Tort reform - Knowledge

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the action to be penalised with a variety of sanctions. For example, Rule 11 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure provide in part: "By presenting to the court a pleading, written motion, or other paper--whether by signing, filing, submitting, or later advocating it--an attorney or unrepresented party certifies that to the best of the person's knowledge, information, and belief, formed after an inquiry reasonable under the circumstances: . . . (2) the claims, defenses, and other legal contentions are warranted by existing law or by a non-frivolous argument for extending, modifying, or reversing existing law or for establishing new law; (3) the factual contentions have evidentiary support or, if specifically so identified, will likely have evidentiary support after a reasonable opportunity for further investigation or discovery." If the court decides that the plaintiff has violated this rule, it has wide discretion to sanction the offending party, the party's attorney or both, including the discretion to dismiss the plaintiff's claim or claims, order the plaintiff, the plaintiff's attorney or both to pay money, reprimand the attorney and/or refer the offending attorney to the applicable disciplinary authorities, among other things. Ethical rules also forbid attorneys from filing "frivolous" lawsuits. State courts and bar associations typically publish sanctions imposed on attorneys for violations of these rules. A simple review of these published opinions demonstrates that courts take violations of their pleading and ethical rules seriously.

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other tort-based systems, such as automobile litigation or airplane crashes, that determine fault and compensate victims. Moreover, most patients that receive negligent care never receive any compensation. The Harvard Medical Practice Study found that only one malpractice claim was filed for every eight negligent medical injuries." Of the legal changes proposed by tort reformers, this study found that states capping payouts and restricting non-economic damages saw an average decrease of 17.1% in malpractice insurance premiums. However, more recent research provided by the insurance industry to the publication Medical Liability Monitor indicated that medical malpractice insurance rates had declined for four straight years. The decrease was seen in both states that had enacted tort reform and in states that had not, leading actuaries familiar with the data to suggest that patient safety and risk management campaigns had had a more significant effect. Similarly, Klick/Stratman (2005) found that capping economic damages saw an increase in doctors per capita.

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the basis that they ensure equal treatment of similarly situated victims, avoid the risk of conflicting judgments on similar issues, and allow an efficient resolution of a large number of claims. In the US, class actions have been used (and by some views abused) in order to overcome the differences applicable in different jurisdictions, including the perceived predispositions of judges, juries, and differences in substantive or procedural law. So if one claimant lives in State X, where courts and laws are unfavourable to their claim, but another claimant lives in the more favourable jurisdiction of State Y, they may bring a class action together in State Y. Strictly speaking, State Y must not adjudicate the claim unless it is found that the applicable law is similar or identical in both states, but as a practical matter this rule is often disregarded in favour of efficient resolution of claims. More broadly, addressing perceived

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find that the greatest ten per cent of the malpractice payments have grown at a smaller pace than the average payment for the years 1991 and 2003. This means that the "medical malpractice crisis" is not necessarily fueled by the growth in malpractice payments. Furthermore, malpractice pressure actually forces our hospitals to be technically more efficient. This implies that existence of the medical malpractice system is beneficial, and its strength should not be diluted by either putting caps on non-economic damages or by decreasing the statute of limitations." Some say that federal licensing is a better approach and a strong central regulatory body is the answer to deal with negligent physicians who cross state lines.

1279:(1970). Originally his proposal was the gradual abolition of tort actions, and its replacement with schemes like those for industrial injuries to cover for all illness, disability and disease, whether caused by people or nature. Such a system was developed in New Zealand following recommendations from the Royal Commission in 1967 for 'no fault' compensation scheme (see The Woodhouse Report). Over the 1980s Atiyah's views shifted. He still argued that the tort system should be scrapped. But instead of relying on the state, he argued people should have to take out compulsory first party insurance, like that available for cars, and this model should be spread progressively. 2018:. Even in these limited areas of tort law, there have been growing concerns about the juries' role. In particular, the disparity between awards in defamation cases (which invariably concern celebrities, politicians and the rich) and awards for personal injuries has been growing. A potential cause for the unpredictability of juries in tort cases is that individual jurors, unlike professional judges, are unfamiliar both with the law and with daily exposure to tragic accidents in tort litigation. When confronted with their first case they are thus likelier to award punitively high damages in order to 'teach' tortfeasors that "tort does not pay". 1983: 1361:. For example, one can make information requests that are potentially expensive and time-consuming for the other side to fulfill; respond to a discovery request with thousands of documents of questionable relevance to the case; file requests for protective orders to prevent the deposition of key witnesses; and take other measures that increase the difficulty and cost of discovery. It has been argued that although the goal of discovery is to level the playing field between the parties, the discovery rules instead create a 1732:(i.e. the principle that a respondent in a tort action cannot use the fact that a plaintiff has already been compensated as evidence) is another common proposal of tort reform advocates in jurisdictions where the rule exists. They argue that if the plaintiff's injuries and damages have already been compensated, it is unfair and duplicative to allow an award of damages against the respondent. As a result, numerous states have altered or partially abrogated the rule by 1615:

to be more at fault than the respondent. As a tort reform measure aimed at combatting the perceived unfairness of allowing a party to seek extra-contractual damages where they are primarily at fault, many common law jurisdictions have adopted a "modified" doctrine of comparative negligence in which a party may only recover damages if it bears less than half the liability or if the other party bears more than half the liability. More radically, the American states of

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corporations will decide that the cost of changing a wrongful practice would be greater than the cost of continuing it, unless there is the chance that the cost of continuing will be made greater by a successful lawsuit. In this view, the prospect of paying a small damage award would have little or no effect in correcting the wrongdoing, and would essentially allow the corporation to continue an unsafe practice unless state or federal regulators interceded.

1725:, often replacing it with a rule of proportionate liability. Of the forty-six states that had a joint and several liability rule, thirty-three states have abolished or limited the rule. Opponents of tort reform contend that the elimination of the rule would under-compensate people who had the misfortune to be hurt by more than one person, if at least one of the defendants does not have the financial means to pay his or her share of proportionate liability. 2070:, a progressive think tank: "Although TTP's estimate is widely cited by journalists, politicians, and business lobbyists, it is impossible to know what the company is actually measuring in its calculation of tort costs, and impossible to verify its figures, because TTP will not share its data or its methodology, which it claims are 'proprietary.'" Tort reform supporters claim that the Towers Perrin numbers are underestimates in many ways. 2264:

that lost statistical significance when looked at more closely—that is, correlation with other state-specific factors wiped out apparent increases in mortality from joint and several liability reform but also wiped out apparent decreases in mortality from capping economic damages and restrictions on contingency fees. The only tort reform effect that proved robust was a negative effect of collateral source reform on black infant mortality.

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provide that if a defendant relying on the truth of purportedly defamatory statement as an affirmative defence is only successful in proving the truth of part of the allegedly defamatory statement, the defence may still be available if the charges not proved do not materially injure the reputation of the plaintiff. Similarly, while is no corresponding provision in India, Indian courts treat this principle as persuasive precedent.

2189:(1) to avoid paying future damages, the creators of dangerous products or conditions may voluntarily make them safer; (2) where conduct is particularly egregious, courts may award punitive damages to deter that conduct in the future; (3) the process of gathering information prior to trial – called 'discovery' – can bring information to light that can be used by policy-makers to create new laws or regulations. 863:) or to reduce damages they can receive. Such changes are generally justified under the grounds that litigation is an inefficient means to compensate plaintiffs; that tort law permits frivolous or otherwise undesirable litigation to crowd the court system; or that the fear of litigation can serve to curtail innovation, raise the cost of consumer goods or insurance premiums for suppliers of services (e.g. 1113:

cents in 1998. Opponents of these liability-limiting measures contend that insurance premiums are only nominally reduced, if at all, in comparison to savings for insurance companies. Further, opponents claim that parties are still being injured at similar or higher rates, due to malpractice not being deterred by tort claims and the attraction of lower quality physicians to "tort reformed" states.

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on allegations of "low-ball payments on claims." As a reaction, a state senator introduced legislation (Senate Bill 1628) to reform hailstorm litigation. The bill represented "an almost visceral fight between the insurance industry, Texans for Lawsuit Reform and trial lawyers whose symbolic leader in storm-damage claims in Steve Mostyn of Houston." By 2014, there had been 2,000 lawsuits filed in

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damage awards relative to actual damages. In the United States, tort reform is a contentious political issue. US tort reform advocates propose, among other things, procedural limits on the ability to file claims, and capping the awards of damages. Opponents of tort reform argue that reformers have misstated the existence of any real factual issue and criticise tort reform as disguised

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the costs of litigation, would deter marginal lawsuits and tactical litigation, and would create proper incentives for litigation, and argue for reforms that would require compensation of winning defendants some or all the time. Certain proposed or implemented tort reforms adopt the English rule if the respondent should prevail but retain the American rule otherwise (e.g. California's

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be class actions with many more joined claims than the cases of decades ago. They also note that the choice of the 1992 start date is misleading, because the largest increase in the number of tort cases occurred between 1970 and 1992. They also argue that the use of the median, rather than the mean, is a misleading statistic for measuring the magnitude of the litigation problem.

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filed with the court within 120 days of the filing of the case. Failure to do so results in liability for the defendant's legal fees. Filing an action but failing to find a suitable expert or failure to file adequate reports within the time frame provided can result in hardship for a plaintiff who may already be crippled by physical injuries and bankrupted by medical fees.

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achieved more fairly and with greater efficiency under the existing civil justice system. In addition, experts have suggested that health courts would be inevitably biased towards physicians, and that the bureaucracy needed to introduce safeguards against such bias would negate any cost savings. Still, a number of groups and individuals have supported this proposal.

1524:. While tort compensation can often be accurately calculated for property damage, such as where damages are in the amount of repair or replacement value, it is difficult to quantify the injuries to a person's body and mind. There is no market for severed legs or sanity of mind, and so there is no price which a court can readily apply in compensation for the wrong. 2336:-related bankruptcies (by, for example, limiting compensation for non-economic damages to the victims or their survivors, or by denying awards of punitive damages), the effect on overall employment and the national unemployment rate in an economy with more than 130 million payroll jobs would have been imperceptible (a change of less than two-thousandths of 1%). 2332:) examined the economic impacts of the tort system in somewhat greater depth. But that paper, too, failed to demonstrate any employment effects of the tort system and made no prediction about the impact of tort law change. Even if we assume that asbestos liability legislation could somehow have prevented the loss of 2,500 jobs per year resulting from 1230:. Proponents of tort reform argue that the success of that system in guaranteeing compensation where the tort system would not is an indication that tort law is inefficient at securing compensation for victims. By contrast, critics of tort reform are uncomfortable with the idea of abandoning personal liability for injuries as this could result in 1951:." Patrick said that storm litigation rates had risen dramatically, causing insurance companies to increase premiums and reduce coverage. The bill would still allow hailstorm insurance claimants to sue their insurance company. It would allow plaintiffs to sue for either deceptive trade practices or unfair settlement, but not both. According to 1096:

spending. Other recent research suggests that malpractice pressure makes hospitals more efficient, not less so: "The recent focus by the American Medical Association and physicians about the dramatic increases in medical malpractice insurance premiums, and their suggestion of a cap on non-economic damages, deserves a closer look. According to

1303:. The difficulty in this area is to distinguish between public and private health care providers. In the UK, the cost was £1.6B a year as for 2014, increasing at 10%+ yearly Rising from £446m a year a decade earlier. The UK, however, has exceptionally low claims, as tort claims have been restricted, for instance in disallowing 1793:, where trial lawyers actively seek the magic combination of plaintiff, defendant, judge, and jury. Advocates of tort reform complain of unconstitutional regulation caused by litigation, and that litigation is used to circumvent the legislative process by achieving regulation that Congress is unwilling or unable to pass. 1655:

or failure; provided, however, that where the action is based upon the discovery of a foreign object in the body of the patient, the action may be commenced within one year of the date of such discovery or of the date of discovery of facts which would reasonably lead to such discovery, whichever is earlier....

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The American medical record in hospitals is poor, with around 195,000 deaths due to negligence per year, which itself leads to a higher number of claims. It is open to debate as to whether a change in the law of tort either way would lead to significant reductions in cost or changes in practice. According to

2006:(e.g. in India, Singapore, and most former British colonies in Africa) as an anachronistic institution that routinely introduced societal biases into the judicial process. Even in New Zealand and the United Kingdom, where juries are available in criminal cases, they are only permitted tort cases involving 1610:. Comparative negligence is a partial legal defence that reduces the amount of damages that a plaintiff can recover in a negligence-based claim based upon the degree to which the plaintiff's own negligence contributed to cause the injury, which progressively displaced the erstwhile traditional doctrine of 906:

failure to achieve one or more of these aims. In particular, the inefficiency of tort law at securing fair and equal compensation for similarly situated plaintiffs and the uncertainty, cost, and complexity it creates for economic actors averse to lawsuits are motivating factors for tort reform advocates.

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However, design improvements to increase safety cannot be used against manufacturers in court to show that the product was unsafe. Rule 407 of the Federal Rule of Evidence specifically states, "evidence of the subsequent measures is not admissible to prove: negligence; culpable conduct; a defect in a

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wrote, "Windows were shattered. Hail knocked holes in rooftops. Unfortunate animals were beaten to death." Insurers paid out $ 556 million in claims to homeowners and $ 47 million to car owners. After the storms, thousands of lawsuits were filed against insurers and adjusters. The lawsuits were based

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are lawsuits where counsel for one or more claimants bring claims on behalf of similarly situated claimants. While class actions originated and are most common in the United States and Canada, similar procedures are increasingly common in other common law jurisdictions. Class actions are justified on

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An action for medical, dental or podiatric malpractice must be commenced within two years and six months of the act, omission or failure complained of or last treatment where there is continuous treatment for the same illness, injury or condition which gave rise to the said act, omission

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argument for a change in the law. More broadly, the term is also used to describe tort lawsuits where there is only a remote link between the conduct of the defendant and the injuries alleged by the plaintiff or where the damages sought are perceived to be too high for the purported tortious conduct.

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literature, there is consequently a debate as to whether liability and regulation are substitutes or complements and thus whether the enforcement of predictable regulation known to manufacturers in advance can adequately assure consumer safety while providing greater legal certainty for manufacturers

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There is no guarantee, however, that any savings from tort reform would be efficiently distributed. Tort reform in Texas during the 1990s created $ 600 million in savings for insurance companies while the fraction of policy dollars needed to cover losses fell from 70.1 cents in losses in 1993 to 58.2

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The effect of tort reform on medical outcomes has been studied with mixed results. A 2008 study found worse childbirth outcomes for mothers and infants in states with caps on non-economic damages. The Klick/Stratman paper cited above found several effects of specific tort reforms on infant mortality

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In 1972, New Zealand introduced the first universal no-fault insurance scheme for all accident victims, which provides benefit from the government-run Accident Compensation Corporation without respect to negligence. Its goal is to achieve equality of compensation, while reducing costs of litigation.

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report indicates that U. S. tort costs were up slightly in 2007, are expected to significantly increase in 2008, and shows trends dating back as far as 1950. More recent research from the same source has found that tort costs as a percentage of GDP dropped between 2001 and 2009, and are now at their

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would lead to more people being compensated, and to their receiving their money sooner. Critics of the health courts concept contend that it is ill-conceived, that it would be unfair to patients, that it would be unlikely to achieve its objectives, and that much of its goals as are reasonable can be

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over the twentieth century which had precluded any damages being awarded in cases in which the plaintiff was deemed to be even partially at fault. Under standard or "pure" comparative negligence, a plaintiff can seek damages regardless of the portion of liability they bear, even where they are found

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limited the situations in which punitive damages can be won in tort actions to where they are expressly authorised by a statute, where a defendant's action is calculated to make profit, or where an official of the state has acted arbitrarily, oppressively or unconstitutionally. In the United States,

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A large portion of tort reforms seek to limit the damages a plaintiff can be awarded. The rationale underlying these reforms is that, by limiting the profitability of tort lawsuits to plaintiffs, they will reduce the incentive to file frivolous lawsuits. There are several varieties of reforms to the

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and Chandra (2004), increases in premiums are not affected by past or present malpractice payments, but may increase due to other unrelated factors. Chandra, Nundy, and Seabury (2005) find that the rising cost of medical services may explain the bulk of the growth of "compensatory awards". They also

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For instance, in every American jurisdiction, if a defendant or the judge believes that a plaintiff has misrepresented the facts or the law or has brought a "frivolous" pleading, the defendant, or the court on its own initiative, may ask for the action to be thrown out and for the attorney bringing

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It is true, however, that the evidence could be introduced to prove "ownership, control, or the feasibility of precautionary measures." But, a lawyer representing the manufacturer could concede ownership and control, and thus prevent the evidence from being introduced for that purpose. And a lawyer

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Tort reform supporters argue that this precisely describes the problem: lawsuits over socially beneficial practices increase the costs of those practices, and thus improperly deter innovation and other economically desirable activity. They further suggest that small businesses are hurt worse by the

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growth of 9% in estimated annual tort costs between 1951 and 2007 as opposed to a 7% average annual growth in GDP—representing 2.2% of GDP in 2004 vs. just 0.6% in 1950 and 1.3% in 1970. More recent research from the same source has found that tort costs as a per centage of GDP dropped between 2001

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Tort reform advocates allege that these numbers are misleading. They claim that most liability costs come from pre-trial settlements, so the number of trials is irrelevant. Supporters further note that the number of "filings" is a misleading statistic, because modern filings are much more likely to

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in a British court, they were ordered to pay the defendants' $ 1.75 million in attorneys' fees. The "American rule" differs; in most cases, each party bears its own expense of litigation. Supporters of tort reform argue that loser-pays rules are fairer, would compensate winners of lawsuits against

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Proponents of tort reform also criticise the extent to which legal costs can approach or exceed the value of the compensation awarded in damages, especially in contrast with compensation allocated through insurance or social security systems. In Britain, for instance, it has been argued that 85p is

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actively combats, and attempts to settle all cases where potential negligence claims are at stake. While successful, the costs of litigation to the health system are steadily growing. In the United States, it is easier for victims of medical malpractice to seek compensation through the tort system.

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stated: "product liability is so extreme and uncertain as to retard innovation. The legal and regulatory climate places firms in constant jeopardy of costly and ... lengthy product suits. The existing approach goes beyond any reasonable need to protect consumers, as other nations have demonstrated

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School of Public Health argued that tort litigation was an important tool for the prevention of injuries. While Teret acknowledged that the primary purpose of tort lawsuits usually is to recover money damages for the injured persons, as compensation for their medical and other costs, he identified

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Proponents of the existing tort system contend that tort reform advocates exaggerate the costs and ignore the benefits of the current tort system. For example, consumer advocates and legal scholars contend that lawsuits encourage corporations to produce safer products, discourage them from selling

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lawsuits with nationwide plaintiffs be tried in federal courts, eliminating awards for pre-judgment interest. Many of these measures tend to benefit defendants; others, such as the English rule, sanctions for delay, and early-offer settlement requirements, could have benefits to plaintiffs in some

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each year are "frivolous" lawsuits. The term "frivolous lawsuit" has acquired a broader rhetorical definition in political debates about tort reform, where it is sometimes used by reform advocates to describe legally non-frivolous tort lawsuits that critics believe are without merit, or award high

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An additional rationale for tort reform is the ability of plaintiff's attorneys to use the discovery process of common law jurisdictions to impose costs on defendants in order to force settlements in unmeritorious cases to avoid the cost and inconvenience of discovery. The use of discovery in tort

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One argument focuses on the costs of litigation and how payment of compensation raises the cost of insurance. Because most tort claims will be paid from the pockets of insurance, and because the public generally pays into insurance schemes of all kinds, tort reform proponents assert that reducing

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has been cited as a model for tort reform in health care. Others deny that medical malpractice suits play a significant role in the cost of health care. Including legal fees, insurance costs, and payouts, the cost of all US malpractice suits comes to less than one-half of 1 per cent of health-care

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jurisdictions, torts are primarily created through judicial precedent rather than legislation, and tort reform centers on proposals for legislation altering the precedent-based rules of tort law. Scholars and lawyers have identified conflicting aims for the law of tort, to some extent reflected in

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supported the bill on the grounds that) the plaintiffs were trying to "sue out of existence" by forcing them to incur $ 250 million in legal defence expenses, while gun control supporters argued that the legislation took "away the right of victims to be able to have their day in court," that the

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there is no evidence that expanded liability for design choices has been a significant cause of the passenger safety improvements witnessed since World War II. Graham concludes by endorsing reform, noting that case studies of the current product liability system "suggest that manufacturers may be

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since the civil justice system in many countries does not accord defendants the procedural protections present in the criminal justice system thus penalising an individual without allowing them the ordinary procedural protections that are present in a criminal trial. The rationale for restricting

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Some courts have developed scales of damages awards, benchmarks for compensation, which relate to the severity of the injury. For instance, in the United Kingdom, the loss of a thumb is compensated at £18,000, for an arm £72,000, for two arms £150,000, and so on. Even more difficult to reckon are

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in most common law jurisdictions and the European Union. If a product is faulty, and injures somebody who has come across it (whether they are the buyer or not) then the manufacturer will be responsible for compensating the victim regardless of whether it can be shown that the manufacturer was at

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One rationale for tort reform is the purported ineffectiveness of tort law in securing equal compensation. If someone has an accident then they have a statistical 8% chance of finding a tortfeasor responsible for their injury. If they are lucky enough to have been injured by someone else's fault,

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In Indian tort law, the principle of absolute liability provides that "where an enterprise is engaged in a hazardous or inherently dangerous activity", the enterprise has an absolute and unrestricted obligation to provide compensation any harm caused in any way by the activity. Unlike the related

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The case studies provide little evidence that expanded product liability risk was necessary to achieve the safety improvements that have been made. In the absence of liability risk, the combined effects of consumer demand, regulation, and professional responsibility would have been sufficient to

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argued that tort reform actually saved tens of thousands of lives because "lower expected liability costs result in lower prices, enabling consumers to buy more risk-reducing products such as medicines, safety equipment, and medical services, and as consumers take additional precautions to avoid

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are not recognised as a defence, is severely criticised especially since it disregards the "generally accepted parameter of minimum competence and reasonable care" and endangers the growth of science and technical industries, as investors have to take the risk of liability given that there is no

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In Texas, tort reform measures have imposed a requirement in medical malpractice cases that only a physician practising or teaching in the same specialty as the defendant can serve as an expert witness in the matter. Additionally, a report from that witness showing evidence of negligence must be

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According to a 2004 study of medical malpractice costs, "program administration—defence and underwriting costs—accounts for approximately 60 per cent of total malpractice costs, and only 50 per cent of total malpractice costs are returned to patients. These costs are high even when compared with

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Another type of procedural reform is to modify the criteria related to a defendant's state of mind in order to increase the burden of proof imposed on the plaintiff. Tort reform in Texas changed the definition of negligence in the context of emergency room treatment to include only "willful and

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Over the course of the twentieth and twenty first century, tort reform in the area of defamation law has resulted in an expansion of defences, including affirmative defences, available to defendants. For instance, the United Kingdom's Defamation Act 1952 and Singapore's Defamation Act 1957 both

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notes four possible bases on which different torts rested: appeasement, justice, deterrence and compensation. As a result of the wide range of rationales upon which the tort system is based and the variety of distinct purposes it aims to serve, criticism of tort law is generally targeted at its

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and other restrictions on plaintiff's traditional rights will reduce corporate accountability. Because corporations typically engage in a cost-benefit analysis before considering whether to stop a wrongful action (such as polluting or not enacting proper measures for safety), they contend that

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According to economist Reed Neil Olsen, "...tort law generally and medical malpractice specifically serve two legitimate purposes. First, the law serves to compensate victims for their losses. Second, the threat of liability serves to deter future accidents." Tort reformers maintain that the

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has had a negative influence on innovation. It has held back new designs, consumed resources that might otherwise have been directed at design improvement, and added on costs to the consumer. ... n Western European countries ... liability risks are low and the marketplace pays a premium for

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in hail litigation, as reports of lawyers employing contractors and insurance adjusters to drum up clients have continued to surface the past several years." The bill would also prevent plaintiffs from suing their individual insurance agent. An identical bill (HB 1774) was introduced in the

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has become a focus of tort reform. While similar reforms may be proposed for all these areas of tort law, the debate surrounding each tends to remain separate, with the debate surrounding purported abuse of the defamation tort system generally discussed separately by policymakers addressing

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aims to address this issue by pausing all discovery between the time the motion is filed and the judge's ruling on the motion. Presently, most jurisdictions regard the prosecution of "frivolous" lawsuits as grounds for disciplinary proceedings against attorneys and potential ground for

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Proponents of tort reform argue that the open-ended discovery process of common law jurisdictions enables plaintiffs arguing in bad faith to initiate frivolous tort lawsuits and coerce defendants into agreeing to legal settlements in otherwise unmeritorious actions. Strictly defined, a

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until they abandon their criticism or opposition. As a result, many jurisdictions (especially in North America) have enacted legislation incorporating elements of common tort reform proposals specifically with regard to lawsuits brought against individuals purportedly exercising

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For example, in 1999, a Los Angeles County jury awarded $ 4.8 billion in punitive damages against General Motors to a group of six burn victims whose 1979 Chevrolet Malibu was rear-ended by a drunk driver, causing it to catch fire. That was later reduced to $ 1.2 billion by the

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accidents." They also concluded that "caps on noneconomic damages, a higher evidence standard for punitive damages, product liability reform, and prejudgment interest reform lead to fewer accidental deaths, while reforms to the collateral source rule lead to increased deaths."

1087:. This would reduce the number of unnecessary tests and procedures, typically performed under patient request, thereby reducing the costs of medical care in general. As an argument against the current system, tort reformers link the rising costs of premiums for physicians' 2240:

for the manufacturer could seek to prevent the introduction of the evidence to show feasibility of precautionary measures if he/she argued such evidence would violate Rule 403 of the Federal Rules of evidence. Rule 403 bars evidence that is relevant, but overly prejudicial.

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A wide variety of tort reforms have been implemented or proposed in different jurisdictions, each attempting to address a particular deficiency perceived in the system of tort law. Generally, these can be broken down into two categories: reforms limiting

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damages for the pain and suffering of an injury. But while a scale may be consistent, the award itself is arbitrary and there is no objective basis for the setting of amounts or objective justification for their not being substantially higher or lower.

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who loses an arm suffers a loss to his future job prospects and in the case of fatal accidents, financially dependent relatives may be compensated for the loss of money that their loved one would have provided. Known as "bereavement damages" under the

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that gave immunity to gun manufacturers in certain lawsuits because such lawsuits were "nothing more than thinly veiled attempts to circumvent the legislative process and achieve gun control through litigation"; reform supporters complained that (and

921:. Typical harms can include loss of income (while the person recovers); medical expenses; payment for pain, suffering, or even loss of a body part; or loss of future income (assuming that said loss can be proven to be reasonably likely to occur. See 867:

insurance), and increase legal costs for businesses. Tort reform has primarily been prominent in common law jurisdictions, where criticism of judge-made rules regarding tort actions manifests in calls for statutory reform by the legislature.

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by plaintiffs who seek out jurisdictions with harsher defamation laws and little connection to either the plaintiff, the respondent, or the particular instance of alleged defamation. In response to this trend, the United States adopted the

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Discovery, unique to common law jurisdictions, essentially grants powers to private parties and their counsel which are "functionally equivalent" to the power to issue self-executing administrative subpoenas. Consequently, commentators in

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Critics of tort reform also contend that the real purpose of the proposed changes is to shield businesses, especially large corporations, from having to pay just compensation to consumers, patients and clients for the harm incurred from

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Tort reform is also proposed as one solution to rapidly increasing health care costs in the United States. In a study published in 2005 in the Journal of the American Medical Association, 93% of physicians surveyed reported practicing

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that favours the party that is in control of the information needed by the other party. Instead of encouraging discovery, the rules are described as encouraging lawyers to find new ways to manipulate and distort or conceal information.

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as it may cause consumers to under-invest in care and disregard product safety prior to making a purchase. Furthermore, requiring manufacturers to internalise costs they would otherwise externalise increases the price of goods and, in

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product or its design; or a need for a warning or instruction." This means that evidence of changing the design of a product after an accident cannot be used in court against the manufacturer to prove it is liable for the damage.

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Critics of tort reform contend that the real purpose of the proposed changes is to shield businesses, especially large corporations, from having to pay just compensation to consumers, patients and clients for damages incurred from

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Another argument is that the costs of the tort system, and in particular medical malpractice suits, raise the costs of health care. This argument is most often encountered in relation to litigation in countries that do not have

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has proposed creating specialised medical courts (similar to distinct tax courts) where medically trained judges would evaluate cases and subsequently render precedent-setting decisions. Proponents believe that giving up

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countries as well as certain American states, the losing party must pay for the court costs of the winning party. The English rule Is also a prevailing norm in European civil law jurisdictions. For example, after authors

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Some advocates of tort reform also complain of regulation through litigation, the idea that litigation is being used to achieve regulatory ends that advocates would not be able to achieve through the democratic process.

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Proponents of tort reform counter by pointing to data from New Zealand, which has abolished its medical tort system but has medical error rates close to those in the United States. Tort reform advocates, including

2050:(DOJ), found that the number of civil trials dropped by 47% between 1992 and 2001. The DOJ also found that the median inflation-adjusted award in all tort cases dropped 56.3% between 1992 and 2001 to $ 28,000. 1509:

A common element of tort reform is to try to limit the amount of damages that an injured party may recover from a defendant, even if the injured party is left inadequately compensated as a result of the camp.

1801:, or " clinical behavior because of the threat of malpractice liability." Of physicians surveyed, 43% reported using digital imaging technology in clinically unnecessary circumstances, which includes costly 1318:, "Study after study shows that costs associated with malpractice lawsuits make up 1% to 2% of the nation's $ 2.5 trillion annual health-care bill and that tort reform would barely make a dent in the total." 1423:, is a major objective of tort reform. Opponents of tort reform argue that summary judgment in such cases adequately addresses those issues. In common law jurisdictions which allow for extensive pre-trial 2482:, "that sum of money which will put the party who has been injured in the same position as he would have been if he had not sustained the wrong for which he is now getting his compensation or reparation." 2037:

Opponents of tort reform deny that there has been a "litigation explosion" or "liability crisis", and contend that the changes proposed by tort reform advocates are unjustified. Records maintained by the

1776:

Tort reform advocates argue that the present tort system is too expensive, that meritless lawsuits clog up the courts, that per capita tort costs vary significantly from state to state, and that trial

1338:. It can be argued that strict liability deters innovation, because manufacturers could be reluctant to test out new products for fear that they could be subjecting themselves to massive tort claims. 4682:

Jearey, J. (1961). Trial by Jury and Trial with the Aid of Assessors in the Superior Courts of British African Territories: II. Journal of African Law, 5(1), 36-47. doi:10.1017/S0021855300002941)

2259:

innovative technology in safety as well as other areas. As a result, most safety-related advances in recent years have come from European manufacturers and, more recently, from the Japanese. ...

4847: 1994:

It is argued that extraordinary damage awards in the United States are a result of the jury system. In federal courts in the United States, the right to a jury trial in most civil cases is

1222:

Personal injury law is one of the most controversial topics in tort reform. In New Zealand, the tort system for the majority of personal injuries was scrapped with the establishment of the

2733:

doctrine was applied where someone slipped on yogurt in a supermarket. An employer may have failed to properly fence off some dangerous machinery, which exposes workers to risk of injury.

2030:(ATRA) claims that "The cost of the U.S. tort system for 2003 was $ 246 billion, or $ 845 per citizen or $ 3,380 for a family of four" and "The Growth of U.S. tort costs have exceeded the 2978: 2130: 3075: 1206:, price-sensitive markets, price increases cause some consumers to seek substitutes for that product. As a result, manufacturers may not produce the socially optimal level of goods. 4863: 4376: 1602:

In addition to reforms aimed at limiting plaintiff's abilities to claim particular categories of compensation, tort reform measures aimed at reducing the prevalence of lawsuits for

5591: 3214: 2478:

In other words, the idea underpinning the law of tort is that if someone harms someone else, they should make up for it. Compensation should be, in the words of Lord Blackburn in

3781:"Rule 11. Signing Pleadings, Motions, and Other Papers; Representations to the Court; Sanctions | Federal Rules of Civil Procedure | LII / Legal Information Institute" 2289: 1062:

or dismiss which, if successful, would terminate the lawsuit and allow the party to recover its legal costs from the plaintiff. Another concern with defamation torts is alleged

25:

Lawyer jokes from 1900. Top-hatted lawyer to workman falling off scaffolding: "Take this card, my man, and if you're not killed call on me and I'll recover big damages for you."

5434:

report. October 2003. This report looks at the origins, strategy and tactics of the tort reform movement and its ties to core conservative-movement funders and organisations.

3183:

Klick, Jonathan; Stratmann, Thomas (2003). ""Does Medical Malpractice Reform Help States Retain Physicians and Does it Matter?" by Jonathan Klick and Thomas Stratman (2005)".

4473: 1697: 5523: 1879:

sometimes weighs in on tort reform debates, but here too, the justices do not always vote according to their predicted ideological stereotypes. In the seminal case of

2222:

achieve improved safety. In some cases, however, liability seemed to cause safety improvements to occur more quickly than they would have in the absence of liability.

959:). Consequently, compensation recoverable through tort suits vary even in circumstances where the injury itself is identical, especially when the "at fault" party is 3047: 5423: 1931:, "By May , there had been 5,972 lawsuits filed, with Mostyn and members of his firm filing 1,612 of them." Mostyn "had pioneered" lawsuits for storm damage after 2300:

Some supporters of tort reform posit that reforms can significantly reduce the costs of doing business, thus benefiting consumers and the public in the long run.

2737:

1 All ER 870, on the application of the Factories Act 1961, s.14, saying "every dangerous part of any machinery... shall be securely fenced." A manufacturer of

1516:

place limits on noneconomic damages and collecting lawsuit claim data from malpractice insurance companies and courts in order to assess any connection between

5431: 4187: 5231: 4762: 3755: 2524:

This figure is disputed, because there is no easy method for accounting for transaction costs, particularly when pre-litigation settlements are considered.

1751:, or litigation funding more generally; is another aspect of procedural policies and reforms designed to reduce the number of cases filed in civil court. 4402: 1999: 963:

or merely negligent rather than intentional in causing the purported harm. Consequently, some legal scholars propose to replace tort compensation with a

3282:

Kolstad, Charles D.; Ulen, Thomas S.; Johnson, Gary V. (1990). "Ex Post Liability for Harm vs. Ex Ante Safety Regulation: Substitutes or Complements?".

5548:

Report of the Tort Policy Working Group on the Causes, Extent and Policy Implications of the Current Crisis in Insurance Availability and Affordability

3268: 3052:. Annual Meeting of the Economics of Population Health: Inaugural Conference of the American Society of Health Economists. Madison, Wis. Archived from 5469: 4794: 2317:

to look at the effects of bankruptcies from asbestos litigation on workers in the asbestos industry; the study estimated that 52,000 jobs were lost.

2061:, a major consultant to the insurance industry. In 2008, Towers Perrin reported that the cost of liability litigation has outpaced the growth of the 1639:

Procedural reforms to the tort system aim to dissuade or prevent litigants from filing suit without directly altering the damages they may receive.

3520: 1547:

punitive damages is that such damages encourage a vindictive, revenge seeking state of mind in the claimant and society more generally. In the UK,

4973:"The frivolous case for tort law change: Opponents of the legal system exaggerate its costs, ignore its benefits | Economic Policy Institute" 3309:

Ewerhart, Christian; Schmitz, Patrick W. (1998). "Ex Post Liability for Harm vs. Ex Ante Safety Regulation: Substitutes or Complements? Comment".

2320:

Critics of the tort reform movement dispute the claim that the current tort system has a significant impact on national or global economies. The

1467:

and enabling the court system to exert inordinate power over the legislative and executive branches of government. For instance, the emergence of

5385: 5336: 4363: 3951: 2244: 1275: 5142: 5081: 4250: 3421: 2984: 1872: 1024: 1012: 1852:

should be abolished, and there is a healthy debate over whether it would be beneficial to further restrict the ability of attorneys to charge

4844: 3215:""Bush Calls Himself Reformer; the Record Shows the Label May Be a Stretch" by Richard A Oppel Jr. and Jim Yardley, NY Times, March 20, 2000" 3243: 4450: 4211: 2846:

Jamie Cassels, "Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation in India: Attempting the Impossible" (1989) 37 Am. J. Comp. L. 495 at 509.

1189:

applies. Proponents of tort reform argue that liability serves to increase the cost of goods for customers and that it serves to encourage

956: 84: 5596: 3603: 2872: 2787: 2122: 1479:

However, opponents of tort reform assert that public interest litigation in India has served to secure "social and distributive justice."

4528: 4342: 5608: 4736: 4629: 2915: 2163:

threat of litigation than large corporations are, because the legal expenses from a single lawsuit can bankrupt a small businessperson.

1342:

spent on litigation for every £1 of compensation paid. In contrast, the social security system costs 8p or 12p for every £1 delivered.

1083:

Tort reform advocates argue that by limiting the threat of frivolous lawsuits, the medical industry would migrate away from practising

952: 224: 4601: 1431:

is applied) cost of litigation are not necessarily addressed by summary judgment. In particularly oppressive defamation lawsuits, the

1037:

Defamation suits, particularly when brought by a large organisation or wealthy individual against a less wealthy critic, may serve to

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torts, contrary to the general assumption that tort reform is a primarily Republican or conservative issue, is a popular cause among

1631:

continue to use contributory negligence, thus precluding a party who is even partly at fault from recovering damages for negligence.

3920: 1832:

for defendants faced with bankruptcy, "venue reform", which limits the jurisdictions within which one can file a lawsuit, limits on

1520:

settlements and premium rates. Such caps can be general or limited to a particular category of cases. Non-economic damages include

6788: 2598: 2566:

For example, the American federal government has instituted a $ 250,000 cap on non-economic damages for medical malpractice claims.

2437: 3633: 2042:

show that population-adjusted tort filings declined from 1992 to 2001. The average change in tort filings was a 15% decrease. The

5454: 5278: 4481: 970:

Proposals for tort reform primarily centre on addressing perceived deficits in four areas of tort law: personal injury lawsuits,

5212: 4819: 3478: 3125:""The Medical Malpractice 'Crisis': Recent Trends And The Impact Of State Tort Reforms" by Kenneth E. Thorpe (January 21, 2004)" 935:(restoration to original state). However, since the emphasis under tort law is on the violation by an individual of a purported 5015: 1092: 159: 5482: 5404: 3613: 2821: 1868: 1860: 1660: 3620:

Faced with grinding discovery demands that distract employees from operating the business, even blameless defendants settle.

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For instance, a supermarket may not have been safe enough for its customers to shop in by failing to mop up a spillage of

5449: 2047: 2034:(GDP) by 2-3 per centage points in the past 50 years". This claim is based on a 2002 study by Tillinghast-Towers Perrin. 5438: 4503: 1784:

in tort cases. (The typical contingent fee arrangement provides for the lawyer to retain one-third of any recovery.) A

5564:

Black et al. Do Defendants Pay What Juries Award? Post-Verdict Haircuts in Texas Medical Malpractice Cases, 1988–2003,

3995:

Joni Hersch and W. Kip Viscusi, "Punitive Damages: How Judges and Juries Perform," 33 J. Legal Stud. 1 (January 2004),

2066:

and 2009, and are now at their lowest level since 1984. The Tillinghast/Towers Perrin study has been criticised by the

1428: 1055: 831: 1554:

though rarely awarded in tort cases, punitive damages are available, and are sometimes quite staggering when awarded.

1357:

litigation favours the wealthier side in a lawsuit by enabling parties to drain each other's financial resources in a

6214: 5772: 5671: 5498: 5369: 5265: 4576: 4161: 3908:

P N Bhagwati, "The Role of the Judiciary in the Democratic and Judicial Restraint" (1992) 18 CommwLBull 1262 at 1266.

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Supporters frequently base their claims of an "explosion" in the costs of tort litigation based on annual studies by

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lowest level since 1984. High-profile tort cases are often portrayed by the media as the legal system's version of a

1563: 1223: 4184: 2930: 1840:

of "loser pays" (the defeated party must pay both the plaintiff's and the defendant's expenses), and requiring that

6328: 6197: 5555:

Zeiler et al. Physicians' Insurance Limits and Malpractice Payments: Evidence from Texas Closed Claims, 1990–2003,

5235: 2602: 2396: 2039: 2027: 939:, compensation is determined to a large extent by the extent to which the "at fault" party violated the applicable 5427: 5399:, Chapter Four (Section 4.05: "Juror Attitudes About Lawsuits and Tort Reform". New York: American Lawyer Media. 4769: 2088:

Australia and the United Kingdom drew up proposals for similar no-fault schemes, but they were never implemented.

1562:

Another possible modification of tort law, in jurisdictions where it is not already the norm, is to implement the

6783: 6130: 6031: 3759: 2272:, also argue that litigation has driven from the US marketplace many useful and safe medical advances, including 1848:

Not all tort reform supporters support all proposed tort reforms. For example, there is a split over whether the

550: 5546: 3823:"Preamble: A Lawyer's Responsibilities - Professional Guidelines and Rules of Conduct - Professional Guidelines" 1386:, and insofar as discovery may be able to facilitate the creation of new rights, that is the prerogative of the 1158:

as it enables unpredictable events to give rise to liability. The strictness of this approach, under which even

6290: 5924: 4913:

The frivolous case for tort law change: Opponents of the legal system exaggerate its costs, ignore its benefits

1961: 482: 4399: 5643: 4636: 4207: 1863:, both support of and opposition to tort reform is found across the political spectrum in America. Reform of 1321:

Another argument is that tort liability may stunt innovation. This argument usually comes in connection with

1378:

and as "a private inquisition." Civil law countries see the underlying objectives of discovery as properly

6450: 5929: 4693: 4224: 3888: 2329: 2043: 1475:. Controversy further arose when judges began to read such obligations of the state into Article 21 of the 943:

with regard to the plaintiff rather than solely by the harm purportedly suffered and distinguishes between

340: 4798: 4009: 2309:

through more pragmatic approaches." A commission by the American Insurance Association and co-authored by

373: 6445: 5381: 3980: 2594: 1876: 1722: 1382:

in order to maintain the rule of law: the investigative objective of discovery is the prerogative of the

917:, requiring the party "at fault" for a particular harm to provide compensation, typically in the form of 556: 4707: 3530: 3124: 6420: 5919: 1944: 1849: 1821: 1492:

recoverable by a plaintiff and procedural reforms limiting the ability of plaintiffs to file lawsuits.

1468: 1460: 330: 5491: 5169:""First Do No Harm? Tort Reform and Birth Outcomes" by Janet Currie and W. Bentley MacLeod (May 2008)" 6503: 4916: 3991:$ 4.8 billion was the largest non-class action judgment for punitive damages according to one study. 2626: 2557:

bill gave unprecedented immunity to a single industry, and claimed that the law was unconstitutional.

2507:. Its goal is to achieve equality of compensation, while reducing costs of litigation. In the 1970s, 2321: 2105: 2067: 1817: 1748: 1513: 1464: 645: 494: 4884: 4625: 2747:

AC 580, where a decomposed snail was found in a soft drink, see Lord Atkin's judgment in particular.

1459:

suits in America are frequently criticised as examples of regulation through litigation. Similarly,

6298: 6280: 4993: 2762: 2741:

may have allowed a bottle it sells to have become contaminated, which has made a consumer ill. See

2248: 2181: 2176:, and encourage more safe and effective medical practices. Beginning in the early 1980s, Professor 1940: 1587: 1539: 1456: 1449: 1432: 1371: 1059: 880:

for actions—not arising from a contract—that cause a claimant to suffer loss or harm, resulting in

678: 662: 229: 189: 6632: 4148: 4147:, see N.Y. CPLR § 214-a, which can be found under money CVP, Article 2, LIMITATIONS OF TIME, at 3577:"GAO Study, Medical Malpractice, Implications of Raising Premiums on Access to Medical Care, 2003" 2231:

inclined to delay design improvements when they fear that improvements will be used against them .

1334:, is lower in other injury cases, so that a victim would have to prove that a tortfeasor had been 1287:

Another rationale for tort reform is the distortionary impact tort litigation has on the economy.

1091:

insurance to the rising cost of personal and group policy health insurance coverage. California's

6673: 6460: 5949: 5934: 5118:"Rule 403. Excluding Relevant Evidence for Prejudice, Confusion, Waste of Time, or Other Reasons" 4458: 3866: 3100: 3000:"Congressional Budget Office (January 8, 2004) "Limiting Tort Liability for Medical Malpractice"" 2723: 2301: 1885:, the court ruled that the Constitution placed limits on punitive damages, with liberal justices 1611: 1567: 1263: 543: 368: 335: 5526: 4425:"Defensive Medicine Among High-Risk Specialist Physicians in a Volatile Malpractice Environment" 4203: 1905:, some expect the court to be more likely to take cases that could resolve tort reform debates. 1411:

in frivolous lawsuits are a nuisance for individuals against whom such litigation is brought in

6728: 6713: 4321: 3380: 2894: 2454: 2386: 2031: 1729: 1643: 1607: 1576: 1383: 1314: 1203: 1185:. In most common law jurisdictions and in member states of the European Union, the doctrine of 931: 877: 824: 739: 561: 472: 315: 260: 164: 59: 5394: 3843: 3822: 3722: 3666: 6832: 6425: 6103: 5914: 5605: 5542: 5410: 5361: 4740: 4640: 3685: 3200: 2886: 2214: 2109: 2015: 1956: 1920: 1744: 1714:

wanton" acts. This has been interpreted as including only acts intended to harm the patient.

1476: 1308: 1300: 699: 673: 592: 477: 439: 234: 194: 181: 5476: 5472:(study asserting that corporations are the most frequent initiators of litigation in the US) 3668:

Double Billing: A Young Lawyer's Tale of Greed, Sex, Lies, and the Pursuit of a Swivel Chair

1058:

and Ontario's Protection of Public Participation Act do so by enabling defendants to make a

6553: 5899: 3101:""The Efficiency of Medical Malpractice Law: Theory and Empirical Evidence" (October 2000)" 2743: 2406: 2391: 2058: 1676:

are lawsuits where a group of claimants band together to bring similar claims all at once.

1331: 1248: 171: 111: 1935:. He made over $ 86 million in legal fees. In February 2017, a bill was introduced in the 8: 6866: 6708: 5848: 5765: 5508: 5309: 5216: 4665: 4424: 3917: 3336:

Shavell, Steven (1984). "A Model of the Optimal Use of Liability and Safety Regulation".

2424: 2371: 2350: 2151: 1995: 1982: 1898: 1362: 1252: 1088: 971: 922: 864: 536: 530: 489: 426: 249: 50: 5418: 2324:

wrote that the effect on the economy of job loss resulting from lawsuits is negligible:

6523: 6182: 6036: 6021: 5999: 5743: 5723: 5676: 5666: 5191: 5164: 5048: 3681: 3599: 3361: 3318: 3291: 2496: 2206: 2198: 2115: 2011: 1924: 1798: 1706: 1521: 1227: 1126: 1084: 999: 902: 779: 666: 597: 566: 457: 421: 397: 353: 136: 78: 5285: 5232:"The Cutter Incident: A Legal Tale of Unintended Consequences for Vaccine Development" 4823: 3399: 1071:

which expressly limits the enforceability of offshore judgements in defamation cases.

890: 6861: 6508: 6430: 6268: 6011: 6006: 5959: 5884: 5878: 5718: 5636: 5518: 5494:(article discussing US Chamber of Commerce's use of newspaper to promote tort reform) 5400: 5365: 5261: 5195: 4014: 3985: 3728: 3691: 3609: 3551: 3482: 3403: 3353: 3196: 3144: 2729: 2442: 2354: 2305: 1927:’ to remind homeowners that they had to file a claim within two years." According to 1909: 1890: 1770: 1581: 1472: 1395: 1358: 1322: 1210: 1182: 1172: 1132: 1105:

present tort system is an expensive and inefficient way to compensate those injured.

1097: 1051: 1007: 975: 948: 910: 894: 817: 724: 719: 709: 704: 520: 499: 363: 309: 296: 244: 204: 5513: 5499:

testimony about Small Business Liability Reform Act before House Judiciary Committee

5022: 3780: 2597:, which granted civil immunity to telecommunications companies that cooperated with 1764:

Tort reform advocates frequently contend that too many of the lawsuits filed in the

1197:. Conversely, proponents of tort reform argue that strict liability creates risk of 6513: 6480: 5979: 5843: 5838: 5803: 5442: 5183: 4722: 4432: 4214:

by Betsy McCaughey The Wall Street Journal, August 24, 2005, accessed Aug. 2, 2006.

4050: 3965: 3940:(2006), which lay out the standard figures, up to £200,000 for severe brain damages 3395: 3345: 3188: 3136: 2999: 2614: 2610: 2461:(concerning reform of patent law, which pits similar interests against one another) 2447: 2430: 2381: 2277: 2255: 2194: 2155: 1973: 1829: 1825: 1813: 1647: 1549: 1535: 1531: 1416: 1326: 1186: 1176: 1139: 940: 898: 734: 714: 587: 515: 467: 416: 349: 291: 199: 176: 118: 106: 3801: 1330:

fault. The standard, which originated in the twentieth century with cases such as

6762: 6735: 6723: 6703: 6637: 6615: 6595: 6590: 6570: 6435: 6415: 6410: 6313: 6273: 5984: 5909: 5833: 5818: 5738: 5612: 5586: 5487: 5117: 5099: 4851: 4406: 4191: 4072: 3924: 2618: 2314: 2118:(Royal Commission on Civil Liability and Compensation for Personal Injuries) 1979 1833: 1572: 1566:

whereby the losing party to a case covers the victorious party's legal costs. In

1424: 1408: 1351: 1155: 1147: 964: 881: 729: 391: 320: 303: 5187: 4951: 4543: 4280: 3927:, National Conference of State Legislatures, May 1, 2006, accessed Aug. 3, 2006. 2499:

scheme for all accident victims, which provides benefit from the government-run

1780:

too often receive an overly large percentage of the punitive damages awarded to

6839: 6647: 6565: 6154: 6120: 6071: 6056: 5828: 5733: 5713: 5703: 5465: 5390: 5353: 5138: 5135: 5077: 5074: 4929: 3543: 3497: 2807:(1978) by the "Royal Commission on Civil Liability and Compensation for Injury" 2803: 2629:

opposes many tort reform measures, arguing that litigation can be used to keep

2512: 2210: 2097: 2003: 1894: 1886: 1853: 1740: 1682: 1624: 1542:

jurisdictions, punitive damages are unavailable and are considered contrary to

1420: 1379: 1304: 1270: 1259: 1063: 960: 769: 525: 407: 325: 127: 73: 68: 4366:, 352 S.E.2d 73, 80 (W.Va. 1986) ("the standard contingent fee is 33 percent") 4029: 2980:

The Tort of Defamation: An Analysis of the Law in India and the United Kingdom

2185:

several ways that litigation can also enhance safety for everyone, including:

6855: 6693: 6652: 6538: 6518: 6490: 6440: 6405: 6379: 6374: 6367: 6318: 6258: 6098: 6088: 6046: 5969: 5964: 5894: 5853: 5777: 5581: 5503: 5021:. Johns Hopkins University Center for Gun Policy and Research. Archived from 4436: 3525: 3407: 3357: 3167: 2606: 2515:

drew up proposals for similar no-fault schemes but they were later abandoned.

2251:, claimed safety (and other) innovations were inhibited by fear of lawsuits: 2177: 2101: 1987: 1932: 1914: 1785: 1765: 1702: 1690: 1151: 1046: 1032: 848: 609: 5277:

Stiglitz, Joseph E.; Orszag, Jonathan M.; Orszag, Peter R. (December 2002).

4251:"Closing Arguments: Is Wisconsin's collateral-source rule worth preserving?" 3867:"Virginia State Bar - Professional Regulation - Disciplinary System Actions" 6825: 6575: 6543: 6498: 6236: 6231: 6202: 6115: 6093: 6061: 5994: 5974: 5868: 5808: 5798: 5750: 5708: 5686: 5629: 5519:

Economic Policy Institute response to response of Tillinghast/Towers Perrin

5160: 3148: 2877: 2586: 2553: 2544: 2458: 2411: 2285: 1936: 1902: 1841: 1837: 1677: 1669: 1543: 1231: 1198: 936: 787: 774: 764: 683: 269: 3576: 3140: 2276:(the withdrawal of which has led to a doubling of hospital admissions for 6747: 6688: 6678: 6475: 6470: 6308: 6209: 6125: 6084: 6051: 6016: 5939: 5863: 5813: 5728: 5124:. Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School. 2011-11-30. 5106:. Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School. 2011-11-30. 3938:

Guidelines for the Assessment of General Damages in Personal Injury Cases

3687:

Rights and Retrenchment: The Counterrevolution Against Federal Litigation

2964: 2789:

Medical malpractice - an international perspective of tort system reforms

2757: 2738: 2492: 2310: 1948: 1881: 1517: 1387: 1375: 991: 239: 154: 21: 5358:

The Liability Maze: The Impact of Liability Law on Safety and Innovation

5168: 5016:"Litigation Is an Important Tool for Injury and Gun Violence Prevention" 3192: 2376: 1873:

lawsuits brought by wealthy corporations and individuals against critics

6811: 6740: 6620: 6558: 6303: 6224: 6219: 6177: 6159: 6147: 6108: 5954: 5944: 5904: 5889: 5873: 5823: 5760: 5755: 4972: 4912: 3365: 3295: 2504: 2346: 2269: 2205:

Tort reform advocates cite a 1990 study of auto safety improvements by

2147: 2021: 2007: 1864: 1718: 1686: 1603: 1591: 1437: 1403: 1335: 1159: 1068: 1042: 1038: 1028: 979: 944: 914: 885: 860: 852: 805: 749: 652: 604: 274: 215: 141: 33: 5532: 4907: 4905: 3322: 6718: 6683: 6625: 6600: 6465: 6362: 6350: 6335: 6323: 6251: 6169: 6142: 6026: 5343: 3889:"LA Times (October 21, 2005) "Bill to Shield Gun Makers Is Approved"" 3422:"Understanding the Real Life Issues Underlying Tort Reform Proposals" 2508: 2273: 1781: 1717:

Tort reformers have had the most legislative success in limiting the

1673: 1412: 1399: 1292: 783: 6806: 4172: 3349: 2675: 800: 448: 6767: 6752: 6455: 6340: 6137: 5681: 5563: 5554: 5052: 4902: 3996: 3046:

Bagga, Shalini; Khan, M. Mahmud; Dhankhar, Praveen (June 4, 2006).

3021: 2622: 2333: 2173: 1939:

that would aim "at ending hailstorm lawsuit abuse." Texas Lt. Gov.

1806: 1628: 1620: 759: 619: 382: 279: 101: 4919:, May 17, 2005 (EPI Briefing Paper #157), retrieved March 31, 2007 2621:

has often criticised products liability law; and the conservative

2154:

or other legitimate tort claims. They contend that limitations on

6657: 6605: 6585: 6533: 6345: 6263: 6079: 6041: 5989: 2281: 1790: 1733: 1616: 1489: 1181:

A large portion of the debate surrounding tort reform focuses on

995: 967:

framework that serves victims without respect to cause or fault.

918: 614: 582: 462: 284: 4228: 4010:"GM Files Appeal of $ 1.2-Billion Verdict, Calling Trial Unfair" 3479:"In Hospital Deaths from Medical Errors at 195,000 per Year USA" 3049:

Medical Malpractice: Examining its Effect on Hospital Efficiency

1606:, the most commonly alleged tort, aim to revise the doctrine of 1398:

is one that cannot reasonably be supported under existing legal

855:

countries that aim to reduce the ability of plaintiffs to bring

6757: 6610: 6355: 6246: 6241: 6187: 5858: 5600: 5279:

The Impact of Asbestos Liabilities on Workers in Bankrupt Firms

3724:

Failures of American Civil Justice in International Perspective

2718: 2630: 2243:

Another presenter at the same Brooking Institution conference,

1777: 1642:

One type of procedural reform is to reduce the time to sue—the

1291:

tort litigation and payouts will benefit everyone who pays for

657: 624: 4350: 3439:"Medical negligence costs 'threat' to National Health Service" 2676:"Punitive Damages as Aggravated Damages: The Case of Contract" 1923:, Texas. "One local attorney had erected a billboard ‘evoking 1668:

Another type of procedural reform is imposing restrictions on

1258:

then they can get full compensation (if the tortfeaser is not

6698: 6642: 6548: 6389: 6192: 5691: 2342: 2143: 1685:

has become a contentious aspect of tort reform, notably with

1415:. Curtailing frivolous lawsuits, especially those brought by 987: 434: 4302:

Bogus, Carl T. (2008). "Introduction: Genuine Tort Reform".

4073:"The Litigation Explosion - Strict Liability for Lawyering" 1812:

A few of the changes frequently advocated include limits on

6580: 6528: 6384: 5782: 5698: 4322:"Public Citizen Debunks myths propounded by Tort Reformers" 2882: 1977: 1045:, and silence critics by burdening them with the cost of a 856: 41: 4602:"Hailstorm lawsuit reform bill introduced in Texas Senate" 4194:

Philip G. Peters, Jr., Boston University Law Review, 2008.

2295: 1193:. Opponents of tort reform argue that it would negatively 5652: 5483:"What Is Tort Reform - and Why Is It Bad for the Public?" 2890: 2062: 1990:

is unusual in almost all countries for non-criminal cases

1802: 5046: 4820:"Civil Trial Cases and Verdicts in Large Counties, 2001" 4739:. American Tort Reform Association. 2007. Archived from 4737:"Facts About Tort Liability And Its Impact On Consumers" 3605:

Second-Best Justice: The Virtues of Japanese Private Law

2823:

The Concept of Strict and Absolute Liability: A Critique

1943:

supported the bill (Senate Bill 10) and said during his

1154:, or a third party's mistake. Consequently, it creates 5621: 5327:

Dobbs, Dan B., Hayden, Paul T., and Bublick, Ellen M.

3727:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 151. 929:

for proved harm. This is known under the Latin phrase

889:

the different types of damages awarded by the courts:

4175:, Mehlman, Maxwell and Nance, Dale A., April 1, 2007. 3690:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 70. 3381:"On the joint use of liability and safety regulation" 5477:

Tort Laws on Trial: Lawsuit Liability Measures, 2004

5276: 4377:"Towers Perrin 2008 Update on U.S. Tort Cost Trends" 4210:

USA Today, July 4, 2005, accessed Aug. 3, 2006; and

3716: 3714: 2786:

For a speech by High Court judge Michael Kirby, see

2605:, the Democrats' vice presidential nominee, Senator 1859:

While tort reform is frequently associated with the

1672:

lawsuits in jurisdictions where they are available.

4624: 2000:

Seventh Amendment of the United States Constitution

1871:and liberals more generally who are concerned with 4227:. American Tort Reform Association. Archived from 3281: 3269:M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak Case) 3244:"Despite Counsel, Victim Is Hindered by Tort Laws" 2328:In an April 2002 paper, the CEA (President Bush's 1471:has been criticised as an undemocratic example of 1190: 5331:. Eighth edition. West Academic Publishing, 2017. 4864:"Towers Perrin report on tort costs through 2007" 4822:. US Bureau of Justice Statistics. Archived from 4257:. The Daily Reporter Publishing Co. 10 March 2016 4030:"Blog reports on Texas adoption of Loser Pay Law" 3711: 3495: 3045: 2859:Noor Mahmmad Usmanbhai Mansuri v State of Gujarat 2609:, was a leading supporter of tort reform; former 913:, tort law is based on the principle of fault or 6853: 5386:"The Economics of U.S. Tort Liability: A Primer" 4395: 4393: 3481:. Medical News Today. 2004-08-09. Archived from 1828:, elimination of elections for judges, reducing 1443: 884:for the person who commits the tortious act. In 3308: 1146:, absolute liability does not defences such as 925:). The classical purpose of tort is to provide 16:Legal reforms aimed at reducing tort litigation 5313:Sourcewatch: Center for Justice and Democracy. 4996:. American Association for Justice. 2014-02-26 4364:"Hayseeds, Inc. v. State Farm Fire & Cas." 3981:"Judge Cuts Award Against GM to $ 1.2 Billion" 3949:see generally, Patrick Atiyah and Peter Cane, 3680: 3674: 3182: 2931:"Protection of Public Participation Act, 2015" 2656: 2654: 2652: 2650: 1947:, "Hailstorm litigation is the newest form of 1754: 1025:Strategic lawsuit against public participation 5637: 5470:"Corporate Hypocrisy in Accessing the Courts" 5159: 4952:"Walter Olson summary, with links (May 2005)" 4390: 4212:Health Courts Endorsed in Wall Street Journal 4095:"An Economic Case for Comparative Negligence" 3634:"Discovery Abuse: Appointing Special Masters" 2864: 2704:Williams, G. "The Aims of the Law of Tort", 1967: 1912:in Texas was hit with two severe hailstorms. 1463:in India has been criticised for undermining 825: 5337:Atiyah's Accidents, Compensation and the Law 4694:"Lee Kuan Yew's Opposition to Trial by Jury" 4691: 4577:"A Hail of a Storm Is Brewing in the Senate" 4149:The New York State Assembly official website 3952:Atiyah's Accidents, Compensation and the Law 3608:. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 3237: 3235: 3076:"To Curb Malpractice, Try Federal Licensing" 2292:, which kills one hundred infants per year. 1597: 1237: 957:intentional infliction of emotional distress 85:Intentional infliction of emotional distress 5284:(Report). Sebago Associates. Archived from 4429:Journal of the American Medical Association 4093:Cooter, Robert D.; Ulen, Thomas S. (1986). 3802:"LIS > Code of Virginia > 8.01-271.1" 3661: 3659: 2647: 1705:and scheduling noneconomic damages such as 5644: 5630: 4708:"section 16, Senior Courts Act 2016 No 48" 4092: 3955:(2006) 6th Ed., Cambridge University Press 3671:(New York: William Morrow, 1998), 125–126. 3135:. Content.healthaffairs.org: W4–20–W4–30. 2870: 2842: 2840: 2819: 2585:For instance, while serving as a senator, 2022:Dispute over "litigation explosion" claims 953:negligent infliction of emotional distress 832: 818: 225:Negligent infliction of emotional distress 5450:The Impact of Medical Malpractice Reforms 4574: 4225:"Joint and Several Liability Rule Reform" 3388:International Review of Law and Economics 3232: 3178: 3176: 2434:(concerning $ 67m for a judge's trousers) 1269:This was the basis for much of Professor 6789:History of the American legal profession 5590:) is being considered for deletion. See 5428:The Attack on Trial Lawyers and Tort Law 5100:"Rule 407. Subsequent Remedial Measures" 3720: 3656: 3598: 3241: 2815: 2813: 2438:Private Securities Litigation Reform Act 1981: 1482: 1242: 20: 5455:Annual Review of Law and Social Science 5396:Courtroom Psychology and Trial Advocacy 4911:Lawrence Chimerine and Ross Eisenbrey, 4501: 4419: 4417: 4415: 3455:3 All ER 138 on the increase of damages 3378: 3335: 3170:Medscape Medical News, October 5, 2011. 2854: 2852: 2837: 2673: 2296:Controversy over the impact on business 6854: 4930:"Economic Policy Institute (May 2005)" 4474:"November Election A Lawyer's Delight" 4471: 4465: 4007: 3521:"The Truth About Malpractice Lawsuits" 3173: 3168:Rising Insurance Premiums? Yes and No. 3122: 2976: 1579:lost their plagiarism litigation over 1557: 1217: 1143: 1093:Medical Injury Compensation Reform Act 1078: 5625: 5527:response to Economic Policy Institute 5229: 4994:"Promote Accountability & Safety" 4949: 4599: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4541: 4301: 4269: 3886: 3518: 3019: 2810: 1634: 1495: 1194: 1120: 859:litigation (particularly actions for 5533:Tort Law Reform in the United States 5448:Liu, Jing; Hyman, David A. (2020). " 5258:The Competitive Advantage of Nations 5182:(2). Mitpressjournals.org: 795–830. 4502:Kinsley, Michael (August 28, 2005). 4412: 4304:Roger Williams University Law Review 3978: 3631: 3548:The Competitive Advantage of Nations 3242:Aaronson, Becca (January 24, 2013). 2871:Rafsanjani, Nazanin (2 April 2010). 2849: 1374:regard discovery destructive of the 1345: 1166: 5230:Offit, Paul A. (January 23, 2009). 5053:"Tort Reform and Accidental Deaths" 3756:"The Myth Of The Frivolous Lawsuit" 2166: 1282: 1276:Accidents, Compensation and the Law 13: 5606:Legal- Civil Trials and Tort Costs 5566:Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 5492:"Advocacy Groups Blur Media Lines" 5375: 5134: 5073: 4795:"National Center for State Courts" 4561: 1538:awardable to a plaintiff. In most 1056:California Code of Civil Procedure 998:). Additionally, the emergence of 14: 6878: 5773:Restitution and unjust enrichment 5594:to help reach a consensus. › 5573: 5481:Justinian Lane, 2003 30 October, 5419:"Rule of Law: Ambush In Angleton" 4472:Fisher, Daniel (11 August 2008). 4400:U.S. Tort Cost Trends 2010 Update 4162:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 4070: 2591:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 2501:Accident Compensation Corporation 2418:Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants 2402:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 2367:Accident Compensation Corporation 2357:or other legitimate tort claims. 2091: 2080:Accident Compensation Corporation 1661:N.Y. Civil Practice Law and Rules 1273:'s scholarship as articulated in 1224:Accident Compensation Corporation 1018: 6820: 6819: 6805: 5439:"Beware of 'Junk Lawsuits' Hype" 5303: 5270: 5250: 5223: 5205: 5153: 5128: 5110: 5092: 5067: 5040: 5008: 4986: 4965: 4943: 4922: 4877: 4856: 4838: 4812: 4797:. Ncsconline.org. Archived from 4787: 4755: 4729: 4714: 4700: 4685: 4676: 4173:"The Case Against Health Courts" 3758:. Tortdeform.com. Archived from 3498:"Medical Negligence and the NHS" 2397:American Tort Reform Association 2131:NHS Redress (Wales) Measure 2007 2040:National Center for State Courts 2028:American Tort Reform Association 1901:dissenting. Under Chief Justice 1759: 909:With regard to torts other than 799: 6784:History of the legal profession 5437:Jeff Milchen, 2004 27 October, 5321: 4710:. Parliamentary Counsel Office. 4658: 4618: 4593: 4535: 4521: 4495: 4443: 4369: 4357: 4335: 4314: 4295: 4243: 4217: 4197: 4178: 4166: 4154: 4135: 4126: 4117: 4086: 4064: 4043: 4022: 4001: 3972: 3958: 3943: 3930: 3918:Medical Malpractice Tort Reform 3911: 3902: 3880: 3859: 3836: 3815: 3794: 3773: 3748: 3625: 3592: 3569: 3560: 3537: 3519:Arnst, Catherine (2009-09-16). 3512: 3489: 3471: 3458: 3445: 3431: 3414: 3372: 3329: 3302: 3275: 3261: 3207: 3161: 3116: 3093: 3068: 3039: 3013: 2992: 2970: 2965:Defamation Act 1957 (Singapore) 2957: 2954:Defamation Act, 1952 (England). 2948: 2935:Legislative Assembly of Ontario 2923: 2909: 2579: 2569: 2560: 2537: 2527: 2518: 2495:introduced the first universal 2485: 1504: 1266:, particularly in New Zealand. 551:Ex turpi causa non oritur actio 5176:Quarterly Journal of Economics 4575:Ratcliffe, R.G. (2015-04-29). 4457:. May 10, 2005. Archived from 4099:New York University Law Review 3022:"The Medical Malpractice Myth" 2917:Cal. Code of Civil Procedure § 2795: 2780: 2775:Livingstone v Rawyards Coal Co 2768: 2750: 2711: 2698: 2667: 2601:operations. Similarly, in the 2547:(D-VA) argued in support of a 2480:Livingstone v Rawyards Coal Co 2472: 2073: 1962:Texas House of Representatives 1955:, "The bill also seeks to end 1818:limits on non-economic damages 1: 5579: 5445:of the American legal system) 4768:. 19 May 2005. Archived from 4544:"The nominee is John Roberts" 4151:. Accessed January 24, 2009. 3979:Hong, Peter Y. (1999-08-27). 3887:Simon, Richard (2005-10-21). 3783:. Law.cornell.edu. 2011-11-30 3400:10.1016/s0144-8188(00)00037-5 3338:The RAND Journal of Economics 2680:Canadian Business Law Journal 2640: 2290:Group B Streptococcal disease 2193:In contrast, a 2006 study by 1908:In March and April 2012, the 1893:in the majority and Justices 1743:; as well as rules regarding 1444:Regulation through litigation 1191:regulation through litigation 871: 661:(term used for torts in some 5057:Journal of Law and Economics 4950:Olson, Walter (2005-05-26). 4720:the words of Lord Devlin in 4542:Frank, Ted (July 20, 2005). 4504:"Taking Vioxx -- for Plenty" 4053:. PointofLaw.com. 2004-05-21 3496:A. Towse; P. Danson (1999). 3379:Schmitz, Patrick W. (2000). 3311:The American Economic Review 3284:The American Economic Review 3020:Klein, Ezra (11 July 2006). 2421:(the McDonald's coffee case) 2330:Council of Economic Advisors 2136: 2044:Bureau of Justice Statistics 1427:, the burden and (where the 1144:product liability litigation 7: 5382:Congressional Budget Office 5356:and Robert E. Litan, eds., 5188:10.1162/qjec.2008.123.2.795 4666:"Singapore - The Judiciary" 4600:Yates, David (2017-02-13). 4277:"Collateral source reforms" 4008:Malnic, Eric (2000-12-07). 3721:Maxeiner, James R. (2011). 3123:Thorpe, Kenneth E. (2004). 2599:NSA warrantless wiretapping 2360: 2172:dangerous products such as 1877:United States Supreme Court 1755:Tort reform by jurisdiction 1723:joint and several liability 1417:lawyers acting in bad faith 847:consists of changes in the 557:Joint and several liability 10: 6883: 6451:International legal theory 5930:International slavery laws 5925:International human rights 5920:International criminal law 5063:. Emory Law and Economics. 4208:'Health courts' offer cure 2603:2000 presidential election 2226:Graham further notes that 2197:professors Paul Rubin and 2095: 2077: 1971: 1968:Punitive awards and juries 1945:State of the State address 1850:collateral source doctrine 1822:collateral source doctrine 1461:public interest litigation 1447: 1407:The costs associated with 1349: 1246: 1170: 1130: 1124: 1022: 331:Comparative responsibility 6799: 6776: 6666: 6504:Administration of justice 6489: 6398: 6289: 6168: 6070: 5791: 5659: 5524:Tillinghast/Towers Perrin 5514:"Tort Reform Saves Lives" 5122:Federal Rules of Evidence 5104:Federal Rules of Evidence 4917:Economic Policy Institute 4850:October 25, 2007, at the 4845:Tillinghast/Towers Perrin 4451:"Give the Lawyer His Cut" 4324:. Citizen.org. 2010-12-03 3464:see, Sir Liam Donaldson, 2977:Ayesha (6 October 2010), 2627:Center for a Just Society 2322:Economic Policy Institute 2180:and other faculty at The 2106:Claims management company 2068:Economic Policy Institute 2059:Tillinghast/Towers Perrin 1824:, use of court-appointed 1749:champerty and maintenance 1598:Changes to negligence law 1534:caps limit the amount of 1514:Non-economic damages caps 1465:parliamentary sovereignty 1363:multi-level playing field 1238:Rationale for tort reform 646:Non-economic damages caps 6281:Basic structure doctrine 6131:Natural and legal rights 6012:Public international law 5592:templates for discussion 5557:Journal of Legal Studies 4637:École Normale Supérieure 4437:10.1001/jama.293.21.2609 4032:. Americancourthouse.com 3684:; Farhang, Sean (2017). 3272:AIR 1987 SC 1086 Para 32 3185:Journal of Legal Studies 2873:"SLAPP Back: Transcript" 2763:Fatal Accidents Act 1976 2727:1 All ER 219, where the 2549:2005 federal tort reform 2465: 2249:University of Birmingham 2213:for a conference at the 2182:Johns Hopkins University 1830:appeal bond requirements 1588:special motion to strike 1457:Private attorney general 1450:Private attorney general 1433:special motion to strike 1380:monopolised by the state 1226:, a universal system of 1060:special motion to strike 679:Private attorney general 633:Other topics in tort law 261:Principles of negligence 190:Alienation of affections 6461:Principle of typicality 5935:International trade law 5651: 5536:(subscription required) 5201:(subscription required) 4279:. NAMIC. Archived from 3632:Lord, Miles W. (1986). 2724:Ward v Tesco Stores Ltd 2674:Chapman, Bruce (1990). 2491:For instance, In 1972, 2302:Harvard Business School 1910:Lower Rio Grande Valley 1650:law now requires that: 1612:contributory negligence 1372:civil law jurisdictions 544:Volenti non fit injuria 369:Ultrahazardous activity 336:Contributory negligence 5329:Torts and Compensation 4630:"Lay Justice in India" 4141:For the full section, 3969:AC 1129, 1 All ER 367 3891:. Articles.latimes.com 3533:on September 23, 2009. 2861:(1997) 1 GujLH 49 at . 2777:(1880) 5 App Cas 25,39 2765:in the United Kingdom. 2706:Current Legal Problems 2455:Software patent debate 2387:United States tort law 2338: 2261: 2233: 2224: 2191: 2127:(2003) Crown Copyright 2032:Gross Domestic Product 1991: 1836:, the adoption of the 1730:collateral source rule 1666: 1644:statute of limitations 1608:comparative negligence 1315:Bloomberg Businessweek 1214:than strict liability 932:restitutio in integrum 562:Market share liability 495:Shopkeeper's privilege 473:Statute of limitations 316:Restitutio ad integrum 165:Intrusion on seclusion 60:Trespass to the person 26: 6456:Principle of legality 6215:Delegated legislation 5915:Intellectual property 5543:Reagan Administration 5362:Brookings Institution 5219:on February 23, 2009. 4532:, 517 U.S. 559 (1996) 4343:"Debunking the Myths" 4255:Wisconsin Law Journal 3869:. Vsb.org. 2012-02-01 3825:. Vsb.org. 2008-11-09 3141:10.1377/hlthaff.w4.20 3002:. Cbo.gov. 2004-01-08 2887:National Public Radio 2326: 2253: 2228: 2219: 2215:Brookings Institution 2187: 2110:Compensation Act 2006 2048:Department of Justice 2016:malicious prosecution 1985: 1728:The abolition of the 1696:Tort reform advocate 1652: 1483:Categories of reforms 1448:Further information: 1309:Medical Defence Union 1301:universal health care 1243:Equality in treatment 1163:defence to the rule. 1131:Further information: 674:Conflict of tort laws 440:Tortious interference 195:Criminal conversation 182:Malicious prosecution 24: 6674:Barristers' chambers 6616:Legal representation 6554:Justice of the peace 5900:Financial regulation 5432:Commonweal Institute 5360:. Washington, D.C.: 4670:www.country-data.com 4461:on January 23, 2009. 4409:Towers Watson, 2010. 4204:National Law Journal 4144:including exceptions 2826:, Lawyers Club India 2744:Donoghue v Stevenson 2407:Compensation culture 2392:Asbestos and the law 2121:Sir Liam Donaldson, 2046:, a division of the 1469:constitutional torts 1332:Donoghue v Stevenson 1249:Distributive justice 1195:impact public safety 1004:constitutional torts 172:Breach of confidence 6709:Election commission 6421:Expressive function 5950:Landlord–tenant law 5849:Consumer protection 5509:Wall Street Journal 5415:Wall Street Journal 5348:The Damages Lottery 5291:on 26 February 2009 5256:Michael E. Porter, 5238:on January 23, 2009 5165:MacLeod, W. Bentley 5049:Shepherd, Joanna M. 4763:"Location Selector" 4626:Jean-Louis Halpérin 4508:The Washington Post 4484:on January 23, 2009 4283:on 12 December 2017 4132:Dobbs 2017, p. 297. 4123:Dobbs 2017, p. 298. 3844:"FRANCES F. VINSON" 3682:Burbank, Stephen B. 3193:10.2139/ssrn.453481 2801:in the UK, see the 2662:The Damages Lottery 2660:P.S. Atiyah (1997) 2595:FISA Amendments Act 2503:without respect to 2425:Medical malpractice 2372:Australian tort law 2351:medical malpractice 2152:medical malpractice 1899:Ruth Bader Ginsburg 1558:Attorney fee awards 1501:system of damages. 1477:Indian Constitution 1253:Equality of outcome 1218:Personal injury law 1089:medical malpractice 1079:Medical malpractice 972:medical malpractice 923:speculative damages 865:medical malpractice 667:mixed legal systems 537:Respondeat superior 531:Vicarious liability 490:Defence of property 427:Insurance bad faith 341:Attractive nuisance 160:Invasion of privacy 6667:Legal institutions 6534:Lawsuit/Litigation 6524:Dispute resolution 6329:Catholic canon law 6037:State of emergency 6000:Will and testament 5724:Law of obligations 5677:Constitutional law 5667:Administrative law 5611:2007-09-28 at the 5512:, 2005 8 October, 5417:, 2005 22 August, 5149:. pp. 220–21. 5147:The Liability Maze 5086:The Liability Maze 4866:. Towersperrin.com 4692:George P. Landow. 4548:www.pointoflaw.com 4405:2012-01-28 at the 4379:. Towersperrin.com 4353:on August 6, 2011. 4190:2013-05-10 at the 4080:www.pointoflaw.com 3997:available on SSRN. 3923:2009-05-20 at the 3804:. Leg1.state.va.us 3665:Cameron Stracher, 3638:Hamline Law Review 3248:The New York Times 2543:For example, Rep. 2497:no-fault insurance 2207:Harvard University 2199:Joanna M. Shepherd 2116:Pearson Commission 2012:false imprisonment 1992: 1937:Texas state Senate 1925:fire and brimstone 1799:defensive medicine 1707:pain and suffering 1635:Procedural reforms 1522:pain and suffering 1496:Reforms to damages 1388:legislative branch 1228:no-fault insurance 1127:Absolute liability 1121:Absolute liability 1085:defensive medicine 1000:absolute liability 903:Glanville Williams 901:. British scholar 567:Transferred intent 458:Assumption of risk 422:Restraint of trade 398:Rylands v Fletcher 230:Employment-related 79:False imprisonment 27: 6849: 6848: 6509:Constitutionalism 6431:Law and economics 6269:Act of parliament 6007:Product liability 5960:Legal archaeology 5885:Environmental law 5879:Entertainment law 5719:International law 5568:4:3 (March 2007). 5559:36:S2 (June 2007) 5405:978-0-9705970-9-0 4628:(25 March 2011). 4015:Los Angeles Times 3986:Los Angeles Times 3615:978-0-226-28199-5 3600:Ramseyer, J. Mark 2987:on 1 October 2011 2893:). Archived from 2730:res ipsa loquitur 2443:Product liability 2355:product liability 2306:Michael E. Porter 1891:John Paul Stevens 1771:corporate welfare 1582:The Da Vinci Code 1473:judicial activism 1396:frivolous lawsuit 1346:Cost of discovery 1323:product liability 1211:law and economics 1183:product liability 1173:Product liability 1167:Product liability 1156:legal uncertainty 1133:Tort law in India 1052:freedom of speech 976:product liability 949:intentional torts 927:full compensation 911:intentional torts 876:Tort actions are 842: 841: 715:England and Wales 670: 521:Last clear chance 516:Intentional torts 500:Neutral reportage 483:Defense of others 431: 364:Product liability 310:Res ipsa loquitur 297:Reasonable person 205:Breach of promise 54: 6874: 6824: 6823: 6822: 6810: 6809: 6633:Question of fact 6514:Criminal justice 5844:Construction law 5839:Conflict of laws 5804:Agricultural law 5646: 5639: 5632: 5623: 5622: 5537: 5443:corporate abuses 5424:David C. Johnson 5315: 5307: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5296: 5290: 5283: 5274: 5268: 5254: 5248: 5247: 5245: 5243: 5234:. Archived from 5227: 5221: 5220: 5215:. Archived from 5209: 5203: 5202: 5199: 5173: 5157: 5151: 5150: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5096: 5090: 5089: 5071: 5065: 5064: 5047:Rubin, Paul H.; 5044: 5038: 5037: 5035: 5033: 5028:on June 29, 2007 5027: 5020: 5012: 5006: 5005: 5003: 5001: 4990: 4984: 4983: 4981: 4980: 4969: 4963: 4962: 4960: 4959: 4954:. Pointoflaw.com 4947: 4941: 4940: 4938: 4937: 4926: 4920: 4909: 4900: 4899: 4897: 4896: 4881: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4871: 4860: 4854: 4842: 4836: 4835: 4833: 4831: 4816: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4806: 4791: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4774: 4767: 4759: 4753: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4733: 4727: 4723:Rookes v Barnard 4718: 4712: 4711: 4704: 4698: 4697: 4689: 4683: 4680: 4674: 4673: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4651: 4645: 4639:. Archived from 4634: 4622: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4612: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4588: 4587: 4572: 4559: 4558: 4556: 4554: 4539: 4533: 4525: 4519: 4518: 4516: 4514: 4499: 4493: 4492: 4490: 4489: 4480:. 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Archived from 4339: 4333: 4332: 4330: 4329: 4318: 4312: 4311: 4299: 4293: 4292: 4290: 4288: 4273: 4267: 4266: 4264: 4262: 4247: 4241: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4231:on 3 August 2010 4221: 4215: 4201: 4195: 4185:"Health Courts?" 4182: 4176: 4170: 4164: 4158: 4152: 4139: 4133: 4130: 4124: 4121: 4115: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4090: 4084: 4083: 4077: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4058: 4047: 4041: 4040: 4038: 4037: 4026: 4020: 4019: 4005: 3999: 3990: 3976: 3970: 3966:Rookes v Barnard 3962: 3956: 3947: 3941: 3934: 3928: 3915: 3909: 3906: 3900: 3899: 3897: 3896: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3874: 3863: 3857: 3856: 3854: 3853: 3848: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3831: 3830: 3819: 3813: 3812: 3810: 3809: 3798: 3792: 3791: 3789: 3788: 3777: 3771: 3770: 3768: 3767: 3752: 3746: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3718: 3709: 3708: 3706: 3704: 3678: 3672: 3663: 3654: 3653: 3651: 3649: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3587: 3586: 3581: 3573: 3567: 3566:Cane (2006) 466; 3564: 3558: 3541: 3535: 3534: 3529:. Archived from 3516: 3510: 3509: 3502:Health Economics 3493: 3487: 3486: 3475: 3469: 3462: 3456: 3449: 3443: 3442: 3435: 3429: 3428: 3426: 3418: 3412: 3411: 3385: 3376: 3370: 3369: 3333: 3327: 3326: 3317:(4): 1027–1028. 3306: 3300: 3299: 3279: 3273: 3265: 3259: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3239: 3230: 3229: 3227: 3226: 3211: 3205: 3204: 3180: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3158: 3156: 3155: 3120: 3114: 3113: 3111: 3110: 3105: 3097: 3091: 3090: 3088: 3087: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3056:on 23 April 2009 3043: 3037: 3036: 3034: 3032: 3017: 3011: 3010: 3008: 3007: 2996: 2990: 2988: 2983:, archived from 2974: 2968: 2961: 2955: 2952: 2946: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2913: 2907: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2868: 2862: 2856: 2847: 2844: 2835: 2834: 2833: 2831: 2820:Indranil Ghosh, 2817: 2808: 2799: 2793: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2766: 2754: 2748: 2715: 2709: 2702: 2696: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2671: 2665: 2658: 2634: 2583: 2577: 2573: 2567: 2564: 2558: 2541: 2535: 2531: 2525: 2522: 2516: 2489: 2483: 2476: 2448:Punitive damages 2431:Pearson v. Chung 2382:English tort law 2278:morning sickness 2195:Emory University 2167:Impact on safety 2156:punitive damages 1974:Punitive damages 1861:Republican Party 1834:contingency fees 1826:expert witnesses 1814:punitive damages 1664: 1663:(CPLR) § 214-a. 1550:Rookes v Barnard 1536:punitive damages 1532:Punitive damages 1384:executive branch 1359:war of attrition 1327:strict liability 1283:Economic effects 1187:strict liability 1177:Strict liability 1140:strict liability 941:standard of care 834: 827: 820: 804: 803: 660: 429: 292:Standard of care 177:Abuse of process 87: 48: 29: 28: 6882: 6881: 6877: 6876: 6875: 6873: 6872: 6871: 6852: 6851: 6850: 6845: 6818: 6804: 6795: 6772: 6763:Political party 6736:Legal education 6724:Law enforcement 6704:Court of equity 6662: 6638:Question of law 6591:Practice of law 6571:Judicial review 6485: 6436:Legal formalism 6416:Comparative law 6411:Contract theory 6394: 6314:Legal pluralism 6285: 6274:Act of Congress 6198:Executive order 6164: 6066: 5985:Nationality law 5910:Immigration law 5834:Competition law 5787: 5655: 5650: 5613:Wayback Machine 5595: 5576: 5535: 5531:Donald Harris, 5488:Washington Post 5411:Richard Epstein 5378: 5376:Further reading 5324: 5319: 5318: 5308: 5304: 5294: 5292: 5288: 5281: 5275: 5271: 5255: 5251: 5241: 5239: 5228: 5224: 5213:"Medical Error" 5211: 5210: 5206: 5200: 5171: 5158: 5154: 5136:Graham, John D. 5133: 5129: 5116: 5115: 5111: 5098: 5097: 5093: 5075:Graham, John D. 5072: 5068: 5045: 5041: 5031: 5029: 5025: 5018: 5014: 5013: 5009: 4999: 4997: 4992: 4991: 4987: 4978: 4976: 4971: 4970: 4966: 4957: 4955: 4948: 4944: 4935: 4933: 4928: 4927: 4923: 4910: 4903: 4894: 4892: 4883: 4882: 4878: 4869: 4867: 4862: 4861: 4857: 4852:Wayback Machine 4843: 4839: 4829: 4827: 4826:on 22 July 2009 4818: 4817: 4813: 4804: 4802: 4793: 4792: 4788: 4778: 4776: 4772: 4765: 4761: 4760: 4756: 4746: 4744: 4743:on 31 July 2010 4735: 4734: 4730: 4719: 4715: 4706: 4705: 4701: 4690: 4686: 4681: 4677: 4664: 4663: 4659: 4649: 4647: 4643: 4632: 4623: 4619: 4610: 4608: 4606:SE Texas Record 4598: 4594: 4585: 4583: 4573: 4562: 4552: 4550: 4540: 4536: 4526: 4522: 4512: 4510: 4500: 4496: 4487: 4485: 4470: 4466: 4449: 4448: 4444: 4423: 4422: 4413: 4407:Wayback Machine 4398: 4391: 4382: 4380: 4375: 4374: 4370: 4362: 4358: 4347:www.justice.org 4341: 4340: 4336: 4327: 4325: 4320: 4319: 4315: 4300: 4296: 4286: 4284: 4275: 4274: 4270: 4260: 4258: 4249: 4248: 4244: 4234: 4232: 4223: 4222: 4218: 4202: 4198: 4192:Wayback Machine 4183: 4179: 4171: 4167: 4159: 4155: 4140: 4136: 4131: 4127: 4122: 4118: 4108: 4106: 4091: 4087: 4075: 4071:Olson, Walter. 4069: 4065: 4056: 4054: 4049: 4048: 4044: 4035: 4033: 4028: 4027: 4023: 4006: 4002: 3977: 3973: 3963: 3959: 3948: 3944: 3935: 3931: 3925:Wayback Machine 3916: 3912: 3907: 3903: 3894: 3892: 3885: 3881: 3872: 3870: 3865: 3864: 3860: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3842: 3841: 3837: 3828: 3826: 3821: 3820: 3816: 3807: 3805: 3800: 3799: 3795: 3786: 3784: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3765: 3763: 3754: 3753: 3749: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3719: 3712: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3679: 3675: 3664: 3657: 3647: 3645: 3630: 3626: 3616: 3597: 3593: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3575: 3574: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3542: 3538: 3517: 3513: 3494: 3490: 3477: 3476: 3472: 3463: 3459: 3450: 3446: 3437: 3436: 3432: 3424: 3420: 3419: 3415: 3383: 3377: 3373: 3350:10.2307/2555680 3334: 3330: 3307: 3303: 3280: 3276: 3266: 3262: 3252: 3250: 3240: 3233: 3224: 3222: 3213: 3212: 3208: 3181: 3174: 3166: 3162: 3153: 3151: 3121: 3117: 3108: 3106: 3103: 3099: 3098: 3094: 3085: 3083: 3074: 3073: 3069: 3059: 3057: 3044: 3040: 3030: 3028: 3018: 3014: 3005: 3003: 2998: 2997: 2993: 2975: 2971: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2939: 2937: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2916: 2914: 2910: 2900: 2898: 2869: 2865: 2857: 2850: 2845: 2838: 2829: 2827: 2818: 2811: 2800: 2796: 2785: 2781: 2773: 2769: 2755: 2751: 2735:Summers v Frost 2716: 2712: 2703: 2699: 2689: 2687: 2672: 2668: 2659: 2648: 2643: 2638: 2637: 2633:off the market. 2619:Michael Kinsley 2584: 2580: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2561: 2542: 2538: 2532: 2528: 2523: 2519: 2490: 2486: 2477: 2473: 2468: 2363: 2315:Joseph Stiglitz 2298: 2256:trict liability 2169: 2139: 2112: 2094: 2082: 2076: 2024: 1980: 1970: 1953:SE Texas Record 1854:contingent fees 1820:, limiting the 1762: 1757: 1741:contingent fees 1665: 1659: 1637: 1600: 1573:Michael Baigent 1560: 1507: 1498: 1485: 1452: 1446: 1421:contingent fees 1354: 1352:Discovery (law) 1348: 1285: 1255: 1245: 1240: 1220: 1179: 1171:Main articles: 1169: 1148:mistake of fact 1135: 1129: 1123: 1081: 1035: 1023:Main articles: 1021: 1008:Indian tort law 965:social security 882:legal liability 874: 838: 798: 692:By jurisdiction 392:Public nuisance 321:Rescue doctrine 304:Proximate cause 216:Negligent torts 128:Dignitary torts 83: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6880: 6870: 6869: 6864: 6847: 6846: 6844: 6843: 6836: 6829: 6815: 6812:Law portal 6800: 6797: 6796: 6794: 6793: 6792: 6791: 6780: 6778: 6774: 6773: 6771: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6745: 6744: 6743: 6733: 6732: 6731: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6670: 6668: 6664: 6663: 6661: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6648:Trial advocacy 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6629: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6562: 6561: 6556: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6495: 6493: 6487: 6486: 6484: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6402: 6400: 6396: 6395: 6393: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6371: 6370: 6360: 6359: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6332: 6331: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6295: 6293: 6287: 6286: 6284: 6283: 6278: 6277: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6256: 6255: 6254: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6228: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6207: 6206: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6185: 6180: 6178:Ballot measure 6174: 6172: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6162: 6157: 6155:Legal treatise 6152: 6151: 6150: 6145: 6135: 6134: 6133: 6123: 6121:Letters patent 6118: 6113: 6112: 6111: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6082: 6076: 6074: 6072:Sources of law 6068: 6067: 6065: 6064: 6059: 6057:Unenforced law 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 6003: 6002: 5997: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5829:Commercial law 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5795: 5793: 5789: 5788: 5786: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5747: 5746: 5741: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5695: 5694: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5663: 5661: 5657: 5656: 5649: 5648: 5641: 5634: 5626: 5620: 5619: 5603: 5575: 5574:External links 5572: 5571: 5570: 5561: 5552: 5539: 5529: 5521: 5516: 5501: 5495: 5485: 5479: 5475:Rachel Weiss, 5473: 5466:Public Citizen 5463: 5446: 5435: 5421: 5408: 5391:Richard Waites 5388: 5377: 5374: 5373: 5372: 5351: 5341: 5332: 5323: 5320: 5317: 5316: 5302: 5269: 5249: 5222: 5204: 5167:(2012-05-02). 5152: 5127: 5109: 5091: 5088:. p. 184. 5066: 5039: 5007: 4985: 4964: 4942: 4921: 4901: 4876: 4855: 4837: 4811: 4786: 4775:on 19 May 2005 4754: 4728: 4713: 4699: 4684: 4675: 4657: 4617: 4592: 4560: 4534: 4520: 4494: 4464: 4442: 4431:. 2005-06-01. 4411: 4389: 4368: 4356: 4334: 4313: 4294: 4268: 4242: 4216: 4196: 4177: 4165: 4153: 4134: 4125: 4116: 4085: 4063: 4042: 4021: 4000: 3971: 3957: 3942: 3929: 3910: 3901: 3879: 3858: 3835: 3814: 3793: 3772: 3747: 3733: 3710: 3696: 3673: 3655: 3624: 3614: 3591: 3568: 3559: 3544:Michael Porter 3536: 3511: 3488: 3485:on 2011-04-23. 3470: 3457: 3444: 3430: 3413: 3394:(3): 371–382. 3371: 3344:(2): 271–280. 3328: 3301: 3290:(4): 888–901. 3274: 3260: 3231: 3219:New York Times 3206: 3172: 3160: 3129:Health Affairs 3115: 3092: 3080:New York Times 3067: 3038: 3012: 2991: 2969: 2956: 2947: 2922: 2908: 2897:on 21 May 2013 2863: 2848: 2836: 2809: 2804:Pearson Report 2794: 2779: 2767: 2749: 2721:on the floor. 2710: 2697: 2666: 2645: 2644: 2642: 2639: 2636: 2635: 2589:voted for the 2578: 2568: 2559: 2536: 2526: 2517: 2513:United Kingdom 2484: 2470: 2469: 2467: 2464: 2463: 2462: 2452: 2451: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2427: 2422: 2414: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2394: 2384: 2379: 2377:Alimony reform 2374: 2369: 2362: 2359: 2297: 2294: 2211:John D. Graham 2168: 2165: 2138: 2135: 2134: 2133: 2128: 2119: 2098:Patrick Atiyah 2093: 2092:United Kingdom 2090: 2078:Main article: 2075: 2072: 2023: 2020: 2004:decolonisation 1969: 1966: 1921:Hidalgo County 1895:Antonin Scalia 1887:Stephen Breyer 1761: 1758: 1756: 1753: 1739:Regulation of 1683:forum shopping 1657: 1636: 1633: 1625:North Carolina 1599: 1596: 1559: 1556: 1506: 1503: 1497: 1494: 1484: 1481: 1445: 1442: 1350:Main article: 1347: 1344: 1305:loss of chance 1284: 1281: 1271:Patrick Atiyah 1260:judgment proof 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1219: 1216: 1168: 1165: 1125:Main article: 1122: 1119: 1080: 1077: 1064:forum shopping 1020: 1019:Defamation law 1017: 961:judgment proof 873: 870: 840: 839: 837: 836: 829: 822: 814: 811: 810: 809: 808: 806:Law portal 793: 792: 791: 790: 777: 772: 767: 762: 754: 753: 745: 744: 743: 742: 737: 732: 727: 722: 720:European Union 717: 712: 707: 702: 694: 693: 689: 688: 687: 686: 681: 676: 671: 655: 650: 649: 648: 635: 634: 630: 629: 628: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 602: 601: 600: 595: 590: 577: 576: 572: 571: 570: 569: 564: 559: 554: 547: 540: 533: 528: 526:Eggshell skull 523: 518: 510: 509: 505: 504: 503: 502: 497: 492: 487: 486: 485: 475: 470: 465: 460: 452: 451: 445: 444: 443: 442: 437: 432: 430:(American law) 424: 419: 411: 410: 408:Economic torts 404: 403: 402: 401: 394: 386: 385: 379: 378: 377: 376: 371: 366: 358: 357: 346: 345: 344: 343: 338: 333: 328: 326:Duty to rescue 323: 318: 313: 306: 301: 300: 299: 289: 288: 287: 282: 277: 264: 263: 257: 256: 255: 254: 253: 252: 247: 237: 232: 227: 219: 218: 212: 211: 210: 209: 208: 207: 202: 197: 192: 184: 179: 174: 169: 168: 167: 157: 152: 151: 150: 147: 139: 131: 130: 124: 123: 122: 121: 116: 115: 114: 109: 96: 95: 94:Property torts 91: 90: 89: 88: 81: 76: 71: 63: 62: 56: 55: 45: 44: 38: 37: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6879: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6842: 6841: 6837: 6835: 6834: 6830: 6828: 6827: 6816: 6814: 6813: 6808: 6802: 6801: 6798: 6790: 6787: 6786: 6785: 6782: 6781: 6779: 6775: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6742: 6739: 6738: 6737: 6734: 6730: 6727: 6726: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6694:Civil society 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6671: 6669: 6665: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6653:Trier of fact 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6593: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6551: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6539:Legal opinion 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6519:Court-martial 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6496: 6494: 6492: 6491:Jurisprudence 6488: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6403: 6401: 6397: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6380:Statutory law 6378: 6376: 6375:Socialist law 6373: 6369: 6368:Byzantine law 6366: 6365: 6364: 6361: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6330: 6327: 6326: 6325: 6322: 6321: 6320: 6319:Religious law 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6296: 6294: 6292: 6291:Legal systems 6288: 6282: 6279: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6261: 6260: 6259:Statutory law 6257: 6253: 6250: 6249: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6212: 6211: 6208: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6190: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6175: 6173: 6171: 6167: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6140: 6139: 6136: 6132: 6129: 6128: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6110: 6107: 6106: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6089:Statutory law 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6077: 6075: 6073: 6069: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6047:Transport law 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5992: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5965:Legal fiction 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5895:Financial law 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5854:Corporate law 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5796: 5794: 5790: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5778:Statutory law 5776: 5774: 5771: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5736: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5693: 5690: 5689: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5664: 5662: 5660:Core subjects 5658: 5654: 5647: 5642: 5640: 5635: 5633: 5628: 5627: 5624: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5598: 5593: 5589: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5577: 5569: 5567: 5562: 5560: 5558: 5553: 5550: 5549: 5544: 5540: 5534: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5511: 5510: 5505: 5504:Paul H. Rubin 5502: 5500: 5497:Carl Geiger, 5496: 5493: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5480: 5478: 5474: 5471: 5468:, 2004 Oct., 5467: 5464: 5462:(1): 405–419. 5461: 5457: 5456: 5451: 5447: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5409: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5397: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5383: 5380: 5379: 5371: 5370:0-8157-3760-2 5367: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5352: 5349: 5345: 5342: 5339: 5338: 5333: 5330: 5326: 5325: 5314: 5311: 5310:"Tort Reform" 5306: 5287: 5280: 5273: 5267: 5266:0-684-84147-9 5263: 5259: 5253: 5237: 5233: 5226: 5218: 5214: 5208: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5161:Currie, Janet 5156: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5137: 5131: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5105: 5101: 5095: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5076: 5070: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5043: 5024: 5017: 5011: 4995: 4989: 4974: 4968: 4953: 4946: 4931: 4925: 4918: 4914: 4908: 4906: 4890: 4886: 4880: 4865: 4859: 4853: 4849: 4846: 4841: 4825: 4821: 4815: 4801:on 2010-03-09 4800: 4796: 4790: 4771: 4764: 4758: 4742: 4738: 4732: 4725: 4724: 4717: 4709: 4703: 4695: 4688: 4679: 4671: 4667: 4661: 4646:on 3 May 2014 4642: 4638: 4631: 4627: 4621: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4582: 4581:Texas Monthly 4578: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4565: 4549: 4545: 4538: 4531: 4530: 4524: 4509: 4505: 4498: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4468: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4420: 4418: 4416: 4408: 4404: 4401: 4396: 4394: 4378: 4372: 4365: 4360: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4338: 4323: 4317: 4309: 4305: 4298: 4282: 4278: 4272: 4256: 4252: 4246: 4230: 4226: 4220: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4200: 4193: 4189: 4186: 4181: 4174: 4169: 4163: 4157: 4150: 4146: 4145: 4138: 4129: 4120: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4089: 4081: 4074: 4067: 4052: 4046: 4031: 4025: 4017: 4016: 4011: 4004: 3998: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3982: 3975: 3968: 3967: 3961: 3954: 3953: 3946: 3939: 3933: 3926: 3922: 3919: 3914: 3905: 3890: 3883: 3868: 3862: 3845: 3839: 3824: 3818: 3803: 3797: 3782: 3776: 3762:on 2012-08-06 3761: 3757: 3751: 3736: 3734:9781139504898 3730: 3726: 3725: 3717: 3715: 3699: 3697:9781107136991 3693: 3689: 3688: 3683: 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