534:, tobacco caused systematic soil depletion that shaped both agricultural development and the broader socio-economic order. Agriculture in Virginia and Maryland relied on a single crop and exploitative practices, causing declining yields and exhausted lands. Land that had originally been highly fertile became useless and was abandoned on a wide scale. Planters realized the waste and knew they would have to move on to fresh land. The lack of proper plowing and cultivation methods led to destructive erosion, while continuous replanting depleted essential plant nutrients and encouraged harmful soil organisms. The failure to add organic matter or fertilizers worsened the situation. As a result, expansion became necessary to maintain productivity, leading to social, economic, and political conflicts, as well as a decline in living standards. Although some observers blamed slavery as a major cause, Craven discounts its role in soil exhaustion.
413:. With the early tobacco boom in Virginia and the expansion of trade with England, the value of tobacco soared and provided an incentive for a large influx of colonists. In Virginia, the rough climate made it difficult for the colonists to produce crops that were necessary for survival. Due to this difficulty, the colonists lacked a source of income and food. The colonists of Virginia began to grow tobacco. Tobacco brought the colonists a large source of revenue that was used to pay taxes and fines, purchase slaves, and to purchase manufactured goods from England. As the colonies grew, so did their production of tobacco. Slaves and indentured servants were brought into the colonies to participate in tobacco farming. It has been said that some colonies would have continued to fail had it not been for the production of tobacco. Tobacco provided the early colonies with an opportunity for expansion and economic success.
366:
482:
value, farmers would add dirt and leaves to increase the weight, but lowering the quality. From the 1640s to the 1690s the value of tobacco would be highly unstable, government officials would help stabilize tobacco by reducing the amount of tobacco produced, standardizing the size of a tobacco hogshead, and prohibiting shipments of bulk tobacco. Eventually the tobacco currency would stabilize in the early 1700s but would be short lived as farmers started cutting back on growing tobacco. In the 1730s tobacco crops were being replaced with food crops as the colonies moved closer to revolution with
England.
19:
346:
119:
478:. In order to help with accounting and standardizing trade, colonial government officials would rate tobacco and compare its weight into values of pounds, shillings, and pence. The popularity of American tobacco increased dramatically in the colonial period eventually leading to English goods being traded equally with tobacco. Because England's climate did not allow for the same quality of tobacco as that grown in America, the colonists did not have to worry about scarcity of tobacco. This eventually led to tobacco being the main form of trade with England.
333:
unique skills, honed over the course of many years in the field, proved indispensable to a planter’s success. Tobacco planters favored a technique called “ganging”, where groups of eight to twelve slaves worked fields simultaneously under the supervision of a white superior or a tenured slave. The hardest working slaves, called “pace-setters”, were spread amongst the different groups as an example for those around them. Unlike tasking, ganging was amenable to supervision and quality control and lacked an inherent measure of individual effort.
61:
262:
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racial relations. Planters pushed slaves to their physical limits to ensure a superior crop. Slaves, meanwhile, realized that the quality of a crop depended on their effort and began “foot-dragging”, or collectively slowing their pace in protest of the planters' extreme demands. Farmers racialized foot-dragging, portraying it as an inherent personality trait of slaves. William
Strickland, a wealthy colonial tobacco planter, remarked:
454:
the
Virginian economy as a whole. This led to several booms and busts related to tobacco. The price of tobacco dropped from 6.50 pennies per pound in the 1620s down to as low as .80 pennies per pound in the 1690s. This downward trending triggered a whole series of crop controls and government sponsored price manipulations throughout the 1600s to try to stabilize pricing, but to no avail.
388:, author T.H. Breen writes “quite literally, the quality of a man’s tobacco often served as the measure of the man.” Proficient planters, held in high regard by their peers, often exercised significant political clout in colonial governments. Farmers often spent excess profits on expensive luxury goods from London to indicate to others that their tobacco was selling well. Notably,
1440:
431:
American
Colonies and profit tremendously within Europe. The British merchants influenced economies using the power of the nation-state to influence and protect business interests. In exchange, taxes were levied in order to fund political interests. The bill that the merchants put forward in 1621 to Parliament was a classic example of the power and influence of
463:
329:
killed. Cotton and rice plantation owners employed a management technique called “tasking”, in which each slave would receive around one-half acre of land to tend individually with minimal supervision. The weight of the yield from each slave’s plot was interpreted as a direct reflection of the quality of his work.
450:. Ironically King James had very strong opinions against the use of tobacco, pointing to the ill health effects and social impact of those that used tobacco Despite these grievances the King was then able to capture import duties on tobacco and in exchange monopoly power was granted to the merchants.
453:
The measures also prevented any foreign ships from carrying colonial tobacco. This monopolization became extremely profitable and flourished during the 1600s. The economy of
Virginia was extremely dependent on the tobacco trade. So much so that subtle shifts in demand and prices dramatically affected
430:
and an edict that tobacco was not to be grown and cultivated anywhere else within
England. The objective of the merchants was to monopolize and control all means of tobacco distribution within Europe and throughout the world. By doing so it was possible to secure a stable return on investment for the
324:
take effect on harvest quality past a certain threshold of labor investment. Tobacco, however, was considered to be more artisanal and craft-like, with limitless opportunities to improve yield and quality. Thus, the most profitable cotton and rice operations were large and factory-like, while tobacco
249:
Before the slave boom, Chesapeake tobacco plantations were characterized by a “culture of assimilation”, where white planters worked alongside their black slaves and racial boundaries were less distinct. As slaveholding increased, intense racial contrasts emerged and all-black labor units supervised
245:
The slave population in the
Chesapeake increased significantly during the 17th century due to the demand for cheap tobacco labor and a dwindling influx of indentured servants willing to migrate from England. In this century, it is estimated that the Chesapeake African slave population increased from
498:
plantation, Washington saw his liabilities swell to nearly £2000 by the late 1760s. Jefferson, on the verge of losing his own farm, aggressively espoused various conspiracy theories. Though never verified, Jefferson accused London merchants of unfairly depressing tobacco prices and forcing
Virginia
336:
Some contemporary scholars argue that the
Chesapeake was a more hospitable environment for slaves. It was more common in the Chesapeake for a slave to work alongside his master, an arrangement unheard of in the strict vertical hierarchies of massive Southern plantations. Whites and blacks were more
315:
The
Chesapeake had few urban centers relative to the South. Instead, multiple markets were established along tributaries. This facilitated the persistence of smaller tobacco farms because the cost of moving tobacco to market was kept reasonable. In the south, all economic activity was fed through a
236:
Following the legalization of chattel slavery, slaves slowly and steadily replaced white indentured servants. Native American slaves were also sought after, but dwindling Native population at the end of the 17th century turned focus onto African slaves. Between 1675 and 1695, 3000 black slaves were
526:
Due to the Revolutionary War, Southern exports dropped by 39% from the upper South and almost 50% from the lower South. Lack of domestic market growth exacerbated these effects and a stagnated tobacco industry failed to fully recover as cotton became the main cash crop of the south going forward.
332:
In contrast, tobacco planters desired skilled male slaves, while women were mainly responsible for breeding and raising children. Family members were often estranged when women and children left to seek other work. Individual life expectancies for tobacco slaves were generally longer because their
337:
deeply divided in the Deep South, and tasking allowed slave owners to arbitrarily replace individuals who did not meet expectations. Others argue that it is disingenuous to romanticize one incarnation of slavery over another and that neither environment was “hospitable” despite these differences.
269:
For the many farmers who seized the opportunity in the profitable tobacco enterprise, financial and personal anxiety mounted amidst stiff competition and falling prices. Some historians believe that these anxieties were redirected onto subordinates in the field, which exacerbated already strained
152:
in Virginia as a way to control the production of tobacco and raise its price. Legislation was also passed as a way of ensuring that low-quality trash tobacco was not being shipped or used for the payment of taxes. This series of legislation on both sides of the Atlantic to exert control over the
481:
Imports of tobacco into England increased from 60,000 pounds in 1622 to 500,000 pounds in 1628, and to 1,500,000 pounds in 1639. Such dramatic growth in demand for tobacco eventually led to overproduction of the commodity, and in turn extreme devaluation of tobacco. To compensate for the loss of
328:
Because of the diminished need for trained labor, families of slaves on cotton and rice plantations would often remain together, bought and sold as complete packages. Individual life expectancies were generally shorter because their skill set was less refined and workers were easily replaced if
357:
A culture of expertise surrounded tobacco planting. Unlike cotton or rice, cultivating tobacco was seen as an art form, and buyers understood that behind every crop of good tobacco was a meticulous planter with exceptional skills. Tobacco shipments were “branded” with a signature unique to its
222:
American planters responded to increased European demand by expanding the size and output of their plantations. The number of man-hours needed to sustain larger operations increased, which forced planters to acquire and accommodate additional slave labor. Furthermore, they had to secure larger
126:
In the period of 1619 to 1629, the average tobacco farmer was expected to produce 712 pounds of tobacco in a year. By the period of 1680 to 1699, the output per worker was 1,710 pounds of tobacco in a year. These increases in productivity were brought about primarily from relocation and better
517:
In conjunction with a global financial crisis and growing animosity toward British rule, tobacco interests helped unite disparate colonial players and produced some of the most vocal revolutionaries behind the call for American independence. A spirit of rebellion arose from their claims that
215:
246:
100,000 to 1 million – a majority of the enslaved workforce and about 40% of the total population. Slaves were not imported to the Chesapeake after 1775, but slave populations continued to increase through 1790 because most were forced by their masters to produce large numbers of offspring.
26:
Tobacco cultivation and exports formed an essential component of the American colonial economy. It was distinct from rice, wheat, cotton and other cash crops in terms of agricultural demands, trade, slave labor, and plantation culture. Many influential American revolutionaries, including
494:, financed their plantations with sizeable loans from London. When tobacco prices dropped precipitously in the 1750s, many plantations struggled to remain financially solvent. Severe debt threatened to unravel colonial power structures and destroy planters’ personal reputations. At his
421:
As early as 1621, only 14 years after the establishment of a colony in Virginia and just 9 years after John Rolfe discovered the economic potential of tobacco in America, British merchants were on the march in an attempt to control the tobacco trade. A measure was introduced into the
508:
The inability to pay what one owed was not just a financial failing, but a moral one. Planters whose operations collapsed were condemned as “sorry farmers” – unable to produce good crops and inept at managing their land, slaves, and assets. Washington excused his situation thusly:
503:
A powerful engine for this was the giving of good prices and credit to the planter till they got him more immersed in debt than he could pay without selling lands or slaves. They then reduced the prices given for his tobacco so that…they never permitted him to clear off his
358:
planter before they were sent overseas, and guarantors regarded brands as a seal of approval from the planter himself. One planter proclaimed of his branded tobacco, “it was made on the plantation where I live and therefore as I saw to the whole management of it myself
279:
Tensions between slaves and planters occasionally escalated enough to bring work in the field to a standstill. When this occurred, masters often punished insubordinate slaves with physical violence such as lashings and whippings until they resumed their tasks.
316:
few heavily centralized markets, which favored large plantations that could bear the higher transportation costs. Differences in plantation size also owed significantly to the different demands of tobacco farming versus cotton and rice. Cotton and rice were
51:
The use of tobacco by the native Americans dates back centuries as a sacred plant with immense healing and spiritual benefits. They consumed tobacco through pipes. The Europeans had never seen tobacco before and quickly learned it from the natives.
274:
Nothing can be conceived more inert than a slave; his unwilling labor is discovered in every step he takes; he moves not if he can avoid it; if the eyes of the overseer are off him, he sleeps…all is listless inactivity; all motion is evidently
131:
techniques were relatively rudimentary, colonial farmers quickly developed more efficient techniques. Tobacco will wear out the soil in just a few years and this necessitated farmers to relocate from coastal areas up rivers in the
94:, which was harsher. It is unknown exactly where John Rolfe got the seeds for this new species of tobacco, as the sale of the seeds to a non-Spaniard was punishable by death. It is possible he acquired the seeds from the
148:, limiting its growth to the colonies in America. While it would take many years for this to take effect, it influenced other policies. In reaction to this, the colonies would pass legislation like the
184:, which required inspectors to grade tobacco at 40 specified locations. Some elements of this system included the enslavement and importation of African people to grow crops. Planters filled large
362:, I can with authority recommend it to be exceedingly good.” Even though not necessarily participate in the manual labor, planters took a great financial stake in their final product.
1248:
3.2 (2006): 131-157; argues the need to study regional tobacco cultures, trade with Caribbean, trade with the Indians, internal markets, shipbuilding, and western land development.
203:, which required them to take out loans for farm expenses from London guarantors in exchange for tobacco delivery and sale. Further contracts were negotiated with wholesalers in
110:(marketed as "Orinoco tobacco" by Rolfe) proved to be very popular in England and the first shipment was sent in 1614. By 1639, 750 tons of tobacco had been shipped to England.
136:
area. Production was further increased by the use of slave labor on larger farms. On the frontier, hired help would both farm the tobacco and protect farms from Indian raids.
237:
brought in to the region. In 1668, ratio of white servants to black slaves were around 5-to-1. By 1700, most plantations in Chesapeake had more black slaves than servants.
191:
The tobacco economy in the colonies was embedded in a cycle of leaf demand, slave labor demand, and global commerce that gave rise to the Chesapeake Consignment System and
841:
1403:
Monroe, J. Cameron, and Seth Mallios. "A seventeenth-century colonial cottage industry: New evidence and a dating formula for colono tobacco pipes in the Chesapeake".
312:
plantations dominated. Stark diversity in the geographic and social landscapes of these two regions contributed to differences in their respective slave cultures.
1348:
165:
surrounding the Chesapeake Bay. Vast plantations were built along the rivers of Virginia, and social/economic systems were developed to grow and distribute this
1161:
Haworth, Paul Leland. George Washington: Farmer Being an Account of His Home Life and Agricultural Activities, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1915. Print.
1318:
Harris-Scott, Steven Anthony. "Northern Virginia, A Place Apart: Bound Labor in Virginia's Northern Neck, 1645-1710" (PhD dissertation, George Mason U. 2016)
1355:
Lorenz, Stacy L. " 'To Do Justice to His Majesty, the Merchant and the Planter': Governor William Gooch and the Virginia Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730"
2195:
561:
40:
470:
By the mid 1620s tobacco became the most common commodity for bartering due to the increasing scarcity of gold and silver and the decreasing value of
1642:
1437:
France and the Chesapeake: A History of the French Tobacco Monopoly, 1674–1791, and of its Relationship to the British and American Tobacco Trades
223:
initial loans from London, which increased pressure to produce a profitable crop and made them more financially vulnerable to natural disasters.
1336:
Virginia and the English Commercial System, 1689–1733: Studies in the Development and Fluctuations of a Colonial Economy under Imperial Control
715:
1319:
1244:
Bradburn, Douglas M., and John C. Coombs. "SMOKE AND MIRRORS: Reinterpreting the society and economy of the seventeenth-century Chesapeake".
161:
As the English increasingly used tobacco products, tobacco in the American colonies became a significant economic force, especially in the
1560:
1887:
1881:
2205:
2028:
1311:
Hardin, David S. " 'The Same Sort of Seed in Different Earths': Tobacco Types and Their Regional Variation in Colonial Virginia"
513:
Mischance rather than Misconduct hath been the cause of …It is but an irksome thing to a free mind to be always hampered in Debt.
2200:
2113:
808:
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in 1621 with two major components: a restriction on tobacco importation from anywhere with the exception of Virginia and the
173:) passed a Tobacco Act requiring the inspection of all tobacco intended for export or for use as legal tender. In 1730, the
1942:
1468:
Ragsdale, Bruce A. "George Washington, the British tobacco trade, and economic opportunity in prerevolutionary Virginia".
2034:
1839:
987:
Menard, R. R. (2007). "Plantation Empire: How Sugar and Tobacco Planters Built Their Industries and Raised an Empire".
2145:
2072:
740:
1386:
Menard, Russell R. "Plantation empire: How sugar and tobacco planters built their industries and raised an empire".
1948:
949:
Rutman, Anita H. (1987), "Still Planting the Seeds of Hope: The Recent Literature of the Early Chesapeake Region",
1553:
181:
149:
1500:
Walsh, Lorena S. "Summing the parts: implications for estimating Chesapeake output and income subregionally".
1672:
377:
365:
1461:
Rutman, Anita H. "Still Planting the Seeds of Hope: The Recent Literature of the Early Chesapeake Region".
162:
2210:
1978:
439:
1954:
1494:
1306:
1280:
Cogswell, Thomas. "‘In the Power of the State’: Mr Anys's Project and the Tobacco Colonies, 1626–1628".
2174:
1684:
1678:
1546:
1408:
1396:
Menard, Russell R. "The tobacco industry in the Chesapeake colonies, 1617-1730: An interpretation". in
1284:
123.500 (2008): 35-64; a failed scheme for a transatlantic monopoly of Virginian and Bermudan tobacco.
204:
1960:
1784:
1624:
1095:
866:
637:
2084:
2078:
1766:
1666:
1512:
Motives of Honor, Pleasure, and Profit: Plantation Management in the Colonial Chesapeake, 1607–1763
772:
384:
Furthermore, local reputation and social status varied with the quality of one’s leaf. In his book
35:, owned tobacco plantations, and were hurt by debt to British tobacco merchants shortly before the
1445:
Rainbolt, John C. “The Case of the Poor Planters in Virginia for Inspecting and Burning Tobacco.”
1827:
1809:
1149:
211:
to ship the tobacco to London merchants. The loan was then repaid with profits from their sales.
18:
1218:
345:
2137:
2040:
1654:
809:"British Mercantilism and Crop Controls in the Tobacco Colonies: A Study of Rent-Seeking Costs"
128:
1275:
1265:
1226:
597:
1984:
1918:
1833:
936:
730:
350:
1379:
2054:
2002:
1875:
1797:
1660:
1630:
1580:
1199:
Soil Exhaustion as a Factor in the Agricultural History of Virginia and Maryland, 1606-1860
1030:
297:
118:
1227:
The Visible Fist: The Chesapeake Tobacco Trade in War and the Purpose of Empire, 1690–1715
1132:
1113:
8:
2129:
1990:
1857:
1730:
1690:
1590:
1530:
The old dominion in the seventeenth century: A documentary history of Virginia, 1606-1700
543:
447:
427:
410:
321:
170:
75:
36:
1253:
Tobacco Culture: the Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution.
1055:
2153:
2066:
1636:
1618:
1515:
1483:
1180:
1012:
1004:
958:
709:
572:
566:
423:
369:
177:
1376:
The Atlantic Imperial Constitution: Center and Periphery in the English Atlantic World
609:
2121:
1863:
1748:
1600:
1569:
1420:
1417:
Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-century Chesapeake and Lowcountry
1345:
Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680–1800
1016:
736:
491:
446:. Despite this defeat the measure eventually was pushed through by proclamation from
90:
84:
32:
682:
1893:
1869:
1803:
1778:
1736:
1595:
1533:
1238:
1234:
996:
556:
389:
28:
1425:
Price, Jacob M. "The rise of Glasgow in the Chesapeake tobacco trade, 1707-1775".
292:, tobacco constituted a major percentage of the total agricultural output. In the
2090:
2008:
1966:
1930:
1772:
1754:
1742:
1648:
1605:
1585:
1171:
Soltow, James H. (1994). "Cotton as Religion, Politics, Law, Economics and Art".
60:
2048:
2022:
1718:
475:
443:
416:
301:
289:
261:
251:
133:
656:
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1972:
1724:
1705:
1450:
1000:
548:
255:
192:
79:
1391:
1996:
1851:
1845:
531:
495:
462:
432:
95:
180:
standardized and improved quality of tobacco exported by establishing the
1936:
1821:
1815:
1260:
Clemens, Paul GE. "Reimagining the political economy of early Virginia".
250:
by white planters came to replace mixed-race units. Unwritten race-based
208:
196:
103:
1008:
396:
estate was styled after the dwellings of a wealthy European aristocrat.
231:
2060:
2016:
1505:
1430:
1360:
1289:
Wholly Built Upon Smoke" Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence
1184:
962:
393:
317:
293:
71:
1473:
1270:
Coclanis, Peter A. "Tobacco Road: New Views of the Early Chesapeake".
1096:"BLASTE Appendix, King James I of England, A Counterblaste to Tobacco"
1924:
518:
insurmountable debts prevented the exercise of basic human freedoms.
166:
1538:
1489:
Salmon, Emily & Salmon, John. "Tobacco in Colonial Virginia" in
1152:. George Washington a Life. New York: Henry Holt &, 1998. Print.
283:
1760:
499:
farmers to take on unsustainable debt loads. In 1786, he remarked:
373:
258:, became common social fixtures in Northern and Southern colonies.
185:
174:
214:
169:. In 1713, the General Assembly (under the leadership of Governor
145:
99:
399:
1907:
Non-British colonial entities in the contemporary United States
471:
325:
profits hinged on skilled, careful, and efficient labor units.
305:
200:
153:
tobacco industry would continue until the American Revolution.
1217:(1908) good coverage of imperial system of exploiting tobacco
1303:
History of agriculture in the southern United States to 1860
417:
British mercantilism and monopolization of the tobacco trade
409:
Tobacco played a major role in the development of the early
144:
In 1621, King James prohibited the production of tobacco in
82:. He had brought with him a new species of tobacco known as
309:
188:
with tobacco and conveyed them to inspection warehouses.
1374:
MacMillan, Ken. "Tobacco and the Economy of Empire". in
404:
320:, and cultivation was geared towards maximizing volume.
485:
1532:(U of North Carolina Press Books, 1975), pp 175–204.
1215:
The origins of the British colonial system, 1578-1660
232:
Aftermath of Legalization of Chattel Bondage in 1660s
226:
195:. American tobacco farmers would sell their crops on
1704:
Other British colonial entities in the contemporary
490:American tobacco planters, including Jefferson and
932:
930:
928:
562:History of commercial tobacco in the United States
41:History of commercial tobacco in the United States
1207:
284:Differences between the Chesapeake and Deep South
2187:
1486:good brief introduction to pre-1799 era pp 3-73.
156:
1888:Colony of British Columbia and Vancouver Island
1296:Tobacco in History and Culture: An Encyclopedia
925:
1419:. (University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
951:The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography
22:Tobacco advertisement from 18th century London
1554:
1439:(University of Michigan Press, 1973. 2 vols)
400:Economic impact of the early tobacco industry
265:Slaves processing tobacco in Virginia in 1670
839:
735:. Univ. Press of Mississippi. pp. 30–.
722:
88:. This species was preferable to the native
1367:McCusker, John J., and Russell R. Menard.
1347:(University of North Carolina Press, 1986)
900:
898:
594:Use of tobacco among North American Indians
340:
78:to find the colonists there struggling and
1561:
1547:
1470:Virginia Magazine of History and Biography
1447:Virginia Magazine of History and Biography
1357:Virginia Magazine of History and Biography
714:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
240:
2196:Colonization history of the United States
1392:https://doi.org/10.1215/00021482-81.3.309
1378:(Palgrave Macmillan US, 2011) pp. 85-111
1371:(University of North Carolina Press 1985)
1369:The Economy of British America, 1607–1789
1080:Middleton, A.P. (1953). "Tobacco Coast".
1079:
728:
98:in the Caribbean or from plants found in
973:
971:
895:
632:
630:
461:
364:
344:
260:
213:
127:farming techniques. While early tobacco
122:Cultivation of tobacco at Jamestown 1615
117:
59:
17:
806:
2188:
1170:
986:
948:
802:
800:
798:
796:
794:
792:
790:
788:
786:
767:
765:
763:
761:
759:
699:
610:"Our Ancestors in Jamestown, Virginia"
113:
2114:Discourse Concerning Western Planting
1568:
1542:
1130:
968:
729:McGregory, Jerrilyn (April 1, 1997).
702:Economy and Society in Early Maryland
680:
654:
627:
405:Economic growth in the early colonies
139:
1943:Captaincy General of the Philippines
1458:(UNC 1949), good short introduction.
1255:Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP (1985)
486:American Revolution and New Republic
46:
1327:Encyclopedia of Smoking and Tobacco
783:
756:
13:
1522:
867:"Spotswood, Alexander (1676–1740)"
376:leader, made in ~1750 and used to
227:Slave labor on tobacco plantations
14:
2222:
2146:Fundamental Orders of Connecticut
1627:(1629–1641; 1679–1686; 1689–1776)
1131:Borio, Gene (September 6, 2018).
704:. New York. pp. 448–50, 462.
681:Borio, Gene (September 6, 2018).
2206:History of the Thirteen Colonies
2170:
2169:
1949:Captaincy General of Puerto Rico
442:although it was defeated in the
104:shipwrecked with other colonists
1480:The Story of Tobacco in America
1456:The Story of Tobacco in America
1191:
1164:
1155:
1143:
1124:
1106:
1088:
1073:
1048:
1023:
980:
942:
916:
907:
886:
877:
859:
833:
1400:(Routledge, 2022) pp. 377-445.
1239:10.5309/willmaryquar.68.3.0361
1208:References and further reading
773:"Tobacco in Colonial Virginia"
693:
674:
648:
602:
586:
378:advertise a tobacconist's shop
182:Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730
150:Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730
1:
1788:
1315:(2006), Vol. 34, pp. 137-158.
871:www.encyclopedia Virginia.org
157:Chesapeake Consignment System
55:
2201:Tobacco in the United States
1894:Province of British Columbia
1114:"LEARN NC has been archived"
842:"Tobacco Inspection of 1730"
777:www.encyclopediavirginia.org
642:www.encyclopediavirginia.org
521:
457:
39:. For the later period see
7:
1298:(2 vol Thomason-Gale, 2005)
1291:. London: Routledge (1993).
537:
254:, which would later become
10:
2227:
2073:Brandenburger Saint Thomas
1882:Colony of British Columbia
1502:William and Mary Quarterly
1427:William and Mary Quarterly
1272:William and Mary Quarterly
1262:William and Mary Quarterly
1231:William and Mary Quarterly
372:likely meant to portray a
2165:
2109:
2100:
2043:, 1682–1763 and 1801–1803
1961:Captaincy General of Cuba
1914:
1903:
1785:New England Confederation
1714:
1700:
1614:
1576:
1528:Billings, Warren M., ed.
1322:enslaved tobacco workers.
1282:English Historical Review
937:www.digitalhistory.uh.edu
807:Pecquet, Gary M. (2003).
1955:Santa Fe de Nuevo México
1767:Massachusetts Bay Colony
1398:The Atlantic Slave Trade
1325:Hirschfelder, Arlene B.
1305:(1933) vol 1 pp 213-276
1001:10.3098/ah.2007.81.3.309
657:"John Rolfe (1585-1622)"
580:
466:Lorillard hogshead, 1789
341:Colonial tobacco culture
2085:Scottish Darien Company
2029:Hospitaller Saint Croix
1828:Dominion of New England
1810:North-Western Territory
1150:Randall, Willard Sterne
638:"Rolfe, John (d. 1622)"
551:, merchants in Scotland
530:According to historian
438:The measure passed the
241:Slave boom in the 1700s
218:The "Triangular Trade".
2138:Of Plymouth Plantation
1860:(1779–1783; 1814–1815)
1769:(1629–1686; 1689–1691)
1745:(1620–1686; 1689–1691)
1657:(1664–1673; 1702–1776)
1472:97.2 (1989): 132-162.
1405:Historical Archaeology
1390:81.3 (2007): 309-332.
1274:68.3 (2011): 398-404.
1264:68.3 (2011): 393-397.
1233:68.3 (2011): 361-386.
1031:"The Roanoke Colonies"
700:Menard, R. R. (1985).
614:Genealogical Gleanings
515:
506:
467:
381:
380:in England until 1900.
354:
288:In the Chesapeake and
277:
266:
219:
123:
67:
23:
1919:Columbian Viceroyalty
1491:Encyclopedia Virginia
1463:The Virginia Magazine
1359:108 (2000): 345–392.
1197:Avery Odelle Craven,
1060:Encyclopedia Virginia
1035:Encyclopedia Virginia
939:Retrieved August 2012
846:Encyclopedia Virginia
655:Shifflett, Crandall.
511:
501:
465:
368:
351:tobacco advertisement
348:
272:
264:
217:
121:
63:
21:
2055:Dutch Virgin Islands
2003:Spanish West Florida
1997:Spanish East Florida
1876:Stickeen Territories
1581:New England Colonies
1504:56.1 (1999): 53-94.
1449:79 (1971): 314–321.
1429:(1954) pp: 179-199.
1388:Agricultural History
1313:Historical Geography
1225:Bradburn, Douglas. "
1213:Beer, George Louis.
1173:Agricultural History
1100:www.laits.utexas.edu
989:Agricultural History
1991:Provincias Internas
1967:Spanish Saint Croix
1591:Chesapeake Colonies
1301:Gray, Lewis Cecil.
1201:(1926) pp. 162-163.
1137:archive.tobacco.org
1084:. Mariners' Museum.
1056:"The Starving Time"
687:archive.tobacco.org
544:History of Virginia
428:British West Indies
411:Chesapeake Colonies
322:Diminishing returns
171:Alexander Spotswood
114:Cultivation methods
37:American Revolution
2211:History of tobacco
2154:Quintipartite Deed
2067:Danish West Indies
2035:French Saint Croix
1478:Robert, Joseph C.
1454:Robert, Joseph C.
1441:online book review
1415:Morgan, Philip D.
1407:38 (2004): 68-82.
1334:Hemphill, John M.
840:General Assembly.
573:Tobacco and Slaves
567:Plantation economy
468:
424:British Parliament
382:
370:Cigar store Indian
355:
267:
220:
178:House of Burgesses
140:Expansion of trade
124:
68:
24:
2183:
2182:
2158:
2150:
2142:
2134:
2126:
2122:Mayflower Compact
2118:
2103:Related Documents
1985:Spanish Louisiana
1864:Columbia District
1787:(1643–1654; 1675–
1673:Massachusetts Bay
1601:Southern Colonies
1570:Thirteen Colonies
1510:Walsh, Lorena S.
1343:Kulikoff, Allan.
1294:Goodman, Jordan.
1287:Goodman, Jordan.
732:Wiregrass Country
661:Virtual Jamestown
492:George Washington
474:from forgery and
108:Nicotiana tabacum
91:Nicotiana rustica
85:Nicotiana tabacum
65:Nicotiana tabacum
47:Early cultivation
33:George Washington
2218:
2173:
2172:
2156:
2148:
2140:
2132:
2130:Mourt's Relation
2124:
2116:
2041:French Louisiana
1870:Red River Colony
1793:
1790:
1737:Berkeley Hundred
1596:Tobacco Colonies
1563:
1556:
1549:
1540:
1539:
1435:Price, Jacob M.
1338:(Garland, 1985).
1246:Atlantic Studies
1202:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1168:
1162:
1159:
1153:
1147:
1141:
1140:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1082:Newport News, VA
1077:
1071:
1070:
1068:
1066:
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1046:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1027:
1021:
1020:
984:
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667:
652:
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645:
634:
625:
624:
622:
620:
606:
600:
590:
557:Tobacco colonies
440:House of Commons
390:Thomas Jefferson
199:to merchants in
163:tidewater region
29:Thomas Jefferson
2226:
2225:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2186:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2161:
2105:
2096:
2091:Russian America
2009:Alta California
1979:Las Californias
1931:Spanish Florida
1910:
1899:
1791:
1710:
1696:
1610:
1606:United Colonies
1586:Middle Colonies
1572:
1567:
1525:
1523:Primary sources
1210:
1205:
1196:
1192:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1148:
1144:
1129:
1125:
1118:www.learnnc.org
1112:
1111:
1107:
1094:
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1089:
1078:
1074:
1064:
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1054:
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1039:
1037:
1029:
1028:
1024:
985:
981:
976:
969:
947:
943:
935:
926:
922:Brandt, p.21-22
921:
917:
912:
908:
903:
896:
891:
887:
882:
878:
865:
864:
860:
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834:
824:
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771:
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757:
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745:
743:
727:
723:
707:
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628:
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583:
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460:
419:
407:
402:
386:Tobacco Culture
343:
286:
243:
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229:
159:
142:
116:
58:
49:
12:
11:
5:
2224:
2214:
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2203:
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2177:
2166:
2163:
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2127:
2119:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2095:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2076:
2070:
2064:
2058:
2052:
2049:New Netherland
2046:
2045:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2026:
2023:French Florida
2014:
2013:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1958:
1952:
1946:
1940:
1934:
1922:
1915:
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1911:
1909:
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1900:
1898:
1897:
1891:
1885:
1879:
1873:
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1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1834:Indian Reserve
1831:
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1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1795:
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1685:South Carolina
1682:
1679:North Carolina
1676:
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1072:
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1022:
979:
967:
941:
924:
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906:
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885:
883:Goodman, p.158
876:
858:
832:
782:
755:
741:
721:
692:
673:
647:
626:
601:
592:Ralph Linton,
584:
582:
579:
578:
577:
569:
564:
559:
553:
552:
546:
539:
536:
523:
520:
487:
484:
476:overproduction
459:
456:
444:House of Lords
418:
415:
406:
403:
401:
398:
342:
339:
302:South Carolina
290:North Carolina
285:
282:
252:sumptuary laws
242:
239:
233:
230:
228:
225:
158:
155:
141:
138:
134:Chesapeake Bay
115:
112:
102:(where he was
57:
54:
48:
45:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2223:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
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2176:
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2167:
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2018:
2015:
2010:
2007:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1992:
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1980:
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1973:Spanish Texas
1971:
1968:
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1962:
1959:
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1950:
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1944:
1941:
1938:
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1804:Rupert's Land
1802:
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1706:United States
1703:
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1632:
1629:
1626:
1625:New Hampshire
1623:
1620:
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1613:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
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1592:
1589:
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1286:
1283:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1251:Breen, T. H.
1250:
1247:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1223:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1211:
1200:
1194:
1186:
1182:
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1158:
1151:
1146:
1138:
1134:
1127:
1119:
1115:
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1097:
1091:
1083:
1076:
1061:
1057:
1051:
1036:
1032:
1026:
1018:
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1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
983:
974:
972:
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945:
938:
933:
931:
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919:
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899:
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872:
868:
862:
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843:
836:
821:
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803:
801:
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766:
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742:9780878059263
738:
734:
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703:
696:
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684:
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662:
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611:
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589:
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574:
570:
568:
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563:
560:
558:
555:
554:
550:
549:Tobacco Lords
547:
545:
542:
541:
535:
533:
528:
519:
514:
510:
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500:
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483:
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436:
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429:
425:
414:
412:
397:
395:
391:
387:
379:
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371:
367:
363:
361:
352:
349:18th-century
347:
338:
334:
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323:
319:
313:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
281:
276:
271:
263:
259:
257:
256:Jim Crow laws
253:
247:
238:
224:
216:
212:
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206:
202:
198:
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193:Tobacco Lords
189:
187:
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154:
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137:
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120:
111:
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87:
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81:
77:
73:
66:
62:
53:
44:
42:
38:
34:
30:
20:
16:
2102:
2079:Krabbeninsel
1852:West Florida
1846:East Florida
1667:Pennsylvania
1643:Rhode Island
1529:
1511:
1501:
1490:
1479:
1469:
1462:
1455:
1446:
1436:
1426:
1416:
1404:
1397:
1387:
1375:
1368:
1356:
1344:
1335:
1329:(Oryx, 1999)
1326:
1312:
1302:
1295:
1288:
1281:
1271:
1261:
1252:
1245:
1230:
1214:
1198:
1193:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1157:
1145:
1136:
1126:
1117:
1108:
1099:
1090:
1081:
1075:
1063:. Retrieved
1059:
1050:
1038:. Retrieved
1034:
1025:
992:
988:
982:
954:
950:
944:
918:
909:
892:Brandt, p.23
888:
879:
870:
861:
849:. Retrieved
845:
835:
823:. Retrieved
819:
816:Cato Journal
815:
776:
746:. Retrieved
731:
724:
701:
695:
686:
676:
664:. Retrieved
660:
650:
641:
617:. Retrieved
613:
604:
593:
588:
571:
532:Avery Craven
529:
525:
516:
512:
507:
502:
496:Mount Vernon
489:
480:
469:
452:
437:
433:mercantilism
420:
408:
385:
383:
359:
356:
335:
331:
327:
314:
287:
278:
273:
268:
248:
244:
235:
221:
190:
160:
143:
125:
107:
106:). This new
96:Taino people
89:
83:
69:
64:
50:
25:
15:
2141:(1630–1651)
2093:(1799–1867)
2081:(1689–1693)
2075:(1685–1754)
2069:(1672–1917)
2063:(1638–1655)
2057:(1625–1672)
2051:(1614–1667)
2037:, 1665–1733
2031:, 1651–1665
2025:, 1562–1565
2021:1534–1763;
2011:, 1804–1821
2005:, 1783–1821
1999:, 1783–1821
1993:, 1776–1821
1987:, 1769–1801
1981:, 1767–1804
1975:, 1690–1821
1969:, 1650–1651
1963:, 1607–1801
1957:, 1598–1821
1951:, 1580–1898
1945:, 1565–1898
1939:, 1565–1821
1937:New Navarre
1933:, 1565–1763
1929:1521–1821;
1921:(1492–1535)
1896:(1871–1903)
1890:(1866–1871)
1884:(1863–1866)
1878:(1862–1863)
1872:(1811–1818)
1866:(1810–1846)
1858:New Ireland
1854:(1763–1783)
1848:(1763–1783)
1842:(1763–1783)
1836:(1763–1783)
1830:(1686–1689)
1824:(1674–1702)
1822:West Jersey
1818:(1674–1702)
1816:East Jersey
1812:(1670–1870)
1806:(1670–1811)
1800:(1663–1712)
1792: 1680
1781:(1638–1664)
1775:(1635–1644)
1763:(1629–1663)
1757:(1625–1650)
1755:Saint Croix
1751:(1622–1658)
1733:(1607–1699)
1727:(1607–1608)
1721:(1585–1590)
1693:(1732–1776)
1687:(1712–1776)
1681:(1712–1776)
1675:(1691–1776)
1669:(1681–1776)
1663:(1664–1776)
1651:(1664–1776)
1645:(1636–1776)
1639:(1636–1776)
1637:Connecticut
1633:(1632–1776)
1621:(1607–1776)
1482:(UNC 1949)
1465:Jan. (1987)
1179:(2): 6–19.
957:(1): 3–24,
576:(1986 book)
275:compulsory.
209:New Orleans
197:consignment
129:cultivation
74:arrived in
2190:Categories
2061:New Sweden
2017:New France
1655:New Jersey
1133:"No Title"
995:(3): 319.
683:"No Title"
448:King James
394:Monticello
318:cash crops
294:Deep South
205:Charleston
72:John Rolfe
56:John Rolfe
1925:New Spain
1779:New Haven
1731:Jamestown
1065:April 28,
1040:April 28,
1017:154101847
851:April 28,
825:April 19,
710:cite book
666:April 27,
619:April 27,
522:Aftermath
458:Cash crop
186:hogsheads
167:cash crop
76:Jamestown
70:In 1612,
2175:Category
1798:Carolina
1773:Saybrook
1761:Carolana
1743:Plymouth
1661:New York
1649:Delaware
1631:Maryland
1619:Virginia
1431:in JSTOR
1009:20454724
904:Kulikoff
538:See also
374:Powhatan
296:(mainly
175:Virginia
80:starving
1719:Roanoke
1691:Georgia
1514:(2010)
1493:(2020)
1185:3744399
963:4248923
596:(1924)
298:Georgia
146:England
100:Bermuda
2157:(1676)
2149:(1638)
2133:(1622)
2125:(1620)
2117:(1584)
2087:(1698)
1840:Quebec
1739:(1619)
1725:Popham
1534:online
1516:online
1506:online
1495:online
1484:online
1474:online
1421:online
1409:online
1380:online
1361:online
1349:online
1320:online
1307:online
1276:online
1266:online
1219:online
1183:
1015:
1007:
961:
913:Morgan
748:May 4,
739:
598:online
472:wampum
306:cotton
201:London
1749:Maine
1181:JSTOR
1013:S2CID
1005:JSTOR
977:Breen
959:JSTOR
812:(PDF)
581:Notes
504:debt.
360:(sic)
1067:2016
1042:2016
853:2016
827:2016
750:2014
737:ISBN
716:link
668:2016
621:2016
310:rice
308:and
300:and
31:and
1235:doi
1229:".
997:doi
392:’s
304:),
207:or
2192::
1789:c.
1177:68
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