377:
1076:
of parasites in the salivary gland. The second cycle, which usually occurs in late-stage infection, involves unequal mitosis that produces two different daughter cells from the mother epimastigote. One daughter is an epimastigote that remains non-infective and the other is a trypomastigote. The trypomastigote detach from the epithelium and undergo transformation into short and stumpy trypomastigotes. The surface procyclins are replaced with VSGs and become the infective metacyclic trypomastigotes. Complete development in the fly takes about 20 days. They are injected into the mammalian host along with the saliva on biting, and are known as salivarian.
759:
522:), Bruce and his wife joined Castellani and Christy on 16 March. In November 1902, Castellani had found the trypanosomes in the cerebrospinal fluid of an infected person. He was convinced that the trypanosome was the causative parasite of sleeping sickness. Like Low, his conduct has been criticised and the Royal Society refused to publish his report. He was further infuriated when Bruce advised him not to make rash conclusion without further evidences, as there were many other parasites to consider. Castellani left Africa in April and published his report as "On the discovery of a species of
1483:
2408:
829:
928:
865:
69:
1137:
1798:
environmental stimuli affect switching frequency. Switching is linked to two factors: variation in activation of individual VSG genes; and differentiation to the "short stumpy" stage - triggered by conditions of high population density - which is the nonreproductive, interhost transmission stage. As of 2021 it also remains unexplained how this transition is timed and how the next surface protein gene is chosen. These questions of antigenic variation in
1198:, i.e., a sexual reproduction stage. But it is not always necessary for a complete life cycle. The existence of meiosis-specific proteins was reported in 2011. The haploid gametes (daughter cells produced after meiosis) were discovered in 2014. The haploid trypomastigote-like gametes can interact with each other via their flagella and undergo cell fusion (the process is called syngamy). Thus, in addition to binary fission,
44:
507:), a small roundworm transmitted by flies, and bacteria as possible causes, only to discover that the epidemic was not related to these pathogens. The team was described as an "ill-assorted group" and a "queer lot", and the expedition "a failure." Low, whose conduct was described as "truculent and prone to take offence," left the Commission and Africa after three months.
2174:. The baboon version of the ApoL1 gene differs from the human gene in a number of respects including two critical lysines near the C terminus that are necessary and sufficient to prevent baboon ApoL1 binding to SRA. Experimental mutations allowing ApoL1 to be protected from neutralization by SRA have been shown capable of conferring trypanolytic activity on
1703:
also make up ~10% of total cell protein. For this reason, these proteins are highly immunogenic and an immune response raised against a specific VSG coat will rapidly kill trypanosomes expressing this variant. However, with each cell division there is a possibility that the progeny will switch expression to change the VSG that is being expressed.
2001:
The association of HPR with hemoglobin allows TLF-1 binding and uptake via the trypanosome haptoglobin-hemoglobin receptor (TbHpHbR). TLF-2 enters trypanosomes independently of TbHpHbR. TLF-1 uptake increases when haptoglobin level is low. TLF-1 overtakes haptoglobin and binds free hemoglobin in the
1752:
populations can peak at a size of 10 within a host this rapid rate of switching ensures that the parasite population is typically highly diverse. Because host immunity against a specific VSG does not develop immediately, some parasites will have switched to an antigenically distinct VSG variant, and
1702:
and other species of trypanosomes is covered by a dense external coat called variant surface glycoprotein (VSG). VSGs are 60-kDa proteins which are densely packed (~5 x 10 molecules) to form a 12–15 nm surface coat. VSG dimers make up about 90% of all cell surface proteins in trypanosomes. They
1416:
drug families (containing melarsoprol and pentamidine, respectively). This is particularly a problem with the veterinary drug diminazene aceturate. Drug uptake and degradation are two major issues to consider to avoid drug resistance development. In the case of nucleoside analogues, they need to be
1411:
is to target its nucleotide metabolism. The nucleotide metabolism studies have both led to the development of adenosine analogues looking promising in animal studies, and to the finding that downregulation of the P2 adenosine transporter is a common way to acquire partial drug resistance against the
1075:
In the salivary glands, the survivors undergo phases of reproduction. The first cycle in an equal mitosis by which a mother cell produces two similar daughter epimastigotes. They remain attach to the epithelium. This phase is the main reproduction in first-stage infection to ensure sufficient number
1014:
that transmit other protozoan infections in which only females are involved, both sexes of tsetse flies are blood feeders and equally transmit trypanosomes. The short and stumpy trypomastigotes (SS) are taken up by tsetse flies during a blood meal. Survival in the tsetse midgut is one reason for the
993:
Sometimes, wild animals can be infected by the tsetse fly and they act as reservoirs. In these animals, they do not produce the disease, but the live parasite can be transmitted back to the normal hosts. Besides preparation to be taken up and vectored to another host by a tsetse fly, transition from
914:
The flagellar function is twofold — locomotion via oscillations along the attached flagellum and cell body in human blood stream and tsetse fly gut, and attachment to the salivary gland epithelium of the fly during the epimastigote stage. The flagellum propels the body in such a way that the axoneme
816:
that run towards the anterior end. Along the body surface, the flagellum is attached to the cell membrane forming an undulating membrane. Only the tip of the flagellum is free at the anterior end. The cell surface of the bloodstream form features a dense coat of variant surface glycoproteins (VSGs)
569:
British
Colonial Surgeon Robert Michael Forde was the first to find the parasite in human. He found it from an English steamboat captain who was admitted to a hospital at Bathurst, Gambia, in 1901. His report in 1902 indicates that he believed it to be a kind of filarial worm. From the same person,
548:
to investigate the epidemic in Togo and East Africa. In 1909, one of the team members, Friedrich Karl Kleine discovered that the parasite had developmental stages in the tsetse flies. Bruce, in the third
Sleeping Sickness Commission (1908–1912) that included Albert Ernest Hamerton, H.R. Bateman and
986:. Some of the daughter cells then become short and stumpy again. Some of them remains as intermediate forms, representing a transitional stage between the long and short forms. The long slender forms are able to penetrate the blood vessel endothelium and invade extravascular tissues, including the
910:
lie in the normal 9+2 arrangement, orientated with the + at the anterior end and the − in the basal body. The cytoskeletal structure extends from the basal body to the kinetoplast. The flagellum is bound to the cytoskeleton of the main cell body by four specialised microtubules, which run parallel
1062:
The procyclic trypomastigotes cross the peritrophic matrix, undergo slight elongation and migrate to the anterior part of the midgut as non-proliferative long mesocyclic trypomastigotes. As they reach the proventriculus, they became thinner and undergo cytoplasmic rearrangement to give rise to
1845:
family of particles while TLF-2 is a related high molecular weight serum protein binding complex. The protein components of TLF-1 are haptoglobin related protein (HPR), apolipoprotein L-1 (apoL-1) and apolipoprotein A-1 (apoA-1). These three proteins are colocalized within spherical particles
458:
In Uganda, the first case of human infection was reported in 1898. It was followed by an outbreak in 1900. By 1901, it became severe with death toll estimated to about 20,000. More than 250,000 people died in the epidemic that lasted for two decades. The disease commonly popularised as "negro
1797:
genome that results in a lack of expression. VSG genes are typically located in the subtelomeric regions of the chromosomes, which makes it easier for them to be silenced when they are not being used. It remains unproven whether the regulation of VSG switching is purely stochastic or whether
389:
gave clearer description of the symptoms from Sierra Leone in 1803. Winterbottom described a key feature of the disease as swollen posterior cervical lymph nodes and slaves who developed such swellings were ruled unfit for trade. The symptom is eponymously known as "Winterbottom's sign."
1383:, and suramin. They are all highly toxic to animals, and drug resistance is prevalent. Homidium is the first prescription anti-trypanosomal drug. It was developed as a modified compound of phenantridine, which was found in 1938 to have trypanocidal activity against the bovine parasite,
1776:
genes, both on minichromosomes and in repeated sections ('arrays') in the interior of the chromosomes. These are transcriptionally silent, typically with omitted sections or premature stop codons, but are important in the evolution of new VSG genes. It is estimated up to 10% of the
358:
Sleeping sickness in animals were described in ancient
Egyptian writings. During the Middle Ages, Arabian traders noted the prevalence of sleeping sickness among Africans and their dogs. It was a major infectious diseases in southern and eastern Africa in the 19th century. The
2009:
The first step in the killing mechanism is the binding of TLF to high affinity receptors—the haptoglobin-hemoglobin receptors—that are located in the flagellar pocket of the parasite. The bound TLF is endocytosed via coated vesicles and then trafficked to the parasite
425:
On the sixth day of investigation, Bruce identified parasites from the blood of diseased cows. He initially noted them as a kind of filaria (tiny roundworms), but by the end of the year established that the parasites were "haematozoa" (protozoan) and were the cause of
6792:"On the Treatment of Trypanosomiasis by Atoxyl (an Organic Arsenical Compound), followed by a Mercuric Salt (Mercuric Chloride) being a Bio-Chemical Study of the Reaction of a Parasitic Protozoon to Different Chemical Reagents at Different Stages of its Life History"
459:
lethargy." It was not known whether the human sleeping sickness and nagana were similar or the two disease were caused by similar parasites. Even the observations of Forde and Dutton did not indicate that the trypanosome was related to sleeping sickness.
2145:
gene is a truncated version of the major and variable surface antigen of the parasite, the variant surface glycoprotein. However, it has little similarity (low sequence homology) with the VSG gene (<25%). SRA is an expression site associated gene in
1324:
developed in 1990. These drugs are not fully effective and are toxic to humans. In addition, drug resistance has developed in the parasites against all the drugs. The drugs are of limited application since they are effective against specific strains of
1402:
The major challenge against the human disease has been to find drugs that readily pass the blood-brain barrier. The latest drug that has come into clinical use is fexinidazol, but promising results have also been obtained with the benzoxaborole drug
682:
The subspecies cannot be distinguished from their structure as they are all identical under microscopes. Geographical location is the main distinction. Molecular markers have been developed for individual identification. Serum resistance-associated
1299:
may be transferred between mammals via bodily fluid exchange, such as by blood transfusion or sexual contact, although this is thought to be rare. Newborn babies can be infected (vertical or congenital transmission) from infected mothers.
2166:
using a coiled–coiled interaction at the ApoL1 SRA interacting domain while within the trypanosome lysosome. This interaction prevents the release of the ApoL1 protein and the subsequent lysis of the lysosome and death of the parasite.
915:
generates the oscillation and a flagellar wave is created along the undulating membrane. As a result, the body moves in a corkscrew pattern. In flagella of other organisms, the movement starts from the base towards the tip, while in
7618:
Paindavoine P, Pays E, Laurent M, Geltmeyer Y, Le Ray D, Mehlitz D, Steinert M (February 1986). "The use of DNA hybridization and numerical taxonomy in determining relationships between
Trypanosoma brucei stocks and subspecies".
1363:
developed the first specific trypanocidal drug in 1904 from a dye, trypan red, which they named
Trypanroth. These chemical preparations were effective only at high and toxic dosages, and were not suitable for clinical use.
3346:
Cook GC (1993). "Royal
Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene meeting at Manson House, London, 10 December 1992. George Carmichael Low FRCP: twelfth president of the Society and underrated pioneer of tropical medicine".
5655:
Van Den
Abbeele, J.; Claes, Y.; van Bockstaele, D.; Le Ray, D.; Coosemans, M. (1999). "Trypanosoma brucei spp. development in the tsetse fly: characterization of the post-mesocyclic stages in the foregut and proboscis".
1833:'trypanolytic' factors present in the serum of some primates, including humans. These trypanolytic factors have been identified as two serum complexes designated trypanolytic factors (TLF-1 and −2) both of which contain
590:) was discovered by British parasitologists John William Watson Stephens and Harold Benjamin Fantham. In 1910, Stephens noted in his experimental infection in rats that the trypanosome, obtained from an individual from
5819:
Lefèvre T, Thomas F, Ravel S, Patrel D, Renault L, Le
Bourligu L, et al. (December 2007). "Trypanosoma brucei brucei induces alteration in the head proteome of the tsetse fly vector Glossina palpalis gambiensis".
4186:
Jamonneau, Vincent; Ilboudo, Hamidou; Kaboré, Jacques; Kaba, Dramane; Koffi, Mathurin; Solano, Philippe; Garcia, André; Courtin, David; Laveissière, Claude; Lingue, Kouakou; Büscher, Philippe; Bucheton, Bruno (2012).
2005:
The trypanosome haptoglobin-hemoglobin receptor is an elongated three a-helical bundle with a small membrane distal head. This protein extends above the variant surface glycoprotein layer that surrounds the parasite.
384:
John Aktins, an
English naval surgeon, gave first medical description of human sleeping sickness in 1734. He attributed deaths which he called "sleepy distemper" in Guinea to the infection. Another English physician
1291:
infection of a mammalian host the parasite may migrate from the bloodstream to also infect the lymph and cerebrospinal fluids. It is under this tissue invasion that the parasites produce the sleeping sickness.
1071:
where they get attached to the salivary gland epithelium. Even all the short forms do not succeed in the complete migration to the salivary glands as most of them perish on the way–only up to five may survive.
1407:(SCYX-7158). This drug is currently under evaluation as a single-dose oral treatment, which is a great advantage compared to currently used drugs. Another research field that has been extensively studied in
650:
which causes fast onset acute trypanosomiasis in humans. A highly zoonotic parasite, it is prevalent in southern and eastern Africa, where game animals and livestock are thought to be the primary reservoir.
742:), meaning "body." The specific name is after David Bruce, who discovered the parasites in 1894. The subspecies, the human strains, are named after the regions in Africa where they were first identified:
7474:
578:
At present then it is impossible to decide definitely as to the species, but if on further study it should be found to differ from other disease-producing trypanosomes I would suggest that it be called
2470:
Legros D, Ollivier G, Gastellu-Etchegorry M, Paquet C, Burri C, Jannin J, Büscher P (July 2002). "Treatment of human
African trypanosomiasis--present situation and needs for research and development".
1934:
The gene encodes a protein of 383 residues, including a typical signal peptide of 12 amino acids. The plasma protein is a single chain polypeptide with an apparent molecular mass of 42 kilodaltons.
1901:
is a member of a six gene family, ApoL1-6, that have arisen by tandem duplication. These proteins are normally involved in host apoptosis or autophagic death and possess a Bcl-2 homology domain 3.
5082:
Woods A, Sherwin T, Sasse R, MacRae TH, Baines AJ, Gull K (July 1989). "Definition of individual components within the cytoskeleton of Trypanosoma brucei by a library of monoclonal antibodies".
1116:
8933:
Pérez-Morga D, Vanhollebeke B, Paturiaux-Hanocq F, Nolan DP, Lins L, Homblé F, et al. (July 2005). "Apolipoprotein L-I promotes trypanosome lysis by forming pores in lysosomal membranes".
4385:
Deborggraeve S, Koffi M, Jamonneau V, Bonsu FA, Queyson R, Simarro PP, et al. (August 2008). "Molecular analysis of archived blood slides reveals an atypical human Trypanosoma infection".
854:, which is found in tsetse fly. Its kinetoplast and basal body lie anterior to the nucleus, with a long flagellum attached along the cell body. The flagellum starts from the centre of the body.
1015:
particular adaptations of the SS stage. The trypomastigotes enter the midgut of the fly where they become procyclic trypomastigotes as they replace their VSG with other protein coats called
2150:
and is located upstream of the VSGs in the active telomeric expression site. The protein is largely localized to small cytoplasmic vesicles between the flagellar pocket and the nucleus. In
1764:
genes occurs through a number of mechanisms yet to be fully understood. The expressed VSG can be switched either by activating a different expression site (and thus changing to express the
1517:) areas of continental Africa. Hence, the equatorial region of Africa is called the "sleeping sickness" belt. However, the specific type of the trypanosome differs according to geography.
9138:
Vanhollebeke B, De Muylder G, Nielsen MJ, Pays A, Tebabi P, Dieu M, et al. (May 2008). "A haptoglobin-hemoglobin receptor conveys innate immunity to Trypanosoma brucei in humans".
8894:"Apolipoprotein L, a new human high density lipoprotein apolipoprotein expressed by the pancreas. Identification, cloning, characterization, and plasma distribution of apolipoprotein L"
9733:
Richard Seed, John; Seed, Thomas M.; Sechelski, John (January 1978). "The biological effects of tryptophol (indole-3-ethanol): Hemolytic, biochemical and behavior modifying activity".
4529:
Lukeš, Julius; Kachale, Ambar; Votýpka, Jan; Butenko, Anzhelika; Field, Mark (2022). "African trypanosome strategies for conquering new hosts and territories: the end of monophyly?".
2959:
Martini E (1903). "Ueber die Entwickelung der Tsetseparasiten in Säugethieren" [Preliminary note on the morphology and distribution of the parasite found in tsetse disease].
1063:
proliferative epimastigotes. The epimastigotes divide asymmetrically to produce long and short epimastigotes. The long epimastigote cannot move to other places and simply die off by
784:, and measures 8 to 50 μm in length. It has an elongated body having a streamlined and tapered shape. Its cell membrane (called pellicle) encloses the cell organelles, including the
1091:
contents of the fly's head and causes behavioral changes such as unnecessarily increased feeding frequency, which increases transmission opportunities. This is related to altered
8646:
Vanhamme L, Paturiaux-Hanocq F, Poelvoorde P, Nolan DP, Lins L, Van Den Abbeele J, et al. (March 2003). "Apolipoprotein L-I is the trypanosome lytic factor of human serum".
1341:. Melarsopol is the only drug effective against the two types of parasite in both infection stages, but is highly toxic, such that 5% of treated individuals die of brain damage (
883:, referring to the trypanosome's whip-like flagellum. The trypanosome flagellum has two main structures. It is made up of a typical flagellar axoneme, which lies parallel to the
414:
in South Africa. The disease caused severe problems among the local cattle and British Army horses. On 27 October 1894, Bruce and his microbiologist-wife Mary Elizabeth Bruce (
284:). Transmission occurs by biting during the insect's blood meal. The parasites undergo complex morphological changes as they move between insect and mammal over the course of
231:
parasites that normally infect blood and tissue cells, it is exclusively extracellular and inhabits the blood plasma and body fluids. It causes deadly vector-borne diseases:
7767:
De Greef C, Imberechts H, Matthyssens G, Van Meirvenne N, Hamers R (September 1989). "A gene expressed only in serum-resistant variants of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense".
7360:"Methylthioadenosine Phosphorylase Protects the Parasite from the Antitrypanosomal Effect of Deoxyadenosine: implications for the pharmacology of adenosine antimetabolites"
978:
and into the bloodstream. The initial trypomastigotes are short and stumpy (SS). They are protected from the host's immune system by producing antigentic variation called
1152:
of most eukaryotic cells, does not play a role in the organisation of the spindle and instead is involved in division of the kinetoplast. The events of reproduction are:
919:
and other trypanosomatids, the beat originates from the tip and progresses towards the base, forcing the body to move towards the direction of the tip of the flagellum.
9396:
Uzureau P, Uzureau S, Lecordier L, Fontaine F, Tebabi P, Homblé F, et al. (September 2013). "Mechanism of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense resistance to human serum".
1905:
has been identified as the toxic component involved in trypanolysis. ApoLs have been subject to recent selective evolution possibly related to resistance to pathogens.
7077:
Wilson SG (1948). "Further Observations on the Curative Value of Dimidium Bromide (Phenanthridinium 1553) in Trypanosoma Congolense Infections in Bovines in Uganda".
974:
Infection occurs when a vector tsetse fly bites a mammalian host. The fly injects the metacyclic trypomastigotes into the skin tissue. The trypomastigotes enter the
4420:
Radwanska, Magdalena; Chamekh, Mustapha; Vanhamme, Luc; Claes, Filip; Magez, Stefan; Magnus, Eddy; de Baetselier, Patrick; Büscher, Philippe; Pays, Etienne (2002).
1865:. This appears to be because haptoglobin-related protein and apolipoprotein L-1 are unique to primates. This suggests these genes originated in the primate genome
674:
by trypanosome lytic factor-1 (TLF-1). However, it is closely related to, and shares fundamental features with the human-infective subspecies. Only rarely can the
1349:(American trypanosomiasis), is itself a weak drug but in combination with melarsopol, it is used as the first-line medication against second-stage infection of
5165:
Halliday C, de Castro-Neto A, Alcantara CL, Cunha-E-Silva NL, Vaughan S, Sunter JD (April 2021). "Trypanosomatid Flagellar Pocket from Structure to Function".
1275:
1247:
7898:"A high-order trans-membrane structural linkage is responsible for mitochondrial genome positioning and segregation by flagellar basal bodies in trypanosomes"
1748:
will switch expression to change the VSG that is being expressed. The frequency of VSG switching has been measured to be approximately 0.1% per division. As
1269:
8808:
Wasser WG, Tzur S, Wolday D, Adu D, Baumstein D, Rosset S, Skorecki K (2012). "Population genetics of chronic kidney disease: the evolving story of APOL1".
1989:(Hb). When Hb is released from erythrocytes undergoing intravascular hemolysis Hp forms a complex with the Hb and these are removed from circulation by the
304:. There is an urgent need for the development of new drug therapies, as current treatments can have severe side effects and can prove fatal to the patient.
9631:
Shiflett AM, Faulkner SD, Cotlin LF, Widener J, Stephens N, Hajduk SL (2007). "African trypanosomes: intracellular trafficking of host defense molecules".
1148:
is unusual compared to most eukaryotes. The nuclear membrane remains intact and the chromosomes do not condense during mitosis. The basal body, unlike the
598:. The source of the parasite, an Englishman travelling in Rhodesia was found with the blood parasites in 1909, and was transported to and admitted at the
1355:
Historically, arsenic and mercuric compounds were introduced in the early 20th century, with success particularly in animal infections. German physician
1241:
884:
7411:"9-(2'-Deoxy-2'-Fluoro-β-d-Arabinofuranosyl) Adenine Is a Potent Antitrypanosomal Adenosine Analogue That Circumvents Transport-Related Drug Resistance"
1993:
scavenger receptor. In contrast to Hp–Hb, the Hpr–Hb complex does not bind CD163 and the Hpr serum concentration appears to be unaffected by hemolysis.
955:
624:
which causes slow onset chronic trypanosomiasis in humans. It is most common in central and western Africa, where humans are thought to be the primary
493:, a medical officer on duty in Bombay, India. At the time, a debate remained on the etiology, some favoured bacterial infection while some believed as
860:, which is found in mammalian hosts. The kinetoplast and basal body are posterior of nucleus. The flagellum arises from the posterior end of the body.
8699:"The apolipoprotein L family of programmed cell death and immunity genes rapidly evolved in primates at discrete sites of host-pathogen interactions"
7155:
7042:
Wilson SG (April 1948). "Further observations on the curative value of dimidium bromide in Trypanosoma congolense infections in bovines in Uganda".
7802:
Ogbadoyi E, Ersfeld K, Robinson D, Sherwin T, Gull K (March 2000). "Architecture of the Trypanosoma brucei nucleus during interphase and mitosis".
533:
By then the Royal Society had already published the report. By August 1903, Bruce and his team established that the disease was transmitted by the
8845:"Apolipoprotein L1 gene variants associate with hypertension-attributed nephropathy and the rate of kidney function decline in African Americans"
541:
However, Bruce did not understand the trypanosoma life cycle and believed that the parasites were simply transmitted from one person to another.
1390:
Among its products, dimidium bromide and its derivatives were first used in 1948 in animal cases in Africa, and became known as homidium (or as
6299:
Rocha G, Martins A, Gama G, Brandão F, Atouguia J (January 2004). "Possible cases of sexual and congenital transmission of sleeping sickness".
482:
17:
3224:
Köhler W, Köhler M (September 2002). "Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie--100 years ago: sleeping sickness--intoxication or infectious disease?".
1521:
is found primarily in East Africa (Botswana, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe), while
10204:
8498:
9844:
1051:
561:, in experiments carried out between 1911 and 1912, established how ingested trypanosomes finally reach the salivary glands of the fly.
9348:
Pays E, Vanhollebeke B, Vanhamme L, Paturiaux-Hanocq F, Nolan DP, Pérez-Morga D (June 2006). "The trypanolytic factor of human serum".
1598:
parasites avoid uptake of the TLF particles while those of group 2 are able to either neutralize or compensate for the effects of TLF.
1045:
1039:
1033:
477:
constituted a three-member Sleeping Sickness Commission on 10 May 1902 to investigate the epidemic in Uganda. The Commission comprised
9449:"A single amino acid substitution in the group 1 Trypanosoma brucei gambiense haptoglobin-hemoglobin receptor abolishes TLF-1 binding"
1594:
are resistant to killing by a serum component — trypanosome lytic factor (TLF) of which there are two types: TLF-1 and TLF-2. Group 1
8078:
Turner CM (August 1997). "The rate of antigenic variation in fly-transmitted and syringe-passaged infections of Trypanosoma brucei".
3423:
Cook GC (May 2012). "Patrick Manson (1844-1922) FRS: Filaria (Mansonella) perstans and sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis)".
1491:
7716:
Lecordier L, Vanhollebeke B, Poelvoorde P, Tebabi P, Paturiaux-Hanocq F, Andris F, et al. (December 2009). Mansfield JM (ed.).
10191:
4295:
Rifkin MR (August 1984). "Trypanosoma brucei: biochemical and morphological studies of cytotoxicity caused by normal human serum".
1417:
taken up by the P1 nucleoside transporter (instead of P2), and they also need to be resistant against cleavage in the parasite.
7465:
Ibrahim MA, Mohammed A, Isah MB, Aliyu AB (May 2014). "Anti-trypanosomal activity of African medicinal plants: a review update".
6522:
Barrett MP, Vincent IM, Burchmore RJ, Kazibwe AJ, Matovu E (September 2011). "Drug resistance in human African trypanosomiasis".
2123:
into the blood where it is bound by haptoglobin. The haem is then removed along with the bound haptoglobin from the blood by the
2115:
where this parasite is found. Haptoglobin levels are low in malaria because of the hemolysis that occurs with the release of the
376:
6606:
Kennedy PG (February 2013). "Clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)".
9676:"Hydrodynamic gene delivery of baboon trypanosome lytic factor eliminates both animal and human-infective African trypanosomes"
6269:
5604:
Proto, William R.; Coombs, Graham H.; Mottram, Jeremy C. (2013). "Cell death in parasitic protozoa: regulated or incidental?".
5320:
2178:. These mutations resemble those found in baboons, but also resemble natural mutations conferring protection of humans against
966:. When absorbed by other trypanosomes these EVs cause repulsive movement away from the area and so away from bad environments.
8547:
Lugli EB, Pouliot M, Portela Md, Loomis MR, Raper J (November 2004). "Characterization of primate trypanosome lytic factors".
3963:"On the Peculiar Morphology of a Trypanosome From a Case of Sleeping Sickness and the Possibility of Its Being a New Species (
3926:"On the peculiar morphology of a trypanosome from a case of sleeping sickness and the possibility of its being a new species (
3617:
Castellani A (1903). "On the discovery of a species of trypanosoma in the cerebrospinal fluid of cases of sleeping sickness".
8002:
7985:
Barry JD, McCulloch R (2001). "Antigenic variation in trypanosomes: enhanced phenotypic variation in a eukaryotic parasite".
7718:"C-terminal mutants of apolipoprotein L-I efficiently kill both Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense"
3079:
2908:
2747:
1095:
metabolism that causes a perceived need for more calories. (The metabolic change, in turn, being due to complete absence of
7524:
2553:
Joubert JJ, Schutte CH, Irons DJ, Fripp PJ (1993). "Ubombo and the site of David Bruce's discovery of Trypanosoma brucei".
6401:
Nok AJ (May 2003). "Arsenicals (melarsoprol), pentamidine and suramin in the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis".
3384:"Bacteria or parasite? the controversy over the etiology of sleeping sickness and the Portuguese participation, 1898-1904"
514:, following a request from the Royal Society, appointed David Bruce to lead the second Sleeping Sickness Commission. With
10267:
10021:
7664:"Differences between Trypanosoma brucei gambiense groups 1 and 2 in their resistance to killing by trypanolytic factor 1"
2046:
protein then creates anionic pores in the membrane which leads to depolarization of the membrane, a continuous influx of
1104:
3999:
Barrett MP, Burchmore RJ, Stich A, Lazzari JO, Frasch AC, Cazzulo JJ, Krishna S (November 2003). "The trypanosomiases".
9250:"Structure of the trypanosome haptoglobin-hemoglobin receptor and implications for nutrient uptake and innate immunity"
4986:
Bastin P, Matthews KR, Gull K (August 1996). "The paraflagellar rod of kinetoplastida: solved and unsolved questions".
982:
on their body surface. Once inside the bloodstream, they grow into long and slender forms (LS). Then, they multiply by
8315:"Faculty of 1000 evaluation for Genome organization and DNA accessibility control antigenic variation in trypanosomes"
1156:
The basal body duplicates and both remain associated with the kinetoplast. Each basal body forms a separate flagellum.
2898:
1942:. This domain is flanked by the membrane addressing domain and both these domains are required for parasite killing.
1514:
1510:
1506:
1096:
4479:"Diagnostic potential of a conserved genomic rearrangement in the Trypanosoma brucei gambiense-specific TGSGP locus"
10242:
2200:
6962:"Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on Knowledge Attitude and Practices on African Animal Trypanocide Resistance"
6140:"Phylogenomic analyses support the monophyly of Excavata and resolve relationships among eukaryotic "supergroups""
3097:"The Changes in the Central Nervous System of Two Cases of Negro Lethargy: Sequel to Dr. Manson's Clinical Report"
1210:
supports the hypothesis that meiosis and sexual reproduction are ancestral and ubiquitous features of eukaryotes.
10209:
9837:
9791:
1159:
Kinetoplast DNA undergoes synthesis then the kinetoplast divides coupled with separation of the two basal bodies.
5764:"A new asymmetric division contributes to the continuous production of infective trypanosomes in the tsetse fly"
1505:
is found where its tsetse fly vectors are prevalent in continental Africa. That is to say, tropical rainforest (
7847:"The genome sequence of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, causative agent of chronic human african trypanosomiasis"
4422:"The serum resistance-associated gene as a diagnostic tool for the detection of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense"
644:, are also infected. It is responsible for 98% of all human African trypanosomiasis, and is roughly 100% fatal.
1846:
containing phospholipids and cholesterol. The protein components of TLF-2 include IgM and apolipoprotein A-I.
773:
as found in the tsetse fly midgut. The cell body is shown in orange and the flagellum is in red. 84 pixels/μm.
557:
An open question, noted by Bruce at this stage, was how the trypanosome finds its way to the salivary glands.
10252:
8892:
Duchateau PN, Pullinger CR, Orellana RE, Kunitake ST, Naya-Vigne J, O'Connor PM, et al. (October 1997).
2204:
1753:
can go on to multiply and continue the infection. The clinical effect of this cycle is successive 'waves' of
979:
386:
373:
word for to be low or depressed in spirit. In other parts of Africa, Europeans called it the "fly disease."
289:
7513:"Cattle trypanosomosis: the diversity of trypanosomes and implications for disease epidemiology and control"
10257:
10247:
1693:
1639:
Around 100 minichromosomes of around 50 to 100 kilobase pairs. These may be present in multiple copies per
762:
468:
403:
342:
5263:
Juan T, Fürthauer M (February 2018). "Biogenesis and function of ESCRT-dependent extracellular vesicles".
10272:
10155:
9970:
5829:
2002:
serum. However the complete absence of haptoglobin is associated with a decreased killing rate by serum.
1834:
1206:
and are one of the earliest diverging lineages among eukaryotes. The discovery of sexual reproduction in
519:
263:, while the latter two are zoonotic infecting both humans and animals and cause African trypanosomiasis.
7112:
Carmichael J (April 1950). "Dimidium bromide or phenanthridinium 1553; a note on the present position".
1605:
is dependent upon the expression of a serum resistance associated (SRA) gene. This gene is not found in
68:
9830:
9590:
Xong HV, Vanhamme L, Chamekh M, Chimfwembe CE, Van Den Abbeele J, Pays A, et al. (December 1998).
2320:
2124:
1100:
7171:"Ethidium bromide provides a simple tool for identifying genuine DNA-independent protein associations"
1772:
gene in the active site to a different variant. The genome contains many hundreds if not thousands of
1563:
evolved from a single progenitor ~10,000 years ago. It is evolving asexually and its genome shows the
1055:
are then hijacked by the parasite to aid its own midgut infection, using them to inactivate bloodmeal
942:) and mammalian hosts, including humans, cattle, horses, and wild animals. In stressful environments,
9191:"Distinct roles of haptoglobin-related protein and apolipoprotein L-I in trypanolysis by human serum"
6199:"An expanded inventory of conserved meiotic genes provides evidence for sex in Trichomonas vaginalis"
4760:
2191:
550:
9592:"A VSG expression site-associated gene confers resistance to human serum in Trypanosoma rhodesiense"
4593:
Krüger T, Schuster S, Engstler M (December 2018). "Beyond Blood: African Trypanosomes on the Move".
2407:
1308:
There are four drugs generally recommended for the first-line treatment of African trypanosomiasis:
363:(now part of South Africa) was severely struck by the disease, which became known to the British as
10262:
8843:
Lipkowitz MS, Freedman BI, Langefeld CD, Comeau ME, Bowden DW, Kao WH, et al. (January 2013).
5551:
Mideo N, Acosta-Serrano A, Aebischer T, Brown MJ, Fenton A, Friman VP, et al. (January 2013).
5370:"Role of the long slender to short stumpy transition in the life cycle of the african trypanosomes"
1842:
399:
9189:
Vanhollebeke B, Nielsen MJ, Watanabe Y, Truc P, Vanhamme L, Nakajima K, et al. (March 2007).
8751:
Genovese G, Friedman DJ, Ross MD, Lecordier L, Uzureau P, Freedman BI, et al. (August 2010).
8344:
Müller LS, Cosentino RO, Förstner KU, Guizetti J, Wedel C, Kaplan N, et al. (November 2018).
6559:"A current analysis of chemotherapy strategies for the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis"
2141:
relies on a different mechanism of resistance: the serum resistance associated protein (SRA). The
2038:
membrane addressing domain which in turn causes a salt bridge linked hinge to open. This releases
1579:
that possesses two distinct groups that differ in genotype and phenotype. Group 2 is more akin to
9964:
9956:
9901:
3863:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character
1545:
1219:
599:
553:, established the basic developmental cycle through which the trypanosome in tsetse fly must pass
232:
9822:
8031:"Antigenic variation in the African trypanosome: molecular mechanisms and phenotypic complexity"
6444:
Burri C, Brun R (June 2003). "Eflornithine for the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis".
5705:"Bottlenecks and the maintenance of minor genotypes during the life cycle of Trypanosoma brucei"
758:
10123:
9990:
8499:"The trypanolytic factor of human serum: many ways to enter the parasite, a single way to kill"
6889:
4809:
4531:
3684:
1819:
1793:
variants H3.V and H4.V. These histones cause changes in the three-dimensional structure of the
1385:
1372:
1165:
undergoes synthesis while a new flagellum extends from the younger, more posterior, basal body.
987:
657:
317:
236:
9807:
8407:
Hajduk SL, Moore DR, Vasudevacharya J, Siqueira H, Torri AF, Tytler EM, Esko JD (March 1989).
7662:
Capewell P, Veitch NJ, Turner CM, Raper J, Berriman M, Hajduk SL, MacLeod A (September 2011).
7569:"Population genomics reveals the origin and asexual evolution of human infective trypanosomes"
7012:
6698:
Bottieau E, Clerinx J (March 2019). "Human African Trypanosomiasis: Progress and Stagnation".
5339:
4075:
Büscher P, Cecchi G, Jamonneau V, Priotto G (November 2017). "Human African trypanosomiasis".
1329:
and the life cycle stages of the parasites. Suramin is used only for first-stage infection of
1067:. The short epimastigote migrate from the proventriculus via the foregut and proboscis to the
857:
851:
606:. Fantham described the parasite's morphology and found that it was a different trypanosome.
10219:
10080:
9945:
9771:
8984:
Madhavan SM, O'Toole JF, Konieczkowski M, Ganesan S, Bruggeman LA, Sedor JR (November 2011).
7149:
5552:
1970:
1957:, the proximal tubular epithelium and the arteriolar endothelium. It has a high affinity for
1786:
1549:
963:
793:
478:
273:
153:
7845:
Jackson AP, Sanders M, Berry A, McQuillan J, Aslett MA, Quail MA, et al. (April 2010).
570:
Forde's colleague Joseph Everett Dutton identified it as a protozoan belonging to the genus
311:
subspecies due to their different means of transmission, clinical presentation, and loss of
10094:
9687:
9405:
9261:
9202:
9147:
8942:
8764:
8655:
8361:
8234:
8126:
7958:
7182:
6483:
Docampo R, Moreno SN (June 2003). "Current chemotherapy of human African trypanosomiasis".
6210:
6151:
6043:
5984:
5884:
4897:
4042:
1368:
822:
770:
629:
10160:
7567:
Weir W, Capewell P, Foth B, Clucas C, Pountain A, Steketee P, et al. (January 2016).
6285:
2764:
8:
9983:
9979:
9941:
9860:
4884:
Koyfman AY, Schmid MF, Gheiratmand L, Fu CJ, Khant HA, Huang D, et al. (July 2011).
2593:"Sir David Bruce's elucidation of the aetiology of nagana--exactly one hundred years ago"
2030:
wherein ApoL1 is activated by a pH mediated conformational change. After fusion with the
1954:
812:
with which it is indistinguishable under microscope. From the basal body arises a single
515:
503:
301:
293:
9691:
9500:"Hemopexin and haptoglobin: allies against heme toxicity from hemoglobin not contenders"
9409:
9265:
9206:
9151:
8946:
8768:
8659:
8608:
8583:
8365:
8238:
8130:
7241:
7186:
6214:
6155:
6047:
5988:
5973:"Identification of the meiotic life cycle stage of Trypanosoma brucei in the tsetse fly"
5971:
Peacock L, Ferris V, Sharma R, Sunter J, Bailey M, Carrington M, Gibson W (March 2011).
5888:
5228:
4901:
2696:
2329:
2308:
9949:
9710:
9675:
9656:
9526:
9499:
9475:
9448:
9429:
9373:
9284:
9249:
9225:
9190:
9171:
9110:
9083:
9059:
9034:
9010:
8985:
8966:
8869:
8844:
8785:
8752:
8723:
8698:
8679:
8621:
8529:
8384:
8346:"Genome organization and DNA accessibility control antigenic variation in trypanosomes"
8345:
8278:
Pays E (November 2005). "Regulation of antigen gene expression in Trypanosoma brucei".
8255:
8222:
8198:
8171:
8147:
8114:
8091:
8060:
7945:
Borst P, Sabatini R (2008). "Base J: discovery, biosynthesis, and possible functions".
7873:
7846:
7827:
7744:
7717:
7690:
7663:
7644:
7595:
7568:
7546:
7437:
7410:
7386:
7359:
7291:
7264:
7137:
6988:
6961:
6937:
6912:
6865:
6840:
6816:
6791:
6767:
6742:
6723:
6675:
6650:
6631:
6583:
6558:
6504:
6465:
6426:
6378:
6343:
6324:
6233:
6198:
6174:
6139:
6115:
6088:
6064:
6031:
6007:
5972:
5853:
5801:
5739:
5704:
5685:
5637:
5525:
5490:
5457:
5424:
5237:
5212:
5190:
5142:
5117:
5064:
5051:
5022:
4968:
4920:
4885:
4861:
4832:
4779:
4744:
4720:
4685:
4669:
4636:
4618:
4568:
4459:
4398:
4362:
4335:
4272:
4247:
4223:
4188:
4163:
4128:
4100:
4024:
3715:
3665:
3599:
3497:
3472:
3448:
3323:
3306:
3287:
3209:
3180:
3121:
3096:
2976:
2809:
2784:
2713:
2669:
2642:
2447:
2422:
2342:
2265:
2240:
1927:
has been identified. This glomerulopathy may help to explain the greater prevalence of
1825:
1722:
raised against a specific VSG coat rapidly kills trypanosomes expressing this variant.
1541:
1441:
1263:
951:
738:), which means "borer" or "auger", referring to the corkscrew-like movement; and σῶμα (
511:
494:
435:
323:
224:
63:
9608:
9591:
8425:
8408:
7994:
7922:
7897:
7090:
7055:
6619:
6312:
5907:
5872:
5400:
5369:
4088:
4012:
3630:
2483:
828:
296:, enabling persistent evasion of host adaptive immunity leading to chronic infection.
10015:
9909:
9853:
9750:
9746:
9715:
9648:
9644:
9613:
9572:
9531:
9480:
9421:
9365:
9330:
9289:
9230:
9175:
9163:
9115:
9064:
9015:
8958:
8915:
8874:
8825:
8790:
8753:"Association of trypanolytic ApoL1 variants with kidney disease in African Americans"
8728:
8671:
8613:
8564:
8560:
8521:
8517:
8479:
8474:
8449:
8430:
8409:"Lysis of Trypanosoma brucei by a toxic subspecies of human high density lipoprotein"
8389:
8295:
8260:
8203:
8152:
8138:
8095:
8052:
8047:
8030:
8008:
7998:
7962:
7927:
7878:
7819:
7784:
7780:
7749:
7695:
7636:
7600:
7538:
7490:
7442:
7391:
7340:
7319:"Targeting the nucleotide metabolism of Trypanosoma brucei and other trypanosomatids"
7296:
7245:
7210:
7205:
7170:
7129:
7094:
7059:
6993:
6942:
6870:
6821:
6772:
6715:
6680:
6623:
6588:
6539:
6496:
6457:
6418:
6383:
6365:
6344:"The unknown risk of vertical transmission in sleeping sickness--a literature review"
6316:
6265:
6238:
6179:
6120:
6069:
6012:
5953:
5912:
5845:
5841:
5793:
5785:
5744:
5726:
5677:
5669:
5629:
5621:
5575:
5530:
5512:
5462:
5444:
5405:
5316:
5284:
5242:
5194:
5182:
5147:
5095:
5056:
5003:
4999:
4960:
4956:
4925:
4866:
4784:
4725:
4707:
4656:
4610:
4572:
4560:
4552:
4508:
4500:
4451:
4443:
4402:
4367:
4316:
4312:
4277:
4228:
4210:
4168:
4150:
4092:
4054:
4016:
3880:
3859:"Further researches on the development of trypanosoma gambiense in glossina palpalis"
3840:
3832:
3707:
3591:
3556:
3529:
3502:
3440:
3405:
3364:
3360:
3328:
3279:
3241:
3161:
3157:
3126:
3075:
3047:
3007:
2941:
2904:
2879:
2852:
2814:
2743:
2718:
2674:
2614:
2609:
2592:
2570:
2566:
2532:
2497:
2452:
2396:
2346:
2334:
2270:
2089:
1958:
1731:
1719:
1666:, an unusual feature unique to the kinetoplastid protozoans. The kinetoplast and the
1537:
1253:
983:
947:
706:
The subspecies lack many of the features commonly considered necessary to constitute
625:
591:
419:
9660:
9307:
Green HP, Del Pilar Molina Portela M, St Jean EN, Lugli EB, Raper J (January 2003).
8970:
8625:
8465:
8064:
7648:
7550:
7141:
6727:
6508:
6469:
6430:
5689:
4972:
4622:
3719:
3669:
3452:
3400:
3383:
3291:
2980:
2026:
membranes. After ingestion by the parasite, the TLF-1 particle is trafficked to the
998:
aids in increasing the total transmitting duration of any particular infested host.
843:
show several different classes of cellular organisation of which two are adopted by
9937:
9742:
9705:
9695:
9640:
9603:
9562:
9521:
9511:
9470:
9460:
9433:
9413:
9377:
9357:
9320:
9279:
9269:
9220:
9210:
9155:
9105:
9095:
9054:
9046:
9005:
8997:
8950:
8905:
8864:
8856:
8817:
8780:
8772:
8718:
8710:
8683:
8663:
8603:
8595:
8556:
8533:
8513:
8469:
8461:
8420:
8379:
8369:
8324:
8287:
8250:
8242:
8193:
8183:
8142:
8134:
8087:
8042:
7990:
7954:
7917:
7909:
7868:
7858:
7831:
7811:
7776:
7739:
7729:
7685:
7675:
7628:
7590:
7580:
7528:
7482:
7432:
7422:
7381:
7371:
7330:
7286:
7276:
7237:
7200:
7190:
7121:
7086:
7051:
7024:
6983:
6973:
6932:
6924:
6860:
6852:
6811:
6803:
6762:
6754:
6707:
6670:
6666:
6662:
6635:
6615:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6531:
6488:
6449:
6410:
6373:
6355:
6328:
6308:
6228:
6218:
6169:
6159:
6110:
6100:
6059:
6051:
6002:
5992:
5943:
5902:
5892:
5857:
5837:
5833:
5805:
5775:
5734:
5716:
5661:
5641:
5613:
5567:
5520:
5502:
5452:
5436:
5395:
5385:
5276:
5232:
5224:
5174:
5137:
5129:
5087:
5068:
5046:
5038:
4995:
4952:
4915:
4905:
4856:
4848:
4774:
4764:
4715:
4697:
4664:
4648:
4602:
4544:
4490:
4463:
4433:
4394:
4357:
4347:
4308:
4267:
4259:
4218:
4200:
4158:
4140:
4104:
4084:
4028:
4008:
3982:
3978:
3941:
3870:
3822:
3789:
3750:
3699:
3657:
3626:
3583:
3492:
3484:
3432:
3395:
3356:
3318:
3271:
3233:
3204:
3196:
3153:
3116:
3108:
3037:
3003:
2968:
2933:
2844:
2804:
2796:
2708:
2664:
2654:
2604:
2562:
2524:
2515:
Gibson W (July 2007). "Resolution of the species problem in African trypanosomes".
2487:
2479:
2442:
2434:
2386:
2324:
2260:
2252:
1482:
1391:
975:
558:
490:
8329:
8314:
6557:
Babokhov P, Sanyaolu AO, Oyibo WA, Fagbenro-Beyioku AF, Iriemenam NC (July 2013).
5948:
5931:
4745:"Characterization of the novel mitochondrial genome replication factor MiRF172 in
2937:
2870:
Ormerod WE (October 1991). "Hypothesis: the significance of Winterbottom's sign".
2391:
2374:
2018:
is the main lethal factor in the TLFs and kills trypanosomes after insertion into
1123:
vectors' head proteomes under infection by other eukaryotic parasites of mammals.
864:
10100:
10055:
9886:
9877:
9567:
9550:
9465:
9100:
8357:
8319:
8188:
7863:
7734:
7680:
7409:
Ranjbarian F, Vodnala M, Alzahrani KJ, Ebiloma GU, de Koning HP, Hofer A (2016).
6360:
6257:
6223:
5721:
5571:
5310:
5280:
4352:
4205:
3069:
2737:
2528:
1985:(Hp), an abundant acute phase serum protein, which possesses a high affinity for
1564:
840:
832:
The six main morphologies of trypanosomatids. The different life cycle stages of
808:, which is a complex of thousands of mitochondria. The kinetoplast lies near the
797:
781:
637:
486:
407:
244:
120:
110:
9248:
Higgins MK, Tkachenko O, Brown A, Reed J, Raper J, Carrington M (January 2013).
6960:
Kasozi KI, MacLeod ET, Waiswa C, Mahero M, Ntulume I, Welburn SC (August 2022).
6841:"Action of the Colours of Benzidine on Mice Infected with Trypanosoma dimorphon"
6138:
Hampl V, Hug L, Leigh JW, Dacks JB, Lang BF, Simpson AG, Roger AJ (March 2009).
3899:
2695:
Berrang-Ford L, Odiit M, Maiso F, Waltner-Toews D, McDermott J (December 2006).
1890:
have evolved mechanisms of resisting the trypanolytic factors, described below.
927:
446:
was already introduced by Hungarian physician David Gruby in his description of
10086:
10071:
10006:
9915:
9680:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
9254:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
9195:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
7175:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6978:
6144:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5977:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5877:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5491:"Through the dark continent: African trypanosome development in the tsetse fly"
5440:
5381:
5023:"The Flagellum Attachment Zone: 'The Cellular Ruler' of Trypanosome Morphology"
4890:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4189:"Untreated human infections by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense are not 100% fatal"
3488:
3307:"George Carmichael Low FRCP: an underrated figure in British tropical medicine"
2119:
into the blood. The rupture of the erythrocytes results in the release of free
1924:
1916:(22q12.3). Variants of this gene, termed G1 and G2, provide protection against
1862:
1809:
1458:
1346:
1342:
1068:
896:
888:
434:
The scientific name was created by British zoologists Henry George Plimmer and
288:. The mammalian bloodstream forms are notable for their cell surface proteins,
214:
100:
55:
8599:
8374:
7632:
7486:
7281:
6928:
6856:
6711:
6492:
6453:
6414:
6055:
5665:
5312:
Parasitology (Protozoology and Helminthology) in relation to clinical medicine
4495:
4478:
4438:
4421:
3703:
3547:
Davies JN (March 1962). "The cause of sleeping-sickness? Entebbe 1902-03. I".
3200:
2848:
2835:
Cox FE (June 2004). "History of sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis)".
2697:"Sleeping sickness in Uganda: revisiting current and historical distributions"
410:
with a rank of Captain in the army, in 1894 to investigate a disease known as
10236:
9927:
9868:
9784:
DPDx—Laboratory Identification of Parasitic Diseases of Public Health Concern
9516:
8910:
8893:
8291:
7335:
7318:
7249:
6911:
Giordani F, Morrison LJ, Rowan TG, DE Koning HP, Barrett MP (December 2016).
6369:
5871:
Zampetti-Bosseler F, Schweizer J, Pays E, Jenni L, Steinert M (August 1986).
5789:
5730:
5673:
5625:
5516:
5507:
5448:
5178:
5042:
4964:
4886:"Structure of Trypanosoma brucei flagellum accounts for its bihelical motion"
4852:
4711:
4686:"Form, Fabric, and Function of a Flagellum-Associated Cytoskeletal Structure"
4660:
4606:
4556:
4548:
4504:
4447:
4263:
4214:
4154:
3884:
3836:
3595:
2256:
2196:
1938:
has a membrane pore forming domain functionally similar to that of bacterial
1913:
1785:. It is thought that any of these genes can be moved into the active site by
1741:
1711:
1424:
1380:
1360:
1020:
873:
474:
370:
9700:
9674:
Thomson R, Molina-Portela P, Mott H, Carrington M, Raper J (November 2009).
9274:
9215:
9159:
8954:
8932:
8776:
8246:
7913:
7376:
7195:
7028:
6758:
6197:
Malik SB, Pightling AW, Stefaniak LM, Schurko AM, Logsdon JM (August 2007).
6164:
5997:
5897:
5164:
4910:
3827:
3810:
3436:
3237:
3112:
10146:
9719:
9652:
9576:
9535:
9484:
9425:
9369:
9334:
9325:
9308:
9293:
9234:
9167:
9119:
9082:
Widener J, Nielsen MJ, Shiflett A, Moestrup SK, Hajduk S (September 2007).
9068:
9019:
9001:
8962:
8878:
8829:
8794:
8732:
8675:
8617:
8568:
8525:
8483:
8393:
8299:
8264:
8207:
8156:
8056:
8012:
7966:
7931:
7882:
7823:
7753:
7699:
7604:
7542:
7533:
7512:
7494:
7446:
7395:
7344:
7300:
7133:
7125:
7098:
7063:
6997:
6946:
6874:
6825:
6776:
6719:
6684:
6627:
6592:
6543:
6500:
6461:
6422:
6387:
6320:
6242:
6183:
6124:
6105:
6073:
6016:
5849:
5797:
5748:
5681:
5633:
5579:
5534:
5466:
5409:
5288:
5246:
5186:
5151:
5060:
5007:
4929:
4870:
4788:
4729:
4652:
4614:
4564:
4512:
4455:
4406:
4371:
4281:
4248:"Trypanosome resistance to human innate immunity: targeting Achilles' heel"
4232:
4172:
4127:
Franco, Jose R; Simarro, Pere P; Diarra, Abdoulaye; Jannin, Jean G (2014).
4096:
4020:
3946:
3925:
3875:
3858:
3794:
3769:
3754:
3711:
3661:
3587:
3560:
3533:
3444:
3409:
3283:
3275:
3262:
Boyd J (June 1973). "Sleeping sickness. The Castellani-Bruce controversy".
3245:
3165:
3130:
3051:
3042:
3025:
2945:
2856:
2818:
2722:
2678:
2536:
2501:
2456:
2338:
2274:
2085:
1928:
1356:
1321:
1202:
can multiply by sexual reproduction. Trypanosomes belong to the supergroup
1056:
994:
LS to SS in the mammal serves to prolong the host's lifespan – controlling
789:
785:
574:
Knowing the distinct features, Dutton proposed a new species name in 1902:
360:
10170:
9617:
8919:
8714:
8434:
8099:
7815:
7788:
7766:
7640:
7214:
5957:
5916:
5762:
Rotureau, Brice; Subota, Ines; Buisson, Johanna; Bastin, Philippe (2012).
5390:
5099:
4320:
4058:
3506:
3368:
3332:
2883:
2659:
2618:
2574:
2400:
1651:
are held on the large chromosomes, with the minichromosomes carrying only
9306:
7427:
5091:
4702:
3844:
2924:
Ellis H (March 2006). "Sir David Bruce, a pioneer of tropical medicine".
2785:"Human African trypanosomiasis of the CNS: current issues and challenges"
1982:
1962:
1782:
1754:
1715:
1663:
1466:
1404:
1376:
1317:
1313:
1171:
1162:
1136:
1024:
995:
903:
805:
662:
603:
545:
312:
219:
130:
9754:
9735:
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Comparative Pharmacology
9417:
9361:
9347:
9035:"ApoL1, a BH3-only lipid-binding protein, induces autophagic cell death"
8860:
8667:
7585:
5654:
5617:
5133:
4943:
v (1988). "The paraflagellar rod: a structure in search of a function".
4477:
Felu, Cecile; Pasture, Julie; Pays, Etienne; Pérez-Morga, David (2007).
4145:
3733:
Bruce D, Hamerton AE, Bateman HR, Mackie FP (1909). "The development of
2034:
the pH drops from ~7 to ~5. This induces a conformational change in the
1849:
Trypanolytic factors are found only in a few species, including humans,
1194:
started to indicate that the trypomastigote in the tsetse fly undergoes
640:. Since 2002, there are several reports showing that animals, including
10196:
10060:
10046:
8983:
8821:
8645:
8450:"Characterization of a novel trypanosome lytic factor from human serum"
5780:
5763:
5589:
5340:"Parasites - African Trypanosomiasis (also known as Sleeping Sickness)"
5034:
4769:
4540:
2972:
2492:
2469:
2438:
2210:
2077:
1986:
1966:
1667:
1630:
1229:
1178:
1149:
1016:
836:
fall into the trypomastigote and epimastigote morphological categories.
809:
766:
534:
528:
277:
90:
9050:
6807:
6535:
5213:"The Trypanosoma brucei flagellum: moving parasites in new directions"
3603:
1469:
by this subspecies and a higher dose is curative and prevents injury.
10178:
10037:
9810:
Parasites – African Trypanosomiasis (also known as Sleeping Sickness)
8172:"Mosaic VSGs and the scale of Trypanosoma brucei antigenic variation"
7715:
6556:
5553:"Life in cells, hosts, and vectors: parasite evolution across scales"
2800:
2116:
2101:
1803:
1745:
1671:
1413:
1112:
1064:
1011:
1007:
959:
892:
818:
813:
801:
715:
707:
228:
80:
10117:
8986:"APOL1 localization in normal kidney and nondiabetic kidney disease"
7511:
Auty H, Torr SJ, Michoel T, Jayaraman S, Morrison LJ (August 2015).
5703:
Oberle, Michael; Balmer, Oliver; Brun, Reto; Roditi, Isabel (2010).
5211:
Ralston KS, Kabututu ZP, Melehani JH, Oberholzer M, Hill KL (2009).
3962:
3520:
Wiggins CA (November 1960). "Early days in East Africa and Uganda".
2088:. Other factors involved in resistance appear to be a change in the
1874:
1867:
10183:
10140:
9857:
9673:
8448:
Raper J, Fung R, Ghiso J, Nussenzweig V, Tomlinson S (April 1999).
8223:"The in vivo dynamics of antigenic variation in Trypanosoma brucei"
7478:
5870:
5272:
4304:
3900:"Preliminary note upon a trypanosome occurring in the blood of man"
2766:
Preliminary Report on the Tsetse Fly Disease or Nagana, in Zululand
2694:
2307:
Luzak V, López-Escobar L, Siegel TN, Figueiredo LM (October 2021).
2159:
2155:
2105:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2011:
1950:
1854:
1802:
and other parasites are among the most interesting in the field of
1727:
1723:
1446:
1203:
1108:
1088:
633:
9309:"Evidence for a Trypanosoma brucei lipoprotein scavenger receptor"
8891:
7358:
Vodnala M, Ranjbarian F, Pavlova A, de Koning HP, Hofer A (2016).
6089:"Mating compatibility in the parasitic protist Trypanosoma brucei"
3349:
Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
2597:
Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
2555:
Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
2306:
1295:
In addition to the major form of transmission via the tsetse fly,
9852:
9137:
8406:
7408:
7357:
5873:"Evidence for haploidy in metacyclic forms of Trypanosoma brucei"
5550:
5210:
2112:
2093:
1939:
1850:
1790:
1640:
1454:
1309:
1195:
1092:
907:
719:
8842:
6032:"Meiosis and haploid gametes in the pathogen Trypanosoma brucei"
3026:"Reanalyzing the 1900-1920 sleeping sickness epidemic in Uganda"
750:
was found from another Englishman in Northern Rhodesia in 1909.
544:
Around the same time, Germany sent an expeditionary team led by
9786:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 29 November 2013.
9447:
DeJesus E, Kieft R, Albright B, Stephens NA, Hajduk SL (2013).
9395:
9188:
8343:
7617:
7265:"An Update on African Trypanocide Pharmaceutics and Resistance"
4384:
2097:
2042:
from the HDL particle to insert in the lysosomal membrane. The
1858:
1830:
1789:
for expression. VSG silencing is largely due to the effects of
1678:
1656:
1618:
1028:
641:
365:
270:
9081:
9033:
Zhaorigetu S, Wan G, Kaini R, Jiang Z, Hu CA (November 2008).
7801:
6910:
6521:
6196:
2072:
causes 97% of human cases of sleeping sickness. Resistance to
1920:. These benefits are not without their downside as a specific
1280:. Animal trypanosomiasis is transmitted by a dozen species of
1059:
factors which would otherwise make the fly host inhospitable.
406:, who at the time was assistant professor of pathology at the
9630:
9589:
9084:"Hemoglobin is a co-factor of human trypanosome lytic factor"
8750:
6913:"The animal trypanosomiases and their chemotherapy: a review"
6651:"Chemotherapy for second-stage human African trypanosomiasis"
6029:
5586:
4419:
4074:
2163:
2073:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2015:
1990:
1946:
1935:
1921:
1909:
1902:
1898:
1838:
1737:
1734:
1648:
671:
526:
in the cerebrospinal fluid of cases of sleeping sickness" in
335:
9446:
8546:
7844:
6030:
Peacock L, Bailey M, Carrington M, Gibson W (January 2014).
4246:
Stephens NA, Kieft R, Macleod A, Hajduk SL (December 2012).
3998:
1810:
Killing by human serum and resistance to human serum killing
43:
7262:
5761:
4334:
Balmer O, Beadell JS, Gibson W, Caccone A (February 2011).
3648:
in the cerebrospinal fluid of cases of sleeping sickness".
2130:
2120:
2111:
These mutations may have evolved due to the coexistence of
880:
730:
The genus name is derived from two Greek words: τρυπανον (
7228:
Elslager EF, Thompson PE (1962). "Parasite Chemotherapy".
5315:(13 ed.). New Delhi: CBC Publishers. pp. 56–57.
4883:
4528:
4476:
4333:
4245:
4185:
3767:
3732:
3144:
Cook GC (January 1996). "The 'Negro lethargy' in Uganda".
3024:
Fèvre EM, Coleman PG, Welburn SC, Maudlin I (April 2004).
3023:
2207:
to determine the quantity and longevity of these proteins.
1636:
3–5 intermediate chromosomes of 200 to 500 kilobase pairs.
1190:
In the 1980s, DNA analyses of the developmental stages of
938:
completes its life cycle between tsetse fly (of the genus
259:. The first is a parasite of non-human mammals and causes
9732:
9247:
8447:
8028:
7661:
6959:
6087:
Peacock L, Ferris V, Bailey M, Gibson W (February 2014).
6086:
5970:
4126:
4045:(1973). "Animal reservoirs and Gambian trypanosomiasis".
3473:"Some episodes in the history of African trypanosomiasis"
3071:
Tropical Medicine: An Illustrated History of The Pioneers
2900:
Tropical Medicine: An Illustrated History of The Pioneers
2061:
1655:
genes. The genome has been sequenced and is available on
1120:
1119:
was induced. This is similar to the alterations in other
8220:
7510:
7464:
5818:
5118:"Motility and more: the flagellum of Trypanosoma brucei"
2769:. Durban (South Africa): Bennett & Davis. p. 1.
2552:
1677:
In 1993, a new base, ß-d-glucopyranosyloxymethyluracil (
804:. In addition, there is an unusual organelle called the
670:
is not infective to humans due to its susceptibility to
380:
A man having sleeping sickness at Buruma Island, Uganda.
9032:
8024:
8022:
6298:
5488:
5081:
4742:
3644:
Castellani A (1903). "On the discovery of a species of
8029:
Morrison LJ, Marcello L, McCulloch R (December 2009).
7566:
7460:
7458:
7456:
6743:"Some Experiments in the Treatment of Trypanosomiasis"
5702:
5258:
5256:
4592:
1829:) is not human infective because it is susceptible to
8115:"Genome hyperevolution and the success of a parasite"
8112:
7263:
Kasozi KI, MacLeod ET, Ntulume I, Welburn SC (2022).
7044:
The Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics
6286:"African Trypanosomes: epidemiology and risk factors"
5423:
McClure, Elizabeth M.; Goldenberg, Robert L. (2009).
4483:
The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
4426:
The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
4070:
4068:
3682:
2423:"Passage of parasites across the blood-brain barrier"
2158:
while some dispute remains as to its presence in the
1674:
are strongly associated via a cytoskeletal structure
1662:
The mitochondrial genome is found condensed into the
1371:, homidium (homidium bromide and homidium chloride),
9551:"Mutual self-defence: the trypanolytic factor story"
9133:
9131:
9129:
8221:
Mugnier MR, Cross GA, Papavasiliou FN (March 2015).
8113:
Barry JD, Hall JP, Plenderleith L (September 2012).
8019:
7895:
6789:
3934:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B
3782:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B
3768:
Bruce D, Hamerton AE, Bateman HR, Mackie FP (1911).
3743:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B
3311:
Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London
2100:
substitution (L210S) at codon 210. This is due to a
911:
and in the same direction to the flagellar tubulin.
746:
was described from an Englishman in Gambia in 1901;
345:, after whom the scientific name was given in 1899.
8807:
8337:
7506:
7504:
7453:
5546:
5544:
5253:
4524:
4522:
4336:"Phylogeography and taxonomy of Trypanosoma brucei"
3923:
3683:Welburn SC, Maudlin I, Simarro PP (December 2009).
2903:. Burlington (US): Elsevier Ltd. pp. 145–156.
1726:-mediated trypanosome killing can also be observed
6648:
6137:
5812:
5603:
5363:
5361:
5359:
5357:
4985:
4830:
4065:
2420:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2284:
2239:Romero-Meza, Gabriela; Mugnier, Monica R. (2020).
2238:
2199:, professor of chemistry and current principal of
2054:. This influx in its turn leads to rupture of the
1367:Animal trypanosomiasis is treated with six drugs:
956:endosomal sorting complexes required for transport
632:was the first to find infection of this strain in
564:
300:is one of only a few pathogens known to cross the
9182:
9126:
8306:
7711:
7709:
7079:Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics
5422:
4736:
4047:Annales de la Société Belge de Médecine Tropicale
2961:Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten
1337:, and eflornithine for second-stage infection of
1031:to suppress the infection. The serpins including
10234:
9548:
8926:
8746:
8744:
8742:
8641:
8639:
8637:
8635:
8581:
8496:
7611:
7501:
7227:
6264:(2 ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 296.
5932:"Sexual stages in trypanosomes and implications"
5541:
5495:Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology
5014:
4743:Amodeo S, Jakob M, Ochsenreiter T (April 2018).
4519:
3576:Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society
3264:Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
2375:"The subspecific taxonomy of Trypanosoma brucei"
887:, a lattice structure of proteins unique to the
9391:
9389:
9387:
9026:
6697:
5354:
4129:"Epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis"
3960:
2281:
1744:there is a possibility that one or both of the
462:
9876:
8885:
7984:
7706:
7013:"The chemotherapy of phenanthridine compounds"
6342:Lindner, Andreas K.; Priotto, Gerardo (2010).
6341:
5489:Rotureau, Brice; Van Den Abbeele, Jan (2013).
4387:Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease
3971:Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology
3574:J.R. B. (1932). "Sir David Bruce. 1855-1931".
1262:, causing East African sleeping sickness, are
1240:, causing West African sleeping sickness, are
1213:
1019:. Because the fly faces digestive damage from
817:which is replaced by an equally dense coat of
9838:
9624:
9497:
8990:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology
8977:
8739:
8632:
8169:
7944:
7896:Ogbadoyi EO, Robinson DR, Gull K (May 2003).
7655:
7402:
7351:
7312:
7310:
7154:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (
6482:
5262:
5115:
3226:International Journal of Medical Microbiology
1552:and the economic life of sub-Saharan Africa.
1345:). Another drug, nifurtimox, recommended for
9667:
9384:
9241:
7760:
7562:
7560:
6890:"Present state of knowledge of chemotherapy"
6190:
6131:
5936:Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée
5342:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
5265:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology
3477:Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine
3223:
2872:The Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
2735:
2309:"Cell-to-Cell Heterogeneity in Trypanosomes"
1714:, allowing chronic infection. VSG is highly
1710:population to persistently evade the host's
1333:, pentamidine for first-stage infection of
393:
8801:
8400:
7017:Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry
6700:Infectious Disease Clinics of North America
6655:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
4288:
2996:Journal of the American Medical Association
2837:Infectious Disease Clinics of North America
2742:(2 ed.). Academic Press. p. 297.
2368:
2366:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2092:activity and TbHpHbR inactivation due to a
2076:is principally mediated by the hydrophobic
341:The parasite was discovered in 1894 by Sir
327:are evolved from parasites very similar to
9845:
9831:
9816:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
9300:
8696:
8690:
8540:
8441:
8170:Hall JP, Wang H, Barry JD (11 July 2013).
8119:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
8106:
7475:International Society of Ethnopharmacology
7307:
7111:
6649:Lutje V, Seixas J, Kennedy A (June 2013).
6288:. Centers for Disease Control. 2 May 2017.
5308:
5020:
4683:
3994:
3992:
3770:"Further researches on the development of
3685:"Controlling sleeping sickness - a review"
3650:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
3643:
3616:
3178:
2640:
2058:and the subsequent death of the parasite.
1174:progresses from the anterior to posterior.
821:when the parasite differentiates into the
450:a species he discovered in frogs in 1843.
269:is transmitted between mammal hosts by an
58:picture. Black bar indicates 10 µm.)
42:
9709:
9699:
9607:
9583:
9566:
9542:
9525:
9515:
9474:
9464:
9324:
9283:
9273:
9224:
9214:
9109:
9099:
9058:
9009:
8909:
8868:
8784:
8722:
8607:
8582:Vanhollebeke B, Pays E (September 2006).
8473:
8424:
8383:
8373:
8328:
8254:
8197:
8187:
8146:
8046:
7980:
7978:
7976:
7921:
7872:
7862:
7743:
7733:
7689:
7679:
7594:
7584:
7557:
7532:
7436:
7426:
7385:
7375:
7334:
7290:
7280:
7204:
7194:
6987:
6977:
6936:
6864:
6815:
6766:
6674:
6582:
6443:
6377:
6359:
6232:
6222:
6173:
6163:
6114:
6104:
6063:
6006:
5996:
5947:
5906:
5896:
5779:
5738:
5720:
5524:
5506:
5456:
5429:Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine
5399:
5389:
5367:
5236:
5141:
5050:
4919:
4909:
4860:
4778:
4768:
4719:
4701:
4668:
4494:
4437:
4361:
4351:
4271:
4222:
4204:
4162:
4144:
3945:
3874:
3826:
3793:
3496:
3399:
3322:
3208:
3120:
3041:
2808:
2712:
2668:
2658:
2608:
2491:
2446:
2390:
2328:
2264:
1103:synthesis is also altered: production of
6966:Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease
6790:Moore B, Nierenstein M, Todd JL (1907).
4041:
3924:Stephens JW, Fantham HB, Ross R (1910).
2643:"The history of African trypanosomiasis"
2353:
1681:), was identified in the nuclear DNA of
1427:have shown research promise against the
1135:
926:
863:
827:
757:
422:, where the disease was most prevalent.
375:
348:
8312:
7168:
6605:
6278:
6255:
5111:
5109:
4831:Romero-Meza G, Mugnier MR (June 2020).
3989:
3573:
3519:
3470:
2958:
2869:
2782:
2108:mutation at the second codon position.
2050:and subsequent osmotic swelling of the
1548:and one of the greatest limitations on
1140:Trypanosome cell cycle (procyclic form)
847:at different stages of the life cycle:
699:is also a specific distinction between
483:School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
331:, and are thought to be members of the
14:
10235:
9633:The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology
8549:Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology
8077:
7973:
7959:10.1146/annurev.micro.62.081307.162750
7769:Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology
7076:
7041:
6838:
6740:
5484:
5482:
5480:
5478:
5476:
5334:
5332:
5304:
5302:
5300:
5298:
4804:
4802:
4800:
4798:
4294:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4116:
4114:
3897:
3546:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3381:
3257:
3255:
3074:. London: Elsevier. pp. 133–135.
3063:
3061:
2830:
2828:
2517:International Journal for Parasitology
2514:
2213:, a chemical compound produced by the
2154:the TLF is directed to SRA containing
1781:genome may be made up of VSG genes or
990:(CNS) and placenta in pregnant women.
660:, along with several other species of
586:Another human trypanosome (now called
497:. The first investigation focussed on
10122:
10121:
9826:
7415:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
7316:
7010:
6887:
6292:
5929:
5206:
5204:
4588:
4586:
4584:
4582:
3808:
3388:Historia, Ciencias, Saude--Manguinhos
3019:
3017:
2923:
2789:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
2778:
2776:
2762:
2690:
2688:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2372:
2170:Baboons are known to be resistant to
1525:is found in Central and West Africa.
9549:Pays E, Vanhollebeke B (July 2008).
8588:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
8277:
7525:World Organisation for Animal Health
5106:
4812:. Food and Agricultural Organization
3422:
3345:
3304:
3261:
3143:
3094:
3067:
2993:
2926:British Journal of Hospital Medicine
2896:
2890:
2590:
2586:
2584:
2548:
2546:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2182:which are linked to kidney disease.
1996:
969:
617:is a species complex that includes:
594:(later Zambia), was not the same as
307:Whilst not historically regarded as
235:or sleeping sickness in humans, and
10022:Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis
9313:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
8898:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
8584:"The function of apolipoproteins L"
8497:Vanhollebeke B, Pays E (May 2010).
8413:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
7242:10.1146/annurev.pa.02.040162.001205
6400:
5473:
5329:
5295:
5229:10.1146/annurev.micro.091208.073353
4795:
4111:
3459:
3252:
3181:"The history of the association of
3058:
2834:
2825:
2330:10.1146/annurev-micro-040821-012953
1706:This VSG coat enables an infecting
1397:
1117:α-methyldopa hypersensitive protein
1105:aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase
1097:glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase
24:
8092:10.1111/j.1574-6968.1997.tb10486.x
7987:Advances in Parasitology Volume 49
5201:
5116:Langousis G, Hill KL (July 2014).
4579:
4399:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2008.03.006
3567:
3014:
2773:
2685:
2625:
1841:(ApoL1). TLF-1 is a member of the
1768:in that site), or by changing the
442:due to printer's error. The genus
315:DNA, genetic analyses reveal that
276:belonging to different species of
25:
10284:
9764:
6262:Medical and Veterinary Entomology
6260:. In Mullen GR, Durden L (eds.).
5560:Infection, Genetics and Evolution
5374:Kinetoplastid Biology and Disease
4942:
2739:Medical and Veterinary Entomology
2581:
2543:
2421:Masocha W, Kristensson K (2012).
2227:
1575:There are two subpopulations of
1465:, 2013 find a lower dose reduces
1258:. While the principal vectors of
1131:
872:These names are derived from the
9726:
9645:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2006.00228.x
9491:
9440:
9341:
9075:
8836:
8575:
8561:10.1016/j.molbiopara.2004.07.004
8518:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07156.x
8490:
8271:
8214:
8163:
8139:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06654.x
8071:
8048:10.1111/j.1462-5822.2009.01383.x
7938:
7889:
7851:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
7838:
7795:
7668:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
7256:
7221:
7162:
7105:
7070:
7035:
7004:
6953:
6904:
6881:
6832:
6783:
6734:
6691:
6642:
6348:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
5842:10.1111/j.1365-2583.2007.00761.x
5021:Sunter JD, Gull K (April 2016).
4340:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
4193:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
3961:Stephens JW, Fantham HB (1910).
3008:10.1001/jama.1907.25220270001001
2994:Novy FG (1907). "Trypanosomes".
2406:
2201:Queen Mary, University of London
1497:is only found in the blue areas
1481:
1001:
687:) gene is used to differentiate
353:
67:
8697:Smith EE, Malik HS (May 2009).
8466:10.1128/IAI.67.4.1910-1916.1999
7517:Revue Scientifique et Technique
7364:Journal of Biological Chemistry
7269:Frontiers in Veterinary Science
6599:
6550:
6515:
6476:
6437:
6394:
6335:
6249:
6080:
6023:
5964:
5923:
5864:
5755:
5696:
5648:
5597:
5416:
5368:Seed JR, Wenck MA (June 2003).
5158:
5075:
4979:
4936:
4877:
4824:
4677:
4629:
4470:
4413:
4378:
4327:
4239:
4179:
4035:
3954:
3917:
3891:
3851:
3802:
3761:
3726:
3676:
3637:
3610:
3540:
3513:
3416:
3401:10.1590/s0104-59702012005000004
3375:
3339:
3298:
3217:
3172:
3137:
3088:
2987:
2952:
2917:
2863:
2756:
2729:
2472:The Lancet. Infectious Diseases
1472:
1303:
1126:
602:in Liverpool under the care of
565:Discovery of human trypanosomes
285:
247:grouped into three subspecies:
9778:Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense
7169:Lai JS, Herr W (August 1992).
6667:10.1002/14651858.CD006201.pub3
6575:10.1179/2047773213Y.0000000105
3983:10.1080/00034983.1910.11685723
2641:Steverding D (February 2008).
2508:
2463:
2414:
2203:, researches various forms of
2139:Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense
1168:The nucleus undergoes mitosis.
243:in cattle and horses. It is a
197:Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense
18:Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense
13:
1:
9609:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81706-7
9498:Smith A, McCulloh RJ (2015).
8426:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)83720-6
8330:10.3410/f.734240334.793552268
8313:Rudenko G (26 October 2018).
7995:10.1016/S0065-308X(01)49037-3
7947:Annual Review of Microbiology
7902:Molecular Biology of the Cell
7230:Annual Review of Pharmacology
7091:10.1016/S0368-1742(48)80008-1
7056:10.1016/s0368-1742(48)80008-1
6620:10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70296-X
6313:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15345-7
5217:Annual Review of Microbiology
4810:"African animal trypanosomes"
4089:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31510-6
4013:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14694-6
3869:(567): 513–527. 31 May 1911.
3811:"Muriel Robertson, 1883–1973"
3631:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)70338-8
2938:10.12968/hmed.2006.67.3.20624
2736:Mullen GR, Durden LA (2009).
2484:10.1016/S1473-3099(02)00321-3
2313:Annual Review of Microbiology
2221:
2217:which induces sleep in humans
1757:(trypanosomes in the blood).
1412:melaminophenyl arsenical and
980:variant surface glycoproteins
922:
485:as the leader, his colleague
408:Army Medical School in Netley
387:Thomas Masterman Winterbottom
290:variant surface glycoproteins
27:Species of protozoan parasite
9774:Trypanosoma brucei gambiense
9747:10.1016/0306-4492(78)90091-6
9568:10.1016/j.micinf.2008.07.020
9466:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003317
9350:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
9101:10.1371/journal.ppat.0030129
8189:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003502
7864:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000658
7781:10.1016/0166-6851(89)90189-8
7735:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000685
7681:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001287
7467:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
6361:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000783
6224:10.1371/journal.pone.0002879
5722:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001023
5660:. 118 ( Pt 5) (5): 469–478.
5606:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
5572:10.1016/j.meegid.2012.03.016
5281:10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.08.022
5122:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
5000:10.1016/0169-4758(96)10031-4
4957:10.1016/0248-4900(88)90056-1
4641:Emerging Infectious Diseases
4353:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000961
4313:10.1016/0014-4894(84)90023-7
4206:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001691
3549:East African Medical Journal
3522:East African Medical Journal
3425:Journal of Medical Biography
3361:10.1016/0035-9203(93)90002-8
3158:10.1016/0169-4758(96)90083-6
3030:Emerging Infectious Diseases
2783:Kennedy PG (February 2004).
2610:10.1016/0035-9203(94)90068-x
2567:10.1016/0035-9203(93)90056-v
2529:10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.03.002
2070:Trypanosoma brucei gambiense
1912:is found on the long arm of
1817:(as well as related species
1694:Variant surface glycoprotein
1561:Trypanosoma brucei gambiense
1555:
1085:Glossina palpalis gambiensis
753:
725:
469:Sleeping Sickness Commission
463:Sleeping Sickness Commission
453:
190:Trypanosoma brucei gambiense
169:Plimmer & Bradford, 1899
7:
9971:Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis
9772:"Trypanosomiasis, African (
6563:Pathogens and Global Health
5949:10.1051/parasite/1990651019
5830:Royal Entomological Society
5086:. 93 ( Pt 3) (3): 491–500.
4684:Morriswood, Brooke (2015).
2392:10.1051/parasite/1995021003
2185:
1882:Human infective subspecies
1835:haptoglobin-related protein
1687:
1601:In contrast, resistance in
1570:
1544:. It is thus of tremendous
1359:and his Japanese associate
1214:Infection and pathogenicity
1087:, the parasite changes the
695:gene, found only in type 1
520:University College Hospital
292:, which undergo remarkable
54:TREU667 (Bloodstream form,
10:
10289:
10268:Protists described in 1899
7128:(inactive 27 April 2024).
6979:10.3390/tropicalmed7090205
6258:"Tsetse fly (Glossinidae)"
5441:10.1016/j.siny.2009.02.003
5425:"Infection and stillbirth"
3809:Miles, A. A. (July 1976).
3489:10.1177/003591577406700846
3471:Lumsden WH (August 1974).
3382:Amaral I (December 2012).
2125:reticuloendothelial system
1691:
1513:), and tropical savannah (
1217:
1185:
1101:Monoamine neurotransmitter
825:in the tsetse fly midgut.
609:
466:
430:. It was the discovery of
213:is a species of parasitic
10130:
10070:
10045:
10036:
10005:
9926:
9885:
9867:
8600:10.1007/s00018-006-6091-x
8375:10.1038/s41586-018-0619-8
8080:FEMS Microbiology Letters
7633:10.1017/S0031182000063435
7487:10.1016/j.jep.2014.04.012
7323:FEMS Microbiology Reviews
7282:10.3389/fvets.2022.828111
6929:10.1017/S0031182016001268
6857:10.1017/s0022172400033295
6712:10.1016/j.idc.2018.10.003
6493:10.1007/s00436-002-0752-y
6454:10.1007/s00436-002-0766-5
6415:10.1007/s00436-002-0799-9
6056:10.1016/j.cub.2013.11.044
5666:10.1017/s0031182099004217
4761:The Company of Biologists
4637:"Etymologia: Trypanosoma"
4496:10.4269/ajtmh.2007.76.922
4439:10.4269/ajtmh.2002.67.684
4297:Experimental Parasitology
3704:10.1017/S0031182009006416
3201:10.1136/bmj.2.2241.1565-a
3095:Mott FW (December 1899).
2849:10.1016/j.idc.2004.01.004
2192:List of parasites (human)
1815:Trypanosoma brucei brucei
1633:of 1 to 6 megabase pairs.
1612:
1528:
1228:are different species of
780:is a typical unicellular
551:Frederick Percival Mackie
394:Discovery of the parasite
183:Trypanosoma brucei brucei
179:
174:
159:
152:
64:Scientific classification
62:
50:
41:
34:
9517:10.3389/fphys.2015.00187
8911:10.1074/jbc.272.41.25576
8292:10.1016/j.pt.2005.08.016
6839:Wenyon CM (April 1907).
5822:Insect Molecular Biology
5508:10.3389/fcimb.2013.00053
5179:10.1016/j.pt.2020.11.005
5043:10.1016/j.pt.2015.12.010
4853:10.1016/j.pt.2019.10.007
4607:10.1016/j.pt.2018.08.002
4549:10.1016/j.pt.2022.05.011
4264:10.1016/j.pt.2012.09.002
3305:Cook GC (January 1993).
2257:10.1016/j.pt.2019.10.007
1981:Hpr is 91% identical to
1931:in African populations.
1893:
1843:high density lipoprotein
1236:). The major vectors of
1177:Division completes with
400:Royal Army Medical Corps
10243:African trypanosomiasis
9957:Cutaneous leishmaniasis
9902:African trypanosomiasis
9701:10.1073/pnas.0905669106
9504:Frontiers in Physiology
9275:10.1073/pnas.1214943110
9216:10.1073/pnas.0609902104
9160:10.1126/science.1156296
8955:10.1126/science.1114566
8777:10.1126/science.1193032
8247:10.1126/science.aaa4502
7914:10.1091/mbc.E02-08-0525
7377:10.1074/jbc.M116.715615
7196:10.1073/pnas.89.15.6958
7029:10.1002/jctb.5000660604
6894:Chinese Medical Journal
6796:The Biochemical Journal
6759:10.1136/bmj.1.2317.1140
6747:British Medical Journal
6165:10.1073/pnas.0807880106
6093:Parasites & Vectors
5998:10.1073/pnas.1019423108
5898:10.1073/pnas.83.16.6063
5084:Journal of Cell Science
4911:10.1073/pnas.1103634108
4753:Journal of Cell Science
3828:10.1099/00221287-95-1-1
3437:10.1258/jmb.2010.010051
3238:10.1078/1438-4221-00190
3189:British Medical Journal
3185:with sleeping sickness"
3113:10.1136/bmj.2.2033.1666
3101:British Medical Journal
2701:African Health Sciences
2647:Parasites & Vectors
2373:Baker JR (March 1995).
2131:Resistance mechanisms:
2062:Resistance mechanisms:
1877: million years ago
1870: million years ago
1394:in molecular biology).
1343:reactive encephalopathy
1224:The insect vectors for
1220:African trypanosomiasis
691:from other subspecies.
600:Royal Southern Hospital
233:African trypanosomiasis
217:belonging to the genus
9991:Visceral leishmaniasis
9555:Microbes and Infection
9326:10.1074/jbc.M207215200
9002:10.1681/ASN.2011010069
8506:Molecular Microbiology
8454:Infection and Immunity
8280:Trends in Parasitology
7534:10.20506/rst.34.2.2382
7336:10.1093/femsre/fuad020
7126:10.1136/vr.62.17.257-a
6845:The Journal of Hygiene
6741:Thomas HW (May 1905).
6487:. 90 Supp 1: S10–S13.
6448:. 90 Supp 1: S49–S52.
6106:10.1186/1756-3305-7-78
5309:Chatterjee KD (2009).
5167:Trends in Parasitology
5027:Trends in Parasitology
4841:Trends in Parasitology
4653:10.3201/eid1209.ET1209
4595:Trends in Parasitology
4532:Trends in Parasitology
4252:Trends in Parasitology
3947:10.1098/rspb.1910.0064
3876:10.1098/rspb.1911.0034
3795:10.1098/rspb.1911.0034
3755:10.1098/rspb.1909.0041
3662:10.1098/rspl.1902.0134
3588:10.1098/rsbm.1932.0017
3276:10.1098/rsnr.1973.0008
3043:10.3201/eid1004.020626
2245:Trends in Parasitology
1976:
1965:and can be induced by
1373:isometamidium chloride
1320:developed in 1949 and
1141:
988:central nervous system
964:extracellular vesicles
932:
869:
837:
774:
714:, 2022 proposes a new
658:animal trypanosomiasis
584:
581:Trypanosoma gambiense.
510:In February 1902, the
381:
237:animal trypanosomiasis
10081:Trichomonas vaginalis
9800:NCBI Taxonomy Browser
8810:Journal of Nephrology
8715:10.1101/gr.085647.108
8035:Cellular Microbiology
7816:10.1007/s004120050402
7114:The Veterinary Record
6608:The Lancet. Neurology
6485:Parasitology Research
6446:Parasitology Research
6403:Parasitology Research
5391:10.1186/1475-9292-2-3
4133:Clinical Epidemiology
3772:Trypanosoma gambiense
3735:Trypanosoma gambiense
3179:Castellani A (1903).
2660:10.1186/1756-3305-1-3
1971:tumor necrosis factor
1740:. However, with each
1550:agriculture in Africa
1509:), tropical monsoon (
1287:In later stages of a
1139:
930:
867:
831:
794:endoplasmic reticulum
761:
748:T. brucei rhodesiense
648:T. brucei rhodesiense
588:T. brucei rhodesiense
576:
479:George Carmichael Low
379:
349:History and discovery
10253:Parasites of mammals
10095:Dientamoeba fragilis
8849:Kidney International
7428:10.1128/AAC.02719-16
5092:10.1242/jcs.93.3.491
4703:10.3390/cells4040726
4083:(10110): 2397–2409.
3656:(467–476): 501–508.
2241:"Trypanosoma brucei"
1831:innate immune system
1536:is a major cause of
1369:diminazene aceturate
1144:The reproduction of
1099:in infected flies.)
1008:anopheline mosquitos
630:David Hurst Molyneux
10258:Parasitic excavates
10248:Parasites of humans
9692:2009PNAS..10619509T
9686:(46): 19509–19514.
9418:10.1038/nature12516
9410:2013Natur.501..430U
9362:10.1038/nrmicro1428
9266:2013PNAS..110.1905H
9207:2007PNAS..104.4118V
9152:2008Sci...320..677V
8947:2005Sci...309..469P
8904:(41): 25576–25582.
8861:10.1038/ki.2012.263
8769:2010Sci...329..841G
8668:10.1038/nature01461
8660:2003Natur.422...83V
8366:2018Natur.563..121M
8239:2015Sci...347.1470M
8233:(6229): 1470–1473.
8131:2012NYASA1267...11B
7586:10.7554/eLife.11473
7187:1992PNAS...89.6958L
6753:(2317): 1140–1143.
6524:Future Microbiology
6256:Krisnky WL (2009).
6215:2008PLoSO...3.2879M
6156:2009PNAS..106.3859H
6048:2014CBio...24..181P
5989:2011PNAS..108.3671P
5889:1986PNAS...83.6063Z
5618:10.1038/nrmicro2929
5590:0000-0002-1592-157X
5134:10.1038/nrmicro3274
4945:Biology of the Cell
4902:2011PNAS..10811105K
4896:(27): 11105–11108.
4146:10.2147/CLEP.S39728
4007:(9394): 1469–1480.
3904:Wellcome Collection
3625:(4164): 1735–1736.
3107:(2033): 1666–1669.
1945:Within the kidney,
1732:complement-mediated
1316:developed in 1941,
1312:developed in 1921,
868:Flagellar structure
744:T. brucei gambiense
622:T. brucei gambiense
516:David Nunes Nabarro
504:Mansonella perstans
432:Trypanosoma brucei.
302:blood brain barrier
294:antigenic variation
223:that is present in
10273:Euglenozoa species
10161:Trypanosoma_brucei
10132:Trypanosoma brucei
9794:Trypanosoma brucei
8822:10.5301/jn.5000179
6271:978-0-0-80-91969-0
5942:(Suppl 1): 19–21.
5781:10.1242/dev.072611
5322:978-8-12-39-1810-5
4988:Parasitology Today
4835:Trypanosoma brucei
4770:10.1242/jcs.211730
4747:Trypanosoma brucei
3898:Dutton JE (1902).
3146:Parasitology Today
2973:10.1007/BF02217469
2439:10.4161/viru.19178
1908:The gene encoding
1629:11 pairs of large
1546:veterinary concern
1542:sub-Saharan Africa
1442:Khaya senegalensis
1431:strain. Aderbauer
1409:Trypanosoma brucei
1142:
958:(ESCRT) system to
952:spliced leader RNA
933:
870:
838:
775:
539:Glossina palpalis.
512:British War Office
495:helminth infection
440:Trypanosoma brucii
436:John Rose Bradford
382:
225:sub-Saharan Africa
210:Trypanosoma brucei
163:Trypanosoma brucei
36:Trypanosoma brucei
10230:
10229:
10124:Taxon identifiers
10115:
10114:
10111:
10110:
10032:
10031:
10016:Naegleria fowleri
10001:
10000:
9854:Parasitic disease
9404:(7467): 430–434.
9201:(10): 4118–4123.
9146:(5876): 677–681.
9051:10.4161/auto.7066
8996:(11): 2119–2128.
8941:(5733): 469–472.
8763:(5993): 841–845.
8594:(17): 1937–1944.
8041:(12): 1724–1734.
8004:978-0-12-031749-3
7989:. pp. 1–70.
7181:(15): 6958–6962.
7011:Walls LP (1947).
6923:(14): 1862–1889.
6808:10.1042/bj0020300
6536:10.2217/fmb.11.88
6150:(10): 3859–3864.
5883:(16): 6063–6064.
5774:(10): 1842–1850.
4647:(9): 1473. 2006.
4601:(12): 1056–1067.
3776:Glossina palpalis
3739:Glossina palpalis
3698:(14): 1943–1949.
3528:: 699–708 contd.
3081:978-0-08-055939-1
2910:978-0-08-055939-1
2749:978-0-08-091969-0
2205:mass spectrometry
2180:T. b. rhodesiense
2176:T. b. rhodesiense
2172:T. b. rhodesiense
2152:T. b. rhodesiense
2148:T. b. rhodesiense
2133:T. b. rhodesiense
2090:cysteine protease
1997:Killing mechanism
1959:phosphatidic acid
1918:T. b. rhodesiense
1888:T. b. rhodesiense
1839:apolipoprotein LI
1603:T. b. rhodesiense
1538:livestock disease
1519:T. b. rhodesiense
1331:T. b. rhodesiense
1260:T. b. rhodesiense
1049:, and especially
970:In mammalian host
906:of the flagellar
885:paraflagellar rod
689:T. b. rhodesiense
592:Northern Rhodesia
418:Steele) moved to
257:T. b. rhodesiense
206:
205:
200:
193:
186:
16:(Redirected from
10280:
10223:
10222:
10213:
10212:
10200:
10199:
10187:
10186:
10174:
10173:
10164:
10163:
10151:
10150:
10149:
10119:
10118:
10043:
10042:
9987:
9953:
9938:Leishmania major
9883:
9882:
9874:
9873:
9847:
9840:
9833:
9824:
9823:
9819:
9803:
9787:
9759:
9758:
9730:
9724:
9723:
9713:
9703:
9671:
9665:
9664:
9628:
9622:
9621:
9611:
9587:
9581:
9580:
9570:
9546:
9540:
9539:
9529:
9519:
9495:
9489:
9488:
9478:
9468:
9444:
9438:
9437:
9393:
9382:
9381:
9345:
9339:
9338:
9328:
9304:
9298:
9297:
9287:
9277:
9260:(5): 1905–1910.
9245:
9239:
9238:
9228:
9218:
9186:
9180:
9179:
9135:
9124:
9123:
9113:
9103:
9094:(9): 1250–1261.
9079:
9073:
9072:
9062:
9045:(8): 1079–1082.
9030:
9024:
9023:
9013:
8981:
8975:
8974:
8930:
8924:
8923:
8913:
8889:
8883:
8882:
8872:
8840:
8834:
8833:
8805:
8799:
8798:
8788:
8748:
8737:
8736:
8726:
8694:
8688:
8687:
8643:
8630:
8629:
8611:
8579:
8573:
8572:
8544:
8538:
8537:
8503:
8494:
8488:
8487:
8477:
8460:(4): 1910–1916.
8445:
8439:
8438:
8428:
8419:(9): 5210–5217.
8404:
8398:
8397:
8387:
8377:
8341:
8335:
8334:
8332:
8310:
8304:
8303:
8275:
8269:
8268:
8258:
8218:
8212:
8211:
8201:
8191:
8167:
8161:
8160:
8150:
8110:
8104:
8103:
8075:
8069:
8068:
8050:
8026:
8017:
8016:
7982:
7971:
7970:
7942:
7936:
7935:
7925:
7908:(5): 1769–1779.
7893:
7887:
7886:
7876:
7866:
7842:
7836:
7835:
7799:
7793:
7792:
7764:
7758:
7757:
7747:
7737:
7728:(12): e1000685.
7713:
7704:
7703:
7693:
7683:
7659:
7653:
7652:
7615:
7609:
7608:
7598:
7588:
7564:
7555:
7554:
7536:
7508:
7499:
7498:
7462:
7451:
7450:
7440:
7430:
7421:(6): e02719-16.
7406:
7400:
7399:
7389:
7379:
7370:(22): 11717–26.
7355:
7349:
7348:
7338:
7317:Hofer A (2022).
7314:
7305:
7304:
7294:
7284:
7260:
7254:
7253:
7225:
7219:
7218:
7208:
7198:
7166:
7160:
7159:
7153:
7145:
7109:
7103:
7102:
7074:
7068:
7067:
7039:
7033:
7032:
7008:
7002:
7001:
6991:
6981:
6957:
6951:
6950:
6940:
6908:
6902:
6901:
6888:Nocht B (1935).
6885:
6879:
6878:
6868:
6836:
6830:
6829:
6819:
6802:(5–6): 300–324.
6787:
6781:
6780:
6770:
6738:
6732:
6731:
6695:
6689:
6688:
6678:
6646:
6640:
6639:
6603:
6597:
6596:
6586:
6554:
6548:
6547:
6530:(9): 1037–1047.
6519:
6513:
6512:
6480:
6474:
6473:
6441:
6435:
6434:
6398:
6392:
6391:
6381:
6363:
6339:
6333:
6332:
6296:
6290:
6289:
6282:
6276:
6275:
6253:
6247:
6246:
6236:
6226:
6194:
6188:
6187:
6177:
6167:
6135:
6129:
6128:
6118:
6108:
6084:
6078:
6077:
6067:
6027:
6021:
6020:
6010:
6000:
5983:(9): 3671–3676.
5968:
5962:
5961:
5951:
5930:Jenni L (1990).
5927:
5921:
5920:
5910:
5900:
5868:
5862:
5861:
5816:
5810:
5809:
5783:
5759:
5753:
5752:
5742:
5724:
5700:
5694:
5693:
5652:
5646:
5645:
5601:
5595:
5593:
5583:
5557:
5548:
5539:
5538:
5528:
5510:
5486:
5471:
5470:
5460:
5420:
5414:
5413:
5403:
5393:
5365:
5352:
5351:
5349:
5347:
5336:
5327:
5326:
5306:
5293:
5292:
5260:
5251:
5250:
5240:
5208:
5199:
5198:
5162:
5156:
5155:
5145:
5113:
5104:
5103:
5079:
5073:
5072:
5054:
5018:
5012:
5011:
4983:
4977:
4976:
4940:
4934:
4933:
4923:
4913:
4881:
4875:
4874:
4864:
4828:
4822:
4821:
4819:
4817:
4806:
4793:
4792:
4782:
4772:
4740:
4734:
4733:
4723:
4705:
4681:
4675:
4674:
4672:
4633:
4627:
4626:
4590:
4577:
4576:
4526:
4517:
4516:
4498:
4474:
4468:
4467:
4441:
4417:
4411:
4410:
4382:
4376:
4375:
4365:
4355:
4331:
4325:
4324:
4292:
4286:
4285:
4275:
4243:
4237:
4236:
4226:
4208:
4183:
4177:
4176:
4166:
4148:
4124:
4109:
4108:
4072:
4063:
4062:
4039:
4033:
4032:
3996:
3987:
3986:
3958:
3952:
3951:
3949:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3912:
3910:
3895:
3889:
3888:
3878:
3855:
3849:
3848:
3830:
3806:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3788:(567): 513–527.
3765:
3759:
3758:
3749:(550): 405–414.
3730:
3724:
3723:
3689:
3680:
3674:
3673:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3614:
3608:
3607:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3500:
3468:
3457:
3456:
3420:
3414:
3413:
3403:
3394:(4): 1275–1300.
3379:
3373:
3372:
3343:
3337:
3336:
3326:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3259:
3250:
3249:
3232:(3–4): 141–147.
3221:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3124:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3065:
3056:
3055:
3045:
3021:
3012:
3011:
2991:
2985:
2984:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2921:
2915:
2914:
2897:Cook GC (2007).
2894:
2888:
2887:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2832:
2823:
2822:
2812:
2801:10.1172/JCI34802
2780:
2771:
2770:
2763:Bruce D (1895).
2760:
2754:
2753:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2716:
2692:
2683:
2682:
2672:
2662:
2638:
2623:
2622:
2612:
2591:Cook GC (1994).
2588:
2579:
2578:
2550:
2541:
2540:
2523:(8–9): 829–838.
2512:
2506:
2505:
2495:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2450:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2410:
2404:
2394:
2370:
2351:
2350:
2332:
2304:
2279:
2278:
2268:
2236:
1949:is found in the
1878:
1871:
1485:
1453:, 2013 and 2008
1435:, 2008 and Umar
1398:Drug development
1392:ethidium bromide
1351:T. b. gambiense.
976:lymphatic system
710:. As such Lukeš
654:T. brucei brucei
638:domestic animals
559:Muriel Robertson
499:Filaria perstans
491:Cuthbert Christy
481:from the London
286:their life cycle
199:
192:
185:
165:
121:Trypanosomatidae
72:
71:
46:
32:
31:
21:
10288:
10287:
10283:
10282:
10281:
10279:
10278:
10277:
10263:Trypanosomatida
10233:
10232:
10231:
10226:
10218:
10216:
10208:
10203:
10195:
10190:
10182:
10177:
10169:
10167:
10159:
10154:
10145:
10144:
10139:
10126:
10116:
10107:
10101:Dientamoebiasis
10066:
10056:Giardia lamblia
10028:
9997:
9977:
9965:L. braziliensis
9935:
9922:
9887:Trypanosomiasis
9878:Trypanosomatida
9863:
9851:
9806:
9790:
9770:
9767:
9762:
9731:
9727:
9672:
9668:
9629:
9625:
9588:
9584:
9547:
9543:
9496:
9492:
9459:(4): e1003317.
9445:
9441:
9394:
9385:
9346:
9342:
9305:
9301:
9246:
9242:
9187:
9183:
9136:
9127:
9080:
9076:
9031:
9027:
8982:
8978:
8931:
8927:
8890:
8886:
8841:
8837:
8806:
8802:
8749:
8740:
8703:Genome Research
8695:
8691:
8654:(6927): 83–87.
8644:
8633:
8580:
8576:
8545:
8541:
8501:
8495:
8491:
8446:
8442:
8405:
8401:
8358:Nature Research
8342:
8338:
8311:
8307:
8286:(11): 517–520.
8276:
8272:
8219:
8215:
8182:(7): e1003502.
8168:
8164:
8111:
8107:
8076:
8072:
8027:
8020:
8005:
7983:
7974:
7943:
7939:
7894:
7890:
7843:
7839:
7800:
7796:
7765:
7761:
7714:
7707:
7660:
7656:
7627:(Pt 1): 31–50.
7616:
7612:
7565:
7558:
7509:
7502:
7463:
7454:
7407:
7403:
7356:
7352:
7315:
7308:
7261:
7257:
7226:
7222:
7167:
7163:
7147:
7146:
7110:
7106:
7075:
7071:
7040:
7036:
7009:
7005:
6958:
6954:
6909:
6905:
6886:
6882:
6837:
6833:
6788:
6784:
6739:
6735:
6696:
6692:
6661:(6): CD006201.
6647:
6643:
6604:
6600:
6555:
6551:
6520:
6516:
6481:
6477:
6442:
6438:
6399:
6395:
6340:
6336:
6297:
6293:
6284:
6283:
6279:
6272:
6254:
6250:
6195:
6191:
6136:
6132:
6085:
6081:
6036:Current Biology
6028:
6024:
5969:
5965:
5928:
5924:
5869:
5865:
5817:
5813:
5760:
5756:
5715:(7): e1001023.
5701:
5697:
5653:
5649:
5602:
5598:
5584:
5555:
5549:
5542:
5487:
5474:
5421:
5417:
5366:
5355:
5345:
5343:
5338:
5337:
5330:
5323:
5307:
5296:
5261:
5254:
5209:
5202:
5163:
5159:
5114:
5107:
5080:
5076:
5019:
5015:
4984:
4980:
4941:
4937:
4882:
4878:
4829:
4825:
4815:
4813:
4808:
4807:
4796:
4741:
4737:
4682:
4678:
4635:
4634:
4630:
4591:
4580:
4527:
4520:
4475:
4471:
4418:
4414:
4383:
4379:
4332:
4328:
4293:
4289:
4258:(12): 539–545.
4244:
4240:
4184:
4180:
4125:
4112:
4073:
4066:
4040:
4036:
3997:
3990:
3959:
3955:
3922:
3918:
3908:
3906:
3896:
3892:
3857:
3856:
3852:
3807:
3803:
3766:
3762:
3731:
3727:
3687:
3681:
3677:
3642:
3638:
3615:
3611:
3572:
3568:
3545:
3541:
3518:
3514:
3469:
3460:
3421:
3417:
3380:
3376:
3344:
3340:
3303:
3299:
3260:
3253:
3222:
3218:
3177:
3173:
3142:
3138:
3093:
3089:
3082:
3068:Cook G (2007).
3066:
3059:
3022:
3015:
2992:
2988:
2957:
2953:
2922:
2918:
2911:
2895:
2891:
2868:
2864:
2833:
2826:
2781:
2774:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2734:
2730:
2693:
2686:
2639:
2626:
2589:
2582:
2551:
2544:
2513:
2509:
2468:
2464:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2371:
2354:
2305:
2282:
2237:
2228:
2224:
2188:
2162:. SRA binds to
2136:
2082:T. b. gambiense
2067:
2064:T. b. gambiense
1999:
1979:
1896:
1884:T. b. gambiense
1873:
1866:
1863:sooty mangabeys
1812:
1720:immune response
1698:The surface of
1696:
1690:
1625:is made up of:
1615:
1607:T. b. gambiense
1596:T. b. gambiense
1592:T. b. gambiense
1585:T. b. gambiense
1577:T. b. gambiense
1573:
1565:Meselson effect
1558:
1531:
1523:T. b. gambiense
1500:
1499:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1475:
1421:Phytochemicals.
1400:
1339:T. b. gambiense
1335:T. b. gambiense
1306:
1238:T. b. gambiense
1222:
1216:
1188:
1134:
1129:
1115:synthesis, and
1079:In the case of
1069:salivary glands
1004:
972:
950:containing the
925:
897:dinoflagellates
841:Trypanosomatids
823:procyclic phase
798:Golgi apparatus
782:eukaryotic cell
756:
728:
701:T. b. gambiense
697:T. b. gambiense
678:infect a human.
612:
567:
501:(later renamed
487:Aldo Castellani
471:
465:
456:
396:
356:
351:
253:T. b. gambiense
245:species complex
227:. Unlike other
170:
167:
161:
148:
111:Trypanosomatida
66:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10286:
10276:
10275:
10270:
10265:
10260:
10255:
10250:
10245:
10228:
10227:
10225:
10224:
10214:
10201:
10188:
10175:
10165:
10152:
10136:
10134:
10128:
10127:
10113:
10112:
10109:
10108:
10106:
10105:
10104:
10103:
10091:
10090:
10089:
10087:Trichomoniasis
10076:
10074:
10072:Trichomonadida
10068:
10067:
10065:
10064:
10051:
10049:
10040:
10034:
10033:
10030:
10029:
10027:
10026:
10025:
10024:
10011:
10009:
10007:Schizopyrenida
10003:
10002:
9999:
9998:
9996:
9995:
9994:
9993:
9975:
9974:
9973:
9961:
9960:
9959:
9932:
9930:
9924:
9923:
9921:
9920:
9919:
9918:
9916:Chagas disease
9906:
9905:
9904:
9891:
9889:
9880:
9871:
9865:
9864:
9850:
9849:
9842:
9835:
9827:
9821:
9820:
9818:. 8 June 2018.
9804:
9788:
9766:
9765:External links
9763:
9761:
9760:
9741:(2): 175–185.
9725:
9666:
9623:
9602:(6): 839–846.
9582:
9561:(9): 985–989.
9541:
9490:
9453:PLOS Pathogens
9439:
9383:
9356:(6): 477–486.
9340:
9319:(1): 422–427.
9299:
9240:
9181:
9125:
9088:PLOS Pathogens
9074:
9025:
8976:
8925:
8884:
8855:(1): 114–120.
8835:
8816:(5): 603–618.
8800:
8738:
8709:(5): 850–858.
8689:
8631:
8574:
8539:
8512:(4): 806–814.
8489:
8440:
8399:
8336:
8305:
8270:
8213:
8176:PLOS Pathogens
8162:
8105:
8086:(1): 227–231.
8070:
8018:
8003:
7972:
7937:
7888:
7837:
7810:(8): 501–513.
7794:
7775:(2): 169–176.
7759:
7722:PLOS Pathogens
7705:
7654:
7610:
7556:
7500:
7452:
7401:
7350:
7329:(3): fuad020.
7306:
7255:
7236:(1): 193–214.
7220:
7161:
7104:
7069:
7034:
7023:(6): 182–187.
7003:
6952:
6903:
6880:
6851:(2): 273–290.
6831:
6782:
6733:
6690:
6641:
6614:(2): 186–194.
6598:
6569:(5): 242–252.
6549:
6514:
6475:
6436:
6393:
6334:
6291:
6277:
6270:
6248:
6189:
6130:
6079:
6042:(2): 181–186.
6022:
5963:
5922:
5863:
5811:
5754:
5709:PLOS Pathogens
5695:
5647:
5596:
5540:
5472:
5435:(4): 182–189.
5415:
5382:BioMed Central
5353:
5328:
5321:
5294:
5252:
5200:
5173:(4): 317–329.
5157:
5128:(7): 505–518.
5105:
5074:
5013:
4994:(8): 302–307.
4978:
4951:(2): 169–181.
4935:
4876:
4847:(6): 571–572.
4823:
4794:
4735:
4696:(4): 726–747.
4676:
4628:
4578:
4518:
4489:(5): 922–929.
4469:
4432:(6): 684–690.
4412:
4393:(4): 428–433.
4377:
4326:
4287:
4238:
4178:
4110:
4064:
4053:(6): 605–618.
4034:
3988:
3977:(3): 343–350.
3965:T. Rhodesiense
3953:
3940:(561): 28–33.
3928:T. rhodesiense
3916:
3890:
3850:
3801:
3760:
3725:
3675:
3636:
3609:
3566:
3539:
3512:
3483:(8): 789–796.
3458:
3415:
3374:
3355:(4): 355–360.
3338:
3297:
3251:
3216:
3195:(2241): 1565.
3171:
3136:
3087:
3080:
3057:
3036:(4): 567–573.
3013:
2986:
2967:(1): 341–351.
2951:
2916:
2909:
2889:
2878:(5): 338–340.
2862:
2843:(2): 231–245.
2824:
2795:(4): 496–504.
2772:
2755:
2748:
2728:
2707:(4): 223–231.
2684:
2624:
2603:(3): 257–258.
2580:
2561:(4): 494–495.
2542:
2507:
2478:(7): 437–440.
2462:
2433:(2): 202–212.
2413:
2352:
2321:Annual Reviews
2280:
2251:(6): 571–572.
2225:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2208:
2194:
2187:
2184:
2135:
2129:
2066:
2060:
1998:
1995:
1978:
1975:
1925:glomerulopathy
1895:
1892:
1811:
1808:
1760:Expression of
1692:Main article:
1689:
1686:
1645:
1644:
1637:
1634:
1614:
1611:
1572:
1569:
1557:
1554:
1530:
1527:
1490:
1489:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1425:phytochemicals
1399:
1396:
1347:Chagas disease
1305:
1302:
1277:G. swynnertoni
1249:G. tachinoides
1218:Main article:
1215:
1212:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1175:
1169:
1166:
1160:
1157:
1133:
1132:Binary fission
1130:
1128:
1125:
1027:, it produces
1021:immune factors
1003:
1000:
984:binary fission
971:
968:
924:
921:
889:kinetoplastids
862:
861:
858:Trypomastigote
855:
771:procyclic form
755:
752:
727:
724:
680:
679:
651:
645:
611:
608:
566:
563:
467:Main article:
464:
461:
455:
452:
395:
392:
355:
352:
350:
347:
204:
203:
202:
201:
194:
187:
177:
176:
172:
171:
168:
157:
156:
150:
149:
145:T. brucei
142:
140:
136:
135:
128:
124:
123:
118:
114:
113:
108:
104:
103:
98:
94:
93:
88:
84:
83:
78:
74:
73:
60:
59:
56:phase-contrast
48:
47:
39:
38:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10285:
10274:
10271:
10269:
10266:
10264:
10261:
10259:
10256:
10254:
10251:
10249:
10246:
10244:
10241:
10240:
10238:
10221:
10215:
10211:
10206:
10202:
10198:
10193:
10189:
10185:
10180:
10176:
10172:
10166:
10162:
10157:
10153:
10148:
10142:
10138:
10137:
10135:
10133:
10129:
10125:
10120:
10102:
10099:
10098:
10097:
10096:
10092:
10088:
10085:
10084:
10083:
10082:
10078:
10077:
10075:
10073:
10069:
10062:
10058:
10057:
10053:
10052:
10050:
10048:
10047:Diplomonadida
10044:
10041:
10039:
10035:
10023:
10020:
10019:
10018:
10017:
10013:
10012:
10010:
10008:
10004:
9992:
9989:
9988:
9986:
9985:
9981:
9976:
9972:
9969:
9968:
9967:
9966:
9962:
9958:
9955:
9954:
9952:
9951:
9947:
9946:L. aethiopica
9943:
9939:
9934:
9933:
9931:
9929:
9928:Leishmaniasis
9925:
9917:
9914:
9913:
9912:
9911:
9907:
9903:
9900:
9899:
9898:
9897:
9893:
9892:
9890:
9888:
9884:
9881:
9879:
9875:
9872:
9870:
9869:Discicristata
9866:
9862:
9859:
9855:
9848:
9843:
9841:
9836:
9834:
9829:
9828:
9825:
9817:
9813:
9811:
9805:
9801:
9797:
9795:
9789:
9785:
9781:
9779:
9775:
9769:
9768:
9756:
9752:
9748:
9744:
9740:
9736:
9729:
9721:
9717:
9712:
9707:
9702:
9697:
9693:
9689:
9685:
9681:
9677:
9670:
9662:
9658:
9654:
9650:
9646:
9642:
9638:
9634:
9627:
9619:
9615:
9610:
9605:
9601:
9597:
9593:
9586:
9578:
9574:
9569:
9564:
9560:
9556:
9552:
9545:
9537:
9533:
9528:
9523:
9518:
9513:
9509:
9505:
9501:
9494:
9486:
9482:
9477:
9472:
9467:
9462:
9458:
9454:
9450:
9443:
9435:
9431:
9427:
9423:
9419:
9415:
9411:
9407:
9403:
9399:
9392:
9390:
9388:
9379:
9375:
9371:
9367:
9363:
9359:
9355:
9351:
9344:
9336:
9332:
9327:
9322:
9318:
9314:
9310:
9303:
9295:
9291:
9286:
9281:
9276:
9271:
9267:
9263:
9259:
9255:
9251:
9244:
9236:
9232:
9227:
9222:
9217:
9212:
9208:
9204:
9200:
9196:
9192:
9185:
9177:
9173:
9169:
9165:
9161:
9157:
9153:
9149:
9145:
9141:
9134:
9132:
9130:
9121:
9117:
9112:
9107:
9102:
9097:
9093:
9089:
9085:
9078:
9070:
9066:
9061:
9056:
9052:
9048:
9044:
9040:
9036:
9029:
9021:
9017:
9012:
9007:
9003:
8999:
8995:
8991:
8987:
8980:
8972:
8968:
8964:
8960:
8956:
8952:
8948:
8944:
8940:
8936:
8929:
8921:
8917:
8912:
8907:
8903:
8899:
8895:
8888:
8880:
8876:
8871:
8866:
8862:
8858:
8854:
8850:
8846:
8839:
8831:
8827:
8823:
8819:
8815:
8811:
8804:
8796:
8792:
8787:
8782:
8778:
8774:
8770:
8766:
8762:
8758:
8754:
8747:
8745:
8743:
8734:
8730:
8725:
8720:
8716:
8712:
8708:
8704:
8700:
8693:
8685:
8681:
8677:
8673:
8669:
8665:
8661:
8657:
8653:
8649:
8642:
8640:
8638:
8636:
8627:
8623:
8619:
8615:
8610:
8605:
8601:
8597:
8593:
8589:
8585:
8578:
8570:
8566:
8562:
8558:
8554:
8550:
8543:
8535:
8531:
8527:
8523:
8519:
8515:
8511:
8507:
8500:
8493:
8485:
8481:
8476:
8471:
8467:
8463:
8459:
8455:
8451:
8444:
8436:
8432:
8427:
8422:
8418:
8414:
8410:
8403:
8395:
8391:
8386:
8381:
8376:
8371:
8367:
8363:
8359:
8355:
8351:
8347:
8340:
8331:
8326:
8322:
8321:
8316:
8309:
8301:
8297:
8293:
8289:
8285:
8281:
8274:
8266:
8262:
8257:
8252:
8248:
8244:
8240:
8236:
8232:
8228:
8224:
8217:
8209:
8205:
8200:
8195:
8190:
8185:
8181:
8177:
8173:
8166:
8158:
8154:
8149:
8144:
8140:
8136:
8132:
8128:
8124:
8120:
8116:
8109:
8101:
8097:
8093:
8089:
8085:
8081:
8074:
8066:
8062:
8058:
8054:
8049:
8044:
8040:
8036:
8032:
8025:
8023:
8014:
8010:
8006:
8000:
7996:
7992:
7988:
7981:
7979:
7977:
7968:
7964:
7960:
7956:
7952:
7948:
7941:
7933:
7929:
7924:
7919:
7915:
7911:
7907:
7903:
7899:
7892:
7884:
7880:
7875:
7870:
7865:
7860:
7856:
7852:
7848:
7841:
7833:
7829:
7825:
7821:
7817:
7813:
7809:
7805:
7798:
7790:
7786:
7782:
7778:
7774:
7770:
7763:
7755:
7751:
7746:
7741:
7736:
7731:
7727:
7723:
7719:
7712:
7710:
7701:
7697:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7677:
7673:
7669:
7665:
7658:
7650:
7646:
7642:
7638:
7634:
7630:
7626:
7622:
7614:
7606:
7602:
7597:
7592:
7587:
7582:
7578:
7574:
7570:
7563:
7561:
7552:
7548:
7544:
7540:
7535:
7530:
7526:
7522:
7518:
7514:
7507:
7505:
7496:
7492:
7488:
7484:
7480:
7476:
7472:
7468:
7461:
7459:
7457:
7448:
7444:
7439:
7434:
7429:
7424:
7420:
7416:
7412:
7405:
7397:
7393:
7388:
7383:
7378:
7373:
7369:
7365:
7361:
7354:
7346:
7342:
7337:
7332:
7328:
7324:
7320:
7313:
7311:
7302:
7298:
7293:
7288:
7283:
7278:
7274:
7270:
7266:
7259:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7239:
7235:
7231:
7224:
7216:
7212:
7207:
7202:
7197:
7192:
7188:
7184:
7180:
7176:
7172:
7165:
7157:
7151:
7143:
7139:
7135:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7119:
7115:
7108:
7100:
7096:
7092:
7088:
7085:(2): 94–106.
7084:
7080:
7073:
7065:
7061:
7057:
7053:
7050:(2): 94–106.
7049:
7045:
7038:
7030:
7026:
7022:
7018:
7014:
7007:
6999:
6995:
6990:
6985:
6980:
6975:
6971:
6967:
6963:
6956:
6948:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6930:
6926:
6922:
6918:
6914:
6907:
6900:(5): 479–489.
6899:
6895:
6891:
6884:
6876:
6872:
6867:
6862:
6858:
6854:
6850:
6846:
6842:
6835:
6827:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6797:
6793:
6786:
6778:
6774:
6769:
6764:
6760:
6756:
6752:
6748:
6744:
6737:
6729:
6725:
6721:
6717:
6713:
6709:
6705:
6701:
6694:
6686:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6668:
6664:
6660:
6656:
6652:
6645:
6637:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6613:
6609:
6602:
6594:
6590:
6585:
6580:
6576:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6560:
6553:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6529:
6525:
6518:
6510:
6506:
6502:
6498:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6479:
6471:
6467:
6463:
6459:
6455:
6451:
6447:
6440:
6432:
6428:
6424:
6420:
6416:
6412:
6408:
6404:
6397:
6389:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6371:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6353:
6349:
6345:
6338:
6330:
6326:
6322:
6318:
6314:
6310:
6307:(9404): 247.
6306:
6302:
6295:
6287:
6281:
6273:
6267:
6263:
6259:
6252:
6244:
6240:
6235:
6230:
6225:
6220:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6193:
6185:
6181:
6176:
6171:
6166:
6161:
6157:
6153:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6134:
6126:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6083:
6075:
6071:
6066:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6026:
6018:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5978:
5974:
5967:
5959:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5926:
5918:
5914:
5909:
5904:
5899:
5894:
5890:
5886:
5882:
5878:
5874:
5867:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5823:
5815:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5787:
5782:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5765:
5758:
5750:
5746:
5741:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5699:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5667:
5663:
5659:
5651:
5643:
5639:
5635:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5600:
5591:
5588:
5581:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5554:
5547:
5545:
5536:
5532:
5527:
5522:
5518:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5485:
5483:
5481:
5479:
5477:
5468:
5464:
5459:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5442:
5438:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5419:
5411:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5392:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5364:
5362:
5360:
5358:
5341:
5335:
5333:
5324:
5318:
5314:
5313:
5305:
5303:
5301:
5299:
5290:
5286:
5282:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5259:
5257:
5248:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5207:
5205:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5161:
5153:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5112:
5110:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5085:
5078:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5024:
5017:
5009:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4982:
4974:
4970:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4939:
4931:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4880:
4872:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4836:
4827:
4811:
4805:
4803:
4801:
4799:
4790:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4763:: jcs211730.
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4748:
4739:
4731:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4680:
4671:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4632:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4589:
4587:
4585:
4583:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4533:
4525:
4523:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4473:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4416:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4381:
4373:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4330:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4291:
4283:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4242:
4234:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4182:
4174:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4123:
4121:
4119:
4117:
4115:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4071:
4069:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4038:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3995:
3993:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3966:
3957:
3948:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3929:
3920:
3905:
3901:
3894:
3886:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3854:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3805:
3796:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3777:
3773:
3764:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3729:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3686:
3679:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3640:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3613:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3570:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3543:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3516:
3508:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3419:
3411:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3378:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3342:
3334:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3301:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3258:
3256:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3220:
3211:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3184:
3175:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3140:
3132:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3083:
3077:
3073:
3072:
3064:
3062:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3020:
3018:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2990:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2963:(in German).
2962:
2955:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2920:
2912:
2906:
2902:
2901:
2893:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2866:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2831:
2829:
2820:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2779:
2777:
2768:
2767:
2759:
2751:
2745:
2741:
2740:
2732:
2724:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2691:
2689:
2680:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2620:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2587:
2585:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2549:
2547:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2511:
2503:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2466:
2458:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2409:
2402:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2276:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2226:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2197:Simon Gaskell
2195:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2168:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2003:
1994:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1974:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1914:chromosome 22
1911:
1906:
1904:
1900:
1891:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1827:
1822:
1821:
1820:T. equiperdum
1816:
1807:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1787:recombination
1784:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1742:cell division
1739:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1712:immune system
1709:
1704:
1701:
1695:
1685:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1642:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1628:
1627:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1586:
1583:than group 1
1582:
1578:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1496:
1492:
1484:
1470:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1445:is effective
1444:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1395:
1393:
1389:
1387:
1386:T. congolense
1382:
1381:quinapyramine
1378:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1362:
1361:Kiyoshi Shiga
1358:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1301:
1298:
1293:
1290:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1278:
1273:
1272:
1271:G. pallidipes
1267:
1266:
1261:
1257:
1256:
1251:
1250:
1245:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1221:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1180:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1138:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1053:
1048:
1047:
1042:
1041:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1002:In tsetse fly
999:
997:
991:
989:
985:
981:
977:
967:
965:
961:
957:
954:and uses the
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
929:
920:
918:
912:
909:
905:
900:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
875:
866:
859:
856:
853:
850:
849:
848:
846:
842:
835:
830:
826:
824:
820:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
772:
768:
765:false colour
764:
760:
751:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
723:
721:
717:
713:
709:
704:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
677:
673:
669:
665:
664:
659:
656:which causes
655:
652:
649:
646:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
620:
619:
618:
616:
607:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
583:
582:
575:
573:
562:
560:
556:
552:
547:
542:
540:
536:
532:
530:
525:
521:
517:
513:
508:
506:
505:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
475:Royal Society
470:
460:
451:
449:
448:T. sanguinis,
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
391:
388:
378:
374:
372:
368:
367:
362:
354:Early records
346:
344:
339:
337:
334:
330:
326:
325:
320:
319:
318:T. equiperdum
314:
310:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
272:
268:
264:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
221:
216:
215:kinetoplastid
212:
211:
198:
195:
191:
188:
184:
181:
180:
178:
173:
166:
164:
158:
155:
154:Binomial name
151:
147:
146:
141:
138:
137:
134:
133:
129:
126:
125:
122:
119:
116:
115:
112:
109:
106:
105:
102:
101:Kinetoplastea
99:
96:
95:
92:
89:
86:
85:
82:
79:
76:
75:
70:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
40:
37:
33:
30:
19:
10131:
10093:
10079:
10054:
10014:
9978:
9963:
9936:
9908:
9895:
9894:
9815:
9809:
9799:
9793:
9783:
9777:
9773:
9738:
9734:
9728:
9683:
9679:
9669:
9639:(1): 18–21.
9636:
9632:
9626:
9599:
9595:
9585:
9558:
9554:
9544:
9507:
9503:
9493:
9456:
9452:
9442:
9401:
9397:
9353:
9349:
9343:
9316:
9312:
9302:
9257:
9253:
9243:
9198:
9194:
9184:
9143:
9139:
9091:
9087:
9077:
9042:
9038:
9028:
8993:
8989:
8979:
8938:
8934:
8928:
8901:
8897:
8887:
8852:
8848:
8838:
8813:
8809:
8803:
8760:
8756:
8706:
8702:
8692:
8651:
8647:
8591:
8587:
8577:
8552:
8548:
8542:
8509:
8505:
8492:
8457:
8453:
8443:
8416:
8412:
8402:
8353:
8349:
8339:
8318:
8308:
8283:
8279:
8273:
8230:
8226:
8216:
8179:
8175:
8165:
8125:(1): 11–17.
8122:
8118:
8108:
8083:
8079:
8073:
8038:
8034:
7986:
7950:
7946:
7940:
7905:
7901:
7891:
7854:
7850:
7840:
7807:
7803:
7797:
7772:
7768:
7762:
7725:
7721:
7674:(9): e1287.
7671:
7667:
7657:
7624:
7621:Parasitology
7620:
7613:
7576:
7572:
7527:): 587–598.
7523:(2). O.I.E (
7520:
7516:
7470:
7466:
7418:
7414:
7404:
7367:
7363:
7353:
7326:
7322:
7272:
7268:
7258:
7233:
7229:
7223:
7178:
7174:
7164:
7150:cite journal
7117:
7113:
7107:
7082:
7078:
7072:
7047:
7043:
7037:
7020:
7016:
7006:
6969:
6965:
6955:
6920:
6917:Parasitology
6916:
6906:
6897:
6893:
6883:
6848:
6844:
6834:
6799:
6795:
6785:
6750:
6746:
6736:
6706:(1): 61–77.
6703:
6699:
6693:
6658:
6654:
6644:
6611:
6607:
6601:
6566:
6562:
6552:
6527:
6523:
6517:
6484:
6478:
6445:
6439:
6409:(1): 71–79.
6406:
6402:
6396:
6354:(12): e783.
6351:
6347:
6337:
6304:
6300:
6294:
6280:
6261:
6251:
6209:(8): e2879.
6206:
6202:
6192:
6147:
6143:
6133:
6096:
6092:
6082:
6039:
6035:
6025:
5980:
5976:
5966:
5939:
5935:
5925:
5880:
5876:
5866:
5836:): 651–660.
5825:
5821:
5814:
5771:
5767:
5757:
5712:
5708:
5698:
5658:Parasitology
5657:
5650:
5612:(1): 58–66.
5609:
5605:
5599:
5563:
5559:
5498:
5494:
5432:
5428:
5418:
5377:
5373:
5344:. Retrieved
5311:
5268:
5264:
5220:
5216:
5170:
5166:
5160:
5125:
5121:
5083:
5077:
5030:
5026:
5016:
4991:
4987:
4981:
4948:
4944:
4938:
4893:
4889:
4879:
4844:
4840:
4834:
4826:
4814:. Retrieved
4756:
4752:
4746:
4738:
4693:
4689:
4679:
4644:
4640:
4631:
4598:
4594:
4536:
4530:
4486:
4482:
4472:
4429:
4425:
4415:
4390:
4386:
4380:
4343:
4339:
4329:
4300:
4296:
4290:
4255:
4251:
4241:
4199:(6): e1691.
4196:
4192:
4181:
4136:
4132:
4080:
4076:
4050:
4046:
4037:
4004:
4000:
3974:
3970:
3964:
3956:
3937:
3933:
3927:
3919:
3907:. Retrieved
3903:
3893:
3866:
3862:
3853:
3818:
3815:Microbiology
3814:
3804:
3785:
3781:
3775:
3771:
3763:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3728:
3695:
3692:Parasitology
3691:
3678:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3639:
3622:
3618:
3612:
3582:(1): 79–85.
3579:
3575:
3569:
3552:
3548:
3542:
3525:
3521:
3515:
3480:
3476:
3428:
3424:
3418:
3391:
3387:
3377:
3352:
3348:
3341:
3317:(1): 81–82.
3314:
3310:
3300:
3267:
3263:
3229:
3225:
3219:
3192:
3188:
3182:
3174:
3149:
3145:
3139:
3104:
3100:
3090:
3070:
3033:
3029:
2999:
2995:
2989:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2929:
2925:
2919:
2899:
2892:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2840:
2836:
2792:
2788:
2765:
2758:
2738:
2731:
2704:
2700:
2650:
2646:
2600:
2596:
2558:
2554:
2520:
2516:
2510:
2475:
2471:
2465:
2430:
2426:
2416:
2382:
2378:
2316:
2312:
2248:
2244:
2214:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2169:
2151:
2147:
2142:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2110:
2086:glycoprotein
2081:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1980:
1944:
1933:
1929:hypertension
1917:
1907:
1897:
1887:
1883:
1881:
1848:
1824:
1818:
1814:
1813:
1799:
1794:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1759:
1749:
1707:
1705:
1699:
1697:
1682:
1676:
1661:
1652:
1646:
1622:
1616:
1606:
1602:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1589:
1584:
1581:T. b. brucei
1580:
1576:
1574:
1560:
1559:
1533:
1532:
1522:
1518:
1502:
1501:
1494:
1473:Distribution
1462:
1450:
1449:and Ibrahim
1440:
1439:, 2010 find
1436:
1432:
1429:T. b. brucei
1428:
1420:
1419:
1408:
1401:
1384:
1366:
1357:Paul Ehrlich
1354:
1350:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:eflornithine
1307:
1304:Chemotherapy
1296:
1294:
1288:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1270:
1265:G. morsitans
1264:
1259:
1254:
1248:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1225:
1223:
1207:
1199:
1191:
1189:
1145:
1143:
1127:Reproduction
1107:involved in
1084:
1081:T. b. brucei
1080:
1078:
1074:
1061:
1057:trypanolytic
1050:
1044:
1038:
1032:
1005:
992:
973:
943:
939:
935:
934:
916:
913:
904:microtubules
901:
876:
871:
852:Epimastigote
844:
839:
833:
790:mitochondria
777:
776:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
729:
711:
705:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
681:
676:T. b. brucei
675:
668:T. b. brucei
667:
661:
653:
647:
621:
614:
613:
596:T. gambiense
595:
587:
585:
580:
577:
572:Trypanosoma.
571:
568:
554:
543:
538:
527:
523:
509:
502:
498:
472:
457:
447:
443:
439:
431:
427:
424:
415:
411:
397:
383:
364:
361:Zulu Kingdom
357:
340:
332:
329:T. b. brucei
328:
322:
316:
308:
306:
297:
281:
266:
265:
260:
256:
252:
249:T. b. brucei
248:
240:
218:
209:
208:
207:
196:
189:
182:
162:
160:
144:
143:
131:
52:T. b. brucei
51:
35:
29:
9980:L. donovani
9942:L. mexicana
8555:(1): 9–20.
8360:: 121–125.
7953:: 235–251.
7857:(4): e658.
7120:(17): 257.
5768:Development
5566:: 344–347.
5223:: 335–362.
5037:: 309–324.
4543:: 724–736.
4346:(2): e961.
4139:: 257–275.
4043:Molyneux DH
3646:trypanosoma
3183:Trypanosoma
3002:(1): 1–10.
2493:10144/18268
2385:(1): 3–12.
2323:: 107–128.
1983:haptoglobin
1963:cardiolipin
1783:pseudogenes
1755:parasitemia
1716:immunogenic
1664:kinetoplast
1631:chromosomes
1467:parasitemia
1461:). Ibrahim
1405:acoziborole
1377:melarsomine
1318:melarsoprol
1314:pentamidine
1255:G. fuscipes
1243:G. palpalis
1172:Cytokinesis
1163:Nuclear DNA
996:parasitemia
806:kinetoplast
663:Trypanosoma
628:. In 1973,
604:Ronald Ross
546:Robert Koch
524:Trypanosoma
444:Trypanosoma
438:in 1899 as
420:Ubombo Hill
404:David Bruce
343:David Bruce
313:kinetoplast
220:Trypanosoma
175:Subspecies
132:Trypanosoma
10237:Categories
10061:Giardiasis
9950:L. tropica
9856:caused by
7804:Chromosoma
7579:: e11473.
7481:): 26–54.
7275:: 828111.
6972:(9): 205.
5346:29 January
5035:Cell Press
4816:28 January
4541:Cell Press
3821:(1): 1–8.
3619:The Lancet
3270:: 93–110.
2932:(3): 158.
2222:References
2211:Tryptophol
2117:merozoites
1987:hemoglobin
1969:gamma and
1967:interferon
1837:(HPR) and
1683:T. brucei.
1668:basal body
1230:tsetse fly
1179:abscission
1150:centrosome
1083:infecting
1017:procyclins
931:Life cycle
923:Life cycle
893:euglenoids
819:procyclins
810:basal body
767:micrograph
535:tsetse fly
529:The Lancet
518:(from the
402:appointed
278:tsetse fly
91:Euglenozoa
10038:Trichozoa
9896:T. brucei
9176:206512161
9039:Autophagy
7250:0066-4251
6370:1935-2735
6099:(1): 78.
5790:1477-9129
5731:1553-7374
5674:0031-1820
5626:1740-1534
5517:2235-2988
5449:1878-0946
5275:: 66–77.
5195:229179306
4965:0248-4900
4712:2073-4409
4661:1080-6040
4573:249448815
4557:1471-4922
4505:0002-9637
4448:0002-9637
4307:: 81–93.
4215:1935-2735
4155:1179-1349
3885:0950-1193
3837:1465-2080
3596:1479-571X
3555:: 81–99.
3431:(2): 69.
3152:(1): 41.
2427:Virulence
2347:235759288
2215:T. brucei
2156:endosomes
2102:thymidine
2084:specific
2024:lysosomal
2020:endosomal
2012:lysosomes
1955:glomeruli
1951:podocytes
1855:mandrills
1826:T. evansi
1804:infection
1800:T. brucei
1795:T. brucei
1779:T. brucei
1750:T. brucei
1718:, and an
1708:T. brucei
1700:T. brucei
1672:flagellum
1623:T. brucei
1556:Evolution
1534:T. brucei
1503:T. brucei
1495:T. brucei
1414:diamidine
1327:T. brucei
1297:T. brucei
1289:T. brucei
1226:T. brucei
1208:T. brucei
1200:T. brucei
1192:T. brucei
1146:T. brucei
1113:serotonin
1065:apoptosis
1052:GmmSRPN10
1025:bloodmeal
1012:sandflies
946:produces
944:T. brucei
936:T. brucei
917:T. brucei
845:T. brucei
814:flagellum
802:ribosomes
778:T. brucei
754:Structure
726:Etymology
716:polyphyly
708:monophyly
703:strains.
626:reservoir
615:T. brucei
454:Outbreaks
324:T. evansi
309:T. brucei
298:T. brucei
267:T. brucei
229:protozoan
139:Species:
81:Eukaryota
10168:BioLib:
10141:Wikidata
9984:infantum
9910:T. cruzi
9861:protozoa
9858:Excavata
9720:19858474
9661:20054667
9653:17300512
9577:18675374
9536:26175690
9485:23637606
9426:23965626
9370:16710327
9335:12401813
9294:23319650
9235:17360487
9168:18451305
9120:17845074
9069:18927493
9020:21997392
8971:33189804
8963:16020735
8879:22832513
8830:22878977
8795:20647424
8733:19299565
8676:12621437
8626:12713960
8618:16847577
8609:11136045
8569:15500911
8526:20398209
8484:10085035
8394:30333624
8356:(7729).
8300:16126458
8265:25814582
8208:23853603
8157:22954210
8065:26552797
8057:19751359
8013:11461029
7967:18729733
7932:12802053
7883:20404998
7824:10794572
7754:19997494
7700:21909441
7649:33529173
7605:26809473
7551:42700199
7543:26601459
7495:24742753
7479:Elsevier
7447:28373184
7396:27036940
7345:37156497
7301:35356785
7142:33016283
7134:15418753
7099:18861668
7064:18861668
6998:36136616
6947:27719692
6875:20474312
6826:16742071
6777:20762118
6728:73432597
6720:30712768
6685:23807762
6628:23260189
6593:23916333
6544:21958143
6509:21917230
6501:12811544
6470:35509112
6462:12811548
6431:35019516
6423:12743807
6388:21200416
6321:14738812
6243:18663385
6203:PLOS ONE
6184:19237557
6125:24559099
6074:24388851
6017:21321215
5850:18092995
5798:22491946
5749:20686656
5690:32217938
5682:10363280
5634:23202528
5580:22465537
5535:24066283
5467:19285457
5410:12844365
5289:28807885
5273:Elsevier
5247:19575562
5187:33308952
5152:24931043
5061:26776656
5008:15275181
4973:86009836
4930:21690369
4871:31757771
4789:29626111
4730:26540076
4623:52154369
4615:30181072
4565:35680542
4513:17488917
4456:12518862
4407:18455900
4372:21347445
4305:Elsevier
4282:23059119
4233:22720107
4173:25125985
4097:28673422
4021:14602444
3909:21 March
3720:41052902
3712:19691861
3670:59110369
3561:13883839
3534:13785176
3453:33661530
3445:22791871
3410:23184240
3292:37631020
3284:11615538
3246:12398205
3166:15275309
3131:20758763
3052:15200843
2981:12816407
2946:16562450
2857:15145378
2819:14966556
2723:17604511
2679:18275594
2653:(1): 3.
2537:17451719
2502:12127356
2457:22460639
2379:Parasite
2339:34228491
2275:31757771
2186:See also
2160:lysosome
2106:cytosine
2056:lysosome
2052:lysosome
2048:chloride
2032:lysosome
2028:lysosome
1940:colicins
1851:gorillas
1728:in vitro
1724:Antibody
1688:VSG coat
1571:Genetics
1447:in vitro
1282:Glossina
1234:Glossina
1204:Excavata
1121:dipteran
1109:dopamine
1089:proteome
1046:GmmSRPN9
1040:GmmSRPN5
1034:GmmSRPN3
962:them as
948:exosomes
940:Glossina
879:meaning
834:T brucei
736:trupanon
732:trypanon
634:wildlife
282:Glossina
117:Family:
87:Phylum:
77:Domain:
10220:6627739
10197:7822322
9802:. 5691.
9711:2780755
9688:Bibcode
9618:9865701
9527:4485156
9510:: 187.
9476:3630162
9434:4400057
9406:Bibcode
9378:6151924
9285:3562850
9262:Bibcode
9226:1820718
9203:Bibcode
9148:Bibcode
9140:Science
9111:1971115
9060:2659410
9011:3231786
8943:Bibcode
8935:Science
8920:9325276
8870:3484228
8786:2980843
8765:Bibcode
8757:Science
8724:2675973
8684:4310920
8656:Bibcode
8534:7740199
8435:2494183
8385:6784898
8362:Bibcode
8256:4514441
8235:Bibcode
8227:Science
8199:3708902
8148:3467770
8127:Bibcode
8100:9252591
7874:2854126
7832:3850480
7789:2528066
7745:2778949
7691:3167774
7641:3960593
7596:4739771
7438:5444181
7387:4882440
7292:8959112
7215:1495986
7183:Bibcode
6989:9503918
6938:5142301
6866:2236235
6817:1276215
6768:2320665
6676:6532745
6636:8688394
6584:4001453
6379:3006128
6329:5311361
6234:2488364
6211:Bibcode
6175:2656170
6152:Bibcode
6116:3936861
6065:3928991
6044:Bibcode
6008:3048101
5985:Bibcode
5958:2264676
5917:3461475
5885:Bibcode
5858:3134104
5806:7068417
5740:2912391
5642:1633550
5526:3776139
5458:3962114
5238:3821760
5143:4278896
5100:2606940
5069:1080165
5052:4827413
4921:3131312
4898:Bibcode
4862:7375462
4780:5963845
4721:4695855
4670:3293449
4464:3232109
4363:3035665
4321:6745390
4273:4687903
4224:3373650
4164:4130665
4105:4853616
4059:4204667
4029:7917540
3507:4607392
3498:1645813
3369:8249057
3333:8426352
3324:5396591
3210:2514975
3122:2412509
2884:1942213
2810:2214720
2714:1832067
2670:2270819
2619:7974656
2575:8249096
2448:3396699
2401:9137639
2266:7375462
2113:malaria
2094:leucine
2080:of the
2078:β-sheet
1973:alpha.
1953:in the
1859:baboons
1791:histone
1746:progeny
1670:of the
1643:genome.
1641:haploid
1455:in vivo
1310:suramin
1232:(genus
1196:meiosis
1186:Meiosis
1093:glucose
1029:serpins
1023:in the
1006:Unlike
960:secrete
908:axoneme
877:mastig-
786:nucleus
769:of the
720:ecotype
610:Species
127:Genus:
107:Order:
97:Class:
10217:uBio:
10184:TRYPBR
10171:132285
10147:Q33244
9753:
9718:
9708:
9659:
9651:
9616:
9575:
9534:
9524:
9483:
9473:
9432:
9424:
9398:Nature
9376:
9368:
9333:
9292:
9282:
9233:
9223:
9174:
9166:
9118:
9108:
9067:
9057:
9018:
9008:
8969:
8961:
8918:
8877:
8867:
8828:
8793:
8783:
8731:
8721:
8682:
8674:
8648:Nature
8624:
8616:
8606:
8567:
8532:
8524:
8482:
8472:
8433:
8392:
8382:
8350:Nature
8298:
8263:
8253:
8206:
8196:
8155:
8145:
8098:
8063:
8055:
8011:
8001:
7965:
7930:
7923:165075
7920:
7881:
7871:
7830:
7822:
7787:
7752:
7742:
7698:
7688:
7647:
7639:
7603:
7593:
7549:
7541:
7493:
7445:
7435:
7394:
7384:
7343:
7299:
7289:
7248:
7213:
7203:
7140:
7132:
7097:
7062:
6996:
6986:
6945:
6935:
6873:
6863:
6824:
6814:
6775:
6765:
6726:
6718:
6683:
6673:
6634:
6626:
6591:
6581:
6542:
6507:
6499:
6468:
6460:
6429:
6421:
6386:
6376:
6368:
6327:
6319:
6301:Lancet
6268:
6241:
6231:
6182:
6172:
6123:
6113:
6072:
6062:
6015:
6005:
5956:
5915:
5908:386438
5905:
5856:
5848:
5804:
5796:
5788:
5747:
5737:
5729:
5688:
5680:
5672:
5640:
5632:
5624:
5578:
5533:
5523:
5515:
5501:: 53.
5465:
5455:
5447:
5408:
5401:165594
5398:
5319:
5287:
5245:
5235:
5193:
5185:
5150:
5140:
5098:
5067:
5059:
5049:
5006:
4971:
4963:
4928:
4918:
4869:
4859:
4787:
4777:
4728:
4718:
4710:
4667:
4659:
4621:
4613:
4571:
4563:
4555:
4511:
4503:
4462:
4454:
4446:
4405:
4370:
4360:
4319:
4280:
4270:
4231:
4221:
4213:
4171:
4161:
4153:
4103:
4095:
4077:Lancet
4057:
4027:
4019:
4001:Lancet
3883:
3845:784900
3843:
3835:
3718:
3710:
3668:
3604:768965
3602:
3594:
3559:
3532:
3505:
3495:
3451:
3443:
3408:
3367:
3331:
3321:
3290:
3282:
3244:
3207:
3164:
3129:
3119:
3078:
3050:
3000:XLVIII
2979:
2944:
2907:
2882:
2855:
2817:
2807:
2746:
2721:
2711:
2677:
2667:
2617:
2573:
2535:
2500:
2455:
2445:
2399:
2345:
2337:
2273:
2263:
2098:serine
1679:base J
1657:GeneDB
1619:genome
1613:Genome
1529:Impact
1463:et al.
1451:et al.
1437:et al.
1433:et al.
1274:, and
1252:, and
800:, and
712:et al.
642:cattle
428:nagana
412:nagana
366:nagana
333:brucei
274:vector
271:insect
261:nagana
241:nagana
9755:28889
9657:S2CID
9430:S2CID
9374:S2CID
9172:S2CID
8967:S2CID
8680:S2CID
8622:S2CID
8530:S2CID
8502:(PDF)
8475:96545
8320:F1000
8061:S2CID
7828:S2CID
7645:S2CID
7573:eLife
7547:S2CID
7473:(1).
7206:49624
7138:S2CID
6724:S2CID
6632:S2CID
6505:S2CID
6466:S2CID
6427:S2CID
6325:S2CID
5854:S2CID
5834:Wiley
5828:(6).
5802:S2CID
5686:S2CID
5638:S2CID
5587:ORCID
5585:(VPF
5556:(PDF)
5384:: 3.
5380:(1).
5191:S2CID
5065:S2CID
5033:(4).
4969:S2CID
4759:(8).
4690:Cells
4619:S2CID
4569:S2CID
4539:(9).
4460:S2CID
4303:(1).
4101:S2CID
4025:S2CID
3716:S2CID
3688:(PDF)
3666:S2CID
3600:JSTOR
3449:S2CID
3288:S2CID
2977:S2CID
2343:S2CID
2319:(1).
2164:ApoL1
2074:ApoL1
2044:ApoL1
2040:ApoL1
2036:ApoL1
2016:ApoL1
1991:CD163
1947:ApoL1
1936:ApoL1
1922:ApoL1
1910:ApoL1
1903:ApoL1
1899:ApoL1
1894:ApoL1
1738:assay
1735:lysis
1730:by a
1649:genes
1647:Most
1423:Some
874:Greek
693:TgsGP
672:lysis
336:clade
10210:5691
10205:NCBI
10192:GBIF
10179:EPPO
9751:PMID
9716:PMID
9649:PMID
9614:PMID
9596:Cell
9573:PMID
9532:PMID
9481:PMID
9422:PMID
9366:PMID
9331:PMID
9290:PMID
9231:PMID
9164:PMID
9116:PMID
9065:PMID
9016:PMID
8959:PMID
8916:PMID
8875:PMID
8826:PMID
8791:PMID
8729:PMID
8672:PMID
8614:PMID
8565:PMID
8522:PMID
8480:PMID
8431:PMID
8390:PMID
8296:PMID
8261:PMID
8204:PMID
8153:PMID
8123:1267
8096:PMID
8053:PMID
8009:PMID
7999:ISBN
7963:PMID
7928:PMID
7879:PMID
7820:PMID
7785:PMID
7750:PMID
7696:PMID
7637:PMID
7601:PMID
7539:PMID
7491:PMID
7443:PMID
7392:PMID
7341:PMID
7297:PMID
7246:ISSN
7211:PMID
7156:link
7130:PMID
7095:PMID
7060:PMID
6994:PMID
6943:PMID
6871:PMID
6822:PMID
6773:PMID
6716:PMID
6681:PMID
6659:2013
6624:PMID
6589:PMID
6540:PMID
6497:PMID
6458:PMID
6419:PMID
6384:PMID
6366:ISSN
6317:PMID
6266:ISBN
6239:PMID
6180:PMID
6121:PMID
6070:PMID
6013:PMID
5954:PMID
5913:PMID
5846:PMID
5794:PMID
5786:ISSN
5745:PMID
5727:ISSN
5678:PMID
5670:ISSN
5630:PMID
5622:ISSN
5576:PMID
5531:PMID
5513:ISSN
5463:PMID
5445:ISSN
5406:PMID
5348:2016
5317:ISBN
5285:PMID
5243:PMID
5183:PMID
5148:PMID
5096:PMID
5057:PMID
5004:PMID
4961:ISSN
4926:PMID
4867:PMID
4818:2016
4785:PMID
4726:PMID
4708:ISSN
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