Variable-frequency drive

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overvoltages. On 460 V or 575 V systems and inverters with 3rd-generation 0.1-microsecond-rise-time IGBTs, the maximum recommended cable distance between VFD and motor is about 50 m or 150 feet. For emerging SiC MOSFET powered drives, significant overvoltages have been observed at cable lengths as short as 3 meters. Solutions to overvoltages caused by long lead lengths include minimizing cable length, lowering carrier frequency, installing dV/dt filters, using inverter-duty-rated motors (that are rated 600 V to withstand pulse trains with rise time less than or equal to 0.1 microsecond, of 1,600 V peak magnitude), and installing LCR low-pass sine wave filters. Selection of optimum PWM carrier frequency for AC drives involves balancing noise, heat, motor insulation stress, common-mode voltage-induced motor bearing current damage, smooth motor operation, and other factors. Further harmonics attenuation can be obtained by using an LCR low-pass sine wave filter or dV/dt filter.

582:. After the start of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load. This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than 50% of its rated current from the mains in the low-speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed. However, motor cooling deteriorates and can result in overheating as speed decreases such that prolonged low-speed operation with significant torque is not usually possible without separately motorized fan ventilation. 2892:

symmetrical-geometry power cable to supply the motor, installation of shaft grounding brushes, and conductive bearing grease. Bearing currents can be interrupted by installation of insulated bearings and specially designed electrostatic-shielded induction motors. Filtering and damping high-frequency bearing can be done though inserting soft magnetic cores over the three phases giving a high frequency impedance against the common mode or motor bearing currents. Another approach is to use instead of standard 2-level inverter drives, using either 3-level inverter drives or matrix converters.

357:(4-pole) induction motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at 125% speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power. At higher speeds, the induction motor torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway torque of the motor. Thus, rated power can be typically produced only up to 130–150% of the rated nameplate speed. Wound-rotor synchronous motors can be run at even higher speeds. In rolling mill drives, often 200–300% of the base speed is used. The mechanical strength of the rotor limits the maximum speed of the motor. 527: 177: 33: 2943: 2935: 2403: 1169:

5 or 6 MW, economic considerations typically favor medium-voltage (MV) drives with much lower power ratings. Different MV drive topologies (see Table 2) are configured in accordance with the voltage/current-combination ratings used in different drive controllers' switching devices such that any given voltage rating is greater than or equal to one to the following standard nominal motor voltage ratings: generally either

1063:: In an LCI drive (a special CSI case), the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter stores energy via DC link inductor circuit to supply stiff quasi-sinusoidal six-step current output of a second SCR-bridge's inverter and an over-excited synchronous machine. Low-cost SCR-thyristor-based LCI fed synchronous motor drives are often used in high-power low-dynamic-performance fan, pump and compressor applications rated up to 100 MW. 2781:, IGBT supply unit (ISU), active front end (AFE), or four-quadrant operation. With PWM control and a suitable input reactor, an AFE's AC line current waveform can be nearly sinusoidal. AFE inherently regenerates energy in four-quadrant mode from the DC side to the AC grid. Thus, no braking resistor is needed, and the efficiency of the drive is improved if the drive is frequently required to brake the motor. 41: 586:

little faster than it would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by adding a braking circuit (resistor controlled by a transistor) to dissipate the braking energy. With a four-quadrant rectifier (active front-end), the VFD is able to brake the load by applying a reverse torque and injecting the energy back to the AC line.

999: 518:

enable auto-start and place L1, L2, and L3 into a contactor. Powering on the contactor thus turns on the drive and has it output to a designated speed. Depending on the sophistication of the drive multiple auto-starting behavior can be developed e.g. the drive auto-starts on power up but does not auto-start from clearing an emergency stop until a reset has been cycled.

991: 2769:

below acceptable limits. Alternatively, the utility may adopt a solution by installing filtering equipment of its own at substations affected by the large amount of VFD equipment being used. In high-power installations, harmonic distortion can be reduced by supplying multi-pulse rectifier-bridge VFDs from transformers with multiple phase-shifted windings.

361: 611:

In the United States, an estimated 60–65% of electrical energy is used to supply motors, 75% of which are variable-torque fan, pump, and compressor loads. Eighteen percent of the energy used in the 40 million motors in the U.S. could be saved by efficient energy improvement technologies such as VFDs.

599:

Many fixed-speed motor load applications that are supplied direct from AC line power can save energy when they are operated at variable speed by means of VFD. Such energy cost savings are especially pronounced in variable-torque centrifugal fan and pump applications, where the load's torque and power

508:

Depending on the model a VFD's operating parameters can be programmed via: dedicated programming software, internal keypad, external keypad, or SD card. VFDs will often block out most programming changes while running. Typical parameters that need to be set include: motor nameplate information, speed

344:

Operation of the motors above rated nameplate speed (base speed) is possible, but is limited to conditions that do not require more power than the nameplate rating of the motor. This is sometimes called "field weakening" and, for AC motors, means operating at less than rated V/Hz and above rated

2759:

can often be within acceptable limits. Furthermore, in low-voltage networks, harmonics caused by single-phase equipment such as computers and TVs are partially cancelled by three-phase diode bridge harmonics because their 5th and 7th harmonics are in counterphase. However, when the proportion of VFD

1201:

is placed between a LV drive and a MV motor load. MV drives are typically rated for motor applications greater than between about 375 and 750 kW (503 and 1,006 hp). MV drives have historically required considerably more application design effort than required for LV drive applications. The

585:

With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a

2857:

equal to twice the DC bus voltage or up to 3.1 times the rated line voltage for long cable runs, putting high stress on the cable and motor windings, and eventual insulation failure. Insulation standards for three-phase motors rated 230 V or less adequately protect against such long-lead

1077:

that have no intermediate DC link for energy storage. A cycloconverter operates as a three-phase current source via three anti-parallel-connected SCR-bridges in six-pulse configuration, each cycloconverter phase acting selectively to convert fixed line-frequency AC voltage to an alternating voltage

705:

Fixed-speed loads subject the motor to a high starting torque and to current surges that are up to eight times the full-load current. AC drives instead gradually ramp the motor up to operating speed to lessen mechanical and electrical stress, reducing maintenance and repair costs, and extending the

2768:

transformers and compensation capacitors are affected negatively. In particular, capacitors can cause resonance conditions that can unacceptably magnify harmonic levels. To limit the voltage distortion, owners of VFD load may be required to install filtering equipment to reduce harmonic distortion

1168:

VFDs are available with voltage and current ratings covering a wide range of single-phase and multi-phase AC motors. Low-voltage (LV) drives are designed to operate at output voltages equal to or less than 690 V. While motor-application LV drives are available in ratings of up to the order of

570:

Certain high-performance applications involve four-quadrant loads (Quadrants I to IV) where the speed and torque can be in any direction such as in hoists, elevators, and hilly conveyors. Regeneration can occur only in the drive's DC link bus when inverter voltage is smaller in magnitude than the

452:

display or indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above. The keypad display can often be cable-connected and mounted a short

517:

Most VFDs allow auto-starting to be enabled. Which will drive the output to a designated frequency after a power cycle, or after a fault has been cleared, or after the emergency stop signal has been restored (generally emergency stops are active low logic). One popular way to control a VFD is to

211:

can be advantageous in some situations, but generally three-phase induction motors are preferred as the most economical. Motors that are designed for fixed-speed operation are often used. Elevated-voltage stresses imposed on induction motors that are supplied by VFDs require that such motors be

3049:

of voltage V with respect to time t, provides a measure of rate of voltage rise, the maximum admissible value of which expresses the capability of capacitors, motors, and other affected circuit elements to withstand high current or voltage spikes due to fast voltage changes; dV/dt is

716:

Performance factors tending to favor the use of DC drives over AC drives include such requirements as continuous operation at low speed, four-quadrant operation with regeneration, frequent acceleration and deceleration routines, and need for the motor to be protected for a hazardous area. The

3035:

NEMA Guide defines a motor's breakaway torque as 'The torque that a motor produces at zero speed when operating on a control', and a motor's breakdown torque as 'The maximum torque that it will develop with rated voltage applied at rated frequency on sinewave power, without an abrupt drop in

2820:

A carrier frequency of at least ten times the desired output frequency is used to establish the PWM switching intervals. A carrier frequency in the range of 2,000 to 16,000 Hz is common for LV VFDs. A higher carrier frequency produces a better sine wave approximation but incurs higher

337:(SVPWM) is becoming increasingly popular, sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) is the most straightforward method used to vary drives' motor voltage (or current) and frequency. With SPWM control (see Fig. 1), quasi-sinusoidal, variable-pulse-width output is constructed from intersections of a saw-toothed 311:

V/Hz relationship. For example, for 460 V, 60 Hz motors, this linear V/Hz relationship is 460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz. While suitable in wide-ranging applications, V/Hz control is sub-optimal in high-performance applications involving low speed or demanding, dynamic speed regulation,

2891:

Prevention of high-frequency bearing current damage uses three approaches: good cabling and grounding practices, interruption of bearing currents, and filtering or damping of common-mode currents through common mode chokes. Good cabling and grounding practices can include use of shielded,

2961:

Regeneration is useful in VFDs only where the value of the recovered energy is large compared to the extra cost of a regenerative system, and if the system requires frequent braking and starting. Regenerative VFDs are widely used where speed control of overhauling loads is required.

2760:

and other non-linear load compared to total load or of non-linear load compared to the stiffness at the AC power supply, or both, is relatively large enough, the load can have a negative impact on the AC power waveform available to other power company customers in the same grid.

2772:

It is also possible to replace the standard diode-bridge rectifier with a bi-directional IGBT switching device bridge mirroring the standard inverter which uses IGBT switching device output to the motor. Such rectifiers are referred to by various designations including active

604:, respectively, of the speed. This change gives a large power reduction compared to fixed-speed operation for a relatively small reduction in speed. For example, at 63% speed a motor load consumes only 25% of its full-speed power. This reduction is in accordance with 2451: 2415: 3751: 566:

as in case of a fan decelerating faster than natural mechanical losses. Some sources define two-quadrant drives as loads operating in quadrants I and III where the speed and torque is same (positive or negative) polarity in both directions.

2745:

in the PWM output can easily be filtered by carrier-frequency-related filter inductance to supply near-sinusoidal currents to the motor load, the VFD's diode-bridge rectifier converts AC line voltage to DC voltage output by super-imposing

2439: 2925:

Dynamic braking wastes braking energy by transforming it to heat. By contrast, regenerative drives recover braking energy by injecting this energy into the AC line. The capital cost of regenerative drives is, however, relatively high.

2875:

PWM drives are inherently associated with high-frequency common-mode voltages and currents which may cause trouble with motor bearings. When these high-frequency voltages find a path to earth through a bearing, transfer of metal or

2427: 2750:

half-phase current pulses thus creating harmonic current distortion, and hence voltage distortion, of the AC line input. When the VFD loads are relatively small in comparison to the large, stiff power system available from the

2840:

Some drives have a noise smoothing feature that can be turned on to introduce a random variation to the switching frequency. This distributes the acoustic noise over a range of frequencies to lower the peak noise intensity.

500:. Speed can also be controlled remotely and locally. Remote control instructs the VFD to ignore speed commands from the keypad while local control instructs the VFD to ignore external control and only abide by the keypad. 2763:

When the power company's voltage becomes distorted due to harmonics, losses in other loads such as normal fixed-speed AC motors are increased. This condition may lead to overheating and shorter operating life. Also,

4752: 3412: 2957:

Cycloconverter, Scherbius, matrix, CSI, and LCI drives inherently allow return of energy from the load to the line, while voltage-source inverters require an additional converter to return energy to the supply.

306:

applications suited for Volts-per-Hertz (V/Hz) drive control, AC motor characteristics require that the voltage magnitude of the inverter's output to the motor be adjusted to match the required load torque in a

129:

technology has reduced VFD cost and size and has improved performance through advances in semiconductor switching devices, drive topologies, simulation and control techniques, and control hardware and software.

5170: 3277: 2800:

standards. For example, IEEE Standard 519 limits at the customer's connection point call for the maximum individual frequency voltage harmonic to be no more than 3% of the fundamental and call for the voltage

2784:

Two other harmonics mitigation techniques exploit use of passive or active filters connected to a common bus with at least one VFD branch load on the bus. Passive filters involve the design of one or more

1202:

power rating of MV drives can reach 100 MW (130,000 hp), a range of different drive topologies being involved for different rating, performance, power quality, and reliability requirements.

3758: 2880:(EDM) sparking occurs between the bearing's ball and the bearing's race. Over time, EDM-based sparking causes erosion in the bearing race that can be seen as a fluting pattern. In large motors, the 4017: 615:

Only about 3% of the total installed base of AC motors are provided with AC drives. However, it is estimated that drive technology is adopted in as many as 30–40% of all newly installed motors.

702:

AC drives are used to bring about process and quality improvements in industrial and commercial applications' acceleration, flow, monitoring, pressure, speed, temperature, tension, and torque.

295:

Controller advances have exploited dramatic increases in the voltage and current ratings and switching frequency of solid-state power devices over the past six decades. Introduced in 1983, the

4240:

Paes, Richard (June 2011). "An Overview of Medium Voltage AC Adjustable Speed Drives and IEEE Std. 1566 – Standard for Performance of Adjustable Speed AC Drives Rated 375 kW and Larger".

2849:

The carrier-frequency pulsed output voltage of a PWM VFD causes rapid rise times in these pulses, the transmission line effects of which must be considered. Since the transmission-line

559:

Most applications involve single-quadrant loads operating in quadrant I, such as in variable-torque (e.g. centrifugal pumps or fans) and certain constant-torque (e.g. extruders) loads.

983: 713:

can be applied to a conveyor application for smoother deceleration and acceleration control, which reduces the backlash that can occur when a conveyor is accelerating or decelerating.

5056:

Malfait, A.; Reekman, R.; Belmans, R. (1994). "Audible Noise and Losses in Variable Speed Induction Motor Drives: Influence of the Squirrel Cage Design and the Switching Frequency".

2918:, converting mechanical power back to electrical power. This power is returned to the drive's DC link element (capacitor or reactor). A DC-link-connected electronic power switch or 534:

Referring to the accompanying chart, drive applications can be categorized as single-quadrant, two-quadrant, or four-quadrant; the chart's four quadrants are defined as follows:

509:

reference source, on/off control source and braking control. It is also common for VFDs to provide debugging information such as fault codes and the states of the input signals.

444:

or another similar interface. Additional operator control functions might include reversing, and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control from an external

975: 4844: 5120:"Minimize Adverse Motor and Adjustable Speed Drive Interactions | Advanced Manufacturing Office Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy | U.S. Department of Energy" 4698:

Kouro, Samir; Rodriguez, Jose; Wu, Bin; Bernet, Steffen; Perez, Marcelo (July–August 2012). "Powering the Future of Industry: High-Power Adjustable Speed Drive Topologies".

4763: 472:

There are two main ways to control the speed of a VFD; networked or hardwired. Networked involves transmitting the intended speed over a communication protocol such as

2813:

One drive uses a default switching frequency setting of 4 kHz. Reducing the drive's switching frequency (the carrier-frequency) reduces the heat generated by the

5181: 3284: 2888:

of motor stators can lead to shaft-to-ground bearing currents. Small motors with poorly grounded driven equipment are susceptible to high-frequency bearing currents.

4042: 1017:-bridge converter stores energy in the capacitor bus to supply stiff voltage input to the inverter. The vast majority of drives are VSI type with PWM voltage output. 4554: 3077:

The term six-step refers strictly speaking to an inverter waveform output alternative to PWM, some drives being configured as combined six-step and PWM options.

3243:

Adjustable Speed Drive System: An interconnected combination of equipment that provides a means of adjusting the speed of a mechanical load coupled to a motor.

2789:

LC filter traps, each trap being tuned as required to a harmonic frequency (5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, . . . kq+/-1, where k=integer, q=pulse number of converter).

4174: 4733:

Janssen, Hansen; Neilsen, Peter; Blaabjerg, Frede (January–December 2000). "Harmonic Cancellation by Mixing Non-Linear Single-Phase and Three-Phase Loads".

2884:

of the windings provides paths for high-frequency currents that pass through the motor shaft ends, leading to a circulating type of bearing current. Poor

327:(DTC), adjust the motor voltage magnitude, angle from reference, and frequency so as to precisely control the motor's magnetic flux and mechanical torque. 4994:

Skibinski, G.; Breit, S. (2004). "Line and load friendly drive solutions for long length cable applications in electrical submersible pump applications".

1049:

inverter drives. In a six-step drive, the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter is smoothed via capacitor bus and series-reactor connection to supply via

2969:

Conveyor belt drives for manufacturing, which stop every few minutes. While stopped, parts are assembled correctly; once that is done, the belt moves on.

436:

The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating speed. The VFD may also be controlled by a

288:

inverter (CSI) and load-commutated inverter (LCI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below). The drive controller can also be configured as a

154: 2797: 254:

applications, drives are configured as DC–AC drives. The most basic rectifier converter for the VSI drive is configured as a three-phase, six-pulse,

4083: 2822: 4908: 2853:

of the cable and motor are different, pulses tend to reflect back from the motor terminals into the cable. The resulting reflections can produce

353:. Wound-rotor synchronous motors and induction motors have much wider speed range. For example, a 100 HP, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775 3438: 3256: 5247: 4521: 3816: 1037:(see image): Now largely obsolete, six-step drives can be either VSI or CSI type and are also referred to as variable-voltage inverter drives, 5265: 3931: 213: 3595: 4108: 2938:

Line regenerative variable-frequency drives, showing capacitors (top cylinders) and inductors attached, which filter the regenerated power

5642: 5386: 4368: 709:

Variable-speed drives can also run a motor in specialized patterns to further minimize mechanical and electrical stress. For example, an

184:

A variable-frequency drive is a device used in a drive system consisting of the following three main sub-systems: AC motor, main drive

6037: 5087: 2450: 3992: 3693:. PEIA 2011 – Workshop on Power Electronics for Industrial Applications and Renewable Energy Conversion. Doha, Qatar: IEEE. p. 12 2793: 2950:

Regenerative AC drives have the capacity to recover the braking energy of a load moving faster than the designated motor speed (an

2774: 17: 2414: 562:

Certain applications involve two-quadrant loads operating in quadrant I and II where the speed is positive but the torque changes

5137: 3225: 1031:

connection to supply stiff current input to the inverter. CSI drives can be operated with either PWM or six-step waveform output.

4670: 390:

The basic drive controller can be configured to selectively include such optional power components and accessories as follows:

118:

VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to large compressors. Systems using VFDs can be more efficient than

6047: 4831: 2632: 3335: 3200: 1197:.6 kV (50 Hz), with one thyristor manufacturer rated for up to 12 kV switching. In some applications a step-up 246:

inverter (VSI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below) are by far the most common type of drives. Most drives are

5334: 5223: 5011: 4804: 4612: 4291: 4212: 4157: 3638: 3499: 3180: 3116: 2911: 2438: 387:, variable, and function block parameters is provided to control, protect, and monitor the VFD, motor, and driven equipment. 4430:

Lockley, Bill; Wood, Barry; Paes, Richard; DeWinter, Frank (January–February 2008). "Standard 1566 for (Un)Familiar Hands".

2922:

controls dissipation of this power as heat in a set of resistors. Cooling fans may be used to prevent resistor overheating.

578:

In starting a motor, a VFD initially applies a low frequency and voltage, thus avoiding high inrush-current associated with

4049: 3655: 3543:

Keynote Presentation for the 25th Anniversary of The Wisconsin Electric Machines and Power Electronics Consortium (WEMPEC)

250:

drives in that they convert AC line input to AC inverter output. However, in some applications such as common DC bus or

3146: 2972:

A crane, where the hoist motor stops and reverses frequently, and braking is required to slow the load during lowering.

2426: 618:

An energy consumption breakdown of the global population of AC motor installations is as shown in the following table:

6057: 6052: 4561: 4494: 4342: 2572: 2330: 1878: 1754: 1663: 1054: 296: 3361: 5822: 4181: 555:

Quadrant IV – Generating or braking, reverse braking-decelerating quadrant with negative speed and positive torque.

457:(I/O) terminals for connecting push buttons, switches, and other operator interface devices or control signals. A 6032: 5379: 3523: 492:

while hardwired involves a pure electrical means of communication. Typical means of hardwired communication are:

464:

is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored, and controlled using a computer.

341:

with a modulating sinusoidal signal which is variable in operating frequency as well as in voltage (or current).

2792:

It is very common practice for power companies or their customers to impose harmonic distortion limits based on

5771: 3541:

Eisenbrown, Robert E. (May 18, 2008). "AC Drives, Historical and Future Perspective of Innovation and Growth".

2877: 225: 104: 2872:

Carrier frequencies above 5 kHz are likely to cause bearing damage unless protective measures are taken.

5556: 3015: 1109: 481: 437: 407: 3059:

A topology is defined in power electronics parlance as the relationship between AC drives' various elements.

2402: 5904: 3840: 3386: 3068:

The term PWM is often used to mean VSI-PWM, which is misleading as not only VSI drives are with PWM output.

2742: 2652: 2279: 2161: 2073: 1750: 1024: 6042: 5914: 5627: 5600: 2509: 1451: 1319: 1085: 204: 185: 5924: 5919: 5372: 4477:

Klug, R.-D.; Klaassen, N. (2005). "High power medium voltage drives - innovations, portfolio, trends".

2614: 1765: 1149:

Variable-frequency drives are also categorized by the following load torque and power characteristics:

1038: 197: 4912: 5999: 5617: 5595: 5206:

Mahesh Swamy; Tsuneo Kume (2008). "Present state and a futuristic vision of motor drive technology".

2914:

speed less the slip. If the load drives the motor faster than synchronous speed, the motor acts as a

2802: 2670: 1558: 231: 5035: 5868: 4604: 3957:

Bose, B. K. (February 2009). "Power Electronics and Motor Drives Recent Progress and Perspective".

489: 461: 212:

designed for definite-purpose inverter-fed duty in accordance with such requirements as Part 31 of

164:

is regarded as the inventor of this technology. Strömberg managed to sell the idea of PWM drive to

5969: 5272: 3935: 3491: 5909: 5460: 3599: 2562: 2536: 331: 282: 4934:

Finlayson, P.T. (January–February 1998). "Output filters for PWM drives with induction motors".

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Quadrant III – Driving or motoring, reverse accelerating quadrant with negative speed and torque

5732: 5637: 5566: 4149: 4115: 2990: 2850: 2752: 2642: 2210: 2176: 2139: 2135: 1708: 1675: 1267: 1129: 1123: 354: 334: 320: 3086:

The harmonics treatment that follows is limited for simplication reasons to LV VSI-PWM drives.

150: 5863: 5727: 5465: 5445: 5425: 2765: 1137: 1046: 458: 349:

synchronous motors have quite limited field-weakening speed range due to the constant magnet

324: 5094: 4969: 4789:

IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems

4596: 4390: 4141: 3483: 1091:

recovery system feeds rectified slip power to a smoothing reactor to supply power to the AC

273:

AC voltage output using the inverter's active switching elements. VSI drives provide higher

5858: 5751: 5500: 5475: 3626: 3569: 2976: 2905: 2885: 2778: 376: 312:

positioning, and reversing load requirements. Some V/Hz control drives can also operate in

269:

and provides a stiff input to the inverter. This filtered DC voltage is converted to quasi-

3233:. IEEE SAS & NCS 2014 PES/IAS Joint Chapter Technical Seminar. p. slide 91 of 132 526: 299:(IGBT) has in the past two decades come to dominate VFDs as an inverter switching device. 8: 5964: 5667: 5662: 5407: 5208:

2008 11th International Conference on Optimization of Electrical and Electronic Equipment

4597: 4148:(2nd ed.). Stevenage, Herts, UK: Institution of Engineering and Technology. p. 3484: 572: 563: 278: 266: 255: 159: 4560:. USDOE – Europump – Hydraulic Institute. May 2004. p. 9, Fig. ES–7. Archived from 3630: 3573: 5989: 5883: 5838: 5776: 5746: 5700: 5523: 5510: 5229: 5069: 5017: 4951: 4715: 4500: 4447: 3974: 3010: 2995: 2915: 2269: 1645: 1619: 1218: 1105: 1074: 313: 247: 149:

Pulse-Width Modulating (PWM) variable-frequency drive projects started in the 1960s at

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via an inverter, the speed of the motor being controlled by adjusting the DC current.

710: 399: 208: 126: 5899: 5233: 4955: 4632:(2002). "Multilevel Inverters: A Survey of Topologies, Controls, and Applications". 4504: 4451: 6004: 5994: 5934: 5878: 5848: 5796: 5692: 5682: 5672: 5622: 5485: 5455: 5395: 5211: 5061: 5021: 4999: 4943: 4853: 4792: 4719: 4707: 4649: 4641: 4482: 4439: 4415:

Bartos, Frank J. (February 1, 2000). "Medium-Voltage AC Drives Shed Custom Image".

4264: 3978: 3966: 3912: 3577: 3309: 2747: 1057:

inverter quasi-sinusoidal, six-step voltage or current input to an induction motor.

807: 579: 346: 112: 5939: 3903:

Bose, Bimal K. (June 2009). "The Past, Present, and Future of Power Electronics".

1210:

It is lastly useful to relate VFDs in terms of the following two classifications:

176: 5979: 5929: 5791: 5612: 5590: 5578: 5546: 5450: 4629: 4242:

Joint Power Engineering Society-Industrial Applications Society Technical Seminar

2919: 2901: 2786: 2756: 1244: 1050: 801: 796: 791: 445: 418: 395: 369: 289: 200: 32: 5954: 5003: 4796: 4175:"General Purpose Permanent Magnet Motor Drive without Speed and Position Sensor" 1156:

Constant torque, such as in conveyor and positive-displacement pump applications

717:

following table compares AC and DC drives according to certain key parameters:

427:

Connected downstream of inverter—output reactor, sine wave filter, dV/dt filter.

234:

power electronics conversion system consisting of three distinct sub-systems: a

5974: 5873: 5843: 5705: 5657: 5605: 5533: 5470: 5413: 5215: 4852:. 2013 66th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers. IEEE. p. 2. 4555:"Variable Speed Pumping, A Guide to Successful Applications, Executive Summary" 3688: 3662: 2289: 1118: 1092: 1070: 1042: 941: 786: 601: 384: 372: 338: 285: 243: 239: 165: 138: 5119: 4857: 4711: 4429: 6026: 5984: 5652: 3970: 3557: 3246:, quote is per definition on p. 4 of NEMA Standards Publication ICS 7.2-2021. 2867: 1562: 605: 497: 5065: 4645: 4486: 4443: 4315: 3916: 1006:

AC drives can be classified according to the following generic topologies:

316:

V/Hz mode or can even be programmed to suit special multi-point V/Hz paths.

6009: 5944: 5632: 4332: 3205:. Rosslyn, VA USA: National Electrical Manufacturers Association. p. 4 546: 539: 454: 449: 350: 274: 258: 251: 4873:"dv/dt Simulation Scenario 1: SiC Drive – dv/dt Simulation and Mitigation" 4697: 4671:"Two-Level and Three-Level Converter Comparison in Wind Power Application" 4043:"Energy-Efficiency Policy Opportunities for Electric Motor-Driven Systems" 3690:

Global Energy Scenario and Impact on Power Electronics In the 21st Century

2942: 1153:

Variable torque, such as in centrifugal fan, pump, and blower applications

5786: 5717: 2854: 1198: 608:

that define the relationship between various centrifugal load variables.

485: 88: 4947: 4654: 4627: 2934: 5677: 5647: 5518: 5480: 3046: 982: 937: 119: 3581: 5959: 5712: 5490: 5171:"Bearing Currents in Modern AC Drive Systems – Technical Guide No. 5" 5058:

29th Annual Meeting Proceedings of IEEE Industry Applications Society

4970:"Motor Voltage Waveform Simulation - dv/dt Simulation and Mitigation" 4732: 4255:

McMurray, William (April 1988). "Power Electronic Circuit Topology".

403: 308: 292:

having single-phase converter input and three-phase inverter output.

270: 262: 235: 100: 5364: 4084:"DC or AC Drives? A Guide for Users of Variable-Speed drives (VSDs)" 3792:

Cleaveland, Peter (November 1, 2007). "AC Adjustable Speed Drives".

3558:"AC Adjustable-Speed Drives at the Millennium: How Did We Get Here?" 5741: 5585: 5541: 4268: 3545:. University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA: WEMPEC. pp. 6–10. 2910:

Torque generated by the drive causes the induction motor to run at

1028: 422: 411: 380: 85: 4846:

Challenges and solutions of protecting variable speed drive motors

4213:"A Guide to Standard Medium Voltage Variable Speed Drives, Part 2" 2805:(THD) to be no more than 5% for a general AC power supply system. 1159:

Constant power, such as in machine tool and traction applications.

5817: 5812: 5298:"Reliance Electric FlexPak 3000 20FR4042 | Automation Industrial" 2975:

Plug-in and hybrid electric vehicles of all types (see image and

2832:

in the IGBT, decreasing the overall power conversion efficiency.

168:

in 1973 and in 1982 the first PWM drive SAMI10 were operational.

108: 1114:

Most drives use one or more of the following control platforms:

5495: 5419: 4599:

Power Electronics Handbook: Devices, Circuits, and Applications

974: 493: 477: 473: 441: 303: 96: 40: 5266:"Evaluation of 2010 Toyota Prius Hybrid Electric Drive System" 4479:

2005 European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications

4337:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-IEEE Press. p. 318. 3439:"Esinekummi tekee näkyväksi tekniikan ja teollisuuden tarinaa" 998: 453:

distance from the VFD controller. Most are also provided with

5055: 3866:

Basics of AC Drives, pp. Hardware – Part 1: slides 9–10 of 11

3486:

Power Electronics and Motor Drives : Advances and Trends

1205: 1014: 122:, such as in systems with pumps and damper control for fans. 92: 5297: 4284:

Electrician's Technical Reference: Variable Frequency Drives

4109:"AC and DC Variable Speed Drives Application Considerations" 4753:"Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives – Technical Guide No. 6" 3005: 2814: 2456:

Simplified Neutral Point Clamped H-bridge Inverter Topology

2065:

Primarily ABB, GE‑Converteam, Siemens

496:, 0-10VDC, or using the internal 24VDC power supply with a 375:

governs the overall operation of the VFD controller. Basic

3336:"Taajuusmuuttajasta tuli Suomen suuri innovaatio - IN0619" 3198: 2420:

Simplified Neutral Point Clamped 3-Level Inverter Topology

4828: 4544:

Bose (2006) pp. Chapter 6–8, especially pp. 328, 397, 481

4316:

Sandy, Williams; Baillie, Alastair; Shipp, David (2003).

1214:

In terms of various AC machines as shown in Table 1 below

575:

and inverter voltage and back-EMF are the same polarity.

5165: 5163: 4843:

D'Aversa, A.; Hughes, B.; Patel, S. (April 8–11, 2013).

3993:"Guide to Variable Speed Drives – Technical Guide No. 4" 3656:"History of Power Electronics for Motor Drives in Japan" 1144: 364:

Fig. 1: SPWM carrier-sine input & 2-level PWM output

196:

The AC electric motor used in a VFD system is usually a

5205: 4842: 4040: 3782:

Basics of AC Drives, p. Hardware – Part 2: slide 7 of 9

3598:. p. Hardware-Part 2: slide 2 of 9. Archived from 3202:

Application Guide for AC Adjustable Speed Drive Systems

1078:

at a variable load frequency. MC drives are IGBT-based.

990: 379:

of the microprocessor is provided as user-inaccessible

2476:

Inverter switching device (with std. diode rectifier)

360: 5160: 4745: 3932:"Adjustable Speed Drives: Drive Up Energy Efficiency" 2444:

Simplified Flying Capacitor Inverter 4-Level Topology

545:

Quadrant II – Generating or braking, forward braking-

5643:

Dual-rotor permanent magnet induction motor (DRPMIM)

4318:

Understanding VSDs with ESPs – A Practical Checklist

3710: 3708: 3387:"Edelläkävijät osaavat lukea signaaleja ympärillään" 4286:. Albany, NY: Delmar Thomson Learning. p. 51. 4144:

The Control Techniques Drives and Controls Handbook

4101: 4009: 3555: 1013:(see image): In a VSI drive, the DC output of the 171: 4603:(2nd ed.). Burlington, MA: Academic. p. 1067:Cycloconverter or matrix converter (MC) topologies 1023:(see image): In a CSI drive, the DC output of the 894:Fault protection (Fused only or inherent to drive) 4210: 3741:Basics of AC Drives, p. Programming: slide 3 of 7 3705: 3556:Jahn, Thomas M.; Owen, Edward L. (January 2001). 3111:. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. pp. 79–189. 512: 448:signal. The operator interface often includes an 6024: 5257: 5028: 4987: 4369:"ACS800, single drives, 0.55 to 5600 kW Catalog" 2755:, the effects of VFD harmonic distortion of the 1979:Flying‑capacitor inverter drive 549:quadrant with positive speed and negative torque 5271:. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Archived from 4309: 4076: 3362:"Suomi100-innovaatiot, sija 5: taajuusmuuttaja" 3141:. Cleveland, OH: Penton/IPC. pp. 210–215. 2808: 1061:Load commutated inverter (LCI) drive topologies 5049: 4993: 4472: 4470: 4423: 4235: 4233: 4073:Basics of AC drives, p. Overview: slide 5 of 6 3310:"Muistokirjoitus | Martti Harmoinen 1934–2023" 3045:The mathematical symbol dV/dt, defined as the 2432:Simplified Cascaded H-bridge Inverter Topology 1021:Current-source inverter (CSI) drive topologies 1011:Voltage-source inverter (VSI) drive topologies 5380: 5329:(2 ed.). Pangbourne: Alpha Science Int. 5144:. Itasca, IL: PtmanMedia: 1–2. Archived from 4726: 4662: 4547: 4516: 4514: 4361: 4275: 4048:. International Energy Agency. Archived from 3862: 3860: 3752:"Film capacitors – Short Definition of Terms" 3588: 3517: 3515: 3513: 3511: 2728: 91:(system incorporating a motor) that controls 4900: 4691: 4476: 4133: 4034: 3950: 3923: 3896: 3817:"Technical guide No. 8 – Electrical Braking" 3194: 3192: 2946:Simplified Drive Schematic for a Popular EHV 2009:NPC/H‑bridge inverter drive 706:life of the motor and the driven equipment. 265:which smooths out the converter's DC output 261:. In a VSI drive, the DC link consists of a 5080: 5036:"Application Report Long Drive/Motor Leads" 4634:IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 4467: 4230: 4166: 3959:IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 3833: 3680: 3614: 3524:"AC Drives Stay Vital for the 21st Century" 3475: 3257:"Medium Voltage Integrated Drive and Motor" 3223: 3217: 103:of the input electricity. Depending on its 5387: 5373: 4996:IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 4735:IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications 4511: 4330: 3857: 3791: 3785: 3540: 3508: 3132: 3130: 3128: 1206:Drives by machines and detailed topologies 1163: 1082:Doubly-fed slip recovery system topologies 1027:-bridge converter stores energy in series- 834:Typical speed range at constant torque (%) 538:Quadrant I – Driving or motoring, forward 5263: 4933: 4927: 4909:"The Basics of Variable-Frequency Drives" 4653: 4206: 4204: 4202: 3270: 3189: 3160: 3158: 2954:load) and return it to the power system. 2861: 1960:Primarily GE, Siemens (Robicon), Toshiba 1221:topologies shown in Tables 2 and 3 below. 5320: 5318: 4781: 4588: 4408: 4254: 4248: 4041:Waide, Paul; Brunner, Conrad U. (2011). 3934:. ChemicalProcessing.com. Archived from 3224:Lockley, William; Paes, Richard (2014). 3136: 3106: 2941: 2933: 2484:Inverter and rectifier switching device 1332:Slip energy recovery (Kramer/Scherbius) 997: 989: 981: 973: 964: 525: 359: 188:assembly, and drive/operator interface. 175: 39: 31: 4324: 3164: 3125: 3100: 542:quadrant with positive speed and torque 319:The two other drive control platforms, 14: 6025: 5264:Olszewski, Mitch; et al. (2011). 5138:"Bearings and Electricity Don't Match" 4668: 4594: 4522:"TMEiC Medium Voltage Drive Evolution" 4414: 4281: 4244:. IEEE Southern Alberta Chapter: 1–78. 4199: 4015: 3562:IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics 3522:Bartos, Frank J. (September 1, 2004). 3521: 3278:"Energy efficiency makes a difference" 3171:. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. p. 3168:Electrical Control Systems in Industry 3155: 3139:Controlling Power Transmission Systems 2929: 2662:Symmetrical gate controlled thyristor 2633:Permanent magnet synchronous generator 2302:Primarily ABB, Siemens, GE Converteam 697: 5394: 5368: 5324: 5315: 5199: 4906: 4391:"High-Power Converters and AC Drives" 4139: 3744: 3436: 1930:Primarily Eaton, GE-Toshiba, Siemens 1919:3‑level NPC inverter 1839:3‑level NPC inverter 1145:Load torque and power characteristics 969: 854:Min. speed at 100% torque (% of base) 431: 133:VFDs include low- and medium-voltage 5135: 5088:"Who Cares About Carrier Frequency?" 4382: 4239: 3956: 3905:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 3902: 3809: 3686: 3647: 3620: 3481: 2844: 2733: 2408:Simplified 2-Level Inverter Topology 1099: 874:Multiple-motor operation recommended 503: 44:Chassis of above VFD (cover removed) 5210:. IEEE. pp. XLV–LVI, Fig. 16. 4936:IEEE Industry Applications Magazine 4832:ACH550 Switching Frequency Foldback 4700:IEEE Industry Applications Magazine 4432:IEEE Industry Applications Magazine 4334:High-power converters and AC drives 3985: 3227:What's New In Medium Voltage Drives 3199:NEMA Standards Publication (2007). 3050:usually expressed in V/microsecond. 1559:Switched reluctance motor 1002:Topology of direct matrix converter 24: 5248:"Technical Guide No. 8, pp. 26–30" 5180:. December 1, 1999. Archived from 4669:Ikonen, Mika; et al. (2005). 4388: 3437:museo, Tekniikan (July 15, 2021). 2895: 2835: 1949:Multilevel CHB inverter 1035:Six-step inverter drive topologies 622:Global population of motors, 2009 521: 394:Connected upstream of converter – 25: 6069: 6038:Electric power systems components 5327:Fundamentals of Electrical Drives 4595:Rashid, Muhammad H., ed. (2006). 4320:. Society of Petroleum Engineers. 3929: 3623:Adjustable Speed AC Drive Systems 2573:Insulated gate bipolar transistor 1688:Great majority of LV drive makes 594: 530:Electric motor speed-torque chart 297:insulated-gate bipolar transistor 5352: 5343: 4331:Wu, B.; Narimani, Mehdi (2017). 4172: 3653: 2712:Wound-field synchronous machine 2449: 2437: 2425: 2413: 2401: 467: 172:System description and operation 5290: 5240: 5129: 5112: 4974:dv/dt Simulation and Mitigation 4962: 4891: 4877:dv/dt Simulation and Mitigation 4865: 4836: 4822: 4813: 4621: 4579: 4538: 4458: 4352: 4300: 4211:Morris, Ewan; Armitage, David. 4067: 4016:Lendenmann, Heinz; et al. 3887: 3878: 3869: 3800: 3776: 3735: 3726: 3717: 3687:Bose, Bimal K. (June 8, 2012). 3549: 3534: 3490:. Amsterdam: Academic. p. 3466: 3457: 3430: 3405: 3379: 3354: 3107:Campbell, Sylvester J. (1987). 3080: 3071: 3062: 3053: 3039: 3029: 2680:Synchronous reluctance machine 1382:CSI (LCI), cycloconverter, VSI 5772:Timeline of the electric motor 4762:. May 17, 2002. Archived from 3328: 3302: 3249: 2878:electrical discharge machining 632:General Purpose – Medium-Size 513:Starting and software behavior 226:FAM control of induction motor 36:Small variable-frequency drive 27:Type of adjustable-speed drive 13: 1: 6048:Mechanical power transmission 5557:Dahlander pole changing motor 4628:J. Rodriguez; Jih-Sheng Lai; 3109:Solid-State AC Motor Controls 3093: 3016:Variable-speed air compressor 1753:/CSI or diode/VSI)+ 1217:In terms of various detailed 438:programmable logic controller 219: 107:, it controls the associated 4907:Novak, Peter (May 1, 2009). 4678:Institutt for elkraftteknikk 4396:. IEEE PES. p. slide 22 3884:Energy Regeneration, slide 6 3875:Energy Regeneration, slide 3 3661:. p. 13. Archived from 3165:Siskind, Charles S. (1963). 2809:Switching frequency foldback 2720:Wound-rotor induction motor 2688:Variable-reluctance machine 2653:Silicon-controlled rectifier 1889:2‑level inverter 1618:Table 2: Drives by detailed 1454:, Sinusoidal PMSM 1183:.16 kV (60 Hz) or 814:Typical speed regulation (%) 649:375 kW – 10000 kW 242:(DC) link, and an inverter. 7: 5601:Brushless DC electric motor 5349:Rashid, p. 902, Table 33.13 5004:10.1109/PCICON.2004.1352810 4797:10.1109/IEEESTD.1993.114370 4114:. p. 2. Archived from 3757:. p. 2. Archived from 3393:(in Finnish). June 14, 2021 3316:(in Finnish). June 20, 2023 3137:Jaeschke, Ralph L. (1978). 2983: 2510:Brushless DC electric motor 1227:Table 1: Drives by machines 961:^ High-frequency injection 646:0.75 kW – 375 kW 589: 191: 10: 6074: 5216:10.1109/OPTIM.2008.4602333 4998:. IEEE. pp. 269–278. 4911:. EC&M. Archived from 4349:480 pages, copyright 2017. 4282:Carrow, Robert S. (2000). 2899: 2865: 2729:Application considerations 2704:Variable-voltage inverter 2615:Pulse-amplitude modulation 2554:Gate-controlled thyristor 2394:Table 3: Topology diagrams 2123:SGCT^^ with AFE 1270:), cycloconverter, matrix 1103: 1039:pulse-amplitude modulation 223: 144: 58:adjustable-frequency drive 5892: 5831: 5805: 5760: 5691: 5618:Switched reluctance (SRM) 5596:Brushed DC electric motor 5532: 5509: 5434: 5402: 4858:10.1109/CPRE.2013.6822040 4712:10.1109/MIAS.2012.2192231 3654:Yano, Masao; et al. 2803:total harmonic distortion 2671:Switched reluctance motor 2582:Load commutated inverter 2546:Current source rectifier 2349: 2342: 2334: 2300: 2293: 2283: 2273: 2207: 2200: 2173: 2166: 2132: 2125: 2117: 2115:Primarily A‑B 2085: 2078: 2067: 2059: 2018: 2011: 1988: 1981: 1958: 1951: 1928: 1921: 1898: 1891: 1883: 1848: 1841: 1833: 1825: 1817: 1778:For example Baker-Hughes 1776: 1769: 1758: 1719: 1712: 1686: 1679: 1668: 1657: 1649: 1632: 1573: 1566: 1552: 1520: 1513: 1463: 1456: 1445: 1431: 1424: 1410: 1403: 1380: 1373: 1365: 1330: 1323: 1320:Doubly fed WRIM 1298: 1291: 1264: 1257: 1249: 1238: 1110:Alpha–beta transformation 600:vary with the square and 6058:Electrical power control 6053:Mechanical power control 5806:Experimental, futuristic 5723:Variable-frequency drive 5325:Dubey, Gopal K. (2001). 4481:. pp. 10 pp.–P.10. 3971:10.1109/tie.2008.2002726 3625:. New York: IEEE Press. 3022: 2738:Note of clarification:. 2696:Voltage source inverter 2520:Common mode elimination 2465:Legend for Tables 1 to 3 1990:Primarily GE-Converteam 1900:Primarily GE-Converteam 1266:CSI or VSI (six-step or 994:Six-step drive waveforms 490:Display Serial Interface 488:, or via a keypad using 230:The VFD controller is a 50:variable-frequency drive 18:Variable frequency drive 5823:Superconducting machine 5461:Coil winding technology 5066:10.1109/IAS.1994.345435 4646:10.1109/TIE.2002.801052 4487:10.1109/EPE.2005.219669 4444:10.1109/MIA.2007.909800 4257:Proceedings of the IEEE 3917:10.1109/MIE.2009.932709 3621:Bose, Bimal K. (1980). 3482:Bose, Bimal K. (2006). 2563:Gate turn-off thyristor 2537:Current source inverter 2209:Capacitor assisted CSI 1164:Available power ratings 580:direct-on-line starting 417:Connected to DC link – 6033:Electric motor control 2991:Adjustable-speed drive 2947: 2939: 2862:Motor bearing currents 2753:electric power company 2643:Pulse-width modulation 2606:Neutral point clamped 2508:PM trapezoid machine ( 1764:Six-step or 1707:3-level VSI 1674:2-level VSI 1130:Field-oriented control 1003: 995: 987: 979: 531: 383:. User programming of 365: 335:pulse-width modulation 181: 62:adjustable-speed drive 45: 37: 5864:Power-to-weight ratio 5728:Direct torque control 4376:ABB industrial drives 3841:"Energy Regeneration" 3806:Campbell, pp. 107–129 3596:"Basics of AC drives" 2945: 2937: 1452:Trapezoidal BLDM 1138:Direct torque control 1001: 993: 986:Topology of CSI drive 985: 978:Topology of VSI drive 977: 965:VFD types and ratings 668:% total motor energy 663:3-ph., 1 kV to 20 kV 660:3-ph., 200 V to 1 kV 529: 459:serial communications 363: 325:direct torque control 224:Further information: 179: 43: 35: 5859:Open-loop controller 5752:Ward Leonard control 5476:DC injection braking 5358:Campbell, pp. 70–190 5278:on December 24, 2012 5136:Yung, Chuck (2007). 4140:Drury, Bill (2009). 3893:Campbell, pp. 95–102 3764:on September 5, 2012 3290:on September 8, 2017 2977:Hybrid Synergy Drive 2906:Regenerative braking 238:bridge converter, a 66:variable-speed drive 5762:History, education, 5408:Alternating current 4948:10.1109/2943.644886 4819:IEEE 519, pp. 69–70 4567:on October 27, 2011 4417:Control Engineering 3794:Control Engineering 3723:Campbell, pp. 82–85 3714:Bose (2006), p. 183 3631:1981asad.book.....B 3574:2001ITPE...16...17J 3528:Control Engineering 3472:Campbell, pp. 79–83 3417:tekniikanmaailma.fi 3413:"Tekniikan Maailma" 2930:Regenerative drives 2492:Rotating or linear 1300:Electro-mechanical 698:Control performance 623: 279:harmonic distortion 6043:Frequency changers 5925:Dolivo-Dobrovolsky 5884:Voltage controller 5839:Blocked-rotor test 5777:Ball bearing motor 5747:Motor soft starter 5701:AC-to-AC converter 5562:Wound-rotor (WRIM) 5524:Electric generator 5142:PlantServices.com 4687:on April 19, 2009. 4121:on August 13, 2012 4055:on August 10, 2017 3938:on October 7, 2021 3340:insinoori-lehti.fi 3011:Sub-Micro AC Drive 2996:AC-to-AC converter 2948: 2940: 2920:braking DC chopper 2528:Cascaded H-bridge 2351:Primarily Yaskawa 2164: + SGCT 2142:inverter with CME 2020:Primarily Toshiba 1850:Primarily ABB, GE 1721:Primarily Yaskawa 1563:Stepper motor 1106:Dqo transformation 1004: 996: 988: 980: 970:Generic topologies 869:Standstill (200%) 778:Open-loop w. HFI^ 621: 532: 432:Operator interface 366: 209:synchronous motors 182: 46: 38: 6018: 6017: 5854:Open-circuit test 5693:Motor controllers 5574:Synchronous motor 5396:Electric machines 5336:978-1-84265-083-7 5225:978-1-4244-1544-1 5148:on August 7, 2012 5013:978-0-7803-8698-3 4915:on April 13, 2012 4897:Skibinski, p. 274 4879:. August 16, 2018 4806:978-0-7381-0915-2 4614:978-0-12-088479-7 4293:978-0-7668-1923-8 4159:978-1-84919-101-2 3732:Bose (1980), p. 3 3640:978-0-87942-146-5 3602:on April 19, 2012 3582:10.1109/63.903985 3501:978-0-12-088405-6 3463:NEMA Guide, p. 13 3314:Helsingin Sanomat 3182:978-0-07-057746-6 3118:978-0-8247-7728-9 3001:Frequency changer 2882:stray capacitance 2845:Long-lead effects 2734:AC line harmonics 2724: 2723: 2624:Permanent magnet 2500:Active front end 2387: 2386: 2378: 2377: 2369: 2368: 2360: 2359: 2320: 2319: 2311: 2310: 2258: 2257: 2249: 2248: 2240: 2239: 2231: 2230: 2222: 2221: 2188: 2187: 2151: 2150: 2105: 2104: 2096: 2095: 2047: 2046: 2038: 2037: 2029: 2028: 1999: 1998: 1969: 1968: 1939: 1938: 1909: 1908: 1868: 1867: 1859: 1858: 1805: 1804: 1796: 1795: 1787: 1786: 1739: 1738: 1730: 1729: 1697: 1696: 1611: 1610: 1602: 1601: 1593: 1592: 1584: 1583: 1540: 1539: 1531: 1530: 1501: 1500: 1492: 1491: 1483: 1482: 1474: 1473: 1391: 1390: 1350: 1349: 1341: 1340: 1309: 1308: 1279: 1278: 1100:Control platforms 959: 958: 695: 694: 691:0.6 million 657:1-ph., <240 V 504:Programming a VFD 345:nameplate speed. 127:power electronics 125:Since the 1980s, 120:hydraulic systems 16:(Redirected from 6065: 5869:Two-phase system 5849:Electromagnetism 5797:Mouse mill motor 5764:recreational use 5638:Permanent magnet 5567:Linear induction 5420:Permanent magnet 5389: 5382: 5375: 5366: 5365: 5359: 5356: 5350: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5322: 5313: 5312: 5310: 5308: 5294: 5288: 5287: 5285: 5283: 5277: 5270: 5261: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5244: 5238: 5237: 5203: 5197: 5196: 5194: 5192: 5187:on July 20, 2011 5186: 5175: 5167: 5158: 5157: 5155: 5153: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5124: 5116: 5110: 5109: 5107: 5105: 5100:on July 11, 2014 5099: 5093:. Archived from 5092: 5084: 5078: 5077: 5053: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5042: 5032: 5026: 5025: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4982: 4980: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4920: 4904: 4898: 4895: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4884: 4869: 4863: 4861: 4851: 4840: 4834: 4826: 4820: 4817: 4811: 4810: 4785: 4779: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4769:on June 26, 2011 4768: 4757: 4749: 4743: 4742: 4730: 4724: 4723: 4695: 4689: 4688: 4686: 4680:. Archived from 4675: 4666: 4660: 4659: 4657: 4625: 4619: 4618: 4602: 4592: 4586: 4583: 4577: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4566: 4559: 4551: 4545: 4542: 4536: 4535: 4533: 4531: 4526: 4518: 4509: 4508: 4474: 4465: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4427: 4421: 4420: 4412: 4406: 4405: 4403: 4401: 4395: 4389:Wu, Bin (2005). 4386: 4380: 4379: 4373: 4365: 4359: 4356: 4350: 4348: 4328: 4322: 4321: 4313: 4307: 4304: 4298: 4297: 4279: 4273: 4272: 4252: 4246: 4245: 4237: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4217: 4208: 4197: 4196: 4194: 4192: 4187:on July 18, 2013 4186: 4180:. Archived from 4179: 4170: 4164: 4163: 4147: 4137: 4131: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4120: 4113: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4088: 4080: 4074: 4071: 4065: 4064: 4062: 4060: 4054: 4047: 4038: 4032: 4031: 4029: 4027: 4022: 4018:"Motoring Ahead" 4013: 4007: 4006: 4004: 4002: 3997: 3989: 3983: 3982: 3954: 3948: 3947: 3945: 3943: 3927: 3921: 3920: 3900: 3894: 3891: 3885: 3882: 3876: 3873: 3867: 3864: 3855: 3854: 3852: 3850: 3845: 3837: 3831: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3821: 3813: 3807: 3804: 3798: 3797: 3789: 3783: 3780: 3774: 3773: 3771: 3769: 3763: 3756: 3748: 3742: 3739: 3733: 3730: 3724: 3721: 3715: 3712: 3703: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3667: 3660: 3651: 3645: 3644: 3618: 3612: 3611: 3609: 3607: 3592: 3586: 3585: 3553: 3547: 3546: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3519: 3506: 3505: 3489: 3479: 3473: 3470: 3464: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3434: 3428: 3427: 3425: 3423: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3400: 3398: 3383: 3377: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3358: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3332: 3326: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3289: 3283:. Archived from 3282: 3274: 3268: 3267: 3264:energy.gov – DoE 3261: 3253: 3247: 3245: 3240: 3238: 3232: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3212: 3210: 3196: 3187: 3186: 3162: 3153: 3152: 3134: 3123: 3122: 3104: 3087: 3084: 3078: 3075: 3069: 3066: 3060: 3057: 3051: 3043: 3037: 3033: 2831: 2823:switching losses 2779:active rectifier 2775:infeed converter 2470: 2469: 2453: 2441: 2429: 2417: 2405: 2345: 2344: 2337: 2336: 2296: 2295: 2286: 2285: 2276: 2275: 2203: 2202: 2169: 2168: 2128: 2127: 2120: 2119: 2081: 2080: 2070: 2069: 2062: 2061: 2014: 2013: 1984: 1983: 1954: 1953: 1924: 1923: 1894: 1893: 1886: 1885: 1844: 1843: 1836: 1835: 1828: 1827: 1820: 1819: 1772: 1771: 1761: 1760: 1715: 1714: 1682: 1681: 1671: 1670: 1660: 1659: 1652: 1651: 1628: 1627: 1569: 1568: 1555: 1554: 1516: 1515: 1459: 1458: 1448: 1447: 1427: 1426: 1406: 1405: 1376: 1375: 1368: 1367: 1326: 1325: 1294: 1293: 1260: 1259: 1255:Cage rotor 1252: 1251: 1241: 1240: 1233: 1232: 1196: 1195: 1191: 1188: 1182: 1181: 1177: 1174: 1075:AC–AC converters 763:Control criteria 743:Control platform 720: 719: 624: 620: 455:input and output 414:, passive filter 347:Permanent magnet 283:phase-controlled 203:. Some types of 163: 155:Martti Harmoinen 21: 6073: 6072: 6068: 6067: 6066: 6064: 6063: 6062: 6023: 6022: 6019: 6014: 5888: 5827: 5801: 5792:Mendocino motor 5765: 5763: 5756: 5687: 5547:Induction motor 5528: 5505: 5451:Braking chopper 5439: 5437: 5430: 5398: 5393: 5363: 5362: 5357: 5353: 5348: 5344: 5337: 5323: 5316: 5306: 5304: 5296: 5295: 5291: 5281: 5279: 5275: 5268: 5262: 5258: 5250: 5246: 5245: 5241: 5226: 5204: 5200: 5190: 5188: 5184: 5173: 5169: 5168: 5161: 5151: 5149: 5134: 5130: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5113: 5103: 5101: 5097: 5090: 5086: 5085: 5081: 5054: 5050: 5040: 5038: 5034: 5033: 5029: 5014: 4992: 4988: 4978: 4976: 4968: 4967: 4963: 4932: 4928: 4918: 4916: 4905: 4901: 4896: 4892: 4882: 4880: 4871: 4870: 4866: 4849: 4841: 4837: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4814: 4807: 4787: 4786: 4782: 4772: 4770: 4766: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4746: 4731: 4727: 4696: 4692: 4684: 4673: 4667: 4663: 4630:Fang Zheng Peng 4626: 4622: 4615: 4593: 4589: 4584: 4580: 4570: 4568: 4564: 4557: 4553: 4552: 4548: 4543: 4539: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4520: 4519: 4512: 4497: 4475: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4428: 4424: 4413: 4409: 4399: 4397: 4393: 4387: 4383: 4371: 4367: 4366: 4362: 4357: 4353: 4345: 4329: 4325: 4314: 4310: 4305: 4301: 4294: 4280: 4276: 4253: 4249: 4238: 4231: 4221: 4219: 4218:. pp. 7–13 4215: 4209: 4200: 4190: 4188: 4184: 4177: 4171: 4167: 4160: 4138: 4134: 4124: 4122: 4118: 4111: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4092: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4081: 4077: 4072: 4068: 4058: 4056: 4052: 4045: 4039: 4035: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4014: 4010: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3991: 3990: 3986: 3955: 3951: 3941: 3939: 3928: 3924: 3901: 3897: 3892: 3888: 3883: 3879: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3858: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3839: 3838: 3834: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3815: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3801: 3790: 3786: 3781: 3777: 3767: 3765: 3761: 3754: 3750: 3749: 3745: 3740: 3736: 3731: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3713: 3706: 3696: 3694: 3685: 3681: 3671: 3669: 3668:on June 2, 2012 3665: 3658: 3652: 3648: 3641: 3619: 3615: 3605: 3603: 3594: 3593: 3589: 3554: 3550: 3539: 3535: 3520: 3509: 3502: 3480: 3476: 3471: 3467: 3462: 3458: 3448: 3446: 3443:Tekniikan museo 3435: 3431: 3421: 3419: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3396: 3394: 3385: 3384: 3380: 3370: 3368: 3360: 3359: 3355: 3345: 3343: 3334: 3333: 3329: 3319: 3317: 3308: 3307: 3303: 3293: 3291: 3287: 3280: 3276: 3275: 3271: 3259: 3255: 3254: 3250: 3236: 3234: 3230: 3222: 3218: 3208: 3206: 3197: 3190: 3183: 3163: 3156: 3149: 3135: 3126: 3119: 3105: 3101: 3096: 3091: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3076: 3072: 3067: 3063: 3058: 3054: 3044: 3040: 3034: 3030: 3025: 3020: 2986: 2965:Some examples: 2932: 2908: 2902:Dynamic braking 2898: 2896:Dynamic braking 2870: 2864: 2847: 2838: 2836:Noise smoothing 2825: 2811: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2725: 2598:Medium voltage 2467: 2466: 2461: 2460: 2457: 2454: 2445: 2442: 2433: 2430: 2421: 2418: 2409: 2406: 2396: 2395: 2390: 2389: 2388: 2379: 2370: 2361: 2321: 2312: 2259: 2250: 2241: 2232: 2223: 2213:drive (legacy) 2189: 2152: 2106: 2097: 2048: 2039: 2030: 2000: 1970: 1940: 1910: 1869: 1860: 1806: 1797: 1788: 1740: 1731: 1698: 1624: 1623: 1620:AC–AC converter 1614: 1613: 1612: 1603: 1594: 1585: 1541: 1532: 1502: 1493: 1484: 1475: 1392: 1351: 1342: 1310: 1280: 1229: 1228: 1219:AC–AC converter 1208: 1193: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1179: 1175: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1147: 1112: 1102: 1071:Cycloconverters 1051:Darlington Pair 972: 967: 934:Feedback device 758:Vector control 711:S-curve pattern 700: 685:2 billion 654:Phase, voltage 597: 592: 524: 522:Drive operation 515: 506: 470: 446:process control 434: 419:braking chopper 396:circuit breaker 290:phase converter 228: 222: 216:Standard MG-1. 201:induction motor 194: 174: 157: 147: 99:by varying the 84:) is a type of 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6071: 6061: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6016: 6015: 6013: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5896: 5894: 5890: 5889: 5887: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5874:Inchworm motor 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5844:Circle diagram 5841: 5835: 5833: 5832:Related topics 5829: 5828: 5826: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5809: 5807: 5803: 5802: 5800: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5782:Barlow's wheel 5779: 5774: 5768: 5766: 5761: 5758: 5757: 5755: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5738: 5737: 5736: 5735: 5733:Vector control 5730: 5715: 5710: 5709: 5708: 5706:Cycloconverter 5697: 5695: 5689: 5688: 5686: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5609: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5583: 5582: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5538: 5536: 5530: 5529: 5527: 5526: 5521: 5515: 5513: 5507: 5506: 5504: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5471:Damper winding 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5442: 5440: 5436:Components and 5435: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5428: 5422: 5416: 5414:Direct current 5410: 5403: 5400: 5399: 5392: 5391: 5384: 5377: 5369: 5361: 5360: 5351: 5342: 5335: 5314: 5289: 5256: 5239: 5224: 5198: 5159: 5128: 5111: 5079: 5048: 5027: 5012: 4986: 4961: 4926: 4899: 4890: 4864: 4862:, pp. 250-256. 4835: 4821: 4812: 4805: 4780: 4744: 4725: 4690: 4661: 4640:(4): 724–738. 4620: 4613: 4587: 4578: 4546: 4537: 4510: 4495: 4466: 4457: 4422: 4407: 4381: 4360: 4358:Drury, pp. 6–9 4351: 4343: 4323: 4308: 4299: 4292: 4274: 4269:10.1109/5.4428 4263:(4): 428–437. 4247: 4229: 4198: 4165: 4158: 4132: 4100: 4075: 4066: 4033: 4008: 3984: 3965:(2): 581–588. 3949: 3922: 3895: 3886: 3877: 3868: 3856: 3832: 3808: 3799: 3784: 3775: 3743: 3734: 3725: 3716: 3704: 3679: 3646: 3639: 3613: 3587: 3548: 3533: 3507: 3500: 3474: 3465: 3456: 3429: 3404: 3378: 3353: 3327: 3301: 3269: 3248: 3216: 3188: 3181: 3154: 3148:978-1114762060 3147: 3124: 3117: 3098: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3089: 3088: 3079: 3070: 3061: 3052: 3038: 3027: 3026: 3024: 3021: 3019: 3018: 3013: 3008: 3003: 2998: 2993: 2987: 2985: 2982: 2981: 2980: 2973: 2970: 2931: 2928: 2897: 2894: 2866:Main article: 2863: 2860: 2846: 2843: 2837: 2834: 2810: 2807: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2722: 2721: 2718: 2714: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2705: 2702: 2698: 2697: 2694: 2690: 2689: 2686: 2682: 2681: 2678: 2674: 2673: 2668: 2664: 2663: 2660: 2656: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2645: 2640: 2636: 2635: 2630: 2626: 2625: 2622: 2618: 2617: 2612: 2608: 2607: 2604: 2600: 2599: 2596: 2592: 2591: 2588: 2584: 2583: 2580: 2576: 2575: 2570: 2566: 2565: 2560: 2556: 2555: 2552: 2548: 2547: 2544: 2540: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2529: 2526: 2522: 2521: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2506: 2502: 2501: 2498: 2494: 2493: 2490: 2486: 2485: 2482: 2478: 2477: 2474: 2468: 2464: 2463: 2462: 2459: 2458: 2455: 2448: 2446: 2443: 2436: 2434: 2431: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2412: 2410: 2407: 2400: 2397: 2393: 2392: 2391: 2385: 2384: 2381: 2380: 2376: 2375: 2372: 2371: 2367: 2366: 2363: 2362: 2358: 2357: 2354: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2341: 2335: 2333: 2327: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2317: 2314: 2313: 2309: 2308: 2305: 2304: 2299: 2294: 2292: 2290:Cycloconverter 2284: 2282: 2274: 2272: 2265: 2264: 2261: 2260: 2256: 2255: 2252: 2251: 2247: 2246: 2243: 2242: 2238: 2237: 2234: 2233: 2229: 2228: 2225: 2224: 2220: 2219: 2216: 2215: 2206: 2201: 2199: 2195: 2194: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2185: 2182: 2181: 2172: 2167: 2165: 2158: 2157: 2154: 2153: 2149: 2148: 2145: 2144: 2131: 2126: 2124: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2111: 2108: 2107: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2098: 2094: 2093: 2090: 2089: 2084: 2079: 2077: 2068: 2066: 2060: 2058: 2054: 2053: 2050: 2049: 2045: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2036: 2035: 2032: 2031: 2027: 2026: 2023: 2022: 2017: 2012: 2010: 2006: 2005: 2002: 2001: 1997: 1996: 1993: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1980: 1976: 1975: 1972: 1971: 1967: 1966: 1963: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1950: 1946: 1945: 1942: 1941: 1937: 1936: 1933: 1932: 1927: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1915: 1912: 1911: 1907: 1906: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1890: 1884: 1882: 1875: 1874: 1871: 1870: 1866: 1865: 1862: 1861: 1857: 1856: 1853: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1840: 1834: 1832: 1826: 1824: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1811: 1808: 1807: 1803: 1802: 1799: 1798: 1794: 1793: 1790: 1789: 1785: 1784: 1781: 1780: 1775: 1770: 1768: 1759: 1757: 1746: 1745: 1742: 1741: 1737: 1736: 1733: 1732: 1728: 1727: 1724: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1711: 1704: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1695: 1694: 1691: 1690: 1685: 1680: 1678: 1669: 1667: 1658: 1656: 1650: 1648: 1644:Indirect 1641: 1640: 1637: 1636: 1631: 1626: 1625: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1609: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1600: 1599: 1596: 1595: 1591: 1590: 1587: 1586: 1582: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1572: 1567: 1565: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1538: 1537: 1534: 1533: 1529: 1528: 1525: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1512: 1508: 1507: 1504: 1503: 1499: 1498: 1495: 1494: 1490: 1489: 1486: 1485: 1481: 1480: 1477: 1476: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1455: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1439: 1436: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1423: 1419: 1418: 1415: 1414: 1412:Axial or disk 1409: 1404: 1402: 1398: 1397: 1394: 1393: 1389: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1372: 1366: 1364: 1357: 1356: 1353: 1352: 1348: 1347: 1344: 1343: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1322: 1316: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1307: 1306: 1303: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1285: 1282: 1281: 1277: 1276: 1273: 1272: 1263: 1258: 1256: 1250: 1248: 1239: 1237: 1231: 1230: 1226: 1225: 1224: 1223: 1222: 1215: 1207: 1204: 1165: 1162: 1161: 1160: 1157: 1154: 1146: 1143: 1142: 1141: 1135: 1134: 1133: 1124:Vector control 1121: 1119:Scalar control 1101: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1093:supply network 1079: 1069:(see image): 1064: 1058: 1041:(PAM) drives, 1032: 1018: 971: 968: 966: 963: 957: 956: 953: 950: 947: 944: 935: 931: 930: 927: 924: 921: 918: 915: 911: 910: 907: 904: 901: 898: 895: 891: 890: 887: 884: 881: 878: 875: 871: 870: 867: 864: 861: 858: 855: 851: 850: 847: 844: 841: 838: 835: 831: 830: 827: 824: 821: 818: 815: 811: 810: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 780: 779: 776: 773: 770: 767: 764: 760: 759: 756: 755:Vector control 753: 752:Vector control 750: 747: 744: 740: 739: 736: 733: 730: 727: 724: 699: 696: 693: 692: 689: 686: 683: 679: 678: 675: 672: 669: 665: 664: 661: 658: 655: 651: 650: 647: 644: 641: 637: 636: 633: 630: 627: 596: 595:Energy savings 593: 591: 588: 557: 556: 553: 550: 543: 523: 520: 514: 511: 505: 502: 469: 466: 433: 430: 429: 428: 425: 415: 373:microprocessor 339:carrier signal 321:vector control 286:current-source 244:Voltage-source 240:direct current 221: 218: 193: 190: 173: 170: 166:Helsinki Metro 146: 143: 78:inverter drive 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6070: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6030: 6028: 6021: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5897: 5895: 5891: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5830: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5810: 5808: 5804: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5769: 5767: 5759: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5725: 5724: 5721: 5720: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5707: 5704: 5703: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5696: 5694: 5690: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5668:Piezoelectric 5666: 5664: 5663:Electrostatic 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5588: 5587: 5584: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5549: 5548: 5545: 5544: 5543: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5531: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5516: 5514: 5512: 5508: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5443: 5441: 5433: 5427: 5423: 5421: 5417: 5415: 5411: 5409: 5405: 5404: 5401: 5397: 5390: 5385: 5383: 5378: 5376: 5371: 5370: 5367: 5355: 5346: 5338: 5332: 5328: 5321: 5319: 5303: 5299: 5293: 5282:September 26, 5274: 5267: 5260: 5249: 5243: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5202: 5183: 5179: 5172: 5166: 5164: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5132: 5121: 5115: 5096: 5089: 5083: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5052: 5037: 5031: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4990: 4975: 4971: 4965: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4930: 4914: 4910: 4903: 4894: 4878: 4874: 4868: 4859: 4855: 4848: 4847: 4839: 4833: 4830: 4825: 4816: 4808: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4784: 4765: 4761: 4754: 4748: 4740: 4736: 4729: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4694: 4683: 4679: 4672: 4665: 4656: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4624: 4616: 4610: 4606: 4601: 4600: 4591: 4585:Wu, Slide 159 4582: 4563: 4556: 4550: 4541: 4523: 4517: 4515: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4496:90-75815-09-3 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4473: 4471: 4464:Wu, slide 159 4461: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4426: 4418: 4411: 4392: 4385: 4377: 4370: 4364: 4355: 4346: 4344:9781119156031 4340: 4336: 4335: 4327: 4319: 4312: 4303: 4295: 4289: 4285: 4278: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4251: 4243: 4236: 4234: 4214: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4183: 4176: 4169: 4161: 4155: 4151: 4146: 4145: 4136: 4117: 4110: 4104: 4085: 4079: 4070: 4051: 4044: 4037: 4019: 4012: 3994: 3988: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3953: 3937: 3933: 3930:Spear, Mike. 3926: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3899: 3890: 3881: 3872: 3863: 3861: 3842: 3836: 3818: 3812: 3803: 3795: 3788: 3779: 3760: 3753: 3747: 3738: 3729: 3720: 3711: 3709: 3692: 3691: 3683: 3664: 3657: 3650: 3642: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3617: 3601: 3597: 3591: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3544: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3503: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3487: 3478: 3469: 3460: 3444: 3440: 3433: 3418: 3414: 3408: 3392: 3388: 3382: 3367: 3363: 3357: 3341: 3337: 3331: 3315: 3311: 3305: 3286: 3279: 3273: 3265: 3258: 3252: 3244: 3229: 3228: 3220: 3204: 3203: 3195: 3193: 3184: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3169: 3161: 3159: 3150: 3144: 3140: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3120: 3114: 3110: 3103: 3099: 3083: 3074: 3065: 3056: 3048: 3042: 3032: 3028: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2988: 2978: 2974: 2971: 2968: 2967: 2966: 2963: 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Variable-frequency drive

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