692:
35:
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and the intangibles of artistic and aesthetic demands in video game creation create difficulty in predicting milestones. The use of crunch time is also seen to be exploitative of the younger male-dominated workforce in video games, who have not had the time to establish a family and who were eager to advance within the industry by working long hours. Because crunch time tends to come from a combination of corporate practices as well as peer influence, the term "crunch culture" is often used to discuss video game development settings where crunch time may be seen as the norm rather than the exception.
568:
683:
1048:, can create a culture of "toxic geek masculinity" within the workplace. In addition, the conditions behind crunch time are far more discriminating towards women as this requires them to commit time exclusively to the company or to more personal activities like raising a family. These factors established conditions within some larger development studios where female developers have found themselves discriminated in workplace hiring and promotion, as well as the target of sexual harassment. This can be coupled from similar harassment from external groups, such as during the 2014
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members, assisting across all areas of video game development, but as contractors, do not get any benefits such as paid time-off or health care from the employer; they also are typically not credited on games that they work on for this reason. The practice itself is legal and common in other engineering and technology areas, and generally it is expected that this is meant to lead into a full-time position, or otherwise the end of the contract. But more recently, its use in the video game industry has been compared to
1177:. This is a result of the industry being driven more by creativity and innovation rather than production, the lack of distinction between management and employees in the white-collar area, and the pace at which the industry moves that makes union actions difficult to plan out. However, when situations related to crunch time become prevalent in the news, there have typically been followup discussions towards the potential to form a union. A survey performed by the
811:. Successful developers may maintain several teams working on different games for different publishers. Generally, however, third-party developers tend to be small, close-knit teams. Third-party game development is a volatile sector, since small developers may depend on income from a single publisher; one canceled game may devastate a small developer. Because of this, many small development companies are short-lived.
1248:(CODE), in January 2020. Initial efforts for CODE were aimed to determine what approach to unionization would be best suited for the video game industry. Whereas some video game employees believe they should follow the craft-based model used by SAG-AFTRA which would unionize based on job function, others feel an industry-wide union, regardless of job position, would be better.
1142:
year. While discrimination by age in hiring practices is generally illegal, companies often target their oldest workers first during layoffs or other periods of reduction. Older developers with experience may find themselves too qualified for the types of positions that other game development companies seek given the salaries and compensations offered.
1216:(IGDA), the professional association for developers. Statements made by the IGDA's current executive director Jen MacLean relating to IGDA's activities had been seen by as anti-union, and Game Workers Unite desired to start a conversation to lay out the need for developers to unionize. In the wake of the sudden near-closure of
1112:
game developers typically draw from personal experiences in building game characters, this diversity gap has led to few characters of racial minority to be featured as main characters within video games. Minority developers have also been harassed from external groups due to the toxic nature of the video game culture.
1075:'s Game Developer Salary Survey 2014, women in the United States made 86 cents for every dollar men made. Game designing women had the closest equity, making 96 cents for every dollar men made in the same job, while audio professional women had the largest gap, making 68% of what men in the same position made.
1041:, women constituted only 3% of the gaming industry, while a 2017 IGDA survey found that the female demographic in game development had risen to about 20%. Taking into account that a 2017 ESA survey found 41% of video game players were female, this represented a significant gender gap in game development.
1159:", contract workers that were continually renewed and treated for all purposes as employees but received no benefits. While Microsoft has waned from the practice, the video game industry has adapted it more frequently. Around 10% of the workforce in video games is estimated to be from contract labor.
1141:
issue, discriminating against the hiring and retention of older developers. A 2016 IGDA survey found only 3% of developers were over 50 years old, while at least two-thirds were between 20 and 34; these numbers show a far lower average age compared to the U.S. national average of about 41.9 that same
1111:
estimate the U.S. population to be 13% of
African descent and 18% Hispanic. In a 2014 and 2015 survey of job positions and salaries, the IGDA found that people of color were both underrepresented in senior management roles as well as underpaid in comparison to white developers. Further, because video
846:
console, setting a 30% licensing fee that covered game cartridge manufacturing costs and development fees. The 30% licensing fee for third-party developers has also persisted to the present, being a de facto rate used for most digital storefronts for third-party developers to offer their games on the
806:
intended to be delivered over a period of time. By updating its milestones, the publisher verifies that work is progressing quickly enough to meet its deadline and can direct the developer if the game is not meeting expectations. When each milestone is completed (and accepted), the publisher pays the
1225:
preceding layoffs. The situation was argued to be "exploitive", as
Telltale had been known to force its employees to frequently work under "crunch time" to deliver its games. By the end of 2018, a United Kingdom trade union, Game Workers Unite UK, an affiliate of the Game Workers Unite movement, had
1000:
Some video game developers and publishers have been accused of the excessive invocation of "crunch time". "Crunch time" is the point at which the team is thought to be failing to achieve milestones needed to launch a game on schedule. The complexity of workflow, reliance on third-party deliverables,
941:
Other indie game developers create game software for a number of video-game publishers on several gaming platforms. In recent years this model has been in decline; larger publishers, such as
Electronic Arts and Activision, increasingly turn to internal studios (usually former independent developers
770:
and develop games exclusive to that platform, i.e. a non-owned developer making games for a first-party company. As a balance to not being able to release their game for other platforms, second-party developers are usually offered higher royalty rates than third-party developers. These studios may
1128:
and other gender or sexual orientations, the video game industry typically shares the same demographics as with the larger population based on a 2005 IGDA survey. Those in the LGBT community do not find workplace issues with their identity, though work to improve the representation of LGBT themes
950:
Video game development is usually conducted in a casual business environment, with t-shirts and sandals as common work attire. Many workers find this type of environment rewarding and pleasant professionally and personally. However, the industry also requires long working hours from its employees
1220:
in
September 2018, the movement again called out for the industry to unionize. The movement argued that Telltale had not given any warning to its 250 employees let go, having hired additional staff as recently as a week prior, and left them without pensions or health-care options; it was further
1115:
This racial diversity issue has similar ties to the gender one, and similar methods to result both have been suggested, such as improving grade school education, developing games that appeal beyond the white, male gamer stereotype, and identifying toxic behavior in both video game workplaces and
958:
An entry-level programmer can make, on average, over $ 66,000 annually only if they are successful in obtaining a position in a medium to large video game company. An experienced game-development employee, depending on their expertise and experience, averaged roughly $ 73,000 in 2007. Indie game
937:
and word of mouth for publicity. Without the large marketing budgets of mainstream publishers, their products may receive less recognition than those of larger publishers such as Sony, Microsoft or
Nintendo. With the advent of digital distribution of inexpensive games on game consoles, it is now
837:
game cartridges were programmed to create their own games for the system, founding
Activision in 1979 to sell these. Atari took legal action to try to block the sale of these games, but the companies ultimately settled, with Activision agreeing to pay a portion of their sales as a license fee to
1150:
Some of the larger video game developers and publishers have also engaged contract workers through agencies to help add manpower in game development in part to alleviate crunch time from employees. Contractors are brought on for a fixed period and generally work similar hours as full-time staff
818:
for a successful video game developer is to sell the company to a publisher, becoming an in-house developer. In-house development teams tend to have more freedom in game design and content than third-party developers. One reason is that since the developers are the publisher's employees, their
887:(2005). All these developers continue operating much as they did before acquisition, the primary differences being exclusivity and financial details. Publishers tend to be more forgiving of their own development teams going over budget (or missing deadlines) than third-party developers.
771:
have exclusive publishing agreements (or other business relationships) with the platform holder, but maintain independence so that upon completion or termination of their contracts, they are able to continue developing games for other publishers if they choose to. For example, while
850:
In recent years, larger publishers have acquired several third-party developers. While these development teams are now technically "in-house", they often continue to operate in an autonomous manner (with their own culture and work practices). For example, Activision acquired
1233:'s financial report for the previous quarter in February 2019, the company said that they would be laying off around 775 employees (about 8% of their workforce) despite having record profits for that quarter. Further calls for unionization came from this news, including the
745:
on the part of the console manufacturer, which is wasted if the developer fails to produce a hit game on time. However, using first-party developers saves the cost of having to make royalty payments on a game's profits. Current examples of first-party studios include
1106:
There is also a significant gap in racial minorities within the video game industry; a 2019 IGDA survey found only 2% of developers considered themselves to be of
African descent and 7% Hispanic, while 81% were Caucasian; in contrast, 2018 estimates from the
1078:
Increasing the representation of women in the video game industry required breaking a feedback loop of the apparent lack of female representation in the production of video games and in the content of video games. Efforts have been made to provide a strong
1200:
lasted for over 300 days into 2017 before a new deal was made between SAG-AFTRA and the publishers. While this had some effects on a few games within the industry, it brought to the forefront the question of whether video game developers should unionize.
974:) require long working hours and dedication from their employees, such as willingness to relocate and/or required to develop games that do not appeal to their personal taste. The creative rewards of work in the entertainment business attracts
1129:
within video games in the same manner as with racial minorities. However, LGBT developers have also come under the same type of harassment from external groups like women and racial minorities due to the nature of the video game culture.
2416:
587:– the process and related disciplines of creating video games. A game developer can range from one person who undertakes all tasks to a large business with employee responsibilities split between individual disciplines, such as
1355:: "Someone who was part of the co-creation of that world and those characters isn't getting a credit or a nickel for the work they put into it. Maybe we need unions in the video game industry to be able to protect creators."
1091:
such as at colleges and universities, where game development programs tend to reflect the male-dominated demographics of the industry, a factor that may lead women with strong STEM backgrounds to choose other career goals.
890:
A developer may not be the primary entity creating a piece of software, usually providing an external software tool which helps organize (or use) information for the primary software product. Such tools may be a
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Atari for developing for the console. This established the use of licensing fees as a model for third-party development that persists into the present. The licensing fee approach was further enforced by
3216:
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779:, they became one of the earliest second-party developers for Nintendo, developing exclusively for Nintendo's consoles starting with the Famicom, though they would self-publish their mobile games.
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986:(IGDA), are conducting increasing discussions about the problem; they are concerned that working conditions in the industry cause a significant deterioration in employees' quality of life.
2479:
3465:
722:, a first-party developer is part of a company that manufactures a video game console and develops mainly for it. First-party developers may use the name of the company itself (such as
2187:
2581:
1052:. Major investigations into allegations of sexual harassment and misconduct that went unchecked by management, as well as discrimination by employers, have been brought up against
3008:
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interests align with those of the publisher; the publisher may spend less effort ensuring that the developer's decisions do not enrich the developer at the publisher's expense.
2952:
2392:
2318:
1927:
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1300:
Sweden presents a unique case where nearly all parts of its labor force, including white-collar jobs such as video game development, may engage with labor unions under the
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in the late 2010s and early 2020s, alongside smaller studios and individual developers. However, while other entertainment industries have had similar exposure through the
3282:
2356:
2446:
2121:
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A third-party developer may also publish games, or work for a video game publisher to develop a title. Both publisher and developer have considerable input in the game's
2881:
2782:
1324:. In Australia, video game developers could join other unions, but the first video game-specific union, Game Workers Unite Australia, was formed in December 2021 under
669:). However, since publishing is still their primary activity they are generally described as "publishers" rather than "developers". Developers may be private as well.
1893:
3333:
3239:
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became one of the first major publishers to support unionization efforts in June 2020 with its own agreements to cover its
Swedish employees within two labor unions
1222:
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1736:
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Independents are software developers which are not owned by (or dependent on) a single publisher. Some of these developers self-publish their games, relying on the
3434:
2534:
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however, different regions and costs of living will add a wide range to the minimum and maximum pay scales. Most larger developers such as
Ubisoft will include
1776:
3368:
3206:
1713:
2815:
1208:, was established around 2017 to discuss and debate issues related to unionization of game developers. The group came to the forefront during the March 2018
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games from one system to another, or translating games from one language to another. Less commonly, some do software development work in addition to games.
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and have tried to address the symptoms of these problems industry-wide, the video game industry has yet to have its Me Too-moment, even as late as 2021.
2502:
2253:
2614:
2288:
1859:
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to become active in 2022. In Canada, in a historic move, video game workers in
Edmonton unanimously voted to unionize for the first time in June 2022.
1080:
766:
Second-party developer is a colloquial term often used by gaming enthusiasts and media to describe game studios that take development contracts from
799:
and content. However, the publisher's wishes generally override those of the developer. Work for hire studios solely execute the publishers vision.
1181:
in 2014 found that more than half of the 2,200 developers surveyed favored unionization. A similar survey of over 4,000 game developers run by the
1016:. Since then, there has generally been negative perception of crunch time from most of the industry as well as from its consumers and other media.
2706:
2469:
1321:
309:
3457:
2220:
554:
1012:, a situation known as the "EA Spouses" case. A similar "Rockstar Spouses" case gained further attention in 2010 over working conditions at
2177:
2571:
3018:
2919:
2942:
2643:
2541:
1919:
1213:
1197:
1178:
983:
741:). Whether by purchasing an independent studio or by founding a new team, the acquisition of a first-party developer involves a huge
2382:
3623:
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2023:
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Starting in 2021, several smaller game studios in the United States began efforts to unionize. These mostly involved teams doing
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1950:
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and provisions related to the safety of their vocal performances, when their union's standard contract was up for renewal. The
249:
116:
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financial and usually marketing support. Self-funded developers are known as independent or indie developers and usually make
3582:
3563:
2772:
2414:
Prescott, Julie; Bogg, Jan (2011). "Segregation in a Male-Dominated Industry: Women Working in the Computer Games Industry".
1429:
1301:
17:
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1890:
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argued that the studio considered this a closure rather than layoffs, as to get around failure to notify required by the
938:
possible for indie game developers to forge agreements with console manufacturers for broad distribution of their games.
335:
3424:
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959:
developers may only earn between $ 10,000 and $ 50,000 a year depending on how financially successful their titles are.
3521:
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833:, partially over the lack of respect that the new management gave to programmers, they used their knowledge of how
289:
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The business arrangement between the developer and publisher is governed by a contract, which specifies a list of
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that demands a high level of commitment and performance from employees. Industry communities, such as the
727:
521:
373:
1592:
1571:
1333:
1275:, which had previously acquired Zenimax and announced plans to acquire Blizzard via the acquisition of
1209:
1182:
445:
269:
99:
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430:
351:
314:
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596:
592:
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74:
1830:"A year into the pandemic, game developers reflect on burnout, mental health and avoiding crunch"
1325:
339:
279:
733:) or have been an independent studio before being acquired by the console manufacturer (such as
34:
1288:
1256:
1192:(SAG-AFTRA) union doing work for video games struck several major publishers, demanding better
584:
195:
106:
56:
2054:"" EA Spouse" and the Crisis of Video Game Labour: Enjoyment, Exclusion, Exploitation, Exodus"
1071:
There also tends to be pay-related discrimination against women in the industry. According to
567:
3244:
1305:
1280:
1049:
830:
747:
654:
588:
481:
284:
242:
180:
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The male-dominated industry, most who have grown up playing video games and are part of the
2909:
1279:, stated it supported these unionization efforts. After this acquisition, the employees of
1108:
1101:
995:
952:
742:
634:
600:
378:
264:
254:
227:
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in early 2019 found that 47% of respondents felt the video game industry should unionize.
1035:
Game development had generally been a predominately male workforce. In 1989, according to
8:
2215:
1346:
1313:
1276:
1230:
1084:
1061:
719:
615:
451:
361:
123:
63:
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2637:"Developer Satisfaction Survey 2014 & 2015 - Diversity in the Games Industry Report"
2013:
962:
In addition to being part of the software industry, game development is also within the
682:
3178:
2976:"GDC survey: Half of game developers support unionization, believe Steam is too greedy"
2572:"The $ 150 billion video game industry grapples with a murky track record on diversity"
2351:
2248:
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1037:
1013:
580:
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1480:
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1293:
1252:
884:
751:
730:
662:
619:
406:
299:
217:
175:
94:
1960:
1004:
The use of crunch time as a workplace standard gained attention first in 2004, when
3489:"How 'The Last of Us' changed gaming, strained relationships and spawned an empire"
2065:
1905:
912:
767:
755:
700:
411:
304:
128:
3392:"Paradox Reaches Agreement With Swedish Unions For Better Pay, Benefits, And More"
1908:
or performance-related bonuses to reward their employees. from GameCareerGuide.com
1244:
established a new campaign to push for unionization of video game developers, the
3046:
2914:
1897:
1264:
1193:
1065:
1009:
638:
319:
3207:"US labor organization AFL-CIO urges game developers to unionize in open letter"
2070:
2053:
2843:
2673:
1901:
1864:
1741:
1309:
1260:
1217:
852:
772:
734:
623:
356:
2211:"Why is the games industry so burdened with crunch? It starts with labor laws"
1237:
writing an open letter to video game developers encouraging them to unionize.
3607:
3458:"Canada's first video game union shows that labour organizing is on the rise"
2387:
1798:
1597:
1576:
1338:
1268:
963:
896:
880:
860:
815:
3042:"After Destroying Lives For Decades, Gaming Is Finally Talking Unionization"
842:
when it decided to allow other third-party developers to make games for the
2980:
2711:
2507:
1342:
1116:
online communities that perpetuate discrimination against gender and race.
1005:
979:
658:
476:
401:
391:
368:
185:
133:
1173:
Similar to other tech industries, video game developers are typically not
3075:"This is the group using GDC to bolster game studio unionization efforts"
2609:
1422:
Creating Games in maps for happy wills Mechanics, Content, and Technology
1234:
876:
826:
796:
738:
704:
666:
646:
611:
435:
346:
160:
111:
2503:"'I was always told I was unusual': why so few women design video games"
1982:
1613:"The Studio Behind Smash Bros. And Kirby, HAL Laboratory Turns 35 Today"
3359:"Scandinavian Crunch: Pid Developer Might and Delight Goes Its Own Way"
3240:"Major union launches campaign to organize video game and tech workers"
2707:"The video game industry has a diversity problem – but it can be fixed"
2178:""Rockstar Spouse" accuses dev of pushing its employees "to the brink""
2087:"EA Spouse, 14 Years Later: How One Person Tried Correcting EA Culture"
1190:
Screen Actors Guild‐American Federation of Television and Radio Artists
1053:
971:
924:
904:
822:
650:
604:
423:
200:
170:
151:
3522:"The Last of Us director calls for unionization in the games industry"
1255:
rather than developers. These studios included three QA studios under
3310:
3211:
2810:
2744:
2474:
2470:"Gender wage gap: How the game industry compares to the U.S. average"
2149:
2116:
2018:
1272:
1189:
1174:
1156:
1152:
1072:
975:
908:
856:
834:
825:
in 1979 became the first third-party video game developer. When four
808:
642:
456:
3174:"Game Workers Unite UK Is That Country's First Games Industry Union"
1737:"Epic's Battle With Apple and Google Actually Dates Back to Pac-Man"
3141:"Telltale's treatment of staff "a problem endemic in the industry""
2441:
934:
892:
872:
868:
839:
723:
418:
207:
190:
3108:"Telltale Employees Left Stunned By Company Closure, No Severance"
2839:"Blockbuster Video Games Mint Millions While Grunts Get Exploited"
2383:"Gaming culture is toxic. A major lawsuit might finally change it"
2279:"Game companies are failing on diversity, according to new report"
2169:
3396:
2347:"Dozens of Women in Gaming Speak Out About Sexism and Harassment"
2311:"2017 Essential Facts About the Computer and Video Game Industry"
1317:
1057:
843:
627:
3334:"Microsoft's 'World of Warcraft' Gaming Staff Votes to Unionize"
1769:"The End Game: How Top Developers Sold Their Studios - Part One"
775:
initially began developing games on personal computers like the
3429:
3112:
3013:
2091:
1617:
1138:
1031:
Women and video games § Treatment of women in the industry
864:
2674:"Video games: How big is industry's racial diversity problem?"
966:
industry; most sectors of the entertainment industry (such as
27:
Software developer specializing in the creation of video games
571:
A group of game developers accepts a game developers' award.
2576:
1955:
1125:
967:
3425:"Australian Video Games Industry Is Getting Its Own Union"
2136:
2678:
1590:"The Next Generation 1996 Lexicon A to Z: Second Party".
1223:
Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988
951:(sometimes to an extent seen as unsustainable). Employee
776:
2417:
International Journal of Gender, Science, and Technology
1920:"Game Developer Salary Survey 2014: The results are in!"
1479:(2nd ed.). Thomson Course Technology. p. 239.
1081:
STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics)
2051:
1454:
1283:, part of Zenimax under Microsoft, unionized under the
3273:"The game studios changing the industry by unionizing"
2244:"Videogame Biz: Women Still Very Much in the Minority"
3598:
2340:
2338:
2336:
1735:
Mochizuki, Takahashi; Savov, Vlad (August 25, 2020).
1424:. Wellesley, Massachusetts: A K Peters. p. 25.
3009:"Union Reps Meet With Game Devs About Unionization"
2535:"Developer Satisfaction Survey 2019 Summary Report"
829:programmers left the company following its sale to
2345:Lorenz, Taylor; Browning, Kellen (June 23, 2020).
2333:
1420:McGuire, Morgan; Jenkins, Odest Chadwicke (2009).
1297:division also unionized with CWA that same month.
2047:
2045:
2043:
2041:
1681:. 1982-12-26. pp. Business 1. Archived from
1646:"HAL Laboratory's first mobile game is out today"
3605:
2527:
1567:"Is Your Favorite Game Company Ripping You Off?"
1019:
618:, or may develop for several systems (including
3558:. Hingham, Massachusetts: Charles River Media.
2052:Dyer-Witheford, Nick; de Peuter, Greig (2006).
3306:"Bethesda Game Studios workers have unionized"
2376:
2374:
2344:
2038:
1734:
1533:"Naughty Dog discusses being acquired by Sony"
1419:
1287:(CWA) in July 2024. Over 500 employees within
2903:
2901:
2899:
1493:
1331:In January 2023, after not being credited in
548:
2413:
1860:"Top Gaming Studios, Schools & Salaries"
1240:In January 2020, Game Workers Unite and the
1212:by holding a roundtable discussion with the
599:, etc. Most game development companies have
157:Specialized / alternative-paradigmatic types
3599:"Quality of Life in the Videogame Industry"
2943:"56% of devs in favor of unionizing - IGDA"
2371:
2272:
2270:
2241:
2235:
1951:"Why Crunch Mode Doesn't Work: Six Lessons"
1137:The industry also is recognized to have an
3573:Moore, Michael E.; Novak, Jeannie (2010).
3572:
2896:
2145:""Rockstar Spouse" attacks dev conditions"
2011:
1917:
1667:
1312:had reached its union agreements in 2004.
761:
726:), have a specific division name (such as
555:
541:
3553:
3519:
3270:
3139:Handradan, Matthew (September 24, 2018).
3138:
2973:
2644:International Game Developers Association
2542:International Game Developers Association
2069:
1214:International Game Developers Association
1179:International Game Developers Association
984:International Game Developers Association
782:
713:
3455:
3422:
3331:
3039:
3006:
2940:
2872:"The game industry's disposable workers"
2869:
2836:
2770:
2605:"Confronting racial bias in video games"
2276:
2267:
2142:
2084:
1948:
1561:
1559:
1557:
978:to the industry, creating a competitive
918:
566:
3486:
3204:
3120:from the original on September 24, 2018
2907:
2737:
2704:
2602:
2437:"Emerging from the shadow of GamerGate"
2434:
2208:
2109:
1980:
942:acquired for their development needs).
707:(right) are well-known game developers.
610:A developer may specialize in specific
14:
3606:
3356:
3303:
3219:from the original on February 15, 2019
3172:Fogel, Stephanie (December 14, 2018).
2922:from the original on February 22, 2017
2908:Maiberg, Emanuel (February 22, 2017).
2803:
2671:
2569:
2515:from the original on February 26, 2021
2380:
1779:from the original on 23 September 2017
1716:from the original on December 20, 2016
1643:
1394:
1246:Campaign to Organize Digital Employees
637:maintain development studios (such as
3532:from the original on January 20, 2023
3501:from the original on January 15, 2023
3437:from the original on December 7, 2021
3389:
3271:Carpenter, Nicole (January 8, 2023).
3252:from the original on January 13, 2020
3205:McAloon, Alissa (February 15, 2019).
3186:from the original on January 29, 2019
3171:
3072:
2988:from the original on January 25, 2019
2870:Campbell, Colin (December 19, 2016).
2500:
2482:from the original on January 27, 2016
2467:
2223:from the original on October 15, 2021
2190:from the original on November 7, 2017
2175:
2157:from the original on October 30, 2017
1749:from the original on November 6, 2021
1625:from the original on November 6, 2021
1610:
1554:
1499:
1474:
1399:. Texas: Wordware 2, Inc. p. 4.
3520:Broadwell, Josh (January 19, 2023).
3285:from the original on January 8, 2023
3237:
3105:
2974:Takahashi, Dean (January 24, 2019).
2884:from the original on August 24, 2020
2851:from the original on August 27, 2020
2818:from the original on August 17, 2021
2806:"No industry for old men (or women)"
2785:from the original on August 17, 2021
2752:from the original on August 17, 2021
2686:from the original on August 17, 2021
2617:from the original on August 17, 2021
2584:from the original on August 17, 2021
2435:Conditt, Jessica (August 30, 2019).
2395:from the original on August 11, 2021
2124:from the original on August 25, 2021
2085:Paprocki, Matt (February 27, 2018).
1981:Harkins, Peter Bhat (5 April 2009).
1930:from the original on August 25, 2021
1891:The Game Industry Salary Survey 2007
1827:
1809:from the original on 6 November 2018
1703:
3456:Weststar, Johanna (June 21, 2022).
3423:Plunkett, Luke (December 6, 2021).
3371:from the original on April 25, 2020
3054:from the original on March 23, 2018
2955:from the original on March 23, 2018
2941:Sinclair, Brendan (June 24, 2014).
2837:Schreier, Jason (August 27, 2020).
2672:Sheikh, Rahil (December 20, 2017).
2551:from the original on March 15, 2020
2449:from the original on August 3, 2021
2321:from the original on August 3, 2021
2291:from the original on August 3, 2021
2277:Campbell, Colin (January 8, 2018).
2209:Thomsen, Michael (March 24, 2021).
2110:McCarty, Jared (October 15, 2019).
2012:Frauenheim, Ed (11 November 2004).
1370:List of independent game developers
1145:
24:
3487:Martens, Todd (January 15, 2023).
3468:from the original on July 22, 2022
3153:from the original on March 8, 2021
3106:Gach, Ethan (September 24, 2018).
3087:from the original on July 19, 2021
3007:Crecente, Brian (March 21, 2018).
2773:"Ageism: The issue never gets old"
2719:from the original on June 28, 2019
2705:Ramanan, Chella (March 15, 2017).
2501:Caddy, Becca (February 17, 2020).
2359:from the original on June 23, 2020
2315:Entertainment Software Association
2143:Bramwell, Tom (January 11, 2010).
1675:"Stream of video games is endless"
1008:exposed the use of crunch time at
945:
929:Independent video game development
517:List of video game industry people
25:
3635:
3592:
3357:Fridén, Eric (October 23, 2013).
3073:Frank, Allegra (March 21, 2018).
2771:Peterson, Steve (April 4, 2018).
2738:Ochalla, Bryan (March 30, 2007).
2058:Canadian Journal of Communication
2026:from the original on 3 April 2019
1993:from the original on 15 July 2012
1611:Fahey, Mike (February 21, 2015).
1530:
1285:Communications Workers of America
1242:Communications Workers of America
1087:level, but there are issues with
3040:Williams, Ian (March 23, 2018).
2570:Browne, Ryan (August 14, 2020).
2176:Brice, Kath (January 11, 2010).
1840:from the original on 28 May 2022
1502:"What Exactly is an Indie Game?"
903:software; this is also known as
690:
681:
310:Intellectual property protection
33:
3624:Video game industry occupations
3547:
3513:
3480:
3449:
3416:
3383:
3350:
3325:
3297:
3264:
3231:
3198:
3165:
3132:
3099:
3066:
3033:
3000:
2967:
2934:
2863:
2830:
2797:
2764:
2731:
2698:
2665:
2653:from the original on 2020-06-04
2629:
2603:Peckham, Eric (June 21, 2020).
2596:
2563:
2494:
2461:
2428:
2407:
2381:Romano, Aja (August 10, 2021).
2303:
2256:from the original on 2016-05-04
2242:Marc Graser (October 1, 2013).
2202:
2103:
2078:
2005:
1974:
1942:
1911:
1884:
1852:
1828:Liao, Shannon (15 April 2021).
1821:
1791:
1761:
1728:
1697:
1656:from the original on 2022-08-19
1637:
1543:from the original on 2018-06-29
1444:
1397:Game development and production
1169:Unionization in the tech sector
1162:
3390:Olsen, Mathew (June 3, 2020).
2804:Parkin, Simon (May 30, 2017).
1604:
1583:
1524:
1468:
1438:
1413:
1388:
791:Third-party software component
13:
1:
3332:Eidelson, Josh (2024-07-24).
3304:Peters, Jay (July 19, 2024).
3238:Dean, Sam (January 7, 2020).
2468:Graft, Kris (July 22, 2014).
2112:"Crunch Culture Consequences"
2014:"No fun for game developers?"
1644:Devore, Jordan (2018-02-26).
1500:Gnade, Mike (July 15, 2010).
1382:
1377:Video game industry practices
1365:List of video game developers
1188:In 2016, voice actors in the
1020:Discrimination and harassment
512:List of video game publishers
500:List of video game developers
3577:. Delmar: Cengage Learning.
1918:Kris Graft (July 22, 2014).
1579:. June 1997. pp. 39–40.
1083:background for women at the
527:List of video game magazines
7:
2071:10.22230/cjc.2006v31n3a1771
1706:"The History Of Activision"
1358:
907:. Examples of this include
522:List of video game websites
10:
3640:
3575:Game Industry Career Guide
1226:been legally established.
1210:Game Developers Conference
1183:Game Developers Conference
1166:
1099:
1028:
993:
922:
859:(1999), which merged with
788:
446:Advertising in video games
1600:. March 1996. p. 40.
1302:Employment Protection Act
1095:
1024:
989:
315:Digital rights management
3554:McShaffry, Mike (2009).
1447:"Electronic Game School"
807:developer an advance on
672:
2740:"'Out' in the Industry"
1949:Robinson, Evan (2005).
1506:The Indie Game Magazine
1395:Bethke, Erik K (2003).
1326:Professionals Australia
1267:, and Proletariat; and
1204:A grassroots movement,
1119:
762:Second-party developers
42:Part of a series on the
3614:Video game development
1308:agreements. Developer
1289:Blizzard Entertainment
1257:Blizzard Entertainment
1132:
783:Third-party developers
714:First-party developers
585:video game development
572:
3619:Video game developers
3245:The Los Angeles Times
2544:. November 20, 2019.
2099:on February 27, 2018.
1799:"EA: The Human Story"
1512:on September 27, 2013
1306:collective bargaining
1281:Bethesda Game Studios
1050:Gamergate controversy
919:Indie game developers
831:Warner Communications
655:Radical Entertainment
635:video game publishers
570:
18:Third-party developer
3556:Game Coding Complete
1805:. 10 November 2004.
1109:United States Census
1102:Race and video games
996:Crunch (video games)
743:financial investment
601:video game publisher
577:video game developer
379:Downloadable content
2216:The Washington Post
1983:"The Game Industry"
1834:The Washington Post
1704:Flemming, Jeffrey.
1475:Bates, Bob (2004).
1347:video game industry
1314:Paradox Interactive
1277:Activision Blizzard
1231:Activision Blizzard
1085:secondary education
1062:Activision Blizzard
748:PlayStation Studios
720:video game industry
616:video game consoles
362:Episodic video game
48:Video game industry
2352:The New York Times
1896:2021-10-06 at the
1206:Game Workers Unite
1198:voice actor strike
1089:tertiary education
1046:video game culture
1014:Rockstar San Diego
620:personal computers
581:software developer
573:
387:Games as a service
3584:978-1-4283-7647-2
3565:978-1-58450-680-5
3494:Los Angeles Times
3146:GamesIndustry.biz
3021:on March 30, 2018
2948:GamesIndustry.biz
2778:GamesIndustry.biz
2183:GamesIndustry.biz
1773:www.gamasutra.com
1679:Milwaukee Journal
1431:978-1-56881-305-9
1352:Los Angeles Times
1294:World of Warcraft
1253:quality assurance
955:is not uncommon.
885:Vicarious Visions
752:Xbox Game Studios
731:Polyphony Digital
663:Polyphony Digital
626:). Some focus on
565:
564:
407:Microtransactions
176:Interactive movie
16:(Redirected from
3631:
3588:
3569:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3537:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3506:
3484:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3462:The Conversation
3453:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3420:
3414:
3413:
3411:
3409:
3400:. Archived from
3387:
3381:
3380:
3378:
3376:
3354:
3348:
3347:
3345:
3344:
3329:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3318:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3268:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3235:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3224:
3202:
3196:
3195:
3193:
3191:
3169:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3103:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3092:
3070:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3059:
3037:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3026:
3017:. Archived from
3004:
2998:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2960:
2938:
2932:
2931:
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2894:
2893:
2891:
2889:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2856:
2834:
2828:
2827:
2825:
2823:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2726:
2724:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2669:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2652:
2641:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2622:
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2594:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2550:
2539:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2520:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2456:
2454:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2378:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2342:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2274:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2162:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2095:. Archived from
2082:
2076:
2075:
2073:
2049:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2009:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1959:. Archived from
1946:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1915:
1909:
1906:royalty payments
1888:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1868:. Archived from
1856:
1850:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1775:. 3 March 2004.
1765:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1671:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1661:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1563:
1552:
1551:
1549:
1548:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1508:. Archived from
1497:
1491:
1490:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1462:
1453:. Archived from
1442:
1436:
1435:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1392:
1337:HBO adaptation,
1194:royalty payments
1155:'s past use of "
1146:Contract workers
768:platform holders
756:Microsoft Gaming
701:Shigeru Miyamoto
694:
685:
583:specializing in
557:
550:
543:
412:In-game currency
37:
30:
29:
21:
3639:
3638:
3634:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3604:
3603:
3595:
3585:
3566:
3550:
3545:
3535:
3533:
3518:
3514:
3504:
3502:
3485:
3481:
3471:
3469:
3454:
3450:
3440:
3438:
3421:
3417:
3407:
3405:
3404:on June 3, 2020
3388:
3384:
3374:
3372:
3355:
3351:
3342:
3340:
3330:
3326:
3316:
3314:
3302:
3298:
3288:
3286:
3269:
3265:
3255:
3253:
3236:
3232:
3222:
3220:
3203:
3199:
3189:
3187:
3170:
3166:
3156:
3154:
3137:
3133:
3123:
3121:
3104:
3100:
3090:
3088:
3071:
3067:
3057:
3055:
3038:
3034:
3024:
3022:
3005:
3001:
2991:
2989:
2972:
2968:
2958:
2956:
2939:
2935:
2925:
2923:
2910:"Walk the Line"
2906:
2897:
2887:
2885:
2868:
2864:
2854:
2852:
2835:
2831:
2821:
2819:
2802:
2798:
2788:
2786:
2769:
2765:
2755:
2753:
2736:
2732:
2722:
2720:
2703:
2699:
2689:
2687:
2670:
2666:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2639:
2635:
2634:
2630:
2620:
2618:
2601:
2597:
2587:
2585:
2568:
2564:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2537:
2533:
2532:
2528:
2518:
2516:
2499:
2495:
2485:
2483:
2466:
2462:
2452:
2450:
2433:
2429:
2412:
2408:
2398:
2396:
2379:
2372:
2362:
2360:
2343:
2334:
2324:
2322:
2309:
2308:
2304:
2294:
2292:
2275:
2268:
2259:
2257:
2240:
2236:
2226:
2224:
2207:
2203:
2193:
2191:
2174:
2170:
2160:
2158:
2141:
2137:
2127:
2125:
2108:
2104:
2083:
2079:
2050:
2039:
2029:
2027:
2010:
2006:
1996:
1994:
1979:
1975:
1966:
1964:
1947:
1943:
1933:
1931:
1916:
1912:
1898:Wayback Machine
1889:
1885:
1875:
1873:
1872:on 19 July 2013
1858:
1857:
1853:
1843:
1841:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1810:
1803:livejournal.com
1797:
1796:
1792:
1782:
1780:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1752:
1750:
1733:
1729:
1719:
1717:
1702:
1698:
1688:
1686:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1659:
1657:
1642:
1638:
1628:
1626:
1609:
1605:
1596:. No. 15.
1593:Next Generation
1589:
1588:
1584:
1575:. No. 30.
1572:Next Generation
1565:
1564:
1555:
1546:
1544:
1531:Ahmed, Shahed.
1529:
1525:
1515:
1513:
1498:
1494:
1487:
1473:
1469:
1460:
1458:
1443:
1439:
1432:
1418:
1414:
1407:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1361:
1265:Blizzard Albany
1171:
1165:
1148:
1135:
1122:
1104:
1098:
1066:Me Too movement
1033:
1027:
1022:
1010:Electronic Arts
998:
992:
948:
946:Quality of life
931:
921:
793:
785:
764:
716:
711:
710:
709:
708:
697:
696:
695:
687:
686:
675:
639:Electronic Arts
561:
532:
531:
495:
487:
486:
482:Game journalism
472:
464:
463:
448:
342:
328:
327:
320:Copy protection
245:
235:
234:
147:
139:
138:
71:
59:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3637:
3627:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3602:
3601:
3594:
3593:External links
3591:
3590:
3589:
3583:
3570:
3564:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3512:
3479:
3448:
3415:
3382:
3349:
3324:
3296:
3263:
3230:
3197:
3164:
3131:
3098:
3065:
3032:
2999:
2966:
2933:
2895:
2862:
2844:Bloomberg News
2829:
2796:
2763:
2730:
2697:
2664:
2646:. 2016-09-12.
2628:
2595:
2562:
2526:
2493:
2460:
2427:
2406:
2370:
2332:
2302:
2266:
2234:
2201:
2168:
2135:
2102:
2077:
2064:(3): 599–617.
2037:
2004:
1973:
1941:
1910:
1902:profit-sharing
1883:
1865:Big Fish Games
1851:
1820:
1790:
1760:
1742:Bloomberg News
1727:
1696:
1666:
1636:
1603:
1582:
1553:
1523:
1492:
1485:
1467:
1437:
1430:
1412:
1405:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1379:
1374:
1373:
1372:
1360:
1357:
1349:. He told the
1334:The Last of Us
1304:often through
1261:Raven Software
1218:Telltale Games
1164:
1161:
1147:
1144:
1134:
1131:
1124:In regards to
1121:
1118:
1097:
1094:
1029:Main article:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
994:Main article:
991:
988:
947:
944:
920:
917:
784:
781:
773:HAL Laboratory
763:
760:
750:for Sony, and
715:
712:
699:
698:
689:
688:
680:
679:
678:
677:
676:
674:
671:
624:mobile devices
563:
562:
560:
559:
552:
545:
537:
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524:
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509:
508:
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366:
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359:
357:Expansion pack
354:
343:
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1457:on 2018-10-12
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3534:. Retrieved
3525:
3515:
3503:. Retrieved
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3439:. Retrieved
3428:
3418:
3406:. Retrieved
3402:the original
3395:
3385:
3373:. Retrieved
3362:
3352:
3341:. Retrieved
3337:
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3315:. Retrieved
3309:
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3287:. Retrieved
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3243:
3233:
3223:February 15,
3221:. Retrieved
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3122:. Retrieved
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3101:
3089:. Retrieved
3078:
3068:
3056:. Retrieved
3045:
3035:
3023:. Retrieved
3019:the original
3012:
3002:
2990:. Retrieved
2981:Venture Beat
2979:
2969:
2957:. Retrieved
2946:
2936:
2926:February 23,
2924:. Retrieved
2913:
2886:. Retrieved
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2712:The Guardian
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2631:
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2586:. Retrieved
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2565:
2553:. Retrieved
2529:
2517:. Retrieved
2508:The Guardian
2506:
2496:
2486:December 27,
2484:. Retrieved
2473:
2463:
2451:. Retrieved
2440:
2430:
2424:(1): 205–27.
2421:
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2409:
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2097:the original
2090:
2080:
2061:
2057:
2030:17 September
2028:. Retrieved
2017:
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1995:. Retrieved
1986:
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1965:. Retrieved
1961:the original
1954:
1944:
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1923:
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1870:the original
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1854:
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1802:
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1772:
1763:
1751:. Retrieved
1740:
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1720:December 30,
1718:. Retrieved
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1683:the original
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1669:
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1470:
1459:. Retrieved
1455:the original
1450:
1440:
1421:
1415:
1396:
1390:
1350:
1343:unionization
1332:
1330:
1299:
1292:
1271:'s QA team.
1250:
1239:
1228:
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1172:
1163:Unionization
1149:
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1006:Erin Hoffman
1003:
999:
980:labor market
961:
957:
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899:, or add-in
889:
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813:
801:
794:
786:
765:
717:
659:Nintendo EPD
649:'s studios,
632:
614:or specific
612:game engines
609:
576:
574:
477:Game studies
402:Free-to-play
392:Cloud gaming
374:Crowdfunding
369:Early access
340:monetization
336:Distribution
280:Localization
156:
100:Level design
68:
3536:January 20,
3505:January 19,
3441:December 6,
3190:January 29,
2992:January 24,
2610:Tech Crunch
2194:October 31,
2161:October 31,
2128:February 3,
1650:Destructoid
1477:Game Design
1341:called for
883:(2003) and
827:Atari, Inc.
739:Naughty Dog
705:John Romero
703:(left) and
667:Naughty Dog
661:and Sony's
647:Square Enix
605:indie games
589:programmers
436:Battle pass
431:Season pass
347:Buy-to-play
270:South Korea
107:Programming
57:Development
3608:Categories
3343:2024-07-24
3289:January 8,
3256:January 7,
2888:August 27,
2855:August 27,
2822:August 17,
2789:August 17,
2756:August 17,
2690:August 17,
2621:August 17,
2588:August 17,
2519:August 19,
2399:August 11,
2363:August 17,
2260:2013-10-20
2227:August 19,
1967:2009-03-07
1813:6 November
1783:14 October
1753:August 25,
1689:10 January
1660:2022-06-16
1547:2018-05-26
1516:January 9,
1461:2020-07-20
1445:Bob, Ogo.
1383:References
1229:Following
1167:See also:
1100:See also:
1054:Riot Games
972:television
925:Indie game
923:See also:
905:middleware
847:platform.
823:Activision
804:milestones
789:See also:
651:Activision
285:Censorship
243:Publishing
181:Nonviolent
152:Video game
85:Programmer
3526:USA Today
3311:The Verge
3212:Gamasutra
3058:March 23,
3025:March 22,
2959:March 22,
2811:Gamasutra
2745:Gamasutra
2723:March 15,
2475:Gamasutra
2453:August 3,
2325:August 3,
2295:August 3,
2150:Eurogamer
2117:Gamasutra
2019:CNet News
1997:20 August
1934:April 23,
1924:Gamasutra
1710:Gamasutra
1629:March 25,
1273:Microsoft
1175:unionized
1157:permatemp
1153:Microsoft
1073:Gamasutra
909:SpeedTree
901:interface
863:in 2014;
857:Neversoft
835:Atari VCS
814:A common
809:royalties
643:EA Canada
593:designers
457:Advergame
228:Accessory
69:Developer
3530:Archived
3499:Archived
3472:July 22,
3466:Archived
3435:Archived
3369:Archived
3317:July 20,
3283:Archived
3250:Archived
3217:Archived
3184:Archived
3151:Archived
3118:Archived
3085:Archived
3052:Archived
2986:Archived
2953:Archived
2920:Archived
2882:Archived
2849:Archived
2816:Archived
2783:Archived
2750:Archived
2717:Archived
2684:Archived
2648:Archived
2615:Archived
2582:Archived
2546:Archived
2513:Archived
2480:Archived
2447:Archived
2442:Engadget
2393:Archived
2357:Archived
2319:Archived
2317:. 2017.
2289:Archived
2254:Archived
2221:Archived
2188:Archived
2155:Archived
2122:Archived
2024:Archived
1991:Archived
1987:Push.cox
1928:Archived
1894:Archived
1838:Archived
1807:Archived
1777:Archived
1747:Archived
1714:Archived
1654:Archived
1623:Archived
1541:Archived
1537:GameSpot
1359:See also
935:Internet
893:database
879:(2002);
875:(2002);
873:Luxoflux
871:(2001);
869:Treyarch
867:(2001);
855:(1997);
840:Nintendo
724:Nintendo
419:Loot box
352:AAA game
208:Non-game
201:Exergame
191:Art game
146:Products
124:Graphics
75:Designer
64:Producer
3408:June 3,
3397:USGamer
3375:June 3,
3364:Polygon
3278:Polymer
3179:Variety
3080:Polygon
2877:Polygon
2657:June 4,
2555:June 4,
2284:Polygon
2249:Variety
1904:plans,
1876:30 July
1844:26 July
1451:Teacher
1345:of the
1318:Unionen
1235:AFL–CIO
1058:Ubisoft
1038:Variety
953:burnout
844:Famicom
718:In the
628:porting
597:artists
471:Related
452:in-game
250:Markets
223:Console
196:Edugame
186:Serious
134:Testing
3581:
3562:
3430:Kotaku
3113:Kotaku
3014:Glixel
2092:Glixel
1618:Kotaku
1483:
1428:
1403:
1139:ageism
1096:Racial
1025:Gender
990:Crunch
865:Z-Axis
797:design
728:Sony's
300:Piracy
166:Erotic
161:Casual
112:Engine
95:Design
80:Artist
2651:(PDF)
2640:(PDF)
2549:(PDF)
2538:(PDF)
976:labor
968:films
913:Havoc
877:Shaba
853:Raven
673:Types
633:Most
579:is a
505:Indie
494:Lists
424:gacha
305:Clone
265:Japan
255:China
171:Indie
129:Music
3579:ISBN
3560:ISBN
3538:2023
3507:2023
3474:2022
3443:2021
3410:2020
3377:2020
3319:2024
3291:2023
3258:2020
3225:2019
3192:2019
3159:2018
3126:2018
3093:2018
3060:2018
3047:Vice
3027:2018
2994:2019
2961:2018
2928:2017
2915:Vice
2890:2020
2857:2020
2824:2021
2791:2021
2758:2021
2725:2017
2692:2021
2659:2020
2623:2021
2590:2021
2577:CNBC
2557:2020
2521:2021
2488:2015
2455:2021
2401:2021
2365:2021
2327:2021
2297:2021
2229:2021
2196:2017
2163:2017
2130:2020
2032:2018
1999:2009
1956:IGDA
1936:2015
1878:2013
1846:2022
1815:2018
1785:2019
1755:2020
1722:2016
1691:2015
1631:2021
1518:2011
1481:ISBN
1426:ISBN
1401:ISBN
1322:SACO
1320:and
1310:DICE
1126:LGBT
1120:LGBT
1060:and
970:and
927:and
911:and
754:for
735:Rare
665:and
622:and
338:and
260:U.S.
2679:BBC
2388:Vox
2066:doi
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1133:Age
777:MSX
737:or
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641:'s
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2898:^
2880:.
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2391:.
2385:.
2373:^
2355:.
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