197:
1091:
well as for the visible (VIS) and near-infrared wavelength regions covering a spectral range from 190 up to 1100 nm. The lamp flashes are focused on a glass fiber which drives the beam of light onto a cuvette containing the sample solution. The beam passes through the sample and specific wavelengths are absorbed by the sample components. The remaining light is collected after the cuvette by a glass fiber and driven into a spectrograph. The spectrograph consists of a diffraction grating that separates the light into the different wavelengths, and a CCD sensor to record the data, respectively. The whole spectrum is thus simultaneously measured, allowing for fast recording.
1029:(CCD). Single photodiode detectors and photomultiplier tubes are used with scanning monochromators, which filter the light so that only light of a single wavelength reaches the detector at one time. The scanning monochromator moves the diffraction grating to "step-through" each wavelength so that its intensity may be measured as a function of wavelength. Fixed monochromators are used with CCDs and photodiode arrays. As both of these devices consist of many detectors grouped into one or two dimensional arrays, they are able to collect light of different wavelengths on different pixels or groups of pixels simultaneously.
604:, its physical slit-width and optical dispersion and the detector of the spectrophotometer. The spectral bandwidth affects the resolution and accuracy of the measurement. A narrower spectral bandwidth provides higher resolution and accuracy, but also requires more time and energy to scan the entire spectrum. A wider spectral bandwidth allows for faster and easier scanning, but may result in lower resolution and accuracy, especially for samples with overlapping absorption peaks. Therefore, choosing an appropriate spectral bandwidth is important for obtaining reliable and precise results.
670:
incorrectly low absorbance. Any instrument will reach a point where an increase in sample concentration will not result in an increase in the reported absorbance, because the detector is simply responding to the stray light. In practice the concentration of the sample or the optical path length must be adjusted to place the unknown absorbance within a range that is valid for the instrument. Sometimes an empirical calibration function is developed, using known concentrations of the sample, to allow measurements into the region where the instrument is becoming non-linear.
306:. The spectrum alone is not, however, a specific test for any given sample. The nature of the solvent, the pH of the solution, temperature, high electrolyte concentrations, and the presence of interfering substances can influence the absorption spectrum. Experimental variations such as the slit width (effective bandwidth) of the spectrophotometer will also alter the spectrum. To apply UV/Vis spectroscopy to analysis, these variables must be controlled or accounted for in order to identify the substances present.
1033:
122:
3717:
2762:
711:. If UV/Vis spectrophotometry is used in quantitative chemical analysis then the results are additionally affected by uncertainty sources arising from the nature of the compounds and/or solutions that are measured. These include spectral interferences caused by absorption band overlap, fading of the color of the absorbing species (caused by decomposition or reaction) and possible composition mismatch between the sample and the calibration solution.
3741:
25:
687:
test that can be used to test for this effect is to vary the path length of the measurement. In the Beer–Lambert law, varying concentration and path length has an equivalent effect—diluting a solution by a factor of 10 has the same effect as shortening the path length by a factor of 10. If cells of different path lengths are available, testing if this relationship holds true is one way to judge if absorption flattening is occurring.
1173:
microscopic samples but are also able to measure the spectra of larger samples with high spatial resolution. As such, they are used in the forensic laboratory to analyze the dyes and pigments in individual textile fibers, microscopic paint chips and the color of glass fragments. They are also used in materials science and biological research and for determining the energy content of coal and petroleum source rock by measuring the
3753:
3729:
2774:
1087:, which blocks one beam at a time. The detector alternates between measuring the sample beam and the reference beam in synchronism with the chopper. There may also be one or more dark intervals in the chopper cycle. In this case, the measured beam intensities may be corrected by subtracting the intensity measured in the dark interval before the ratio is taken.
283:. The presence of an analyte gives a response assumed to be proportional to the concentration. For accurate results, the instrument's response to the analyte in the unknown should be compared with the response to a standard; this is very similar to the use of calibration curves. The response (e.g., peak height) for a particular concentration is known as the
588:
conditions of a test sample therefore must match reference measurements for conclusions to be valid. Worldwide, pharmacopoeias such as the
American (USP) and European (Ph. Eur.) pharmacopeias demand that spectrophotometers perform according to strict regulatory requirements encompassing factors such as
1082:
In a double-beam instrument, the light is split into two beams before it reaches the sample. One beam is used as the reference; the other beam passes through the sample. The reference beam intensity is taken as 100% Transmission (or 0 Absorbance), and the measurement displayed is the ratio of the two
607:
It is important to have a monochromatic source of radiation for the light incident on the sample cell to enhance the linearity of the response. The closer the bandwidth is to be monochromatic (transmitting unit of wavelength) the more linear will be the response. The spectral bandwidth is measured as
265:
states that the absorbance of a solution is directly proportional to the concentration of the absorbing species in the solution and the path length. Thus, for a fixed path length, UV/Vis spectroscopy can be used to determine the concentration of the absorber in a solution. It is necessary to know how
1151:
A complete spectrum of the absorption at all wavelengths of interest can often be produced directly by a more sophisticated spectrophotometer. In simpler instruments the absorption is determined one wavelength at a time and then compiled into a spectrum by the operator. By removing the concentration
623:
of the absorption peak of the sample component, then the measured extinction coefficient will not be accurate. In reference measurements, the instrument bandwidth (bandwidth of the incident light) is kept below the width of the spectral peaks. When a test material is being measured, the bandwidth of
694:
Some solutions, like copper(II) chloride in water, change visually at a certain concentration because of changed conditions around the coloured ion (the divalent copper ion). For copper(II) chloride it means a shift from blue to green, which would mean that monochromatic measurements would deviate
686:
At sufficiently high concentrations, the absorption bands will saturate and show absorption flattening. The absorption peak appears to flatten because close to 100% of the light is already being absorbed. The concentration at which this occurs depends on the particular compound being measured. One
651:
Stray light can cause significant errors in absorbance measurements, especially at high absorbances, because the stray light will be added to the signal detected by the detector, even though it is not part of the actually selected wavelength. The result is that the measured and reported absorbance
518:
The Beer–Lambert law is useful for characterizing many compounds but does not hold as a universal relationship for the concentration and absorption of all substances. A 2nd order polynomial relationship between absorption and concentration is sometimes encountered for very large, complex molecules
1090:
In a single-beam instrument, the cuvette containing only a solvent has to be measured first. Mettler Toledo developed a single beam array spectrophotometer that allows fast and accurate measurements over the UV/VIS range. The light source consists of a Xenon flash lamp for the ultraviolet (UV) as
632:
The extinction coefficient of an analyte in solution changes gradually with wavelength. A peak (a wavelength where the absorbance reaches a maximum) in the absorbance curve vs wavelength, i.e. the UV-VIS spectrum, is where the rate of change of absorbance with wavelength is the lowest. Therefore,
1172:
tube (PMT). As only a single optical path is available, these are single beam instruments. Modern instruments are capable of measuring UV–visible spectra in both reflectance and transmission of micron-scale sampling areas. The advantages of using such instruments is that they are able to measure
669:
Typically a detector used in a UV-VIS spectrophotometer is broadband; it responds to all the light that reaches it. If a significant amount of the light passed through the sample contains wavelengths that have much lower extinction coefficients than the nominal one, the instrument will report an
1177:
reflectance. Microspectrophotometers are used in the semiconductor and micro-optics industries for monitoring the thickness of thin films after they have been deposited. In the semiconductor industry, they are used because the critical dimensions of circuitry is microscopic. A typical test of a
690:
Solutions that are not homogeneous can show deviations from the Beer–Lambert law because of the phenomenon of absorption flattening. This can happen, for instance, where the absorbing substance is located within suspended particles. The deviations will be most noticeable under conditions of low
1182:
of the spectra. In addition, ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometry can be used to determine the thickness, along with the refractive index and extinction coefficient of thin films. A map of the film thickness across the entire wafer can then be generated and used for quality control purposes.
587:
The Beer–Lambert law has implicit assumptions that must be met experimentally for it to apply; otherwise there is a possibility of deviations from the law. For instance, the chemical makeup and physical environment of the sample can alter its extinction coefficient. The chemical and physical
1195:. Illustrative is the conversion of the yellow-orange and blue isomers of mercury dithizonate. This method of analysis relies on the fact that concentration is linearly proportional to concentration. In the same approach allows determination of equilibria between chromophores.
188:. For organic chromophores, four possible types of transitions are assumed: π–π*, n–π*, σ–σ*, and n–σ*. Transition metal complexes are often colored (i.e., absorb visible light) owing to the presence of multiple electronic states associated with incompletely filled d orbitals.
245:
for organic-soluble compounds. (Organic solvents may have significant UV absorption; not all solvents are suitable for use in UV spectroscopy. Ethanol absorbs very weakly at most wavelengths.) Solvent polarity and pH can affect the absorption spectrum of an organic compound.
1623:
647:
Stray light in a UV spectrophotometer is any light that reaches its detector that is not of the wavelength selected by the monochromator. This can be caused, for instance, by scattering of light within the instrument, or by reflections from optical surfaces.
167:
is an analytical instrument that measures the amount of ultraviolet (UV) and visible light that is absorbed by a sample. It is a widely used technique in chemistry, biochemistry, and other fields, to identify and quantify compounds in a variety of samples.
171:
UV-vis spectrophotometers work by passing a beam of light through the sample and measuring the amount of light that is absorbed at each wavelength. The amount of light absorbed is proportional to the concentration of the absorbing compound in the sample
673:
As a rough guide, an instrument with a single monochromator would typically have a stray light level corresponding to about 3 Absorbance Units (AU), which would make measurements above about 2 AU problematic. A more complex instrument with a
1139:
because these are transparent throughout the UV, visible and near infrared regions. Glass and plastic cuvettes are also common, although glass and most plastics absorb in the UV, which limits their usefulness to visible wavelengths.
1648:
Historically, the term "Optical
Density" (OD) was used instead of AU. But it is also worth noting that what is usually measured is percent transmission (%T), a linear ratio, which is converted to the logarithm by the instrument for
534:
UV–Vis spectroscopy is also used in the semiconductor industry to measure the thickness and optical properties of thin films on a wafer. UV–Vis spectrometers are used to measure the reflectance of light, and can be analyzed via the
633:
quantitative measurements of a solute are usually conducted, using a wavelength around the absorbance peak, to minimize inaccuracies produced by errors in wavelength, due to the change of extinction coefficient with wavelength.
624:
the incident light should also be sufficiently narrow. Reducing the spectral bandwidth reduces the energy passed to the detector and will, therefore, require a longer measurement time to achieve the same signal to noise ratio.
2204:
Mekhrengin, M.V.; Meshkovskii, I.K.; Tashkinov, V.A.; Guryev, V.I.; Sukhinets, A.V.; Smirnov, D.S. (June 2019). "Multispectral pyrometer for high temperature measurements inside combustion chamber of gas turbine engines".
152:. Being relatively inexpensive and easily implemented, this methodology is widely used in diverse applied and fundamental applications. The only requirement is that the sample absorb in the UV-Vis region, i.e. be a
1130:
can also be used as cuvettes in some instruments. The type of sample container used must allow radiation to pass over the spectral region of interest. The most widely applicable cuvettes are made of high quality
1143:
Specialized instruments have also been made. These include attaching spectrophotometers to telescopes to measure the spectra of astronomical features. UV–visible microspectrophotometers consist of a UV–visible
1083:
beam intensities. Some double-beam instruments have two detectors (photodiodes), and the sample and reference beam are measured at the same time. In other instruments, the two beams pass through a
386:
1178:
semiconductor wafer would entail the acquisition of spectra from many points on a patterned or unpatterned wafer. The thickness of the deposited films may be calculated from the
899:
600:
Spectral bandwidth of a spectrophotometer is the range of wavelengths that the instrument transmits through a sample at a given time. It is determined by the light source, the
1796:
Löper, Philipp; Stuckelberger, Michael; Niesen, Bjoern; Werner, Jérémie; Filipič, Miha; Moon, Soo-Jin; Yum, Jun-Ho; Topič, Marko; De Wolf, Stefaan; Ballif, Christophe (2015).
290:
The wavelengths of absorption peaks can be correlated with the types of bonds in a given molecule and are valuable in determining the functional groups within a molecule. The
904:
The UV–visible spectrophotometer can also be configured to measure reflectance. In this case, the spectrophotometer measures the intensity of light reflected from a sample (
1718:
2112:
Conference
Proceedings. 10th Anniversary. IMTC/94. Advanced Technologies in I & M. 1994 IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (Cat. No.94CH3424-9)
1939:
Wittung, Pernilla; Kajanus, Johan; Kubista, Mikael; Malmström, Bo G. (19 September 1994). "Absorption flattening in the optical spectra of liposome-entrapped substances".
984:
813:
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1844:
1274:
42:
1573:
467:
or extinction coefficient. This constant is a fundamental molecular property in a given solvent, at a particular temperature and pressure, and has units of
1246:
are other common spectroscopic techniques, usually used to obtain information about the structure of compounds or to identify compounds. Both are forms of
160:. Parameters of interest, besides the wavelength of measurement, are absorbance (A) or transmittance (%T) or reflectance (%R), and its change with time.
1017:, which is continuous from 160 to 2,000 nm; or more recently, light emitting diodes (LED) for the visible wavelengths. The detector is typically a
2266:
89:
1982:
Ansell, S; Tromp, R H; Neilson, G W (20 February 1995). "The solute and aquaion structure in a concentrated aqueous solution of copper(II) chloride".
61:
2812:
250:, for example, increases in absorption maxima and molar extinction coefficient when pH increases from 6 to 13 or when solvent polarity decreases.
68:
1858:
1739:"A comparative study of selected disperse azo dye derivatives based on spectroscopic (FT-IR, NMR and UV–Vis) and nonlinear optical behaviors"
2484:
2110:
Horie, M.; Fujiwara, N.; Kokubo, M.; Kondo, N. (1994). "Spectroscopic thin film thickness measurement system for semiconductor industries".
1198:
From the spectrum of burning gases, it is possible to determine a chemical composition of a fuel, temperature of gases, and air-fuel ratio.
2913:
2417:
2362:
2331:
1160:
UV–visible spectroscopy of microscopic samples is done by integrating an optical microscope with UV–visible optics, white light sources, a
75:
2918:
2326:
1079:
must be measured by removing the sample. This was the earliest design and is still in common use in both teaching and industrial labs.
226:, and biological macromolecules. Spectroscopic analysis is commonly carried out in solutions but solids and gases may also be studied.
2097:
Standard Guide for
Microspectrophotometry and Color Measurement in Forensic Paint Analysis, Scientific Working Group-Materials, 1999,
2699:
2517:
2379:
1799:"Complex Refractive Index Spectra of CH3NH3PbI3 Perovskite Thin Films Determined by Spectroscopic Ellipsometry and Spectrophotometry"
57:
1098:
are most often liquids, although the absorbance of gases and even of solids can also be measured. Samples are typically placed in a
2648:
2467:
1106:. Cuvettes are typically rectangular in shape, commonly with an internal width of 1 cm. (This width becomes the path length,
2896:
2588:
2390:
2311:
2291:
678:
would have a stray light level corresponding to about 6 AU, which would therefore allow measuring a much wider absorbance range.
2940:
2534:
2512:
2259:
309:
The method is most often used in a quantitative way to determine concentrations of an absorbing species in solution, using the
278:
2600:
2522:
1607:
1513:
1453:
1409:
1356:
1322:
2952:
2457:
2402:
1256:– a wavelength where absorption does not change as the reaction proceeds. Important in kinetics measurements as a control.
319:
2805:
2025:
Sooväli, L.; Rõõm, E.-I.; Kütt, A.; et al. (2006). "Uncertainty sources in UV–Vis spectrophotometric measurement".
612:
82:
2684:
2436:
2252:
2127:
1662:"Polynomial Equations based on Bouguer–Lambert and Beer Laws for Deviations from Linearity and Absorption Flattening"
1372:
212:
184:. The absorbed photon excites an electron in the chromophore to higher energy molecular orbitals, giving rise to an
108:
3781:
2689:
2507:
3757:
2704:
2674:
2605:
2539:
2179:
3786:
3636:
2798:
2633:
2424:
2321:
1481:
1234:
1223:
46:
3079:
2833:
2778:
2431:
2336:
608:
the number of wavelengths transmitted at half the maximum intensity of the light leaving the monochromator.
267:
2565:
2412:
2301:
2151:
Sertova, N.; Petkov, I.; Nunzi, J.-M. (June 2000). "Photochromism of mercury(II) dithizonate in solution".
1212:
3356:
2843:
2721:
2560:
2529:
2462:
1388:
1890:
849:
3733:
3282:
3253:
3233:
3186:
2711:
2653:
2502:
2374:
1259:
1738:
1531:
Carroll, Gregory T.; Dowling, Reed C.; Kirschman, David L.; Masthay, Mark B.; Mammana, Angela (2023).
196:
2871:
2737:
2716:
2357:
691:
concentration and high absorbance. The last reference describes a way to correct for this deviation.
536:
291:
257:
also give rise to colours, the colours are often too intense to be used for quantitative measurement.
254:
157:
2479:
3626:
3542:
3181:
1279:
1247:
675:
238:
149:
3564:
3475:
3438:
3322:
3248:
3069:
3052:
2995:
2610:
2306:
1533:
1264:
704:
298:, the wavelength of the most intense UV/Vis absorption, for conjugated organic compounds such as
137:
35:
1005:
to separate the different wavelengths of light, and a detector. The radiation source is often a
266:
quickly the absorbance changes with concentration. This can be taken from references (tables of
3482:
3470:
3361:
3226:
3000:
2866:
2397:
1445:
1179:
3631:
3528:
3513:
3443:
3366:
3198:
3148:
3057:
2982:
2881:
2766:
2638:
2369:
2283:
1872:
1239:
1165:
1099:
1026:
954:
783:
1437:
470:
3621:
3576:
3351:
3171:
3101:
2858:
2838:
2214:
1991:
1913:
1751:
1228:
1207:
1055:
1018:
927:
756:
726:
403:
310:
262:
208:
1152:
dependence, the extinction coefficient (ε) can be determined as a function of wavelength.
180:
Most molecules and ions absorb energy in the ultraviolet or visible range, i.e., they are
8:
3644:
3598:
3523:
3496:
3394:
3376:
3329:
3267:
3163:
3143:
3012:
3007:
2908:
2694:
2407:
2316:
994:
660:
2218:
1995:
1917:
1755:
463:
of the absorbing species. For each species and wavelength, ε is a constant known as the
241:. The solvents for these determinations are often water for water-soluble compounds, or
3721:
3687:
3549:
3518:
3399:
3341:
3039:
3022:
3017:
2972:
2935:
2925:
2886:
2742:
2679:
2658:
2474:
2452:
2385:
2296:
2230:
2133:
2042:
2007:
1964:
1690:
1554:
1401:
1366:
1269:
1243:
1145:
1109:
1010:
907:
826:
736:
620:
562:
542:
464:
434:
2226:
2164:
993:
The basic parts of a spectrophotometer are a light source, a holder for the sample, a
3740:
3702:
3667:
3650:
3588:
3506:
3501:
3429:
3414:
3384:
3305:
3272:
3243:
3238:
3213:
3203:
3123:
3111:
2990:
2903:
2643:
2570:
2544:
2234:
2137:
2123:
2011:
1956:
1952:
1819:
1775:
1767:
1694:
1682:
1603:
1558:
1550:
1477:
1449:
1438:
1405:
1352:
1318:
1192:
1095:
720:
708:
512:
271:
234:
220:
2046:
2003:
1968:
615:
achievable is a specification of the UV spectrophotometer, and it characterizes how
3745:
3662:
3317:
3176:
3153:
3106:
3047:
2222:
2160:
2115:
2034:
1999:
1948:
1921:
1811:
1759:
1674:
1546:
1397:
1310:
1253:
230:
223:
216:
145:
1299:
Cole, Kenneth; Levine, Barry S. (2020), Levine, Barry S.; Kerrigan, Sarah (eds.),
924:), and compares it to the intensity of light reflected from a reference material (
753:), and compares it to the intensity of light before it passes through the sample (
659:
of the light used for the analysis. The most important factor affecting it is the
3603:
3559:
3554:
3448:
3424:
3258:
3221:
3074:
3064:
2947:
2085:
Forensic Fiber
Examination Guidelines, Scientific Working Group-Materials, 1999,
1591:
1314:
1169:
1084:
619:
the incident light can be. If this bandwidth is comparable to (or more than) the
284:
3487:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3410:
3406:
3389:
3346:
3277:
3138:
3133:
3118:
2930:
2848:
1301:
1014:
998:
524:
2038:
1763:
1678:
3775:
3692:
3581:
3537:
3262:
3096:
3091:
3084:
2962:
2119:
1771:
1686:
1599:
1161:
1049:
1002:
616:
601:
460:
185:
1661:
1032:
3569:
3419:
3334:
3310:
3300:
3292:
3193:
3128:
3027:
2876:
2275:
1823:
1779:
1136:
1132:
1006:
1960:
400:(formally dimensionless but generally reported in absorbance units (AU)),
121:
2967:
642:
528:
520:
181:
153:
141:
2790:
3593:
1022:
1013:, which is continuous over the ultraviolet region (190–400 nm), a
820:
428:
397:
1925:
1815:
1392:, in Lindon, John C.; Tranter, George E.; Koppenaal, David W. (eds.),
3655:
2957:
2822:
1174:
1127:
733:. It measures the intensity of light after passing through a sample (
294:, for instance, are a set of empirical observations used to predict λ
2203:
1798:
24:
3677:
1744:
Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and
Biomolecular Spectroscopy
247:
2098:
2086:
1036:
Simplified schematic of a double beam UV–visible spectrophotometer
3697:
1904:
Berberan-Santos, M. N. (September 1990). "Beer's law revisited".
1103:
242:
1436:
Skoog, Douglas A.; Holler, F. James; Crouch, Stanley R. (2007).
2244:
303:
1938:
1795:
1736:
Cinar, Mehmet; Coruh, Ali; Karabacak, Mehmet (25 March 2014).
1530:
1873:"Persee PG Scientific Inc. – New-UV FAQ: Spectral Band Width"
1394:
Encyclopedia of
Spectroscopy and Spectrometry (Third Edition)
1309:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 127–134,
1217:
655:
The stray light is an important factor, as it determines the
299:
729:
used in ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy is called a UV/Vis
3672:
1444:(6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. pp.
1389:"UV-Visible Absorption Spectroscopy, Organic Applications"
1386:
Edwards, Alison A.; Alexander, Bruce D. (1 January 2017),
204:
UV/Vis can be used to monitor structural changes in DNA.
3682:
277:
A UV/Vis spectrophotometer may be used as a detector for
2109:
2060:
2024:
714:
652:
will be lower than the actual absorbance of the sample.
237:, also absorb light in the UV or visible regions of the
2153:
1539:
681:
579:) of a given film across the measured spectral range.
1112:
1058:
957:
930:
910:
852:
829:
819:, and is usually expressed as a percentage (%T). The
786:
759:
739:
565:
545:
473:
437:
406:
322:
215:
determination of diverse analytes or sample, such as
1191:
UV/Vis can be applied to characterize the rate of a
1052:), all of the light passes through the sample cell.
381:{\displaystyle A=\log _{10}(I_{0}/I)=\varepsilon cL}
1735:
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2150:
1981:
1797:
1737:
1660:
1532:
1387:
1300:
1118:
1071:
978:
943:
916:
893:
835:
807:
772:
745:
698:
571:
551:
496:
443:
427:is the intensity of the incident light at a given
419:
380:
2062:"Spectrophotometry Applications and Fundamentals"
1859:"Wavelength Accuracy in UV/VIS Spectrophotometry"
1435:
1275:Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy of stereoisomers
1220: – Vis spectroscopy with the human eye
990:, and is usually expressed as a percentage (%R).
3773:
1719:"Limitations and Deviations of Beer–Lambert Law"
1385:
1148:integrated with a UV–visible spectrophotometer.
1903:
1891:"What is Stray light and how it is monitored?"
1590:
156:. Absorption spectroscopy is complementary to
134:ultraviolet–visible (UV–VIS) spectrophotometry
2806:
2260:
1534:"Intrinsic fluorescence of UV-irradiated DNA"
1497:Franca, Adriana S.; Nollet, Leo M.L. (2017).
2332:Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules
1791:
1789:
1659:Bozdoğan, Abdürrezzak E. (1 November 2022).
1496:
1396:, Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 511–519,
1349:Spectroscopy: principles and instrumentation
1471:
1048:. In a single beam instrument (such as the
582:
140:or reflectance spectroscopy in part of the
2813:
2799:
2327:Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy
2267:
2253:
1845:"Stray Light and Performance Verification"
1474:Physical Methods for Chemists, 2nd Edition
1298:
1186:
2820:
2700:Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy
2380:Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization
1804:The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters
1786:
1155:
270:), or more accurately, determined from a
233:, especially those with a high degree of
207:UV/Vis spectroscopy is routinely used in
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
2468:Extended X-ray absorption fine structure
2177:
1658:
1031:
455:the path length through the sample, and
195:
120:
1302:"Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrophotometry"
3774:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1596:Ultraviolet Spectroscopy and UV Lasers
1499:Spectroscopic Methods in Food Analysis
1351:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
539:to determine the index of refraction (
511:are sometimes defined in terms of the
175:
125:Beckman DU640 UV/Vis spectrophotometer
2794:
2248:
1716:
1571:
1511:
1467:
1465:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1346:
1164:, and a sensitive detector such as a
715:Ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometer
595:
3728:
2773:
2059:
1984:Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter
1347:Vitha, Mark F. (2018). "Chapter 2".
1342:
1340:
951:) (such as a white tile). The ratio
707:of the results obtained with UV/Vis
703:The above factors contribute to the
682:Deviations from the Beer–Lambert law
537:Forouhi–Bloomer dispersion equations
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
3752:
2027:Accreditation and Quality Assurance
1701:
1440:Principles of Instrumental Analysis
627:
13:
1505:
1462:
1424:
1402:10.1016/b978-0-12-803224-4.00013-3
1040:A spectrophotometer can be either
894:{\displaystyle A=-\log(\%T/100\%)}
885:
871:
559:) and the extinction coefficient (
515:instead of the base-10 logarithm.
58:"Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy"
14:
3798:
2685:Deep-level transient spectroscopy
2437:Saturated absorption spectroscopy
2227:10.1016/j.measurement.2019.02.084
1524:
1337:
1307:Principles of Forensic Toxicology
843:, is based on the transmittance:
3751:
3739:
3727:
3716:
3715:
2772:
2761:
2760:
2690:Dual-polarization interferometry
2274:
1594:; Dubinskii, Mark, eds. (2002).
1574:"Derivation of Beer–Lambert Law"
1551:10.1016/j.jphotochem.2022.114484
1512:Metha, Akul (13 December 2011).
589:
23:
2705:Scanning tunneling spectroscopy
2680:Circular dichroism spectroscopy
2675:Acoustic resonance spectroscopy
2197:
2171:
2144:
2103:
2099:http://www.swgmat.org/paint.htm
2091:
2087:http://www.swgmat.org/fiber.htm
2079:
2053:
2018:
1975:
1932:
1897:
1883:
1865:
1851:
1837:
1729:
1667:Journal of Analytical Chemistry
1652:
1642:
1616:
1584:
1009:filament (300–2500 nm), a
699:Measurement uncertainty sources
191:
34:needs additional citations for
16:Range of spectroscopic analysis
2634:Fourier-transform spectroscopy
2322:Vibrational circular dichroism
1565:
1490:
1379:
1292:
1235:Fourier-transform spectroscopy
1224:Charge modulation spectroscopy
888:
868:
636:
507:The absorbance and extinction
451:is the transmitted intensity,
363:
342:
200:An example of a UV/Vis readout
1:
3080:Interface and colloid science
2834:Glossary of chemical formulae
2432:Cavity ring-down spectroscopy
2337:Thermal infrared spectroscopy
2165:10.1016/s1010-6030(00)00267-7
1906:Journal of Chemical Education
1572:Metha, Akul (22 April 2012).
1371:: CS1 maint: date and year (
1285:
268:molar extinction coefficients
130:Ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy
2566:Inelastic neutron scattering
1953:10.1016/0014-5793(94)00912-0
1315:10.1007/978-3-030-42917-1_10
1126:, in the Beer–Lambert law.)
7:
3357:Bioorganometallic chemistry
2844:List of inorganic compounds
2627:Data collection, processing
2503:Photoelectron/photoemission
2178:UC Davis (2 October 2013).
1717:Metha, Akul (14 May 2012).
1201:
695:from the Beer–Lambert law.
10:
3803:
3283:Dynamic covalent chemistry
3254:Enantioselective synthesis
3234:Physical organic chemistry
3187:Organolanthanide chemistry
2712:Photoacoustic spectroscopy
2654:Time-resolved spectroscopy
1260:Near-infrared spectroscopy
1025:, a photodiode array or a
718:
664:level of the monochromator
640:
3711:
3614:
3375:
3291:
3212:
3162:
3038:
2981:
2872:Electroanalytical methods
2857:
2829:
2756:
2738:Astronomical spectroscopy
2730:
2717:Photothermal spectroscopy
2667:
2626:
2619:
2581:
2553:
2495:
2445:
2345:
2282:
2039:10.1007/s00769-006-0124-x
2004:10.1088/0953-8984/7/8/002
1764:10.1016/j.saa.2013.11.106
1679:10.1134/S1061934822110028
1501:. CRC Press. p. 664.
1231:– first UV–Vis instrument
592:and wavelength accuracy.
255:charge transfer complexes
158:fluorescence spectroscopy
3627:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
3543:Supramolecular chemistry
3182:Organometallic chemistry
2120:10.1109/IMTC.1994.352008
1280:Vibrational spectroscopy
1248:vibrational spectroscopy
1213:Benesi–Hildebrand method
583:Practical considerations
239:electromagnetic spectrum
165:UV-vis spectrophotometer
150:electromagnetic spectrum
3782:Absorption spectroscopy
3565:Combinatorial chemistry
3476:Food physical chemistry
3439:Environmental chemistry
3323:Bioorthogonal chemistry
3249:Retrosynthetic analysis
3070:Chemical thermodynamics
3053:Spectroelectrochemistry
2996:Computational chemistry
2722:Pump–probe spectroscopy
2611:Ferromagnetic resonance
2403:Laser-induced breakdown
1265:Rotational spectroscopy
1187:Additional applications
979:{\displaystyle I/I_{o}}
808:{\displaystyle I/I_{o}}
705:measurement uncertainty
144:and the full, adjacent
138:absorption spectroscopy
3637:of element discoveries
3483:Agricultural chemistry
3471:Carbohydrate chemistry
3362:Bioinorganic chemistry
3227:Alkane stereochemistry
3172:Coordination chemistry
3001:Mathematical chemistry
2867:Instrumental chemistry
2418:Glow-discharge optical
2398:Raman optical activity
2312:Rotational–vibrational
1624:"The Beer-Lambert Law"
1156:Microspectrophotometry
1120:
1073:
1037:
980:
945:
918:
895:
837:
809:
774:
747:
573:
553:
498:
497:{\displaystyle 1/M*cm}
445:
421:
382:
201:
126:
3787:Scientific techniques
3632:Timeline of chemistry
3529:Post-mortem chemistry
3514:Clandestine chemistry
3444:Atmospheric chemistry
3367:Biophysical chemistry
3199:Solid-state chemistry
3149:Equilibrium chemistry
3058:Photoelectrochemistry
2639:Hyperspectral imaging
1240:Infrared spectroscopy
1166:charge-coupled device
1121:
1074:
1072:{\displaystyle I_{o}}
1035:
1027:charge-coupled device
981:
946:
944:{\displaystyle I_{o}}
919:
896:
838:
810:
775:
773:{\displaystyle I_{o}}
748:
574:
554:
499:
446:
422:
420:{\displaystyle I_{0}}
383:
292:Woodward–Fieser rules
199:
124:
3622:History of chemistry
3577:Chemical engineering
3352:Bioorganic chemistry
3102:Structural chemistry
2839:List of biomolecules
2391:Coherent anti-Stokes
2346:UV–Vis–NIR "Optical"
2114:. pp. 677–682.
1628:Chemistry LibreTexts
1472:R. S. Drago (1992).
1229:DU spectrophotometer
1208:Applied spectroscopy
1180:interference pattern
1110:
1056:
1019:photomultiplier tube
955:
928:
908:
850:
827:
784:
757:
737:
676:double monochromator
563:
543:
471:
435:
404:
320:
209:analytical chemistry
43:improve this article
3645:The central science
3599:Ceramic engineering
3524:Forensic toxicology
3497:Chemistry education
3395:Radiation chemistry
3377:Interdisciplinarity
3330:Medicinal chemistry
3268:Fullerene chemistry
3144:Microwave chemistry
3013:Molecular mechanics
3008:Molecular modelling
2695:Hadron spectroscopy
2485:Conversion electron
2446:X-ray and Gamma ray
2353:Ultraviolet–visible
2219:2019Meas..139..355M
1996:1995JPCM....7.1513A
1918:1990JChEd..67..757B
1756:2014AcSpA.122..682C
1094:Samples for UV/Vis
995:diffraction grating
176:Optical transitions
3688:Chemical substance
3550:Chemical synthesis
3519:Forensic chemistry
3400:Actinide chemistry
3342:Clinical chemistry
3023:Molecular geometry
3018:Molecular dynamics
2973:Elemental analysis
2926:Separation process
2743:Force spectroscopy
2668:Measured phenomena
2659:Video spectroscopy
2363:Cold vapour atomic
1723:PharmaXChange.info
1578:PharmaXChange.info
1518:PharmaXChange.info
1476:. W. B. Saunders.
1270:Slope spectroscopy
1244:Raman spectroscopy
1116:
1069:
1038:
1011:deuterium arc lamp
976:
941:
914:
891:
833:
805:
770:
743:
611:The best spectral
596:Spectral bandwidth
569:
549:
494:
465:molar absorptivity
441:
417:
378:
202:
127:
3767:
3766:
3703:Quantum mechanics
3668:Chemical compound
3651:Chemical reaction
3589:Materials science
3507:General chemistry
3502:Amateur chemistry
3430:Photogeochemistry
3415:Stellar chemistry
3385:Nuclear chemistry
3306:Molecular biology
3273:Polymer chemistry
3244:Organic synthesis
3239:Organic reactions
3204:Ceramic chemistry
3194:Cluster chemistry
3124:Chemical kinetics
3112:Molecular physics
2991:Quantum chemistry
2904:Mass spectrometry
2788:
2787:
2752:
2751:
2644:Spectrophotometry
2571:Neutron spin echo
2545:Beta spectroscopy
2458:Energy-dispersive
1926:10.1021/ed067p757
1816:10.1021/jz502471h
1673:(11): 1426–1432.
1609:978-0-8247-0668-5
1455:978-0-495-01201-6
1411:978-0-12-803224-4
1358:978-1-119-43664-5
1324:978-3-030-42917-1
1193:chemical reaction
1119:{\displaystyle L}
1102:cell, known as a
1096:spectrophotometry
917:{\displaystyle I}
836:{\displaystyle A}
746:{\displaystyle I}
731:spectrophotometer
721:Spectrophotometry
709:spectrophotometry
572:{\displaystyle k}
552:{\displaystyle n}
513:natural logarithm
444:{\displaystyle I}
272:calibration curve
231:Organic compounds
224:organic compounds
119:
118:
111:
93:
3794:
3755:
3754:
3743:
3731:
3730:
3719:
3718:
3663:Chemical element
3318:Chemical biology
3177:Magnetochemistry
3154:Mechanochemistry
3107:Chemical physics
3048:Electrochemistry
2953:Characterization
2815:
2808:
2801:
2792:
2791:
2776:
2775:
2764:
2763:
2624:
2623:
2535:phenomenological
2284:Vibrational (IR)
2269:
2262:
2255:
2246:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2190:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2107:
2101:
2095:
2089:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2057:
2051:
2050:
2022:
2016:
2015:
1990:(8): 1513–1524.
1979:
1973:
1972:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1877:www.perseena.com
1869:
1863:
1862:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1801:
1793:
1784:
1783:
1741:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1714:
1699:
1698:
1664:
1656:
1650:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1630:. 3 October 2013
1620:
1614:
1613:
1592:Misra, Prabhakar
1588:
1582:
1581:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1536:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1469:
1460:
1459:
1443:
1433:
1422:
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1420:
1418:
1391:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1370:
1362:
1344:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1304:
1296:
1254:Isosbestic point
1125:
1123:
1122:
1117:
1078:
1076:
1075:
1070:
1068:
1067:
985:
983:
982:
977:
975:
974:
965:
950:
948:
947:
942:
940:
939:
923:
921:
920:
915:
900:
898:
897:
892:
881:
842:
840:
839:
834:
814:
812:
811:
806:
804:
803:
794:
779:
777:
776:
771:
769:
768:
752:
750:
749:
744:
628:Wavelength error
578:
576:
575:
570:
558:
556:
555:
550:
531:, for example).
503:
501:
500:
495:
481:
450:
448:
447:
442:
426:
424:
423:
418:
416:
415:
396:is the measured
387:
385:
384:
379:
359:
354:
353:
338:
337:
311:Beer–Lambert law
263:Beer–Lambert law
217:transition metal
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
3802:
3801:
3797:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3792:
3791:
3772:
3771:
3768:
3763:
3707:
3610:
3604:Polymer science
3560:Click chemistry
3555:Green chemistry
3449:Ocean chemistry
3425:Biogeochemistry
3371:
3287:
3259:Total synthesis
3222:Stereochemistry
3208:
3158:
3075:Surface science
3065:Thermochemistry
3034:
2977:
2948:Crystallography
2853:
2825:
2819:
2789:
2784:
2748:
2726:
2663:
2615:
2577:
2549:
2491:
2441:
2341:
2302:Resonance Raman
2278:
2273:
2243:
2242:
2202:
2198:
2188:
2186:
2176:
2172:
2149:
2145:
2130:
2108:
2104:
2096:
2092:
2084:
2080:
2070:
2068:
2058:
2054:
2023:
2019:
1980:
1976:
1937:
1933:
1902:
1898:
1893:. 12 June 2015.
1889:
1888:
1884:
1871:
1870:
1866:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1828:
1826:
1794:
1787:
1734:
1730:
1715:
1702:
1657:
1653:
1647:
1643:
1633:
1631:
1622:
1621:
1617:
1610:
1589:
1585:
1570:
1566:
1529:
1525:
1510:
1506:
1495:
1491:
1484:
1470:
1463:
1456:
1434:
1425:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1384:
1380:
1364:
1363:
1359:
1345:
1338:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1204:
1189:
1170:photomultiplier
1158:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1063:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1053:
970:
966:
961:
956:
953:
952:
935:
931:
929:
926:
925:
909:
906:
905:
877:
851:
848:
847:
828:
825:
824:
799:
795:
790:
785:
782:
781:
764:
760:
758:
755:
754:
738:
735:
734:
723:
717:
701:
684:
645:
639:
630:
598:
585:
564:
561:
560:
544:
541:
540:
477:
472:
469:
468:
436:
433:
432:
411:
407:
405:
402:
401:
355:
349:
345:
333:
329:
321:
318:
317:
297:
285:response factor
194:
178:
148:regions of the
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3800:
3790:
3789:
3784:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3761:
3749:
3737:
3725:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3706:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3648:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3629:
3624:
3618:
3616:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3608:
3607:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3586:
3585:
3584:
3574:
3573:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3547:
3546:
3545:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3526:
3516:
3511:
3510:
3509:
3504:
3493:
3492:
3491:
3490:
3488:Soil chemistry
3480:
3479:
3478:
3473:
3466:Food chemistry
3463:
3461:Carbochemistry
3458:
3456:Clay chemistry
3453:
3452:
3451:
3446:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3432:
3427:
3417:
3411:Astrochemistry
3407:Cosmochemistry
3404:
3403:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3390:Radiochemistry
3381:
3379:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3347:Neurochemistry
3344:
3339:
3338:
3337:
3327:
3326:
3325:
3315:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3297:
3295:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3278:Petrochemistry
3275:
3270:
3265:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3218:
3216:
3210:
3209:
3207:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3179:
3174:
3168:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3139:Spin chemistry
3136:
3134:Photochemistry
3131:
3126:
3121:
3119:Femtochemistry
3116:
3115:
3114:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3088:
3087:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3044:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3032:
3031:
3030:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3004:
3003:
2993:
2987:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2931:Chromatography
2928:
2923:
2922:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2874:
2869:
2863:
2861:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2851:
2849:Periodic table
2846:
2841:
2836:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2818:
2817:
2810:
2803:
2795:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2770:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2746:
2740:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2708:
2707:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2671:
2669:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2630:
2628:
2621:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2563:
2557:
2555:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2520:
2518:Angle-resolved
2515:
2510:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2477:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2449:
2447:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2383:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2366:
2365:
2355:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2288:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2272:
2271:
2264:
2257:
2249:
2241:
2240:
2196:
2180:"The Rate Law"
2170:
2159:(3): 163–168.
2143:
2128:
2102:
2090:
2078:
2052:
2033:(5): 246–255.
2017:
1974:
1931:
1896:
1882:
1864:
1850:
1836:
1785:
1728:
1700:
1651:
1641:
1615:
1608:
1583:
1564:
1523:
1504:
1489:
1482:
1461:
1454:
1423:
1410:
1378:
1357:
1336:
1323:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1251:
1237:
1232:
1226:
1221:
1215:
1210:
1203:
1200:
1188:
1185:
1157:
1154:
1115:
1066:
1062:
1015:xenon arc lamp
986:is called the
973:
969:
964:
960:
938:
934:
913:
902:
901:
890:
887:
884:
880:
876:
873:
870:
867:
864:
861:
858:
855:
832:
815:is called the
802:
798:
793:
789:
767:
763:
742:
716:
713:
700:
697:
683:
680:
638:
635:
629:
626:
597:
594:
584:
581:
568:
548:
525:xylenol orange
493:
490:
487:
484:
480:
476:
440:
414:
410:
390:
389:
377:
374:
371:
368:
365:
362:
358:
352:
348:
344:
341:
336:
332:
328:
325:
295:
259:
258:
251:
193:
190:
177:
174:
117:
116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3799:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3777:
3770:
3760:
3759:
3750:
3748:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3736:
3735:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3714:
3713:
3710:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3693:Chemical bond
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3649:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3613:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3590:
3587:
3583:
3582:Stoichiometry
3580:
3579:
3578:
3575:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3552:
3551:
3548:
3544:
3541:
3540:
3539:
3538:Nanochemistry
3536:
3535:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3489:
3486:
3485:
3484:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3468:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3405:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3374:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3320:
3319:
3316:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3296:
3294:
3290:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3263:Semisynthesis
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3228:
3225:
3224:
3223:
3220:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3211:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3165:
3161:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3113:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3097:Sonochemistry
3095:
3093:
3092:Cryochemistry
3090:
3086:
3085:Micromeritics
3083:
3082:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3041:
3037:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2980:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2963:Wet chemistry
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2905:
2902:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2879:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2828:
2824:
2816:
2811:
2809:
2804:
2802:
2797:
2796:
2793:
2781:
2780:
2771:
2769:
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2759:
2758:
2755:
2744:
2741:
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2736:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2706:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
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2672:
2670:
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2660:
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2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
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2629:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2592:
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2590:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2580:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2564:
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2559:
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2543:
2541:
2538:
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2524:
2521:
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2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2498:
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2478:
2476:
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2411:
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2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2375:Near-infrared
2373:
2371:
2368:
2364:
2361:
2360:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2344:
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2300:
2298:
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2289:
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2285:
2281:
2277:
2270:
2265:
2263:
2258:
2256:
2251:
2250:
2247:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2200:
2185:
2181:
2174:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2129:0-7803-1880-3
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2106:
2100:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1892:
1886:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1860:
1854:
1846:
1840:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1792:
1790:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1732:
1724:
1720:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1655:
1649:presentation.
1645:
1629:
1625:
1619:
1611:
1605:
1601:
1600:Marcel Dekker
1597:
1593:
1587:
1579:
1575:
1568:
1560:
1556:
1552:
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1544:
1540:
1535:
1527:
1519:
1515:
1508:
1500:
1493:
1485:
1479:
1475:
1468:
1466:
1457:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1441:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1413:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1382:
1374:
1368:
1360:
1354:
1350:
1343:
1341:
1326:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1303:
1295:
1291:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1255:
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1249:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1184:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1162:monochromator
1153:
1149:
1147:
1141:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1113:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1086:
1080:
1064:
1060:
1051:
1050:Spectronic 20
1047:
1043:
1034:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1003:monochromator
1000:
996:
991:
989:
971:
967:
962:
958:
936:
932:
911:
882:
878:
874:
865:
862:
859:
856:
853:
846:
845:
844:
830:
822:
818:
817:transmittance
800:
796:
791:
787:
780:). The ratio
765:
761:
740:
732:
728:
722:
712:
710:
706:
696:
692:
688:
679:
677:
671:
667:
665:
663:
658:
653:
649:
644:
634:
625:
622:
618:
617:monochromatic
614:
609:
605:
603:
602:monochromator
593:
591:
580:
566:
546:
538:
532:
530:
526:
522:
516:
514:
510:
505:
491:
488:
485:
482:
478:
474:
466:
462:
461:concentration
458:
454:
438:
430:
412:
408:
399:
395:
375:
372:
369:
366:
360:
356:
350:
346:
339:
334:
330:
326:
323:
316:
315:
314:
312:
307:
305:
301:
293:
288:
286:
282:
281:
275:
273:
269:
264:
256:
252:
249:
244:
240:
236:
232:
229:
228:
227:
225:
222:
219:ions, highly
218:
214:
210:
205:
198:
189:
187:
186:excited state
183:
173:
169:
166:
161:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
123:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
3769:
3756:
3744:
3732:
3720:
3570:Biosynthesis
3420:Geochemistry
3335:Pharmacology
3311:Cell biology
3301:Biochemistry
3129:Spectroscopy
3028:VSEPR theory
2891:
2877:Spectroscopy
2821:Branches of
2777:
2765:
2745:(a misnomer)
2731:Applications
2649:Time-stretch
2540:paramagnetic
2358:Fluorescence
2352:
2276:Spectroscopy
2210:
2206:
2199:
2187:. Retrieved
2183:
2173:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2111:
2105:
2093:
2081:
2069:. Retrieved
2065:
2055:
2030:
2026:
2020:
1987:
1983:
1977:
1947:(1): 37–40.
1944:
1941:FEBS Letters
1940:
1934:
1909:
1905:
1899:
1885:
1876:
1867:
1853:
1839:
1827:. Retrieved
1810:(1): 66–71.
1807:
1803:
1747:
1743:
1731:
1722:
1670:
1666:
1654:
1644:
1632:. Retrieved
1627:
1618:
1598:. New York:
1595:
1586:
1577:
1567:
1542:
1538:
1526:
1517:
1507:
1498:
1492:
1473:
1439:
1415:, retrieved
1393:
1381:
1348:
1328:, retrieved
1306:
1294:
1197:
1190:
1159:
1150:
1142:
1137:quartz glass
1133:fused silica
1093:
1089:
1085:beam chopper
1081:
1045:
1041:
1039:
992:
987:
903:
816:
730:
724:
702:
693:
689:
685:
672:
668:
661:
656:
654:
650:
646:
631:
610:
606:
599:
586:
533:
521:organic dyes
517:
508:
506:
456:
452:
393:
391:
308:
289:
279:
276:
260:
213:quantitative
206:
203:
192:Applications
182:chromophores
179:
170:
164:
162:
133:
129:
128:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
3758:WikiProject
2983:Theoretical
2968:Calorimetry
2317:Vibrational
2213:: 355–360.
2207:Measurement
2189:11 November
1829:16 November
1750:: 682–689.
1514:"Principle"
1100:transparent
1046:double beam
1042:single beam
988:reflectance
662:stray light
643:Stray light
637:Stray light
590:stray light
529:neutral red
235:conjugation
154:chromophore
142:ultraviolet
3776:Categories
3594:Metallurgy
3293:Biological
2859:Analytical
2523:Two-photon
2425:absorption
2307:Rotational
2066:www.mt.com
1912:(9): 757.
1634:19 October
1545:: 114484.
1483:0030751764
1417:19 October
1330:19 October
1286:References
1146:microscope
1128:Test tubes
1023:photodiode
821:absorbance
727:instrument
719:See also:
641:See also:
429:wavelength
398:absorbance
221:conjugated
136:refers to
99:April 2018
69:newspapers
3656:Catalysis
3164:Inorganic
2958:Titration
2823:chemistry
2601:Terahertz
2582:Radiowave
2480:Mössbauer
2235:116260472
2138:110637259
2012:250898349
1772:1386-1425
1695:253463022
1687:1608-3199
1559:254622477
1367:cite book
1175:vitrinite
1168:(CCD) or
886:%
872:%
866:
860:−
613:bandwidth
486:∗
370:ε
340:
3722:Category
3678:Molecule
3615:See also
3040:Physical
2767:Category
2496:Electron
2463:Emission
2413:emission
2370:Vibronic
2184:ChemWiki
2047:94520012
1969:11419856
1824:26263093
1780:24345608
1202:See also
1007:tungsten
519:such as
248:Tyrosine
211:for the
3734:Commons
3698:Alchemy
3214:Organic
2779:Commons
2606:ESR/EPR
2554:Nucleon
2382:(REMPI)
2215:Bibcode
2071:10 July
1992:Bibcode
1961:7925937
1914:Bibcode
1752:Bibcode
1104:cuvette
304:ketones
243:ethanol
146:visible
83:scholar
3746:Portal
2892:UV-Vis
2620:Others
2408:Atomic
2233:
2136:
2126:
2045:
2010:
1967:
1959:
1822:
1778:
1770:
1693:
1685:
1606:
1557:
1480:
1452:
1448:–173.
1408:
1355:
1321:
657:purity
392:where
300:dienes
253:While
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
2919:MALDI
2887:Raman
2561:Alpha
2530:Auger
2508:X-ray
2475:Gamma
2453:X-ray
2386:Raman
2297:Raman
2292:FT-IR
2231:S2CID
2134:S2CID
2043:S2CID
2008:S2CID
1965:S2CID
1691:S2CID
1555:S2CID
1218:Color
1001:as a
999:prism
997:or a
621:width
90:JSTOR
76:books
3673:Atom
2941:HPLC
2191:2014
2124:ISBN
2073:2018
1957:PMID
1831:2021
1820:PMID
1776:PMID
1768:ISSN
1683:ISSN
1636:2023
1604:ISBN
1478:ISBN
1450:ISBN
1419:2023
1406:ISBN
1373:link
1353:ISBN
1332:2023
1319:ISBN
1242:and
1021:, a
725:The
459:the
302:and
280:HPLC
261:The
62:news
3683:Ion
2914:ICP
2897:NMR
2589:NMR
2223:doi
2211:139
2161:doi
2157:134
2116:doi
2035:doi
2000:doi
1949:doi
1945:352
1922:doi
1812:doi
1760:doi
1748:122
1675:doi
1547:doi
1543:437
1446:169
1398:doi
1311:doi
1135:or
1044:or
883:100
863:log
527:or
331:log
296:max
132:or
45:by
3778::
3413:/
3409:/
3261:/
2936:GC
2909:EI
2882:IR
2594:2D
2513:UV
2229:.
2221:.
2209:.
2182:.
2155:.
2132:.
2122:.
2064:.
2041:.
2031:11
2029:.
2006:.
1998:.
1986:.
1963:.
1955:.
1943:.
1920:.
1910:67
1908:.
1875:.
1818:.
1806:.
1802:.
1788:^
1774:.
1766:.
1758:.
1746:.
1742:.
1721:.
1703:^
1689:.
1681:.
1671:77
1669:.
1665:.
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