
2618:
2376:
466:
1559:
2869:
2814:
2737:
485:
122:
1947:(2018). "Where is King Ping? The History and Historiography of the Zhou Dynasty's Eastward Relocation".
125:, undermining the power of the hereditary aristocracy. Historians have noted the disappearance by 1000
3218:
2457:
2265:
1394:
1314:
had a notably distinct culture from the central plain states, including the nobility system. The royal
1178:
197:. In some cases, they could be subordinate to foreign emperors just as territorial or tribal sovereign
17:
134:
The last, well-developed system of noble titles was established under the final imperial dynasty, the
3512:
3024:
2938:
2675:
2371:
1503:
1264:(叔, a birth order term meaning "younger", used by extension to denote a father's younger brother) or
778:
72:
1177:: "marquess", "marquis", "margrave"), usually with the same emphasis on being a national borderland
1128:
762:
the title of "Marquis of Guiming". Sun Hao's sons were made junior officials in the Jin government.
3303:
3210:
2409:
2300:
2255:
958:
would inherit the title and retained the same rank within the system. Other sons from the consort,
774:
732:, who granted the previous emperor the title Duke of Shanyang (山陽公). His line persisted until 309.
635:
76:
3073:
3067:
3060:
2498:
2079:
Pines, Yuri (2014). "Zhou History and Historiography: Introducing the Bamboo manuscript Xinian".
1302:, on the other hand, is used today as the generic translation for the sons of a foreign monarch.
891:
571:, the next lower rank, but these were also titles of significance within the imperial household.
103:
94:
families existed as early as the semi-mythical and early historical periods, but the systems of
3317:
2038:"The Xinian: an ancient historical text from the Qinghua University collection of bamboo books"
1049:
224:
107:
1873:
The Kapitan Cina of Batavia, 1837–1942: A History of Chinese Establishment in Colonial Society
567:
Imperial Consorts, ranking below Empress, aren't often distinguished in English from imperial
3139:
2517:
2419:
2341:
2305:
1584:
1483:
990:
782:
178:". An emperor might appoint, confirm, or tolerate sub-sovereigns or tributary rulers styled
3355:
2809:
2146:
The Aristocratic Families in Early Imperial China: A Case Study of the Po-Ling Ts'ui Family
1905:
1350:
549:
499:
480:
It was generally not accepted for a female to succeed to the throne as a sovereign regnant
2175:
The Origins of the Chinese Nation: Song China and the Forging of an East Asian World Order
8:
3323:
3269:
3205:
3134:
3096:
2582:
2567:
2361:
790:
770:
755:
725:
502:, Regent of China considered de facto sovereign of China for 47 years during AD 1861–1908
421:
3383:
3350:
3228:
3223:
3200:
3045:
2959:
2906:
2786:
2690:
2233:
2125:
2096:
2067:
2059:
2021:
2013:
1956:
1669:
439:
223:". Changsha was briefly recognized as a kingdom, but was usually a political subunit. "
215:
Some Chinese emperors styled many or all close male relatives of certain kinds such as
1315:
826:
3330:
3308:
3298:
3293:
3264:
3259:
2933:
2831:
2592:
2577:
2527:
2336:
2245:
2228:
2129:
2071:
2025:
1973:
1911:
1877:
1661:
1624:
1590:
1533:
1445:
1291:
806:
604:
through historical periods, mainly regarding ranks of imperial spouses below Empress.
139:
3375:
3370:
3274:
3194:
3162:
3145:
3129:
2883:
2326:
2310:
2250:
2117:
2088:
2049:
2005:
1657:
1653:
1362:
1319:
963:
863:
832:
428:
353:
269:
220:
42:
227:" leaders could also be referred to by names such as Yiwang, "king of the Eastern
3345:
3171:
3123:
2991:
2597:
1618:
815:
514:
495:
470:
450:
443:
1349:
took a bit longer to overcome Chu's distinct culture, such that the Han founder
1279:(王孫, royal scion). Similarly, sons and grandsons of dukes and lords were called
3335:
3253:
3189:
3183:
3079:
3019:
2890:
2487:
2482:
2424:
2356:
2238:
2212:
2180:
2033:
693:
151:
3085:
2121:
2092:
3506:
3481:
3090:
2562:
2260:
1665:
955:
951:
895:(clan law). Male subjects were classified into, in descending order of rank:
811:
766:
674:
613:
413:
381:
367:
325:
310:
265:
194:
34:
785:, representing consecutive dynasties between 421 and 558. The child emperor
526:
3476:
2643:
2492:
1644:
Kohn, Livia (1992). "Review of State and Society in Early Medieval China".
1449:
1252:(公主), and incorporated her associated place into her title if she had one.
1147:
1010:
1001:
876:
847:
707:
702:
697:
686:
447:
332:
201:
135:
118:
99:
58:
3458:
3413:
3050:
2668:
2452:
2331:
2277:
1614:
1470:
1464:
1346:
1311:
969:
As time went by, all terms had lost their original meanings nonetheless.
851:
836:
670:
649:
580:
states that Emperors are entitled to the following simultaneous spouses:
393:
346:
321:
83:
38:
2100:
2063:
2017:
1960:
1673:
1378:
3450:
2623:
2054:
2037:
2009:
1944:
1558:, PhD dissertation: Columbia University, pp. 94–95, archived from
1271:
Sons of kings who did not receive other titles were generically called
870:
751:
678:
209:
3432:
2836:
2729:
2366:
2351:
1610:
959:
880:
859:
840:
568:
417:
114:
2975:
1111:). Rarely seen title applied to the rulers of two particular states.
747:, he and his family were granted noble titles under the new regime.
677:, Xia descendants were given a title and fiefs by the Shang King in
350:
translated with the title "king" and sometimes "emperor" in English.
106:, an increasingly sophisticated apparatus of state, and an evolving
3360:
2878:
2821:
2771:
2760:
2462:
2447:
1426:
1245:
936:
885:
786:
744:
639:
488:. However, there have been numerous cases in Chinese history where
95:
91:
3487:
950:(宗法, clan law), which applied to all social classes, governed the
3404:
3055:
2997:
1609:
1438:
1434:
759:
740:
736:
631:
576:
198:
190:
175:
171:
167:
87:
1991:. Würzberg: Würzburger Sinologische Schriften. pp. 103–134.
954:
of rank and succession of other siblings. The eldest son of the
850:
not only preceded the full unification of early China under the
159:
27:
Traditional social structure of Ancient China and Imperial China
2981:
2847:
2346:
1755:
925:
904:
855:
729:
274:
228:
205:
2108:
Pines, Yuri (2020). "Names and Titles in Eastern Zhou Texts".
1586:
Shape of the Turtle, The: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China
30:
3468:
2386:
1234:: "burgrave", "baron"). Title held by precisely two lineages.
54:
3440:
2968:
2391:
1827:
1353:, being of Chu origin, also awarded distinctly Chu titles.
377:
179:
155:
1791:
71:, and remaining a significant feature of the traditional
53:
represented the upper strata of aristocracy in premodern
966:
would be given titles one rank lower than their father.
1048:. Solely political term for certain rulers of specific
1005:
circumstances. The most common titles were as follows:
793:
experienced a similar narrative arc two decades later.
765:
A number of outgoing emperors during the kaleidoscopic
564:
1861–1908), some women unquestionably reigned supreme.
490:
a woman was the actual power behind the imperial throne
1815:
1704:
1617:; Cutter, Robert Joe; Crowell, William Gordon (1999).
700:, the Zhou King granted a Shang royal scion the title
370:
of China from its invention by the Qin dynasty in 221
295:, initially an appellation for deceased ancestors) or
281:
In the mythical age, the sovereign was titled either
239:, "native chief") might be used for the same office.
1803:
1779:
1767:
1721:
1719:
871:
Honors and awards, and clan law, of the Zhou dynasty
146:
121:, most bureaucratic offices were filled through the
1692:
1549:
The Transformation of Medieval Chinese Elites (850–
1530:
The Destruction of the Medieval Chinese Aristocracy
1345:The full systematization of ranks pioneered by the
1096:. A term with many meanings, most not listed here,
655:
1839:
1743:
1413:
1133:), five (aristocratic) peerage ranks (abbreviated
739:came from a cadet branch of the Han dynasty. When
408:. Many other unrelated appellations saw broad use.
2048:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 53–109.
1897:
1865:
1863:
1716:
1680:
984:
758:, the Jin Emperor granted the Eastern Wu Emperor
131:of the powerful clans that had dominated China.
3504:
2210:
2004:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 39–99.
1989:Perceptions of Antiquity in Chinese Civilization
1731:
434:
858:, Rites of Zhou were subsequently canonized by
648:), who styled himself Xīchǔ Bàwáng, Hegemon of
1942:
1860:
1761:
1389:Material may be incorporated from the article
1255:
45:, which is translated as "emperor" in English.
2745:
2614:Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers
2196:
1474:or the Chinese gentry of colonial Indonesia.
1126:
1903:
1582:
1489:Chinese noble titles in the imperial period
1391:Chinese noble titles in the imperial period
821:
2752:
2738:
2203:
2189:
1904:Blussâe, Lâeonard; Chen, Menghong (2003).
392:to form the new, grander title. Since the
2588:Grand coordinator and provincial governor
2053:
1995:
1972:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1710:
1494:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
1369:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
1356:
313:). These mythical rulers were called the
1970:Bureaucracy and the State in Early China
1907:The Archives of the Kong Koan of Batavia
1419:otherwise imply executive office, e.g.,
981:(士) became synonyms of court officials.
879:is sometimes referred to as the Chinese
825:
494:
465:
438:
150:
29:
2032:
1869:
1797:
1545:
1527:
14:
3505:
2759:
2158:
231:", while in other cases terms such as
2733:
2184:
2107:
2078:
1809:
1785:
1773:
1698:
1275:(王子, king's son), and their children
1238:
910:the ministers (of the royal court) –
796:
277:, the bureaucracy or noble families.
1643:
1372:
889:(enfeoffment and establishment) and
162:, mythical early sovereigns of China
2606:
1986:
1967:
1845:
1833:
1821:
1749:
1737:
1725:
1686:
1140:
669:It is said that when the purported
602:Ranks of Imperial Consorts in China
204:might be subject to one of several
24:
2177:(Cambridge University Press, 2017)
2138:
713:
315:Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors
25:
3534:
1546:Tackett, Nicolas Olivier (2006),
1181:lord as indicated by the element
412:The title of emperor was usually
250:
147:Sovereign and ruling family ranks
2846:
1377:
664:
656:Two crownings and three respects
166:The apex of the nobility is the
2116:(5–6). Leiden: Brill: 714–720.
2087:(4/5). Leiden: Brill: 287–324.
1851:
1623:. University of Hawai’i Press.
1499:Imperial, royal and noble ranks
1414:Other historical Chinese titles
1305:
1115:
995:
554:
531:
456:
366:) was the title of the Chinese
2415:Three Lords and Nine Ministers
2153:The Medieval Chinese Oligarchy
1658:10.1080/02549948.1992.11731237
1637:
1603:
1576:
1521:
1316:ancestral temple kinship group
1230:
1214:
1198:
1173:
1157:
985:Peer ranks of the Zhou dynasty
414:transmitted from father to son
362:
341:
305:
291:
13:
1:
2629:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
1955:(1). Academica Sinica: 1–27.
1509:
743:defeated the Shu Han Emperor
473:(left) with her older sister
435:Imperial spouses and consorts
431:, including forms of address.
140:Republican Revolution of 1911
96:enfeoffment and establishment
62:
1532:. Harvard University Press.
1514:
7:
1477:
1330:(執珪, jade scepter bearer),
1256:Other titles and honorifics
883:and was the combination of
692:When the Shang dynasty was
607:
400:began to be abbreviated to
123:imperial examination system
10:
3539:
2458:Bureau of Military Affairs
2382:Territorial administration
2266:Heirloom Seal of the Realm
2168:American Historical Review
1935:
1589:. SUNY Press. p. 59.
1425:(都護; Duhu) – for example,
1366:
1360:
988:
611:
599:
587:3 Madames or Consorts (夫人)
446:, favoured consort of the
426:
331:The sovereigns during the
320:The sovereigns during the
255:
3467:
3449:
3431:
3412:
3403:
3284:
3246:
3155:
3116:
3109:
3035:
3009:
2947:
2926:
2919:
2899:
2862:
2855:
2844:
2779:
2768:
2689:
2676:Embroidered Uniform Guard
2656:
2555:
2508:
2473:
2440:
2402:
2319:
2293:
2219:
2144:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley.
2122:10.1163/15685322-10656P06
2093:10.1163/15685322-10045P01
1528:Tackett, Nicolas (2014).
1504:Social structure of China
1225:
1209:
1193:
1168:
1152:
1127:
1108:
1077:
1059:
1037:
1015:
875:The social system of the
779:Emperor He of Southern Qi
682:
627:
590:9 Imperial Concubines (嬪)
518:
510:
357:
336:
300:
286:
236:
2639:Administrative divisions
2161:Rise of the Tang Dynasty
1836:, pp. 106–108, 126.
1287:(公孫, noble descendant).
822:Pre-imperial aristocracy
805:all the way through the
775:Emperor Shun of Liu Song
728:abdicated his throne to
636:Spring and Autumn period
335:called themselves Wang (
185:As a title of nobility,
3523:Social history of China
2770:(*) : state where
2499:Secretariat-Chancellery
2159:Romane, Julian (2018),
2155:(Westview Press, 1977).
384:combined the two words
104:patriarchal clan system
41:, created the title of
2170:124.3 (2019): 933–937.
1876:. Jakarta: Djambatan.
1870:Lohanda, Mona (1996).
1468:, and constituted the
1459:Luitenant der Chinezen
1387:This section is empty.
1357:After the Zhou dynasty
1050:ancient Chinese states
843:
673:was overthrown by the
596:81 Imperial Wives (御妻)
503:
477:
463:
376:until the fall of the
163:
108:geopolitical situation
98:only developed in the
46:
2573:Imperial Commissioner
2518:Ministry of Personnel
2420:Three Ducal Ministers
2342:Imperial examinations
2306:Mandarin (bureaucrat)
2148:(Cambridge UP, 1978).
1762:Chen and Pines (2018)
1484:Zhou dynasty nobility
1283:(公子, duke's son) and
1268:(舅, maternal uncle).
991:Zhou dynasty nobility
829:
783:Emperor Jing of Liang
600:Further information:
498:
469:
442:
427:Further information:
380:dynasty in 1911. The
154:
75:until the end of the
33:
3518:Chinese royal titles
2681:Qing Imperial Guards
2664:Tang Imperial Guards
1910:. Amsterdam: BRILL.
1583:Sarah Allan (1991).
1326:(通侯, marquis-peer),
899:the landed nobles –
862:among his Confucian
754:was defeated by the
550:Empress Dowager Cixi
500:Empress Dowager Cixi
382:first emperor of Qin
2832:South Africa (Zulu)
2583:Imperial Clan Court
2568:Remonstrance Bureau
2538:Ministry of Justice
2523:Ministry of Revenue
2377:Historical capitals
2362:Academies (Shuyuan)
1824:, pp. 120–123.
1338:(君, lord), such as
791:Northern Qi dynasty
771:Emperor Gong of Jin
756:Western Jin dynasty
726:Emperor Xian of Han
2173:Tackett, Nicolas.
2055:10.1017/eac.2016.2
2010:10.1017/eac.2014.7
1800:, pp. 64, 67.
1393:. You can help by
1239:Female aristocracy
917:the bureaucrats –
844:
803:practice continued
797:Later developments
618:Sovereigns styled
504:
486:Empress Wu of Tang
478:
464:
164:
113:In the subsequent
47:
3500:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3399:
3398:
3313:Baltic countries
3105:
3104:
2915:
2914:
2727:
2726:
2652:
2651:
2593:Viceroys in China
2578:Grand Secretariat
2551:
2550:
2543:Ministry of Works
2528:Ministry of Rites
2475:Three Departments
2432:Translated titles
2337:Five Directorates
1979:978-0-521-88447-1
1764:, pp. 15–16.
1630:978-0-8248-1945-3
1596:978-0-7914-9449-3
1446:Dutch East Indies
1423:Protector General
1411:
1410:
807:Xinhai Revolution
309:, a deity of the
51:nobility of China
37:, founder of the
16:(Redirected from
3530:
3513:Chinese nobility
3459:Marshall Islands
3410:
3409:
3285:Central, Eastern
3114:
3113:
2924:
2923:
2860:
2859:
2850:
2754:
2747:
2740:
2731:
2730:
2604:
2603:
2471:
2470:
2372:Tributary system
2327:Nine-rank system
2311:Scholar-official
2301:Grand Chancellor
2205:
2198:
2191:
2182:
2181:
2163:
2151:Johnson, David.
2133:
2104:
2075:
2057:
2029:
1992:
1983:
1968:Li Feng (2008).
1964:
1929:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1890:
1867:
1858:
1855:
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1813:
1807:
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1795:
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1777:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1741:
1735:
1729:
1723:
1714:
1711:Khayutina (2014)
1708:
1702:
1696:
1690:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1646:Monumenta Serica
1641:
1635:
1634:
1607:
1601:
1600:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1570:
1564:
1557:
1552:
1543:
1525:
1406:
1403:
1381:
1373:
1363:Nine-rank system
1320:Predynastic Zhou
1232:
1227:
1216:
1211:
1200:
1195:
1175:
1170:
1159:
1154:
1141:Male aristocracy
1132:
1131:
1110:
1079:
1061:
1039:
1017:
864:Chinese classics
833:Changsha Kingdom
735:The Emperors of
723:
722:
684:
647:
646:
629:
563:
562:
558:
556:
547:
546:
541:
540:
535:
533:
520:
512:
482:in her own right
462:
460:
458:
429:Emperor of China
422:Heaven's mandate
375:
374:
364:
359:
343:
338:
307:
302:
293:
288:
238:
130:
129:
82:The concepts of
73:social structure
70:
69:
64:
57:, acting as the
21:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3528:
3527:
3503:
3502:
3501:
3492:
3463:
3445:
3427:
3395:
3286:
3280:
3242:
3184:The Netherlands
3151:
3101:
3031:
3005:
2943:
2911:
2895:
2851:
2842:
2775:
2764:
2758:
2728:
2723:
2685:
2657:Imperial guards
2648:
2602:
2598:Mandarin square
2547:
2533:Ministry of War
2504:
2469:
2441:Middle Imperial
2436:
2398:
2315:
2289:
2215:
2209:
2141:
2139:Further reading
2136:
2034:Milburn, Olivia
1980:
1938:
1933:
1932:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1902:
1898:
1888:
1886:
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1401:
1398:
1382:
1371:
1365:
1359:
1308:
1258:
1241:
1143:
1118:
1086:unratified lord
998:
993:
987:
873:
824:
816:Kung Tsui-chang
799:
720:
719:
716:
714:Era of disunity
667:
658:
644:
643:
616:
610:
605:
560:
559:
553:
544:
543:
538:
537:
530:
515:Empress Dowager
455:
453:
451:Guangxu Emperor
437:
432:
372:
371:
270:Chinese emperor
258:
253:
149:
127:
126:
77:imperial period
67:
66:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3536:
3526:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3498:
3497:
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3493:
3491:
3490:
3485:
3479:
3477:Samoan Islands
3473:
3471:
3465:
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3462:
3461:
3455:
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3444:
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3397:
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3391:
3386:
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3373:
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3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
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3333:
3328:
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3326:
3321:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3290:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3278:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3250:
3248:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3236:United Kingdom
3233:
3232:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3195:United Kingdom
3192:
3187:
3181:
3180:
3179:
3174:
3166:
3159:
3157:
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3094:
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3077:
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3039:
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3033:
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3029:
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3027:
3022:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3006:
3004:
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3002:
3001:
2994:
2986:
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2979:
2972:
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2921:
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2913:
2912:
2910:
2909:
2903:
2901:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2893:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2884:post-Columbian
2881:
2873:
2866:
2864:
2857:
2853:
2852:
2845:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
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2817:
2807:
2802:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2776:
2769:
2766:
2765:
2757:
2756:
2749:
2742:
2734:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2695:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2672:
2671:
2660:
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2649:
2647:
2646:
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2636:
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2608:
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2595:
2590:
2585:
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2565:
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2552:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2514:
2512:
2510:Six Ministries
2506:
2505:
2503:
2502:
2495:
2490:
2488:Zhongshu Sheng
2485:
2483:Shangshu Sheng
2479:
2477:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2455:
2450:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2434:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2425:Nine Ministers
2422:
2412:
2406:
2404:
2403:Early Imperial
2400:
2399:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2357:Hanlin Academy
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2323:
2321:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2297:
2295:
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2290:
2288:
2287:
2282:
2281:
2280:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2248:
2243:
2242:
2241:
2231:
2225:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2213:Imperial China
2211:Government of
2208:
2207:
2200:
2193:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2171:
2164:
2156:
2149:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2134:
2105:
2076:
2030:
1993:
1984:
1978:
1965:
1943:Chen Minzhen;
1939:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1930:
1917:978-9004131576
1916:
1896:
1882:
1859:
1850:
1848:, p. 127.
1838:
1826:
1814:
1812:, p. 715.
1802:
1798:Milburn (2016)
1790:
1788:, p. 318.
1778:
1776:, p. 717.
1766:
1754:
1752:, p. 112.
1742:
1730:
1728:, p. 113.
1715:
1703:
1701:, p. 716.
1691:
1689:, p. 114.
1679:
1636:
1629:
1602:
1595:
1575:
1538:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1501:
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1408:
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1383:
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1358:
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1307:
1304:
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1254:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1235:
1219:
1203:
1187:
1162:
1142:
1139:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1112:
1102:
1071:
1053:
1031:
997:
994:
989:Main article:
986:
983:
945:
944:
933:
922:
915:
908:
872:
869:
823:
820:
798:
795:
715:
712:
666:
663:
657:
654:
612:Main article:
609:
606:
598:
597:
594:
593:27 Shifus (世婦)
591:
588:
585:
584:1 Empress (皇后)
436:
433:
410:
409:
351:
345:). before the
329:
318:
260:Also known as
257:
254:
252:
251:Imperial house
249:
148:
145:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3535:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3489:
3486:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3474:
3472:
3470:
3466:
3460:
3457:
3456:
3454:
3452:
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3442:
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3438:
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3420:
3419:
3417:
3415:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3381:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
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3357:
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3352:
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3339:
3337:
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3322:
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3312:
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3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
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3292:
3291:
3289:
3283:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3245:
3237:
3234:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3216:
3214:
3212:
3211:Great Britain
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3185:
3182:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3169:
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3164:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3112:
3108:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3075:
3072:
3069:
3066:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3043:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3034:
3026:
3025:Indo-European
3023:
3021:
3018:
3017:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3000:
2999:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2977:
2973:
2971:
2970:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2946:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2918:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2902:
2898:
2892:
2889:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2879:pre-Columbian
2877:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2854:
2849:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2800:
2797:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2778:
2773:
2767:
2762:
2755:
2750:
2748:
2743:
2741:
2736:
2735:
2732:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2688:
2682:
2679:
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2674:
2670:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2655:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2619:Grand Council
2617:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2609:
2605:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2563:Three Bureaus
2561:
2560:
2558:
2556:Late Imperial
2554:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2496:
2494:
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2489:
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2407:
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2325:
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2322:
2318:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2292:
2286:
2283:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2271:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2261:Son of Heaven
2259:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2206:
2201:
2199:
2194:
2192:
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2183:
2176:
2172:
2169:
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2154:
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2143:
2142:
2131:
2127:
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2119:
2115:
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2106:
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2098:
2094:
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2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2056:
2051:
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2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1940:
1919:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1900:
1885:
1883:9789794282571
1879:
1875:
1874:
1866:
1864:
1854:
1847:
1842:
1835:
1830:
1823:
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1811:
1806:
1799:
1794:
1787:
1782:
1775:
1770:
1763:
1758:
1751:
1746:
1740:, p. 49.
1739:
1734:
1727:
1722:
1720:
1713:, p. 47.
1712:
1707:
1700:
1695:
1688:
1683:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
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1616:
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1579:
1565:on 2016-03-04
1561:
1554:
1553:
1541:
1539:9780674492059
1535:
1531:
1524:
1520:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
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1490:
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1482:
1481:
1475:
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1467:
1466:
1461:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1420:
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1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1364:
1354:
1352:
1348:
1343:
1341:
1340:Lord Chunshen
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1310:The southern
1303:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1292:lineage names
1288:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1233:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1207:
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1201:
1191:
1188:
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1138:
1136:
1130:
1124:
1106:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1047:
1046:Regional lord
1043:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1013:
1012:
1008:
1007:
1006:
1003:
992:
982:
980:
976:
972:
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965:
961:
957:
953:
952:primogeniture
949:
943:(庶民 shù mín).
942:
938:
934:
931:
927:
923:
920:
916:
913:
909:
906:
902:
898:
897:
896:
894:
893:
888:
887:
882:
878:
868:
865:
861:
857:
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849:
842:
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817:
813:
812:Duke Yansheng
808:
804:
794:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
767:Six Dynasties
763:
761:
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753:
748:
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738:
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731:
727:
711:
709:
705:
704:
699:
695:
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688:
680:
676:
675:Shang dynasty
672:
665:Ancient China
662:
653:
651:
641:
637:
633:
625:
621:
615:
614:Five Hegemons
603:
595:
592:
589:
586:
583:
582:
581:
579:
578:
577:Rites of Zhou
572:
570:
565:
551:
528:
524:
516:
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501:
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423:
419:
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395:
391:
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383:
379:
369:
368:head of state
365:
355:
352:
348:
344:
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330:
327:
326:Shang dynasty
323:
319:
316:
312:
311:Shang dynasty
308:
298:
294:
284:
280:
279:
278:
276:
271:
267:
266:Son of Heaven
263:
248:
244:
240:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
213:
211:
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200:
196:
195:King of Korea
192:
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141:
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124:
120:
116:
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85:
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35:Qin Shi Huang
32:
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3318:Ritterschaft
3316:
3287:and Caucasus
2996:
2974:
2967:
2954:
2774:still exists
2644:Zongli Yamen
2493:Menxia Sheng
2320:Institutions
2220:
2174:
2167:
2160:
2152:
2145:
2113:
2109:
2084:
2080:
2045:
2041:
2001:
1997:
1988:
1969:
1952:
1948:
1921:. Retrieved
1906:
1899:
1887:. Retrieved
1872:
1853:
1841:
1829:
1817:
1810:Pines (2020)
1805:
1793:
1786:Pines (2014)
1781:
1774:Pines (2020)
1769:
1757:
1745:
1733:
1706:
1699:Pines (2020)
1694:
1682:
1649:
1645:
1639:
1619:
1605:
1585:
1578:
1567:, retrieved
1560:the original
1548:
1529:
1523:
1469:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1443:
1431:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1399:
1395:adding to it
1386:
1344:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1312:state of Chu
1309:
1306:Chu nobility
1299:
1295:
1289:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1259:
1249:
1242:
1229:
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1205:
1197:
1189:
1182:
1172:
1164:
1156:
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1134:
1123:Wǔděngjuéwèi
1122:
1119:
1116:Eastern Zhou
1104:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1073:
1067:
1063:
1055:
1045:
1041:
1033:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1009:
1002:Western Zhou
999:
996:Western Zhou
978:
974:
970:
968:
947:
946:
940:
929:
918:
911:
900:
890:
884:
877:Zhou dynasty
874:
848:Zhou dynasty
845:
800:
764:
749:
734:
717:
706:and fief of
701:
698:Zhou dynasty
691:
668:
659:
623:
619:
617:
575:
573:
566:
522:
506:
505:
479:
471:Consort Zhen
444:Consort Zhen
411:
405:
401:
397:
389:
385:
361:
356:or Huangdi (
340:
333:Zhou dynasty
304:
296:
290:
282:
261:
259:
245:
241:
232:
216:
214:
186:
184:
165:
133:
119:Song dynasty
112:
100:Zhou dynasty
90:titles, and
81:
59:ruling class
50:
48:
3414:Australasia
3190:Switzerland
3086:Philippines
3042:Indonesia*
2669:Shence Army
2453:Jimi system
2332:Nine Courts
2278:Consort kin
2042:Early China
1998:Early China
1945:Pines, Yuri
1652:: 421–426.
1615:Pei Songzhi
1471:Cabang Atas
1347:Qin dynasty
852:Qin dynasty
837:Han dynasty
671:Xia dynasty
475:Consort Jin
394:Han dynasty
347:Qin dynasty
322:Xia dynasty
210:Great khans
39:Qin dynasty
3507:Categories
3451:Micronesia
3356:Montenegro
3304:Azerbaijan
2822:Madagascar
2624:Lifan Yuan
2110:T'oung Pao
2081:T'oung Pao
1949:Asia Major
1923:3 November
1889:3 November
1846:Li (2008a)
1834:Li (2008a)
1822:Li (2008a)
1750:Li (2008a)
1738:Li (2008b)
1726:Li (2008a)
1687:Li (2008a)
1551:1000 C.E.)
1510:References
1437:promoting
1367:See also:
1361:See also:
1024:Excellency
964:mistresses
960:concubines
921:(大夫 dà fū)
752:Eastern Wu
694:overthrown
569:Concubines
527:Empress Lü
461:1871–1908)
84:hereditary
18:Zi (title)
3469:Polynesia
3433:Melanesia
3422:Australia
3384:Ruthenian
3324:Lithuania
3036:Southeast
2763:by nation
2691:Dynasties
2367:Censorate
2352:Guozijian
2130:234449375
2072:232154371
2026:232153905
1666:0254-9948
1611:Chen Shou
1515:Citations
1028:Patriarch
977:(大夫) and
937:commoners
914:(卿 qīng),
907:zhū hóu),
881:feudalism
860:Confucius
841:Mawangdui
750:When the
552:of Qing (
418:concubine
225:Barbarian
172:the realm
168:sovereign
115:millennia
3380:Ukraine
3270:Portugal
3254:Holy See
3215:Ireland
3206:Scotland
3091:Thailand
3080:Cambodia
3068:Malaysia
3056:Javanese
3046:Balinese
2992:Nobility
2960:Mongolia
2856:Americas
2805:Ethiopia
2799:Eswatini
2772:monarchy
2761:Nobility
2463:Shumishi
2448:Jiedushi
2229:Monarchy
2221:Nobility
2101:24754918
2064:44075753
2036:(2016).
2018:24392462
1961:26571325
1857:穀梁传·僖公四年
1674:40726951
1478:See also
1455:Kapitein
1427:Ban Chao
1402:May 2023
1351:Liu Bang
1246:princess
886:fengjian
787:Gao Heng
745:Liu Shan
642:(d. 202
640:Xiang Yu
608:Hegemons
529:of Han (
221:Changsha
3488:Hawai‘i
3405:Oceania
3389:Galicia
3366:Romania
3351:Hungary
3346:Germany
3341:Georgia
3336:Bohemia
3331:Croatia
3309:Austria
3299:Armenia
3294:Albania
3224:Ireland
3201:England
3172:Kingdom
3168:France
3163:Belgium
3135:Iceland
3130:Finland
3124:Denmark
3097:Vietnam
3051:Chinese
3020:Princes
2998:Yangban
2964:Japan*
2934:Lebanon
2875:Mexico
2837:Morocco
2827:Somalia
2810:Nigeria
2792:Mamluks
2294:Offices
2273:Empress
2251:Emperor
2234:Dynasty
1936:Sources
1439:Guan Yu
1435:Liu Bei
1324:Tonghou
1285:Gongsun
1277:Wangsun
1250:gōngzhǔ
1000:In the
956:consort
932:(士 shì)
835:by the
789:of the
760:Sun Hao
741:Cao Wei
737:Shu Han
718:In 220
696:by the
632:hegemon
557:
534:
523:Tai Hou
459:
398:Huangdi
363:huángdì
354:Emperor
275:eunuchs
264:, "The
256:Emperor
206:Khagans
191:hegemon
187:Ba Wang
176:emperor
88:peerage
43:Huangdi
3376:Serbia
3371:Russia
3361:Poland
3229:Norman
3219:Gaelic
3177:Empire
3146:Sweden
3140:Norway
3110:Europe
3074:Brunei
3016:India
2988:Korea
2976:Daimyō
2939:Turkey
2907:Brazil
2870:Canada
2815:Rulers
2780:Africa
2347:Taixue
2246:Titles
2128:
2099:
2070:
2062:
2024:
2016:
1976:
1959:
1914:
1880:
1672:
1664:
1627:
1593:
1569:15 May
1536:
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1328:Zhigui
1300:Wangzi
1296:Gongzi
1281:Gongzi
1273:Wangzi
1082:master
948:Zongfa
941:Shumin
926:yeomen
905:pinyin
901:Zhuhou
892:zongfa
856:Zhouli
781:, and
730:Cao Pi
685:) and
624:Bawang
268:" the
262:Tianzi
199:Mongol
138:. The
61:until
3482:Tonga
3275:Spain
3265:Malta
3260:Italy
3247:South
3117:North
3061:Malay
3010:South
2982:Meiji
2955:China
2900:South
2863:North
2787:Egypt
2634:Ranks
2387:Yamen
2285:Harem
2239:Cycle
2126:S2CID
2097:JSTOR
2068:S2CID
2060:JSTOR
2022:S2CID
2014:JSTOR
1957:JSTOR
1670:JSTOR
1563:(PDF)
1556:(PDF)
1332:Zhibo
1186:rank.
1179:march
1135:Wǔjué
1101:them.
1090:ruler
1068:Chief
1064:Elder
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402:huang
386:huang
292:huáng
283:huang
202:khans
180:kings
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2948:East
2927:West
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2719:Qing
2714:Yuan
2709:Liao
2704:Tang
2607:Qing
2410:King
2392:Tusi
2256:List
1974:ISBN
1925:2018
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1878:ISBN
1662:ISSN
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1571:2023
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