208:
1102:
well as for the visible (VIS) and near-infrared wavelength regions covering a spectral range from 190 up to 1100 nm. The lamp flashes are focused on a glass fiber which drives the beam of light onto a cuvette containing the sample solution. The beam passes through the sample and specific wavelengths are absorbed by the sample components. The remaining light is collected after the cuvette by a glass fiber and driven into a spectrograph. The spectrograph consists of a diffraction grating that separates the light into the different wavelengths, and a CCD sensor to record the data, respectively. The whole spectrum is thus simultaneously measured, allowing for fast recording.
1040:(CCD). Single photodiode detectors and photomultiplier tubes are used with scanning monochromators, which filter the light so that only light of a single wavelength reaches the detector at one time. The scanning monochromator moves the diffraction grating to "step-through" each wavelength so that its intensity may be measured as a function of wavelength. Fixed monochromators are used with CCDs and photodiode arrays. As both of these devices consist of many detectors grouped into one or two dimensional arrays, they are able to collect light of different wavelengths on different pixels or groups of pixels simultaneously.
615:, its physical slit-width and optical dispersion and the detector of the spectrophotometer. The spectral bandwidth affects the resolution and accuracy of the measurement. A narrower spectral bandwidth provides higher resolution and accuracy, but also requires more time and energy to scan the entire spectrum. A wider spectral bandwidth allows for faster and easier scanning, but may result in lower resolution and accuracy, especially for samples with overlapping absorption peaks. Therefore, choosing an appropriate spectral bandwidth is important for obtaining reliable and precise results.
681:
incorrectly low absorbance. Any instrument will reach a point where an increase in sample concentration will not result in an increase in the reported absorbance, because the detector is simply responding to the stray light. In practice the concentration of the sample or the optical path length must be adjusted to place the unknown absorbance within a range that is valid for the instrument. Sometimes an empirical calibration function is developed, using known concentrations of the sample, to allow measurements into the region where the instrument is becoming non-linear.
317:. The spectrum alone is not, however, a specific test for any given sample. The nature of the solvent, the pH of the solution, temperature, high electrolyte concentrations, and the presence of interfering substances can influence the absorption spectrum. Experimental variations such as the slit width (effective bandwidth) of the spectrophotometer will also alter the spectrum. To apply UV/Vis spectroscopy to analysis, these variables must be controlled or accounted for in order to identify the substances present.
1044:
133:
3728:
2773:
722:. If UV/Vis spectrophotometry is used in quantitative chemical analysis then the results are additionally affected by uncertainty sources arising from the nature of the compounds and/or solutions that are measured. These include spectral interferences caused by absorption band overlap, fading of the color of the absorbing species (caused by decomposition or reaction) and possible composition mismatch between the sample and the calibration solution.
3752:
36:
698:
test that can be used to test for this effect is to vary the path length of the measurement. In the Beer–Lambert law, varying concentration and path length has an equivalent effect—diluting a solution by a factor of 10 has the same effect as shortening the path length by a factor of 10. If cells of different path lengths are available, testing if this relationship holds true is one way to judge if absorption flattening is occurring.
1184:
microscopic samples but are also able to measure the spectra of larger samples with high spatial resolution. As such, they are used in the forensic laboratory to analyze the dyes and pigments in individual textile fibers, microscopic paint chips and the color of glass fragments. They are also used in materials science and biological research and for determining the energy content of coal and petroleum source rock by measuring the
3764:
3740:
2785:
1098:, which blocks one beam at a time. The detector alternates between measuring the sample beam and the reference beam in synchronism with the chopper. There may also be one or more dark intervals in the chopper cycle. In this case, the measured beam intensities may be corrected by subtracting the intensity measured in the dark interval before the ratio is taken.
294:. The presence of an analyte gives a response assumed to be proportional to the concentration. For accurate results, the instrument's response to the analyte in the unknown should be compared with the response to a standard; this is very similar to the use of calibration curves. The response (e.g., peak height) for a particular concentration is known as the
599:
conditions of a test sample therefore must match reference measurements for conclusions to be valid. Worldwide, pharmacopoeias such as the
American (USP) and European (Ph. Eur.) pharmacopeias demand that spectrophotometers perform according to strict regulatory requirements encompassing factors such as
1093:
In a double-beam instrument, the light is split into two beams before it reaches the sample. One beam is used as the reference; the other beam passes through the sample. The reference beam intensity is taken as 100% Transmission (or 0 Absorbance), and the measurement displayed is the ratio of the two
618:
It is important to have a monochromatic source of radiation for the light incident on the sample cell to enhance the linearity of the response. The closer the bandwidth is to be monochromatic (transmitting unit of wavelength) the more linear will be the response. The spectral bandwidth is measured as
276:
states that the absorbance of a solution is directly proportional to the concentration of the absorbing species in the solution and the path length. Thus, for a fixed path length, UV/Vis spectroscopy can be used to determine the concentration of the absorber in a solution. It is necessary to know how
1162:
A complete spectrum of the absorption at all wavelengths of interest can often be produced directly by a more sophisticated spectrophotometer. In simpler instruments the absorption is determined one wavelength at a time and then compiled into a spectrum by the operator. By removing the concentration
634:
of the absorption peak of the sample component, then the measured extinction coefficient will not be accurate. In reference measurements, the instrument bandwidth (bandwidth of the incident light) is kept below the width of the spectral peaks. When a test material is being measured, the bandwidth of
705:
Some solutions, like copper(II) chloride in water, change visually at a certain concentration because of changed conditions around the coloured ion (the divalent copper ion). For copper(II) chloride it means a shift from blue to green, which would mean that monochromatic measurements would deviate
697:
At sufficiently high concentrations, the absorption bands will saturate and show absorption flattening. The absorption peak appears to flatten because close to 100% of the light is already being absorbed. The concentration at which this occurs depends on the particular compound being measured. One
662:
Stray light can cause significant errors in absorbance measurements, especially at high absorbances, because the stray light will be added to the signal detected by the detector, even though it is not part of the actually selected wavelength. The result is that the measured and reported absorbance
529:
The Beer–Lambert law is useful for characterizing many compounds but does not hold as a universal relationship for the concentration and absorption of all substances. A 2nd order polynomial relationship between absorption and concentration is sometimes encountered for very large, complex molecules
1101:
In a single-beam instrument, the cuvette containing only a solvent has to be measured first. Mettler Toledo developed a single beam array spectrophotometer that allows fast and accurate measurements over the UV/VIS range. The light source consists of a Xenon flash lamp for the ultraviolet (UV) as
643:
The extinction coefficient of an analyte in solution changes gradually with wavelength. A peak (a wavelength where the absorbance reaches a maximum) in the absorbance curve vs wavelength, i.e. the UV-VIS spectrum, is where the rate of change of absorbance with wavelength is the lowest. Therefore,
1183:
tube (PMT). As only a single optical path is available, these are single beam instruments. Modern instruments are capable of measuring UV–visible spectra in both reflectance and transmission of micron-scale sampling areas. The advantages of using such instruments is that they are able to measure
680:
Typically a detector used in a UV-VIS spectrophotometer is broadband; it responds to all the light that reaches it. If a significant amount of the light passed through the sample contains wavelengths that have much lower extinction coefficients than the nominal one, the instrument will report an
1188:
reflectance. Microspectrophotometers are used in the semiconductor and micro-optics industries for monitoring the thickness of thin films after they have been deposited. In the semiconductor industry, they are used because the critical dimensions of circuitry is microscopic. A typical test of a
701:
Solutions that are not homogeneous can show deviations from the Beer–Lambert law because of the phenomenon of absorption flattening. This can happen, for instance, where the absorbing substance is located within suspended particles. The deviations will be most noticeable under conditions of low
1193:
of the spectra. In addition, ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometry can be used to determine the thickness, along with the refractive index and extinction coefficient of thin films. A map of the film thickness across the entire wafer can then be generated and used for quality control purposes.
598:
The Beer–Lambert law has implicit assumptions that must be met experimentally for it to apply; otherwise there is a possibility of deviations from the law. For instance, the chemical makeup and physical environment of the sample can alter its extinction coefficient. The chemical and physical
1206:. Illustrative is the conversion of the yellow-orange and blue isomers of mercury dithizonate. This method of analysis relies on the fact that concentration is linearly proportional to concentration. In the same approach allows determination of equilibria between chromophores.
199:. For organic chromophores, four possible types of transitions are assumed: π–π*, n–π*, σ–σ*, and n–σ*. Transition metal complexes are often colored (i.e., absorb visible light) owing to the presence of multiple electronic states associated with incompletely filled d orbitals.
256:
for organic-soluble compounds. (Organic solvents may have significant UV absorption; not all solvents are suitable for use in UV spectroscopy. Ethanol absorbs very weakly at most wavelengths.) Solvent polarity and pH can affect the absorption spectrum of an organic compound.
1634:
658:
Stray light in a UV spectrophotometer is any light that reaches its detector that is not of the wavelength selected by the monochromator. This can be caused, for instance, by scattering of light within the instrument, or by reflections from optical surfaces.
178:
is an analytical instrument that measures the amount of ultraviolet (UV) and visible light that is absorbed by a sample. It is a widely used technique in chemistry, biochemistry, and other fields, to identify and quantify compounds in a variety of samples.
182:
UV-vis spectrophotometers work by passing a beam of light through the sample and measuring the amount of light that is absorbed at each wavelength. The amount of light absorbed is proportional to the concentration of the absorbing compound in the sample
684:
As a rough guide, an instrument with a single monochromator would typically have a stray light level corresponding to about 3 Absorbance Units (AU), which would make measurements above about 2 AU problematic. A more complex instrument with a
1150:
because these are transparent throughout the UV, visible and near infrared regions. Glass and plastic cuvettes are also common, although glass and most plastics absorb in the UV, which limits their usefulness to visible wavelengths.
1659:
Historically, the term "Optical
Density" (OD) was used instead of AU. But it is also worth noting that what is usually measured is percent transmission (%T), a linear ratio, which is converted to the logarithm by the instrument for
545:
UV–Vis spectroscopy is also used in the semiconductor industry to measure the thickness and optical properties of thin films on a wafer. UV–Vis spectrometers are used to measure the reflectance of light, and can be analyzed via the
644:
quantitative measurements of a solute are usually conducted, using a wavelength around the absorbance peak, to minimize inaccuracies produced by errors in wavelength, due to the change of extinction coefficient with wavelength.
635:
the incident light should also be sufficiently narrow. Reducing the spectral bandwidth reduces the energy passed to the detector and will, therefore, require a longer measurement time to achieve the same signal to noise ratio.
2215:
Mekhrengin, M.V.; Meshkovskii, I.K.; Tashkinov, V.A.; Guryev, V.I.; Sukhinets, A.V.; Smirnov, D.S. (June 2019). "Multispectral pyrometer for high temperature measurements inside combustion chamber of gas turbine engines".
163:. Being relatively inexpensive and easily implemented, this methodology is widely used in diverse applied and fundamental applications. The only requirement is that the sample absorb in the UV-Vis region, i.e. be a
1141:
can also be used as cuvettes in some instruments. The type of sample container used must allow radiation to pass over the spectral region of interest. The most widely applicable cuvettes are made of high quality
1154:
Specialized instruments have also been made. These include attaching spectrophotometers to telescopes to measure the spectra of astronomical features. UV–visible microspectrophotometers consist of a UV–visible
1094:
beam intensities. Some double-beam instruments have two detectors (photodiodes), and the sample and reference beam are measured at the same time. In other instruments, the two beams pass through a
397:
1189:
semiconductor wafer would entail the acquisition of spectra from many points on a patterned or unpatterned wafer. The thickness of the deposited films may be calculated from the
910:
611:
Spectral bandwidth of a spectrophotometer is the range of wavelengths that the instrument transmits through a sample at a given time. It is determined by the light source, the
1807:
Löper, Philipp; Stuckelberger, Michael; Niesen, Bjoern; Werner, Jérémie; Filipič, Miha; Moon, Soo-Jin; Yum, Jun-Ho; Topič, Marko; De Wolf, Stefaan; Ballif, Christophe (2015).
301:
The wavelengths of absorption peaks can be correlated with the types of bonds in a given molecule and are valuable in determining the functional groups within a molecule. The
915:
The UV–visible spectrophotometer can also be configured to measure reflectance. In this case, the spectrophotometer measures the intensity of light reflected from a sample (
1729:
2123:
Conference
Proceedings. 10th Anniversary. IMTC/94. Advanced Technologies in I & M. 1994 IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (Cat. No.94CH3424-9)
1950:
Wittung, Pernilla; Kajanus, Johan; Kubista, Mikael; Malmström, Bo G. (19 September 1994). "Absorption flattening in the optical spectra of liposome-entrapped substances".
995:
824:
513:
1088:
960:
789:
436:
2072:
2604:
1135:
933:
852:
762:
588:
568:
460:
1855:
1285:
53:
1584:
478:
or extinction coefficient. This constant is a fundamental molecular property in a given solvent, at a particular temperature and pressure, and has units of
1257:
are other common spectroscopic techniques, usually used to obtain information about the structure of compounds or to identify compounds. Both are forms of
171:. Parameters of interest, besides the wavelength of measurement, are absorbance (A) or transmittance (%T) or reflectance (%R), and its change with time.
1028:, which is continuous from 160 to 2,000 nm; or more recently, light emitting diodes (LED) for the visible wavelengths. The detector is typically a
2277:
100:
1993:
Ansell, S; Tromp, R H; Neilson, G W (20 February 1995). "The solute and aquaion structure in a concentrated aqueous solution of copper(II) chloride".
72:
17:
2823:
261:, for example, increases in absorption maxima and molar extinction coefficient when pH increases from 6 to 13 or when solvent polarity decreases.
79:
1869:
1750:"A comparative study of selected disperse azo dye derivatives based on spectroscopic (FT-IR, NMR and UV–Vis) and nonlinear optical behaviors"
2495:
2121:
Horie, M.; Fujiwara, N.; Kokubo, M.; Kondo, N. (1994). "Spectroscopic thin film thickness measurement system for semiconductor industries".
1209:
From the spectrum of burning gases, it is possible to determine a chemical composition of a fuel, temperature of gases, and air-fuel ratio.
2924:
2428:
2373:
2342:
1171:
UV–visible spectroscopy of microscopic samples is done by integrating an optical microscope with UV–visible optics, white light sources, a
86:
2929:
2337:
1090:
must be measured by removing the sample. This was the earliest design and is still in common use in both teaching and industrial labs.
237:, and biological macromolecules. Spectroscopic analysis is commonly carried out in solutions but solids and gases may also be studied.
2108:
Standard Guide for
Microspectrophotometry and Color Measurement in Forensic Paint Analysis, Scientific Working Group-Materials, 1999,
2710:
2528:
2390:
1810:"Complex Refractive Index Spectra of CH3NH3PbI3 Perovskite Thin Films Determined by Spectroscopic Ellipsometry and Spectrophotometry"
68:
1109:
are most often liquids, although the absorbance of gases and even of solids can also be measured. Samples are typically placed in a
2659:
2478:
1117:. Cuvettes are typically rectangular in shape, commonly with an internal width of 1 cm. (This width becomes the path length,
2907:
2599:
2401:
2322:
2302:
689:
would have a stray light level corresponding to about 6 AU, which would therefore allow measuring a much wider absorbance range.
2951:
2545:
2523:
2270:
320:
The method is most often used in a quantitative way to determine concentrations of an absorbing species in solution, using the
289:
2611:
2533:
1618:
1524:
1464:
1420:
1367:
1333:
2963:
2468:
2413:
1267:– a wavelength where absorption does not change as the reaction proceeds. Important in kinetics measurements as a control.
330:
2816:
2036:
Sooväli, L.; Rõõm, E.-I.; Kütt, A.; et al. (2006). "Uncertainty sources in UV–Vis spectrophotometric measurement".
623:
93:
2695:
2447:
2263:
2138:
1673:"Polynomial Equations based on Bouguer–Lambert and Beer Laws for Deviations from Linearity and Absorption Flattening"
1383:
223:
195:. The absorbed photon excites an electron in the chromophore to higher energy molecular orbitals, giving rise to an
119:
3792:
2700:
2518:
3768:
2715:
2685:
2616:
2550:
2190:
3797:
3647:
2809:
2644:
2435:
2332:
1492:
1245:
1234:
57:
3090:
2844:
2789:
2442:
2347:
619:
the number of wavelengths transmitted at half the maximum intensity of the light leaving the monochromator.
278:
2576:
2423:
2312:
2162:
Sertova, N.; Petkov, I.; Nunzi, J.-M. (June 2000). "Photochromism of mercury(II) dithizonate in solution".
1223:
3367:
2854:
2732:
2571:
2540:
2473:
1399:
1901:
860:
3744:
3293:
3264:
3244:
3197:
2722:
2664:
2513:
2385:
1270:
1749:
1542:
Carroll, Gregory T.; Dowling, Reed C.; Kirschman, David L.; Masthay, Mark B.; Mammana, Angela (2023).
207:
2882:
2748:
2727:
2368:
702:
concentration and high absorbance. The last reference describes a way to correct for this deviation.
547:
302:
268:
also give rise to colours, the colours are often too intense to be used for quantitative measurement.
265:
168:
2490:
3637:
3553:
3192:
1290:
1258:
686:
249:
160:
3575:
3486:
3449:
3333:
3259:
3080:
3063:
3006:
2621:
2317:
1544:
1275:
715:
309:, the wavelength of the most intense UV/Vis absorption, for conjugated organic compounds such as
148:
46:
1016:
to separate the different wavelengths of light, and a detector. The radiation source is often a
277:
quickly the absorbance changes with concentration. This can be taken from references (tables of
3493:
3481:
3372:
3237:
3011:
2877:
2408:
1456:
1190:
3642:
3539:
3524:
3454:
3377:
3209:
3159:
3068:
2993:
2892:
2777:
2649:
2380:
2294:
1883:
1250:
1176:
1110:
1037:
965:
794:
1448:
481:
3632:
3587:
3362:
3182:
3112:
2869:
2849:
2225:
2002:
1924:
1762:
1239:
1218:
1066:
1029:
938:
767:
737:
414:
321:
273:
219:
1163:
dependence, the extinction coefficient (ε) can be determined as a function of wavelength.
191:
Most molecules and ions absorb energy in the ultraviolet or visible range, i.e., they are
8:
3655:
3609:
3534:
3507:
3405:
3387:
3340:
3278:
3174:
3154:
3023:
3018:
2919:
2705:
2418:
2327:
1005:
671:
2229:
2006:
1928:
1766:
474:
of the absorbing species. For each species and wavelength, ε is a constant known as the
252:. The solvents for these determinations are often water for water-soluble compounds, or
3732:
3698:
3560:
3529:
3410:
3352:
3050:
3033:
3028:
2983:
2946:
2936:
2897:
2753:
2690:
2669:
2485:
2463:
2396:
2307:
2241:
2144:
2053:
2018:
1975:
1701:
1565:
1412:
1377:
1280:
1254:
1156:
1120:
1021:
918:
837:
747:
631:
573:
553:
475:
445:
2237:
2175:
1004:
The basic parts of a spectrophotometer are a light source, a holder for the sample, a
3751:
3713:
3678:
3661:
3599:
3517:
3512:
3440:
3425:
3395:
3316:
3283:
3254:
3249:
3224:
3214:
3134:
3122:
3001:
2914:
2654:
2581:
2555:
2245:
2148:
2134:
2022:
1967:
1963:
1830:
1786:
1778:
1705:
1693:
1614:
1569:
1561:
1488:
1460:
1449:
1416:
1363:
1329:
1203:
1106:
731:
719:
523:
282:
245:
231:
2057:
2014:
1979:
626:
achievable is a specification of the UV spectrophotometer, and it characterizes how
3756:
3673:
3328:
3187:
3164:
3117:
3058:
2233:
2171:
2126:
2045:
2010:
1959:
1932:
1822:
1770:
1685:
1557:
1408:
1321:
1264:
241:
234:
227:
156:
1310:
Cole, Kenneth; Levine, Barry S. (2020), Levine, Barry S.; Kerrigan, Sarah (eds.),
935:), and compares it to the intensity of light reflected from a reference material (
764:), and compares it to the intensity of light before it passes through the sample (
670:
of the light used for the analysis. The most important factor affecting it is the
3614:
3570:
3565:
3459:
3435:
3269:
3232:
3085:
3075:
2958:
2096:
Forensic Fiber
Examination Guidelines, Scientific Working Group-Materials, 1999,
1602:
1325:
1180:
1095:
630:
the incident light can be. If this bandwidth is comparable to (or more than) the
295:
3498:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3421:
3417:
3400:
3357:
3288:
3149:
3144:
3129:
2941:
2859:
1312:
1025:
1009:
535:
2049:
1774:
1689:
3786:
3703:
3592:
3548:
3273:
3107:
3102:
3095:
2973:
2130:
1782:
1697:
1610:
1172:
1060:
1013:
627:
612:
471:
196:
1672:
1043:
3580:
3430:
3345:
3321:
3311:
3303:
3204:
3139:
3038:
2887:
2286:
1834:
1790:
1147:
1143:
1017:
1971:
411:(formally dimensionless but generally reported in absorbance units (AU)),
132:
2978:
653:
539:
531:
192:
164:
152:
2801:
3604:
1033:
1024:, which is continuous over the ultraviolet region (190–400 nm), a
831:
439:
408:
1936:
1826:
1403:, in Lindon, John C.; Tranter, George E.; Koppenaal, David W. (eds.),
3666:
2968:
2833:
1185:
1138:
744:. It measures the intensity of light after passing through a sample (
305:, for instance, are a set of empirical observations used to predict λ
2214:
1809:
35:
3688:
1755:
Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and
Biomolecular Spectroscopy
258:
2109:
2097:
1047:
Simplified schematic of a double beam UV–visible spectrophotometer
3708:
1915:
Berberan-Santos, M. N. (September 1990). "Beer's law revisited".
1114:
253:
1447:
Skoog, Douglas A.; Holler, F. James; Crouch, Stanley R. (2007).
2255:
314:
1949:
1806:
1747:
Cinar, Mehmet; Coruh, Ali; Karabacak, Mehmet (25 March 2014).
1541:
1884:"Persee PG Scientific Inc. – New-UV FAQ: Spectral Band Width"
1405:
Encyclopedia of
Spectroscopy and Spectrometry (Third Edition)
1320:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 127–134,
1228:
666:
The stray light is an important factor, as it determines the
310:
740:
used in ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy is called a UV/Vis
3683:
1455:(6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. pp.
1400:"UV-Visible Absorption Spectroscopy, Organic Applications"
1397:
Edwards, Alison A.; Alexander, Bruce D. (1 January 2017),
215:
UV/Vis can be used to monitor structural changes in DNA.
3693:
288:
A UV/Vis spectrophotometer may be used as a detector for
2120:
2071:
2035:
725:
663:
will be lower than the actual absorbance of the sample.
248:, also absorb light in the UV or visible regions of the
2164:
1550:
692:
590:) of a given film across the measured spectral range.
1123:
1069:
968:
941:
921:
863:
840:
830:, and is usually expressed as a percentage (%T). The
797:
770:
750:
576:
556:
484:
448:
417:
333:
226:
determination of diverse analytes or sample, such as
1202:
UV/Vis can be applied to characterize the rate of a
1063:), all of the light passes through the sample cell.
392:{\displaystyle A=\log _{10}(I_{0}/I)=\varepsilon cL}
1746:
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2161:
1992:
1808:
1748:
1671:
1543:
1398:
1311:
1129:
1082:
989:
954:
927:
904:
846:
818:
783:
756:
709:
582:
562:
507:
454:
438:is the intensity of the incident light at a given
430:
391:
2073:"Spectrophotometry Applications and Fundamentals"
1870:"Wavelength Accuracy in UV/VIS Spectrophotometry"
1446:
1286:Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy of stereoisomers
1231: – Vis spectroscopy with the human eye
1001:, and is usually expressed as a percentage (%R).
3784:
1730:"Limitations and Deviations of Beer–Lambert Law"
1396:
1159:integrated with a UV–visible spectrophotometer.
1914:
1902:"What is Stray light and how it is monitored?"
1601:
167:. Absorption spectroscopy is complementary to
145:ultraviolet–visible (UV–VIS) spectrophotometry
2817:
2271:
1545:"Intrinsic fluorescence of UV-irradiated DNA"
1508:Franca, Adriana S.; Nollet, Leo M.L. (2017).
2343:Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules
1802:
1800:
1670:Bozdoğan, Abdürrezzak E. (1 November 2022).
1507:
1407:, Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 511–519,
1360:Spectroscopy: principles and instrumentation
1482:
1059:. In a single beam instrument (such as the
593:
151:or reflectance spectroscopy in part of the
2824:
2810:
2338:Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy
2278:
2264:
1856:"Stray Light and Performance Verification"
1485:Physical Methods for Chemists, 2nd Edition
1309:
1197:
2831:
2711:Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy
2391:Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization
1815:The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters
1797:
1166:
281:), or more accurately, determined from a
244:, especially those with a high degree of
218:UV/Vis spectroscopy is routinely used in
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
2479:Extended X-ray absorption fine structure
2188:
1669:
1042:
466:the path length through the sample, and
206:
131:
1313:"Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrophotometry"
14:
3785:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1607:Ultraviolet Spectroscopy and UV Lasers
1510:Spectroscopic Methods in Food Analysis
1362:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
550:to determine the index of refraction (
522:are sometimes defined in terms of the
186:
136:Beckman DU640 UV/Vis spectrophotometer
2805:
2259:
1727:
1582:
1522:
1478:
1476:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1357:
1175:, and a sensitive detector such as a
726:Ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometer
606:
3739:
2784:
2070:
1995:Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter
1358:Vitha, Mark F. (2018). "Chapter 2".
1353:
1351:
962:) (such as a white tile). The ratio
718:of the results obtained with UV/Vis
714:The above factors contribute to the
693:Deviations from the Beer–Lambert law
548:Forouhi–Bloomer dispersion equations
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
3763:
2038:Accreditation and Quality Assurance
1712:
1451:Principles of Instrumental Analysis
638:
24:
1516:
1473:
1435:
1413:10.1016/b978-0-12-803224-4.00013-3
1051:A spectrophotometer can be either
905:{\displaystyle A=-\log(\%T/100\%)}
896:
882:
570:) and the extinction coefficient (
526:instead of the base-10 logarithm.
69:"Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy"
25:
3809:
2696:Deep-level transient spectroscopy
2448:Saturated absorption spectroscopy
2238:10.1016/j.measurement.2019.02.084
1535:
1348:
1318:Principles of Forensic Toxicology
854:, is based on the transmittance:
3762:
3750:
3738:
3727:
3726:
2783:
2772:
2771:
2701:Dual-polarization interferometry
2285:
1605:; Dubinskii, Mark, eds. (2002).
1585:"Derivation of Beer–Lambert Law"
1562:10.1016/j.jphotochem.2022.114484
1523:Metha, Akul (13 December 2011).
600:
34:
18:Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy
2716:Scanning tunneling spectroscopy
2691:Circular dichroism spectroscopy
2686:Acoustic resonance spectroscopy
2208:
2182:
2155:
2114:
2110:http://www.swgmat.org/paint.htm
2102:
2098:http://www.swgmat.org/fiber.htm
2090:
2064:
2029:
1986:
1943:
1908:
1894:
1876:
1862:
1848:
1740:
1678:Journal of Analytical Chemistry
1663:
1653:
1627:
1595:
1020:filament (300–2500 nm), a
710:Measurement uncertainty sources
202:
45:needs additional citations for
27:Range of spectroscopic analysis
2645:Fourier-transform spectroscopy
2333:Vibrational circular dichroism
1576:
1501:
1390:
1303:
1246:Fourier-transform spectroscopy
1235:Charge modulation spectroscopy
899:
879:
647:
518:The absorbance and extinction
462:is the transmitted intensity,
374:
353:
211:An example of a UV/Vis readout
13:
1:
3091:Interface and colloid science
2845:Glossary of chemical formulae
2443:Cavity ring-down spectroscopy
2348:Thermal infrared spectroscopy
2176:10.1016/s1010-6030(00)00267-7
1917:Journal of Chemical Education
1583:Metha, Akul (22 April 2012).
1382:: CS1 maint: date and year (
1296:
279:molar extinction coefficients
141:Ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy
2577:Inelastic neutron scattering
1964:10.1016/0014-5793(94)00912-0
1326:10.1007/978-3-030-42917-1_10
1137:, in the Beer–Lambert law.)
7:
3368:Bioorganometallic chemistry
2855:List of inorganic compounds
2638:Data collection, processing
2514:Photoelectron/photoemission
2189:UC Davis (2 October 2013).
1728:Metha, Akul (14 May 2012).
1212:
706:from the Beer–Lambert law.
10:
3814:
3294:Dynamic covalent chemistry
3265:Enantioselective synthesis
3245:Physical organic chemistry
3198:Organolanthanide chemistry
2723:Photoacoustic spectroscopy
2665:Time-resolved spectroscopy
1271:Near-infrared spectroscopy
1036:, a photodiode array or a
729:
675:level of the monochromator
651:
3722:
3625:
3386:
3302:
3223:
3173:
3049:
2992:
2883:Electroanalytical methods
2868:
2840:
2767:
2749:Astronomical spectroscopy
2741:
2728:Photothermal spectroscopy
2678:
2637:
2630:
2592:
2564:
2506:
2456:
2356:
2293:
2050:10.1007/s00769-006-0124-x
2015:10.1088/0953-8984/7/8/002
1775:10.1016/j.saa.2013.11.106
1690:10.1134/S1061934822110028
1512:. CRC Press. p. 664.
1242:– first UV–Vis instrument
603:and wavelength accuracy.
266:charge transfer complexes
169:fluorescence spectroscopy
3638:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
3554:Supramolecular chemistry
3193:Organometallic chemistry
2131:10.1109/IMTC.1994.352008
1291:Vibrational spectroscopy
1259:vibrational spectroscopy
1224:Benesi–Hildebrand method
594:Practical considerations
250:electromagnetic spectrum
176:UV-vis spectrophotometer
161:electromagnetic spectrum
3793:Absorption spectroscopy
3576:Combinatorial chemistry
3487:Food physical chemistry
3450:Environmental chemistry
3334:Bioorthogonal chemistry
3260:Retrosynthetic analysis
3081:Chemical thermodynamics
3064:Spectroelectrochemistry
3007:Computational chemistry
2733:Pump–probe spectroscopy
2622:Ferromagnetic resonance
2414:Laser-induced breakdown
1276:Rotational spectroscopy
1198:Additional applications
990:{\displaystyle I/I_{o}}
819:{\displaystyle I/I_{o}}
716:measurement uncertainty
155:and the full, adjacent
149:absorption spectroscopy
3648:of element discoveries
3494:Agricultural chemistry
3482:Carbohydrate chemistry
3373:Bioinorganic chemistry
3238:Alkane stereochemistry
3183:Coordination chemistry
3012:Mathematical chemistry
2878:Instrumental chemistry
2429:Glow-discharge optical
2409:Raman optical activity
2323:Rotational–vibrational
1635:"The Beer-Lambert Law"
1167:Microspectrophotometry
1131:
1084:
1048:
991:
956:
929:
906:
848:
820:
785:
758:
584:
564:
509:
508:{\displaystyle 1/M*cm}
456:
432:
393:
212:
137:
3798:Scientific techniques
3643:Timeline of chemistry
3540:Post-mortem chemistry
3525:Clandestine chemistry
3455:Atmospheric chemistry
3378:Biophysical chemistry
3210:Solid-state chemistry
3160:Equilibrium chemistry
3069:Photoelectrochemistry
2650:Hyperspectral imaging
1251:Infrared spectroscopy
1177:charge-coupled device
1132:
1085:
1083:{\displaystyle I_{o}}
1046:
1038:charge-coupled device
992:
957:
955:{\displaystyle I_{o}}
930:
907:
849:
821:
786:
784:{\displaystyle I_{o}}
759:
585:
565:
510:
457:
433:
431:{\displaystyle I_{0}}
394:
303:Woodward–Fieser rules
210:
135:
3633:History of chemistry
3588:Chemical engineering
3363:Bioorganic chemistry
3113:Structural chemistry
2850:List of biomolecules
2402:Coherent anti-Stokes
2357:UV–Vis–NIR "Optical"
2125:. pp. 677–682.
1639:Chemistry LibreTexts
1483:R. S. Drago (1992).
1240:DU spectrophotometer
1219:Applied spectroscopy
1191:interference pattern
1121:
1067:
1030:photomultiplier tube
966:
939:
919:
861:
838:
795:
768:
748:
687:double monochromator
574:
554:
482:
446:
415:
331:
220:analytical chemistry
54:improve this article
3656:The central science
3610:Ceramic engineering
3535:Forensic toxicology
3508:Chemistry education
3406:Radiation chemistry
3388:Interdisciplinarity
3341:Medicinal chemistry
3279:Fullerene chemistry
3155:Microwave chemistry
3024:Molecular mechanics
3019:Molecular modelling
2706:Hadron spectroscopy
2496:Conversion electron
2457:X-ray and Gamma ray
2364:Ultraviolet–visible
2230:2019Meas..139..355M
2007:1995JPCM....7.1513A
1929:1990JChEd..67..757B
1767:2014AcSpA.122..682C
1105:Samples for UV/Vis
1006:diffraction grating
187:Optical transitions
3699:Chemical substance
3561:Chemical synthesis
3530:Forensic chemistry
3411:Actinide chemistry
3353:Clinical chemistry
3034:Molecular geometry
3029:Molecular dynamics
2984:Elemental analysis
2937:Separation process
2754:Force spectroscopy
2679:Measured phenomena
2670:Video spectroscopy
2374:Cold vapour atomic
1734:PharmaXChange.info
1589:PharmaXChange.info
1529:PharmaXChange.info
1487:. W. B. Saunders.
1281:Slope spectroscopy
1255:Raman spectroscopy
1127:
1080:
1049:
1022:deuterium arc lamp
987:
952:
925:
902:
844:
816:
781:
754:
622:The best spectral
607:Spectral bandwidth
580:
560:
505:
476:molar absorptivity
452:
428:
389:
213:
138:
3778:
3777:
3714:Quantum mechanics
3679:Chemical compound
3662:Chemical reaction
3600:Materials science
3518:General chemistry
3513:Amateur chemistry
3441:Photogeochemistry
3426:Stellar chemistry
3396:Nuclear chemistry
3317:Molecular biology
3284:Polymer chemistry
3255:Organic synthesis
3250:Organic reactions
3215:Ceramic chemistry
3205:Cluster chemistry
3135:Chemical kinetics
3123:Molecular physics
3002:Quantum chemistry
2915:Mass spectrometry
2799:
2798:
2763:
2762:
2655:Spectrophotometry
2582:Neutron spin echo
2556:Beta spectroscopy
2469:Energy-dispersive
1937:10.1021/ed067p757
1827:10.1021/jz502471h
1684:(11): 1426–1432.
1620:978-0-8247-0668-5
1466:978-0-495-01201-6
1422:978-0-12-803224-4
1369:978-1-119-43664-5
1335:978-3-030-42917-1
1204:chemical reaction
1130:{\displaystyle L}
1113:cell, known as a
1107:spectrophotometry
928:{\displaystyle I}
847:{\displaystyle A}
757:{\displaystyle I}
742:spectrophotometer
732:Spectrophotometry
720:spectrophotometry
583:{\displaystyle k}
563:{\displaystyle n}
524:natural logarithm
455:{\displaystyle I}
283:calibration curve
242:Organic compounds
235:organic compounds
130:
129:
122:
104:
16:(Redirected from
3805:
3766:
3765:
3754:
3742:
3741:
3730:
3729:
3674:Chemical element
3329:Chemical biology
3188:Magnetochemistry
3165:Mechanochemistry
3118:Chemical physics
3059:Electrochemistry
2964:Characterization
2826:
2819:
2812:
2803:
2802:
2787:
2786:
2775:
2774:
2635:
2634:
2546:phenomenological
2295:Vibrational (IR)
2280:
2273:
2266:
2257:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2118:
2112:
2106:
2100:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2083:
2068:
2062:
2061:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2001:(8): 1513–1524.
1990:
1984:
1983:
1947:
1941:
1940:
1912:
1906:
1905:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1888:www.perseena.com
1880:
1874:
1873:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1852:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1812:
1804:
1795:
1794:
1752:
1744:
1738:
1737:
1725:
1710:
1709:
1675:
1667:
1661:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1641:. 3 October 2013
1631:
1625:
1624:
1603:Misra, Prabhakar
1599:
1593:
1592:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1547:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1480:
1471:
1470:
1454:
1444:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1402:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1381:
1373:
1355:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1315:
1307:
1265:Isosbestic point
1136:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1089:
1087:
1086:
1081:
1079:
1078:
996:
994:
993:
988:
986:
985:
976:
961:
959:
958:
953:
951:
950:
934:
932:
931:
926:
911:
909:
908:
903:
892:
853:
851:
850:
845:
825:
823:
822:
817:
815:
814:
805:
790:
788:
787:
782:
780:
779:
763:
761:
760:
755:
639:Wavelength error
589:
587:
586:
581:
569:
567:
566:
561:
542:, for example).
514:
512:
511:
506:
492:
461:
459:
458:
453:
437:
435:
434:
429:
427:
426:
407:is the measured
398:
396:
395:
390:
370:
365:
364:
349:
348:
322:Beer–Lambert law
274:Beer–Lambert law
228:transition metal
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
3813:
3812:
3808:
3807:
3806:
3804:
3803:
3802:
3783:
3782:
3779:
3774:
3718:
3621:
3615:Polymer science
3571:Click chemistry
3566:Green chemistry
3460:Ocean chemistry
3436:Biogeochemistry
3382:
3298:
3270:Total synthesis
3233:Stereochemistry
3219:
3169:
3086:Surface science
3076:Thermochemistry
3045:
2988:
2959:Crystallography
2864:
2836:
2830:
2800:
2795:
2759:
2737:
2674:
2626:
2588:
2560:
2502:
2452:
2352:
2313:Resonance Raman
2289:
2284:
2254:
2253:
2213:
2209:
2199:
2197:
2187:
2183:
2160:
2156:
2141:
2119:
2115:
2107:
2103:
2095:
2091:
2081:
2079:
2069:
2065:
2034:
2030:
1991:
1987:
1948:
1944:
1913:
1909:
1904:. 12 June 2015.
1900:
1899:
1895:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1854:
1853:
1849:
1839:
1837:
1805:
1798:
1745:
1741:
1726:
1713:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1654:
1644:
1642:
1633:
1632:
1628:
1621:
1600:
1596:
1581:
1577:
1540:
1536:
1521:
1517:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1481:
1474:
1467:
1445:
1436:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1395:
1391:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1356:
1349:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1215:
1200:
1181:photomultiplier
1169:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1074:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1064:
981:
977:
972:
967:
964:
963:
946:
942:
940:
937:
936:
920:
917:
916:
888:
862:
859:
858:
839:
836:
835:
810:
806:
801:
796:
793:
792:
775:
771:
769:
766:
765:
749:
746:
745:
734:
728:
712:
695:
656:
650:
641:
609:
596:
575:
572:
571:
555:
552:
551:
488:
483:
480:
479:
447:
444:
443:
422:
418:
416:
413:
412:
366:
360:
356:
344:
340:
332:
329:
328:
308:
296:response factor
205:
189:
159:regions of the
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3811:
3801:
3800:
3795:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3772:
3760:
3748:
3736:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3659:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3640:
3635:
3629:
3627:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3619:
3618:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3597:
3596:
3595:
3585:
3584:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3558:
3557:
3556:
3545:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3537:
3527:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3501:
3499:Soil chemistry
3491:
3490:
3489:
3484:
3477:Food chemistry
3474:
3472:Carbochemistry
3469:
3467:Clay chemistry
3464:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3446:
3445:
3444:
3443:
3438:
3428:
3422:Astrochemistry
3418:Cosmochemistry
3415:
3414:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3401:Radiochemistry
3392:
3390:
3384:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3358:Neurochemistry
3355:
3350:
3349:
3348:
3338:
3337:
3336:
3326:
3325:
3324:
3319:
3308:
3306:
3300:
3299:
3297:
3296:
3291:
3289:Petrochemistry
3286:
3281:
3276:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3241:
3240:
3229:
3227:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3190:
3185:
3179:
3177:
3171:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3150:Spin chemistry
3147:
3145:Photochemistry
3142:
3137:
3132:
3130:Femtochemistry
3127:
3126:
3125:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3099:
3098:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3066:
3055:
3053:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3041:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3015:
3014:
3004:
2998:
2996:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2949:
2942:Chromatography
2939:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2912:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2885:
2880:
2874:
2872:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2862:
2860:Periodic table
2857:
2852:
2847:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2829:
2828:
2821:
2814:
2806:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2781:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2757:
2751:
2745:
2743:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2719:
2718:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2682:
2680:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2641:
2639:
2632:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2584:
2574:
2568:
2566:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2531:
2529:Angle-resolved
2526:
2521:
2510:
2508:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2498:
2488:
2483:
2482:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2439:
2438:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2405:
2404:
2394:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2366:
2360:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2299:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2283:
2282:
2275:
2268:
2260:
2252:
2251:
2207:
2191:"The Rate Law"
2181:
2170:(3): 163–168.
2154:
2139:
2113:
2101:
2089:
2063:
2044:(5): 246–255.
2028:
1985:
1942:
1907:
1893:
1875:
1861:
1847:
1796:
1739:
1711:
1662:
1652:
1626:
1619:
1594:
1575:
1534:
1515:
1500:
1493:
1472:
1465:
1434:
1421:
1389:
1368:
1347:
1334:
1301:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1294:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1262:
1248:
1243:
1237:
1232:
1226:
1221:
1214:
1211:
1199:
1196:
1168:
1165:
1126:
1077:
1073:
1026:xenon arc lamp
997:is called the
984:
980:
975:
971:
949:
945:
924:
913:
912:
901:
898:
895:
891:
887:
884:
881:
878:
875:
872:
869:
866:
843:
826:is called the
813:
809:
804:
800:
778:
774:
753:
727:
724:
711:
708:
694:
691:
649:
646:
640:
637:
608:
605:
595:
592:
579:
559:
536:xylenol orange
504:
501:
498:
495:
491:
487:
451:
425:
421:
401:
400:
388:
385:
382:
379:
376:
373:
369:
363:
359:
355:
352:
347:
343:
339:
336:
306:
270:
269:
262:
204:
201:
188:
185:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3810:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3790:
3788:
3781:
3771:
3770:
3761:
3759:
3758:
3753:
3749:
3747:
3746:
3737:
3735:
3734:
3725:
3724:
3721:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3704:Chemical bond
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3663:
3660:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3624:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3602:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3593:Stoichiometry
3591:
3590:
3589:
3586:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3562:
3559:
3555:
3552:
3551:
3550:
3549:Nanochemistry
3547:
3546:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3509:
3506:
3505:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3495:
3492:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3451:
3448:
3447:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3433:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3416:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3398:
3397:
3394:
3393:
3391:
3389:
3385:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3339:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3330:
3327:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3313:
3310:
3309:
3307:
3305:
3301:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3274:Semisynthesis
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3226:
3222:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3199:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3108:Sonochemistry
3106:
3104:
3103:Cryochemistry
3101:
3097:
3096:Micromeritics
3094:
3093:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3013:
3010:
3009:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2974:Wet chemistry
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2913:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2839:
2835:
2827:
2822:
2820:
2815:
2813:
2808:
2807:
2804:
2792:
2791:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2770:
2769:
2766:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2677:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2591:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2515:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2505:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2455:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2403:
2400:
2399:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2386:Near-infrared
2384:
2382:
2379:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2281:
2276:
2274:
2269:
2267:
2262:
2261:
2258:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2211:
2196:
2192:
2185:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2140:0-7803-1880-3
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2093:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2032:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1903:
1897:
1889:
1885:
1879:
1871:
1865:
1857:
1851:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1803:
1801:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1743:
1735:
1731:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1666:
1660:presentation.
1656:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1622:
1616:
1612:
1611:Marcel Dekker
1608:
1604:
1598:
1590:
1586:
1579:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1546:
1538:
1530:
1526:
1519:
1511:
1504:
1496:
1490:
1486:
1479:
1477:
1468:
1462:
1458:
1453:
1452:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1424:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1393:
1385:
1379:
1371:
1365:
1361:
1354:
1352:
1337:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1314:
1306:
1302:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1195:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1173:monochromator
1164:
1160:
1158:
1152:
1149:
1145:
1140:
1124:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1103:
1099:
1097:
1091:
1075:
1071:
1062:
1061:Spectronic 20
1058:
1054:
1045:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1014:monochromator
1011:
1007:
1002:
1000:
982:
978:
973:
969:
947:
943:
922:
893:
889:
885:
876:
873:
870:
867:
864:
857:
856:
855:
841:
833:
829:
828:transmittance
811:
807:
802:
798:
791:). The ratio
776:
772:
751:
743:
739:
733:
723:
721:
717:
707:
703:
699:
690:
688:
682:
678:
676:
674:
669:
664:
660:
655:
645:
636:
633:
629:
628:monochromatic
625:
620:
616:
614:
613:monochromator
604:
602:
591:
577:
557:
549:
543:
541:
537:
533:
527:
525:
521:
516:
502:
499:
496:
493:
489:
485:
477:
473:
472:concentration
469:
465:
449:
441:
423:
419:
410:
406:
386:
383:
380:
377:
371:
367:
361:
357:
350:
345:
341:
337:
334:
327:
326:
325:
323:
318:
316:
312:
304:
299:
297:
293:
292:
286:
284:
280:
275:
267:
263:
260:
255:
251:
247:
243:
240:
239:
238:
236:
233:
230:ions, highly
229:
225:
221:
216:
209:
200:
198:
197:excited state
194:
184:
180:
177:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
134:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3780:
3767:
3755:
3743:
3731:
3581:Biosynthesis
3431:Geochemistry
3346:Pharmacology
3322:Cell biology
3312:Biochemistry
3140:Spectroscopy
3039:VSEPR theory
2902:
2888:Spectroscopy
2832:Branches of
2788:
2776:
2756:(a misnomer)
2742:Applications
2660:Time-stretch
2551:paramagnetic
2369:Fluorescence
2363:
2287:Spectroscopy
2221:
2217:
2210:
2198:. Retrieved
2194:
2184:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2122:
2116:
2104:
2092:
2080:. Retrieved
2076:
2066:
2041:
2037:
2031:
1998:
1994:
1988:
1958:(1): 37–40.
1955:
1952:FEBS Letters
1951:
1945:
1920:
1916:
1910:
1896:
1887:
1878:
1864:
1850:
1838:. Retrieved
1821:(1): 66–71.
1818:
1814:
1758:
1754:
1742:
1733:
1681:
1677:
1665:
1655:
1643:. Retrieved
1638:
1629:
1609:. New York:
1606:
1597:
1588:
1578:
1553:
1549:
1537:
1528:
1518:
1509:
1503:
1484:
1450:
1426:, retrieved
1404:
1392:
1359:
1339:, retrieved
1317:
1305:
1208:
1201:
1170:
1161:
1153:
1148:quartz glass
1144:fused silica
1104:
1100:
1096:beam chopper
1092:
1056:
1052:
1050:
1003:
998:
914:
827:
741:
735:
713:
704:
700:
696:
683:
679:
672:
667:
665:
661:
657:
642:
621:
617:
610:
597:
544:
532:organic dyes
528:
519:
517:
467:
463:
404:
402:
319:
300:
290:
287:
271:
224:quantitative
217:
214:
203:Applications
193:chromophores
190:
181:
175:
173:
144:
140:
139:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
3769:WikiProject
2994:Theoretical
2979:Calorimetry
2328:Vibrational
2224:: 355–360.
2218:Measurement
2200:11 November
1840:16 November
1761:: 682–689.
1525:"Principle"
1111:transparent
1057:double beam
1053:single beam
999:reflectance
673:stray light
654:Stray light
648:Stray light
601:stray light
540:neutral red
246:conjugation
165:chromophore
153:ultraviolet
3787:Categories
3605:Metallurgy
3304:Biological
2870:Analytical
2534:Two-photon
2436:absorption
2318:Rotational
2077:www.mt.com
1923:(9): 757.
1645:19 October
1556:: 114484.
1494:0030751764
1428:19 October
1341:19 October
1297:References
1157:microscope
1139:Test tubes
1034:photodiode
832:absorbance
738:instrument
730:See also:
652:See also:
440:wavelength
409:absorbance
232:conjugated
147:refers to
110:April 2018
80:newspapers
3667:Catalysis
3175:Inorganic
2969:Titration
2834:chemistry
2612:Terahertz
2593:Radiowave
2491:Mössbauer
2246:116260472
2149:110637259
2023:250898349
1783:1386-1425
1706:253463022
1698:1608-3199
1570:254622477
1378:cite book
1186:vitrinite
1179:(CCD) or
897:%
883:%
877:
871:−
624:bandwidth
497:∗
381:ε
351:
3733:Category
3689:Molecule
3626:See also
3051:Physical
2778:Category
2507:Electron
2474:Emission
2424:emission
2381:Vibronic
2195:ChemWiki
2058:94520012
1980:11419856
1835:26263093
1791:24345608
1213:See also
1018:tungsten
530:such as
259:Tyrosine
222:for the
3745:Commons
3709:Alchemy
3225:Organic
2790:Commons
2617:ESR/EPR
2565:Nucleon
2393:(REMPI)
2226:Bibcode
2082:10 July
2003:Bibcode
1972:7925937
1925:Bibcode
1763:Bibcode
1115:cuvette
315:ketones
254:ethanol
157:visible
94:scholar
3757:Portal
2903:UV-Vis
2631:Others
2419:Atomic
2244:
2147:
2137:
2056:
2021:
1978:
1970:
1833:
1789:
1781:
1704:
1696:
1617:
1568:
1491:
1463:
1459:–173.
1419:
1366:
1332:
668:purity
403:where
311:dienes
264:While
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
2930:MALDI
2898:Raman
2572:Alpha
2541:Auger
2519:X-ray
2486:Gamma
2464:X-ray
2397:Raman
2308:Raman
2303:FT-IR
2242:S2CID
2145:S2CID
2054:S2CID
2019:S2CID
1976:S2CID
1702:S2CID
1566:S2CID
1229:Color
1012:as a
1010:prism
1008:or a
632:width
101:JSTOR
87:books
3684:Atom
2952:HPLC
2202:2014
2135:ISBN
2084:2018
1968:PMID
1842:2021
1831:PMID
1787:PMID
1779:ISSN
1694:ISSN
1647:2023
1615:ISBN
1489:ISBN
1461:ISBN
1430:2023
1417:ISBN
1384:link
1364:ISBN
1343:2023
1330:ISBN
1253:and
1032:, a
736:The
470:the
313:and
291:HPLC
272:The
73:news
3694:Ion
2925:ICP
2908:NMR
2600:NMR
2234:doi
2222:139
2172:doi
2168:134
2127:doi
2046:doi
2011:doi
1960:doi
1956:352
1933:doi
1823:doi
1771:doi
1759:122
1686:doi
1558:doi
1554:437
1457:169
1409:doi
1322:doi
1146:or
1055:or
894:100
874:log
538:or
342:log
307:max
143:or
56:by
3789::
3424:/
3420:/
3272:/
2947:GC
2920:EI
2893:IR
2605:2D
2524:UV
2240:.
2232:.
2220:.
2193:.
2166:.
2143:.
2133:.
2075:.
2052:.
2042:11
2040:.
2017:.
2009:.
1997:.
1974:.
1966:.
1954:.
1931:.
1921:67
1919:.
1886:.
1829:.
1817:.
1813:.
1799:^
1785:.
1777:.
1769:.
1757:.
1753:.
1732:.
1714:^
1700:.
1692:.
1682:77
1680:.
1676:.
1637:.
1613:.
1587:.
1564:.
1552:.
1548:.
1527:.
1475:^
1437:^
1415:,
1380:}}
1376:{{
1350:^
1328:,
1316:,
834:,
677:.
515:.
442:,
346:10
324::
298:.
285:.
174:A
3658:"
3654:"
2825:e
2818:t
2811:v
2279:e
2272:t
2265:v
2248:.
2236::
2228::
2204:.
2178:.
2174::
2151:.
2129::
2086:.
2060:.
2048::
2025:.
2013::
2005::
1999:7
1982:.
1962::
1939:.
1935::
1927::
1890:.
1872:.
1858:.
1844:.
1825::
1819:6
1793:.
1773::
1765::
1736:.
1708:.
1688::
1649:.
1623:.
1591:.
1572:.
1560::
1531:.
1497:.
1469:.
1411::
1386:)
1372:.
1324::
1261:.
1125:L
1076:o
1072:I
983:o
979:I
974:/
970:I
948:o
944:I
923:I
900:)
890:/
886:T
880:(
868:=
865:A
842:A
812:o
808:I
803:/
799:I
777:o
773:I
752:I
578:k
558:n
534:(
520:ε
503:m
500:c
494:M
490:/
486:1
468:c
464:L
450:I
424:0
420:I
405:A
399:,
387:L
384:c
378:=
375:)
372:I
368:/
362:0
358:I
354:(
338:=
335:A
123:)
117:(
112:)
108:(
98:·
91:·
84:·
77:·
50:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
_nickel_(II)_chloride_UV-vis.JPG)