500:), or well water. Large mechanical induced-draft or forced-draft cooling towers in industrial plants continuously circulate cooling water through heat exchangers and other equipment where the water absorbs heat. That heat is then rejected to the atmosphere by the evaporation of some of the water in cooling towers where upflowing air contacts the downflowing water. The loss of evaporated water into the air exhausted to the atmosphere is replaced by "make-up" fresh river water or fresh cooling water, but the amount of water lost during evaporative cooling may affect the natural habitat for aquatic organisms. Because the evaporated pure water is replaced by make-up water containing carbonates and other dissolved salts, a portion of the circulating water is continuously discarded as "blowdown" water to minimize the excessive build-up of salts in the circulating water; these blowdown wastes may change the receiving water quality.
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226:. Biofouling of heat exchange surfaces can reduce heat transfer rates of the cooling system, and biofouling of cooling towers can alter flow distribution to reduce evaporative cooling rates. Biofouling may also create differential oxygen concentrations increasing corrosion rates. OTC and open recirculating systems are more susceptible to biofouling. Biofouling may be inhibited by temporary habitat modifications. Temperature differences may discourage the establishment of thermophilic populations in intermittently operated facilities, and intentional short-term temperature spikes may periodically kill less tolerant populations.
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Centers because maintenance of the racks is quick and easy. After disassembly of the rack, advanced-technology quick-release couplings eliminate spillage for the safety of operators and protect the integrity of fluids (no impurities in the circuits). These couplings are also capable of being locked (Panel mounted?) to allow blind connection in difficult-to-access areas. It is important in electronics technology to analyse the connection systems to ensure:
204:. Residual concentrations of biocides and corrosion inhibitors are of potential concern for OTC and blowdown from open recirculating cooling water systems. With the exception of machines with short design life, closed recirculating systems require periodic cooling-water treatment or replacement raising similar concern about ultimate disposal of cooling water containing chemicals used with environmental safety assumptions of a closed system.
618:
548:, lowering the temperature of the remaining (unevaporated) water. This method was common in early internal combustion engines until scale buildup was observed from dissolved salts and minerals in the water. Modern open cooling systems continuously waste a fraction of recirculating water as blowdown to remove dissolved solids at concentrations low enough to prevent scale formation. Some open systems use inexpensive
786:. Through the 1990s, water cooling for home PCs slowly gained recognition among enthusiasts, but it became noticeably more prevalent after the introduction of the first Gigahertz-clocked processors in the early 2000s. As of 2018, there are dozens of manufacturers of water cooling components and kits, and many computer manufacturers include preinstalled water cooling solutions for their high-performance systems.
387:
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22:
115:, and available over most of the earth's surface. Liquid cooling offers higher thermal conductivity than air cooling. Water has unusually high specific heat capacity among commonly available liquids at room temperature and atmospheric pressure allowing efficient heat transfer over distance with low rates of mass transfer. Cooling water may be recycled through a
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921:, who documented the effect) between the heat-generating component and the water block. Because the only sub-ambient temperature zone now is at the interface with the heat-generating component itself, insulation is required only in that localized area. The disadvantage of such a system is higher power dissipation.
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known as "RadiCold", which has been developed since 2017. This metamaterial aids in cooling of water and increasing the efficiency of power generation, in which it would cool the underneath objects, by reflecting away the sun's rays while at the same time allowing the surface to discharge its heat as
888:
in place of more common standard heat exchangers. Water cooling systems in which water is cooled directly by the evaporator coil of a phase change system are able to chill the circulating coolant below the ambient air temperature (impossible with a standard heat exchanger) and, as a result, generally
836:
Internal radiator size may vary: from 40 mm dual fan (80 mm) to 140 quad fan (560 mm) and thickness from 30 mm to 80 mm. Radiator fans may be mounted on one or both sides. External radiators can be much larger than their internal counterparts as they do not need to fit in the
183:
Water contains varying amounts of impurities from contact with the atmosphere, soil, and containers. Being both an electrical conductor and a solvent for metal ions and oxygen, water can accelerate corrosion of machinery being cooled. Corrosion reactions proceed more rapidly as temperature increases.
572:
temperature of around 100 degrees C at atmospheric pressure. Engines operating at higher temperatures may require a pressurized recycle loop to prevent overheating. Modern automotive cooling systems often operate at 15 psi (103 kPa) to raise the boiling-point of the recycling water coolant
272:
compounds may provide the limiting essential nutrient for algal growth contributing to biofouling of the cooling system or to eutrophication of natural aquatic environments receiving blowdown or OTC water. Chromates reduce biofouling in addition to effective corrosion inhibition in the cooling water
585:
mixture to lower the freezing point to a temperature unlikely to be experienced. Antifreeze also inhibits corrosion from dissimilar metals and can increase the boiling point, allowing a wider range of water cooling temperatures. Its distinctive odor also alerts operators to cooling system leaks and
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Water cooling often adds complexity and cost in comparison to air cooling design by requiring a pump, tubing or piping to transport the water, and a radiator, often with fans, to reject the heat to the atmosphere. Depending on the application, water cooling may create an additional element of risk
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into the river or coastal water. These OTC systems thus rely upon an ample supply of river water or seawater for their cooling needs. Such facilities are built with intake structures designed for bringing in large volumes of water at a high rate of flow. These structures tend to also pull in large
594:
Other less common chemical additives are products to reduce surface tension. These additives are meant to increase the efficiency of automotive cooling systems. Such products are used to enhance the cooling of underperforming or undersized cooling systems or in racing where the weight of a larger
414:
of rivers, estuaries and coastal waters is a consideration when siting such plants. Water returned to aquatic environments at temperatures higher than the ambient receiving water modifies aquatic habitat by increasing biochemical reaction rates and decreasing the oxygen saturation capacity of the
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protecting the small bore tubes of the heat exchangers from blockage. High temperatures or pump turbulence and shear may kill or disable smaller organisms that pass through the screens entrained with the cooling water. More than 1,200 power plants and manufacturing facilities in the U.S. use OTC
179:
Water accelerates the corrosion of metal parts and is a favorable medium for biological growth. Dissolved minerals in natural water supplies are concentrated by evaporation to leave deposits called scale. Cooling water often requires the addition of chemicals to minimize corrosion and insulating
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Liquid cooling techniques are increasingly being used for the thermal management of electronic components. This type of cooling is a solution to ensure the optimisation of energy efficiency while simultaneously minimising noise and space requirements. Especially useful in supercomputers or Data
326:
Some groundwater contains very little oxygen when pumped from wells, but most natural water supplies include dissolved oxygen. Increasing oxygen concentrations accelerate corrosion. Dissolved oxygen approaches saturation levels in cooling towers. It is beneficial in blowdown or OTC water being
995:
used in fixed defensive positions sometimes use water cooling to extend barrel life through periods of rapid fire, but the weight of the water and pumping system significantly reduces the portability of water-cooled firearms. Water-cooled machine guns were extensively used by both sides during
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is used to remove trapped air bubbles from the circulating water. It is made with a t-connector and a capped-off length of tubing. The tube n acts as a mini-reservoir and allows air bubbles to travel into it as they are caught into the "tee" connector, and ultimately removed from the system by
244:
to minimize the toxicity of blowdown or OTC water returned to natural aquatic environments. Hypochlorite is increasingly destructive to wooden cooling towers as pH increases. Chlorinated phenols have been used as biocides or leached from preserved wood in cooling towers. Both hypochlorite and
603:
Since approximately 1930 it is common to use water cooling for tubes of powerful transmitters. As these devices use high operation voltages (around 10 kV), the use of deionized water is required and it has to be carefully controlled. Modern solid-state transmitters can be built so that even
947:
Asus are the first and only mainstream brand to have put water-cooled laptops into mass production. Those laptops have a built-in air/water hybrid cooling system and can be docked to an external liquid cooling radiator for additional cooling and electrical power.
1030:. This allows for the use of less-enriched fuel. For the main cooling system, normal water is preferably employed through the use of a heat exchanger, as heavy water is much more expensive. Reactors that use other materials for moderation (graphite)
1000:; however, by the end of the war lighter weapons that rivaled the firepower, effectiveness and reliability of water-cooled models began to appear on the battlefield. Thus water-cooled weapons have played a far lesser role in subsequent conflicts.
877:. More recently a growing number of companies are manufacturing water-cooling components compact enough to fit inside a computer case. This, and the trend to CPUs of higher power dissipation, has greatly increased the popularity of water cooling.
924:
To avoid damage from condensation around the
Peltier junction, a proper installation requires it to be "potted" with silicone epoxy. The epoxy is applied around the edges of the device, preventing air from entering or leaving the interior.
1603:
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must be added due to the low temperature. Additionally, insulation, usually in the form of lagging around water pipes and neoprene pads around the components to be cooled, must be used in order to prevent damage caused by
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pumps and home-made water blocks, laboratory-grade PVC and silicone tubing and various reservoirs (homemade using plastic bottles, or constructed using cylindrical acrylic or sheets of acrylic, usually clear) and or a
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Water is an ideal cooling medium for vessels as they are constantly surrounded by water that generally remains at a low temperature throughout the year. Systems operating with seawater need to be manufactured from
415:
habitat. Temperature increases initially favor a population shift from species requiring the high-oxygen concentration of cold water to those enjoying the advantages of increased metabolic rates in warm water.
323:. Corrosion rates initially increase with salinity in response to increasing electrical conductivity, but then decrease after reaching a peak as higher levels of salinity decrease dissolved oxygen levels.
805:, and a water-to-air heat exchanger. By transferring device heat to a separate larger heat exchanger using larger, lower-speed fans, water cooling can allow quieter operation, improved processor speeds (
410:. Many facilities, particularly electric power plants, use millions of gallons of water per day for cooling. Water cooling on this scale may alter natural water environments and create new environments.
483:
1680:"National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System—Final Regulations To Establish Requirements for Cooling Water Intake Structures at Existing Facilities and Amend Requirements at Phase I Facilities"
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or similarly corrosion-resistant materials. Water containing sediment may require velocity restrictions through piping to avoid erosion at high velocity or blockage by settling at low velocity.
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confines of a computer case. High-end cases may have two rubber grommeted ports in the back for the inlet and outlet hoses, which allow external radiators to be placed far away from the PC.
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have reduced effectiveness at pH values greater than 8. Non-oxidizing biocides may be more difficult to detoxify prior to release of blowdown or OTC water to natural aquatic environments.
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An alternative cooling scheme, which also enables components to be cooled below the ambient temperature while obviating the requirement for antifreeze and lagged pipes, is to place a
604:
high-power transmitters do not require water cooling. Water cooling is however also sometimes used for thyristors of HVDC valves, for which the use of deionized water is required.
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system, but residual toxicity in blowdown or OTC water has encouraged lower chromate concentrations and the use of less-flexible corrosion inhibitors. Blowdown may also contain
758:
This 60 mm diameter by 10 mm high impingement-type water-cooled copper cold plate (heat sink) animation shows temperature contoured flow trajectories, predicted using a
307:
changes caused by dissolved materials. Probability of scale formation increases with increasing total dissolved solids. Solids commonly associated with scale formation are
778:
rather than small, relatively inefficient fins mounted directly on the heat source. Cooling hot computer components with various fluids has been in use since at least the
889:
provide superior cooling of the computer's heat-generating components. The downside of phase-change or thermoelectric cooling is that it uses much more electricity, and
1210:
Mahgoub, F.M.; Abdel-Nabey, B.A.; El-Samadisy, Y.A. (March 2010). "Adopting a multipurpose inhibitor to control corrosion of ferrous alloys in cooling water systems".
534:
An antique gasoline engine with an evaporative cooler and mesh screen to improve evaporation. Water is pumped up to the top and flows down the screen to the tank.
1045:) and potable water are sometimes used in industrial plants requiring high-purity cooling water. Production of these high-purity waters creates waste byproduct
1704:
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on industrial cooling water intake structures. EPA issued final regulations for new facilities in 2001 (amended 2003), and for existing facilities in 2014.
210:
occurs because water is a favorable environment for many life forms. Flow characteristics of recirculating cooling water systems encourage colonization by
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The use of water cooling carries the risk of damage from freezing. Automotive and many other engine cooling applications require the use of a water and
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1872:
560:. Purified water systems still require blowdown to remove the accumulation of byproducts of chemical treatment to prevent corrosion and biofouling.
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cores in computing equipment is transporting heat away from the source to a secondary cooling surface to allow for large, more optimally designed
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difference allows easy separation. Environmental regulations emphasize the reduced concentrations of waste products in non-contact cooling water.
1954:
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with zinc and chromates or similar compounds have been maintained in cooling systems to keep heat exchange surfaces clean enough that a film of
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can be added to cooling water systems to prevent scale formation if the pH decrease will offset increased salinity and dissolved solids.
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bleeding. The capped line may be capped with a fill-port fitting to allow the release of trapped gas and the addition of liquid.
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can inhibit corrosion by passivating anodic and cathodic reaction points. These increase salinity and total dissolved solids, and
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Dongliang Zhao; Ablimit Aili; Yao Zhai; Jiatao Lu; Dillon Kidd; Gang Tan; Xiaobo Yin; Ronggui Yang (26 October 2018).
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or TDS (sometimes called filterable residue) is reported as the mass of residue remaining when a measured volume of
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was the first mainstream desktop computer to have water cooling as standard (although only on its fastest models).
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Final
Regulations to Establish Requirements for Cooling Water Intake Structures at Existing Facilities; Fact sheet
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where leakage from the water coolant recycle loop can corrode or short-circuit sensitive electronic components.
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Few other cooling applications approach the large volumes of water required to condense low-pressure steam at
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Water coolers for desktop computers were, until the end of the 1990s, homemade. They were made from car
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Designed to withstand a large number of connections even on refrigerant circuits under residual pressure
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systems; the intake structures kill billions of fish and other organisms each year. More-agile aquatic
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As an alternative to OTC, industrial cooling towers may use recirculated river water, coastal water (
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of water vapour from the air on chilled surfaces. Common places from which to obtain the required
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level. Low pH values increase the rate of corrosion; high pH values encourage scale formation.
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around an engine is very effective at deadening mechanical noises, making the engine quieter.
230:
have been commonly used to control biofouling where sustained facility operation is required.
48:. Water is inexpensive and non-toxic; however, it can contain impurities and cause corrosion.
1570:
Economic and
Benefits Analysis for the Final Section 316(b) Phase II Existing Facilities Rule
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to cool its data centers, medical equipment, and maintain a comfortable ambient temperature.
261:
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to help cool the liquid. Currently, Dell's only computers to offer liquid cooling are their
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Connection guiding system and compensation of misalignment during connection on rack systems
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1982:"Subambient Cooling of Water: Toward Real-World Applications of Daytime Radiative Cooling"
8:
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2114:
1379:"Biocide Usage in Cooling Towers in the Electric Power and Petroleum Refining Industries"
1191:
Hemmasian-Ettefagh, Ali (2010). "Corrosion
Inhibition of Carbon Steel in Cooling Water".
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Preservation of machinery in the presence of hot water has been improved by addition of
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Water cooling can be used for many computer components, but usually it is used for the
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The heated coolant mixture can be used to warm the air inside the car by means of the
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Technical
Development Document for the Final Section 316(b) Existing Facilities Rule
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394:. Over a billion fish eggs and larvae are killed in its cooling system each year.
1998:
1981:
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use evaporative cooling to prevent high temperatures from causing unsustainable
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numbers of fish and other aquatic organisms, which are killed or injured on the
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200:. The first two have toxicity concerns; and the last has been associated with
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1896:"The Asus ROG GX800 is a water-cooled gaming laptop with two graphics chips"
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allows the option of efficient evaporative cooling to remove waste heat in
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followed suit by shipping their XPS computers with liquid cooling, using
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to decrease biofouling in cooling water systems, but is later reduced to
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consume organisms impinged on the screens; and warm water predators and
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1719:(See Chapter 2 for material balance relationships in a cooling tower)
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colonize the cooling water discharge to feed on entrained organisms.
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1509:"Fire Prompts Renewed Calls to Close the Indian Point Nuclear Plant"
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354:(as protonated water) in a cooling water system is reported as the
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718:"T-Line" redirects here. For the rail line in San Francisco, see
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problems that would go unnoticed in a water-only cooling system.
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1543:"Partial List of Facilities Subject to Clean Water Act 316(b)."
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leached from cooling towers constructed of wood preserved with
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16:
Method of heat removal from components and industrial equipment
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containing the concentrated impurities from the source water.
917:(commonly referred to as a 'Peltier junction' or 'pelt' after
694:
Compact and lightweight (materials in special aluminum alloys)
438:. Large flow rates may trap slow-swimming organisms including
398:
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and nutrients. Temperatures may become high enough to support
21:
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2119:
1528:
Profile of the Fossil Fuel
Electric Power Generation Industry
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147:, thus with negligible evaporative loss. A heat exchanger or
41:
2027:
Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater
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is uncommon among metals used in water cooling systems, but
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Cooling tower and water discharge of a nuclear power plant
1609:(Report). EPA. May 2014. EPA 821-F-14-001. Archived from
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726:. For the planned transit line in Hamilton, Ontario, see
164:
68:
1430:
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1300:
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355:
1921:"Asus ROG GX800VH Watercooled Laptop Review | KitGuru"
1706:
Aqueous Wastes from
Petroleum and Petrochemical Plants
51:
Water cooling is commonly used for cooling automobile
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
691:
Non-spill sealing (clean break, flush face couplings)
598:
421:(OTC) systems may be used on very large rivers or at
1526:
U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). (1997).
1488:
1396:
1358:
770:The primary advantage of water cooling for cooling
1286:"How to Properly and Safely Dispose of Antifreeze"
1190:
1165:
36:removal from components and industrial equipment.
2044:Goldman, Charles R.; Horne, Alexander J. (1983).
1377:Veil, John A.; Rice, James K.; Raivel, Mary E.S.
848:DIY watercooling setup in a PC utilizing a T-Line
366:corrosion rates increase with pH values above 9.
2663:
1795:"Koolance 1300/1700W Liquid-Cooled Power Supply"
1762:
1760:
1634:United States. Clean Water Act, Section 316(b),
1579:
700:Quick-release couplings sized for optimized flow
697:Operator safety (disconnection without spillage)
214:organisms using the circulating supply of food,
1722:
1346:
1328:Transactions of the British Mycological Society
706:Excellent resistance to vibration and corrosion
552:, but this requires higher blowdown rates than
486:A Marley mechanical induced draft cooling tower
1552:
1550:
1265:
880:Dedicated overclockers have occasionally used
503:
2135:
1757:
1326:gen. et sp. nov. from water cooling towers".
607:
402:Cooling water intake of a nuclear power plant
2043:
1259:
682:CoolIT Rack DCLC AHx Liquid Cooling Solution
2110:Basic Theory and Practice of Cooling Towers
1547:
646:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2142:
2128:
2115:Howstuffworks "How Liquid-cooled PCs Work"
1893:
1592:(Report). EPA. May 2014. EPA 821-R-14-002.
1376:
1321:
544:An open water cooling system makes use of
327:returned to natural aquatic environments.
222:populations of organisms such as types of
2018:Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning
1997:
1315:
1283:
1037:High-grade industrial water (produced by
666:Learn how and when to remove this message
139:if they rely upon evaporative cooling or
2029:(14th ed.). APHA, AWWA & WPCF.
2020:(7th ed.). Betz Laboratories. 1976.
1740:
1734:
1506:
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809:), or a balance of both. Less commonly,
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742:
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595:cooling system could be a disadvantage.
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20:
2078:(3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
2024:
1845:. extremeoverclocking.com. 5 April 2011
1702:
1482:
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1436:
1418:. National Pesticide Information Center
1150:, pp. 38–1, 38–4, 38-7 & 38-8.
1022:as coolant. Heavy water is employed in
381:
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2095:Ecology in Inland Waters and Estuaries
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1575:(Report). EPA. 2004. EPA 821-R-04-005.
1247:
1147:
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1709:(1st ed.). John Wiley and Sons.
1532:Document No. EPA/310-R-97-007. p. 79.
1284:Krosofsky, Andrew (18 January 2021).
1032:may also use normal water for cooling
972:
2092:
2073:
1843:"Dehumidifier & Air Conditioner"
1766:
1462:"Dissolved Oxygen and water quality"
1384:. United States Department of Energy
1322:Jones, E.B.G.; Eaton, R.A. (1969). "
1309:
1159:
644:adding citations to reliable sources
611:
429:sites. These power stations put the
370:may be severe in water systems with
1416:"Leaching of CCA From Treated Wood"
722:. For the rail line in Tacoma, see
163:may directly impinge on items like
143:if heat removal is accomplished in
13:
2531:Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation
951:
599:Power electronics and transmitters
589:
510:Internal combustion engine cooling
180:deposits of scale and biofouling.
74:Other uses include the cooling of
14:
2698:
2401:Agricultural wastewater treatment
2103:
1507:McGeehan, Patrick (12 May 2015).
1224:10.1016/j.matchemphys.2009.10.028
797:. Water cooling typically uses a
713:
563:
477:
2645:
2644:
2016:
1817:"Featured Projects – LiquidHaus"
1767:Nice, Karim (22 November 2000).
1728:
1653:Cooling Water Intake Structures.
1494:
1402:
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119:system or used in a single-pass
2461:Industrial wastewater treatment
2431:Decentralized wastewater system
2009:
1973:
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1741:Sturgess, Steve (August 2009).
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1212:Materials Chemistry and Physics
882:vapor-compression refrigeration
573:and reduce evaporative losses.
468:Environmental Protection Agency
350:. The concentration of ionized
2149:
1769:"How Car Cooling Systems Work"
1203:
1184:
1054:University of Colorado Boulder
1052:In 2018, researchers from the
730:. For a shorthand system, see
525:
1:
2481:Rotating biological contactor
1894:hermesauto (16 August 2016).
1797:. Koolance.com. 22 March 2008
1340:10.1016/S0007-1536(69)80169-5
1123:
1060:invented a radiative cooling
576:
106:
44:is often more efficient than
2076:The Environmental Dictionary
1819:. 6 May 2022. Archived from
1065:infrared thermal radiation.
1011:relies on snow-cooling from
747:GPU waterblock on an Nvidia
236:may be added in the form of
135:. Recirculating systems are
101:
67:to lower the temperature of
7:
1999:10.1016/j.joule.2018.10.006
1955:"Snow cooling in Sundsvall"
1703:Beychok, Milton R. (1967).
1655:Final rule: 2001-12-18, 66
1068:
864:(or more commonly, a car's
504:Internal combustion engines
123:(OTC) system. Water's high
53:internal combustion engines
10:
2703:
2546:Wastewater treatment plant
2313:Adsorbable organic halides
2025:Franson, Mary Ann (1975).
1662:. Amended: 2003-06-19, 68
1530:(Report). Washington, D.C.
1260:Goldman & Horne (1983)
1018:Some nuclear reactors use
736:
717:
608:Liquid cooling maintenance
537:
507:
489:
392:Indian Point Energy Center
82:; for cooling purposes in
59:. Water coolers utilising
2682:Computer hardware cooling
2640:
2554:
2381:
2318:Biochemical oxygen demand
2303:
2157:
2065:Kemmer, Frank N. (1979).
1942:"Heat Exchanger FAQ Page"
827:voltage regulator modules
374:and aluminum components.
279:chromated copper arsenate
153:non-contact cooling water
63:are used inside high-end
2097:. Van Nostrand Reinhold.
2093:Reid, George K. (1961).
2067:The NALCO Water Handbook
1743:"Column: Keep Your Cool"
1558:"Cooling Water Intakes."
1250:, pp. 38–20, 38–21.
902:systems are a household
568:Water for cooling has a
125:enthalpy of vaporization
61:convective heat transfer
2506:Sewage sludge treatment
2446:Fecal sludge management
2406:API oil–water separator
2373:Wastewater surveillance
2074:King, James J. (1995).
1119:(passive heat exchange)
1080:Deep lake water cooling
1026:because it is a weaker
2672:Engine cooling systems
2363:Total suspended solids
2358:Total dissolved solids
2323:Chemical oxygen demand
1090:Full immersion cooling
938:thermoelectric cooling
886:thermoelectric coolers
849:
763:
751:
724:T Line (Sound Transit)
683:
535:
487:
403:
395:
285:Total dissolved solids
111:Water is inexpensive,
71:and other components.
26:
2230:Industrial wastewater
1745:. Heavy Duty Trucking
1193:Materials Performance
1058:University of Wyoming
915:thermoelectric device
844:Typical 2000s single-
843:
833:can be water-cooled.
757:
746:
681:
538:Further information:
533:
508:Further information:
485:
401:
389:
161:contact cooling water
24:
2572:Groundwater recharge
1865:"Alienware Desktops"
1775:. HowStuffWorks, Inc
1324:Savoryella lignicola
1262:, pp. 153, 160.
1162:, pp. 143, 439.
1138:, pp. 1–1, 1–2.
782:in 1982, which used
640:improve this section
419:Once-through cooling
382:Steam power stations
186:corrosion inhibitors
121:once-through cooling
2486:Secondary treatment
2471:Membrane bioreactor
2426:Constructed wetland
2225:Infiltration/Inflow
1497:, pp. 191–194.
1485:, pp. 406–407.
1464:. State of Kentucky
1405:, pp. 198–199.
1367:, pp. 203–209.
1312:, pp. 267–268.
1181:, pp. 183–184.
546:evaporative cooling
330:Water ionizes into
38:Evaporative cooling
2677:Cooling technology
2651:Category: Sewerage
2612:Septic drain field
2577:Infiltration basin
2521:Stabilization pond
2441:Facultative lagoon
2305:Quality indicators
2185:Blackwater (waste)
2165:Acid mine drainage
1451:, pp. 99–100.
973:Other applications
850:
764:
752:
684:
536:
488:
404:
396:
368:Galvanic corrosion
252:Concentrations of
65:personal computers
27:
2659:
2658:
2436:Extended aeration
2383:Treatment options
2333:Oxygen saturation
2180:Blackwater (coal)
2158:Sources and types
1900:The Straits Times
1684:Federal Register,
1439:, pp. 89–98.
829:(VRMs), and even
762:analysis package.
732:Teeline Shorthand
676:
675:
668:
412:Thermal pollution
247:pentachlorophenol
159:being cooled, or
2694:
2648:
2647:
2567:Evaporation pond
2555:Disposal options
2526:Trickling filter
2511:Sewage treatment
2411:Carbon filtering
2391:Activated sludge
2144:
2137:
2130:
2121:
2120:
2098:
2089:
2070:
2061:
2040:
2021:
2004:
2003:
2001:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1951:
1945:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1871:. Archived from
1861:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1764:
1755:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1738:
1732:
1726:
1720:
1718:
1700:
1694:
1676:
1670:
1649:
1643:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1615:
1608:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1591:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1574:
1566:
1560:
1554:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1531:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1504:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1458:
1452:
1446:
1440:
1434:
1428:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1383:
1374:
1368:
1362:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1319:
1313:
1307:
1298:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1281:
1275:
1269:
1263:
1257:
1251:
1245:
1236:
1235:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1188:
1182:
1176:
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1139:
1133:
1028:neutron absorber
1024:nuclear reactors
900:phase transition
819:hard disk drives
739:Computer cooling
671:
664:
660:
657:
651:
620:
612:
299:indicates water
262:gamma iron oxide
2702:
2701:
2697:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2692:
2691:
2687:Water pollution
2662:
2661:
2660:
2655:
2636:
2602:Reclaimed water
2550:
2476:Reverse osmosis
2377:
2299:
2265:Reverse osmosis
2190:Boiler blowdown
2153:
2148:
2106:
2101:
2086:
2058:
2050:. McGraw-Hill.
2037:
2012:
2007:
1978:
1974:
1964:
1962:
1953:
1952:
1948:
1939:
1935:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1904:
1902:
1892:
1888:
1878:
1876:
1875:on 28 July 2012
1863:
1862:
1858:
1848:
1846:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1826:
1824:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1800:
1798:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1778:
1776:
1765:
1758:
1748:
1746:
1739:
1735:
1727:
1723:
1701:
1697:
1677:
1673:
1650:
1646:
1633:
1629:
1619:
1617:
1616:on 19 June 2020
1613:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1584:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1555:
1548:
1540:
1536:
1524:
1520:
1505:
1501:
1493:
1489:
1481:
1477:
1467:
1465:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1447:
1443:
1435:
1431:
1421:
1419:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1401:
1397:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1375:
1371:
1363:
1359:
1351:
1347:
1320:
1316:
1308:
1301:
1291:
1289:
1288:. Green Matters
1282:
1278:
1270:
1266:
1258:
1254:
1246:
1239:
1208:
1204:
1189:
1185:
1177:
1166:
1158:
1154:
1146:
1142:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1071:
1039:reverse osmosis
987:metabolic rates
975:
954:
952:Ships and boats
908:air conditioner
741:
735:
716:
672:
661:
655:
652:
637:
621:
610:
601:
592:
590:Other additives
579:
566:
558:distilled water
542:
528:
512:
506:
494:
480:
470:(EPA) to issue
464:Clean Water Act
384:
337:
177:
145:heat exchangers
109:
104:
84:heat exchangers
32:is a method of
17:
12:
11:
5:
2700:
2690:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2641:
2638:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2629:
2627:Surface runoff
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2607:Sanitary sewer
2604:
2599:
2597:Marine outfall
2594:
2592:Marine dumping
2589:
2584:
2582:Injection well
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2562:Combined sewer
2558:
2556:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2501:Settling basin
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2396:Aerated lagoon
2393:
2387:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2328:Coliform index
2325:
2320:
2315:
2309:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2270:Sanitary sewer
2267:
2262:
2257:
2255:Produced water
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2200:Combined sewer
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2154:
2147:
2146:
2139:
2132:
2124:
2118:
2117:
2112:
2105:
2104:External links
2102:
2100:
2099:
2090:
2084:
2071:
2069:. McGraw-Hill.
2062:
2056:
2041:
2035:
2022:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2005:
1972:
1946:
1933:
1912:
1886:
1856:
1834:
1808:
1786:
1756:
1733:
1731:, p. 192.
1721:
1695:
1671:
1644:
1636:33 U.S.C.
1627:
1595:
1578:
1561:
1546:
1534:
1518:
1513:New York Times
1499:
1487:
1483:Franson (1975)
1475:
1453:
1449:Franson (1975)
1441:
1437:Franson (1975)
1429:
1407:
1395:
1369:
1357:
1355:, p. 202.
1345:
1314:
1299:
1276:
1274:, p. 215.
1264:
1252:
1237:
1218:(1): 104–108.
1202:
1183:
1164:
1152:
1140:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1103:
1101:Hopper cooling
1098:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1070:
1067:
974:
971:
953:
950:
831:power supplies
720:T Third Street
715:
714:Computer usage
712:
711:
710:
707:
704:
701:
698:
695:
692:
674:
673:
624:
622:
615:
609:
606:
600:
597:
591:
588:
578:
575:
565:
564:Pressurization
562:
540:Hopper cooling
527:
524:
505:
502:
479:
478:Cooling towers
476:
436:intake screens
408:power stations
383:
380:
335:
266:zinc phosphate
254:polyphosphates
202:eutrophication
176:
173:
129:cooling towers
108:
105:
103:
100:
86:; for cooling
57:power stations
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2699:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2669:
2667:
2652:
2643:
2642:
2639:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2491:Sedimentation
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2302:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2285:Sewage sludge
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2210:Cooling water
2208:
2206:
2205:Cooling tower
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2170:Ballast water
2168:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2145:
2140:
2138:
2133:
2131:
2126:
2125:
2122:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2096:
2091:
2087:
2085:0-471-11995-4
2081:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2063:
2059:
2057:0-07-023651-8
2053:
2049:
2048:
2042:
2038:
2036:0-87553-078-8
2032:
2028:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2014:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1960:
1956:
1950:
1943:
1937:
1922:
1916:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1860:
1844:
1838:
1823:on 6 May 2022
1822:
1818:
1812:
1796:
1790:
1774:
1773:HowStuffWorks
1770:
1763:
1761:
1744:
1737:
1730:
1725:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1707:
1699:
1693:. 2014-08-15.
1692:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1675:
1668:
1665:
1661:
1658:
1654:
1648:
1641:
1637:
1631:
1612:
1605:
1599:
1588:
1582:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1551:
1544:
1538:
1529:
1522:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1496:
1491:
1484:
1479:
1463:
1457:
1450:
1445:
1438:
1433:
1417:
1411:
1404:
1399:
1380:
1373:
1366:
1361:
1354:
1349:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1318:
1311:
1306:
1304:
1287:
1280:
1273:
1268:
1261:
1256:
1249:
1248:Kemmer (1979)
1244:
1242:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1206:
1198:
1194:
1187:
1180:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1161:
1156:
1149:
1148:Kemmer (1979)
1144:
1137:
1136:Kemmer (1979)
1132:
1128:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1072:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1001:
999:
994:
990:
988:
984:
980:
979:transpiration
970:
968:
964:
960:
949:
945:
943:
939:
935:
931:
926:
922:
920:
916:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
892:
887:
883:
878:
876:
871:
867:
863:
858:
855:
847:
842:
838:
834:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
768:
761:
756:
750:
745:
740:
733:
729:
728:BLAST network
725:
721:
708:
705:
702:
699:
696:
693:
690:
689:
688:
680:
670:
667:
659:
649:
645:
641:
635:
634:
630:
625:This section
623:
619:
614:
613:
605:
596:
587:
584:
574:
571:
570:boiling point
561:
559:
555:
551:
547:
541:
532:
523:
521:
517:
511:
501:
499:
493:
492:Cooling tower
484:
475:
473:
469:
466:required the
465:
460:
458:
454:
449:
445:
441:
437:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
413:
409:
400:
393:
388:
379:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
333:
328:
324:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
280:
276:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
250:
248:
243:
239:
235:
231:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
181:
175:Disadvantages
172:
170:
167:blades where
166:
162:
158:
154:
151:may separate
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
133:cooling ponds
130:
126:
122:
118:
117:recirculating
114:
99:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
72:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
49:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
30:Water cooling
23:
19:
2632:Vacuum sewer
2516:Sewer mining
2466:Ion exchange
2416:Chlorination
2338:Heavy metals
2295:Urban runoff
2235:Ion exchange
2215:Fecal sludge
2209:
2094:
2075:
2066:
2046:
2026:
2017:
2010:Bibliography
1989:
1985:
1975:
1963:. Retrieved
1961:(in Swedish)
1958:
1949:
1936:
1924:. Retrieved
1915:
1903:. Retrieved
1899:
1889:
1877:. Retrieved
1873:the original
1859:
1847:. Retrieved
1837:
1825:. Retrieved
1821:the original
1811:
1799:. Retrieved
1789:
1777:. Retrieved
1772:
1747:. Retrieved
1736:
1724:
1705:
1698:
1683:
1682:Final rule.
1674:
1652:
1647:
1630:
1618:. Retrieved
1611:the original
1598:
1581:
1564:
1556:EPA (2014).
1541:EPA (2010).
1537:
1521:
1512:
1502:
1490:
1478:
1466:. Retrieved
1456:
1444:
1432:
1420:. Retrieved
1410:
1398:
1386:. Retrieved
1372:
1360:
1348:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1317:
1290:. Retrieved
1279:
1267:
1255:
1215:
1211:
1205:
1196:
1192:
1186:
1155:
1143:
1131:
1117:Thermosiphon
1085:Free cooling
1075:Cooling pond
1062:metamaterial
1051:
1043:distillation
1036:
1017:
1002:
993:Machine guns
991:
983:perspiration
976:
955:
946:
930:Power Mac G5
927:
923:
919:Jean Peltier
912:
904:dehumidifier
896:condensation
879:
859:
853:
851:
835:
815:Southbridges
811:Northbridges
807:overclocking
788:
769:
765:
685:
662:
653:
638:Please help
626:
602:
593:
580:
567:
543:
520:water jacket
518:. Also, the
513:
495:
461:
418:
417:
405:
329:
325:
305:conductivity
283:
258:phosphonates
251:
238:hypochlorite
232:
220:thermophilic
206:
182:
178:
160:
152:
140:
136:
120:
116:
110:
73:
50:
29:
28:
18:
2622:Storm drain
2617:Sewage farm
2541:Vermifilter
2496:Septic tank
2456:Imhoff tank
2353:Temperature
2260:Return flow
2250:Papermaking
1992:: 111–123.
1944:2016-12-12.
1640:§ 1316
1620:23 November
1334:: 161–174.
1310:Reid (1961)
1160:King (1995)
1106:Oil cooling
1020:heavy water
998:World War I
981:and animal
959:cupronickel
866:heater core
799:water block
526:Open method
516:heater core
472:regulations
360:Amphoterism
46:air cooling
2666:Categories
2587:Irrigation
2451:Filtration
2151:Wastewater
1959:www.lvn.se
1879:5 November
1801:19 January
1124:References
1013:melt-water
944:desktops.
891:antifreeze
846:waterblock
803:water pump
784:Fluorinert
737:See also:
583:antifreeze
577:Antifreeze
490:See also:
457:scavengers
431:waste heat
293:evaporated
270:phosphorus
208:Biofouling
198:phosphates
188:including
107:Advantages
2421:Clarifier
2368:Turbidity
2220:Greywater
2047:Limnology
1965:20 August
1779:20 August
1232:0254-0584
1095:Heat pipe
942:Alienware
862:radiators
776:radiators
627:does not
554:deionized
550:tap water
462:The U.S.
453:predators
427:estuarine
344:hydroxide
332:hydronium
317:carbonate
313:magnesium
291:water is
194:chromates
149:condenser
113:non-toxic
102:Mechanism
88:buildings
76:lubricant
2348:Salinity
2240:Leachate
2175:Bathroom
1940:Thermex
1849:11 March
1715:67019834
1199:: 60–65.
1069:See also
1005:hospital
967:titanium
928:Apple's
870:aquarium
656:May 2024
498:seawater
364:aluminum
352:hydrogen
315:both as
297:Salinity
289:filtered
275:chromium
242:chloride
234:Chlorine
228:Biocides
96:chillers
2275:Septage
1749:2 April
1468:23 June
1422:23 June
1388:23 June
1292:23 June
1113:cooling
1111:Peltier
1097:cooling
749:1080 Ti
648:removed
633:sources
448:screens
423:coastal
340:cations
321:sulfate
309:calcium
301:density
212:sessile
155:from a
94:and in
78:oil in
2649:
2290:Toilet
2280:Sewage
2245:Manure
2082:
2054:
2033:
1713:
1638:
1230:
1047:brines
1009:Sweden
977:Plant
963:bronze
875:T-Line
854:T-Line
823:memory
780:Cray-2
444:shrimp
372:copper
348:anions
216:oxygen
141:closed
40:using
2195:Brine
1986:Joule
1926:7 May
1905:7 May
1827:6 May
1691:48300
1678:EPA.
1667:36749
1660:65255
1651:EPA.
1614:(PDF)
1607:(PDF)
1590:(PDF)
1573:(PDF)
1382:(PDF)
346:(OH)
224:fungi
169:phase
157:fluid
80:pumps
42:water
2536:UASB
2080:ISBN
2052:ISBN
2031:ISBN
1967:2017
1928:2021
1907:2021
1881:2009
1869:Dell
1851:2018
1829:2022
1803:2018
1781:2012
1751:2018
1729:Betz
1711:LCCN
1622:2015
1495:Betz
1470:2021
1424:2021
1403:Betz
1390:2021
1365:Betz
1353:Betz
1294:2021
1272:Betz
1228:ISSN
1179:Betz
1056:and
934:Dell
801:, a
795:GPUs
793:and
631:any
629:cite
442:and
440:fish
425:and
390:The
376:Acid
342:and
319:and
311:and
264:and
196:and
190:zinc
137:open
92:HVAC
69:CPUs
55:and
34:heat
1994:doi
1686:79
1336:doi
1220:doi
1216:120
1041:or
1007:in
906:or
884:or
868:),
791:CPU
772:CPU
760:CFD
642:by
556:or
446:on
338:O)
303:or
256:or
165:saw
131:or
90:in
2668::
2343:pH
1988:.
1984:.
1957:.
1898:.
1867:.
1771:.
1759:^
1688:FR
1664:FR
1657:FR
1549:^
1511:.
1332:52
1330:.
1302:^
1240:^
1226:.
1214:.
1197:49
1195:.
1167:^
1034:.
1003:A
989:.
965:,
961:,
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852:A
825:,
821:,
817:,
813:,
356:pH
334:(H
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281:.
192:,
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2143:e
2136:t
2129:v
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2039:.
2002:.
1996::
1990:3
1969:.
1930:.
1909:.
1883:.
1853:.
1831:.
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1717:.
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1426:.
1392:.
1342:.
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650:.
636:.
336:3
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