856:
282:. The high sweetness detection threshold and low bitterness detection threshold would have predisposed our primate ancestors to seek out sweet-tasting (and energy-dense) foods and avoid bitter-tasting foods. Even amongst leaf-eating primates, there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves, which tend to be higher in protein and lower in fibre and poisons than mature leaves. The "sweet tooth" thus has an ancient heritage, and while food processing has changed consumption patterns, human physiology remains largely unchanged. Biologically, a variant in
151:
33:
1110:. Early organic chemists tasted many of their products, either intentionally (as a means of characterization) or accidentally (due to poor laboratory hygiene). One of the first attempts to draw systematic correlations between molecules' structures and their tastes was made by a German chemist, Georg Cohn, in 1914. He hypothesized that to evoke a certain taste, a molecule must contain some structural motif (called a
3191:
1092:
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of food can affect sweetness perception. Adding more red color to a drink increases its perceived sweetness. In a study darker colored solutions were rated 2–10% higher than lighter ones despite having 1% less sucrose concentration. The effect of color is believed to be due to cognitive expectations.
972:
Human studies have shown that sweet taste receptors are not only found in the tongue, but also in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract as well as the nasal epithelium, pancreatic islet cells, sperm and testes. It is proposed that the presence of sweet taste receptors in the GI tract controls the
1196:
in 1991. This theory involves a total of eight interaction sites between a sweetener and the sweetness receptor, although not all sweeteners interact with all eight sites. This model has successfully directed efforts aimed at finding highly potent sweeteners, including the most potent family of
2321:
Philippaert, Koenraad; Pironet, Andy; Mesuere, Margot; Sones, William; Vermeiren, Laura; Kerselaers, Sara; Pinto, Sílvia; Segal, Andrei; Antoine, Nancy; Gysemans, Conny; Laureys, Jos; Lemaire, Katleen; Gilon, Patrick; Cuypers, Eva; Tytgat, Jan; Mathieu, Chantal; Schuit, Frans; Rorsman, Patrik;
764:
Some variation in values is not uncommon between various studies. Such variations may arise from a range of methodological variables, from sampling to analysis and interpretation. Indeed, the taste index of 1, assigned to reference substances such as sucrose (for sweetness),
935:
1035:, the taste cells for sweet, bitter and umami share the same intracellular signalling pathway. Incoming sweet molecules bind to their receptors, which causes a conformational change in the molecule. This change activates the G-protein, gustducin, which in turn activates
769:(for sourness), quinine (for bitterness), and sodium chloride (for saltiness), is itself arbitrary for practical purposes. Some values, such as those for maltose and glucose, vary little. Others, such as aspartame and sodium saccharin, have much larger variation.
926:, cause sour foods to taste sweet. Once the tongue has been exposed to either of these proteins, sourness is perceived as sweetness for up to an hour afterwards. While curculin has some innate sweet taste of its own, miraculin is by itself quite tasteless.
2428:
Taruno, A; Vingtdeux, V; Ohmoto, M; Ma, Z; Dvoryanchikov, G; Li, A; Adrien, L; Zhao, H; Leung, S; Abernethy, M; Koppel, J; Davies, P; Civan, MM; Chaudhari, N; Matsumoto, I; Hellekant, G; Tordoff, MG; Marambaud, P; Foskett, JK (14 March 2013).
1553:
DuBois, Grant E.; Walters, D. Eric; Schiffman, Susan S.; Warwick, Zoe S.; Booth, Barbara J.; Pecore, Suzanne D.; Gibes, Kernon; Carr, B. Thomas; Brands, Linda M. (1991-12-31), Walters, D. Eric; Orthoefer, Frank T.; DuBois, Grant E. (eds.),
1180:. Later researchers have statistically analyzed the distances between the presumed AH, B, and X sites in several families of sweet substances to estimate the distances between these interaction sites on the sweetness receptor.
1129:
In 1919, Oertly and Myers proposed a more elaborate theory based on a then-current theory of color in synthetic dyes. They hypothesized that to be sweet, a compound must contain one each of two classes of structural motif, a
1175:
and sweetness. This theory formalized these observations by proposing that to be sweet, a compound must have a third binding site (labeled X) that could interact with a hydrophobic site on the sweetness receptor via
873:
A few substances alter the way sweet taste is perceived. One class of these inhibits the perception of sweet tastes, whether from sugars or from highly potent sweeteners. Commercially, the most important of these is
273:
appears to have the lowest detection threshold, at about 1 part in 2 million for quinine in solution. In the natural settings that human primate ancestors evolved in, sweetness intensity should indicate
2778:
Max M, Shanker YG, Huang LQ, Rong M, Liu Z, Campagne F, Weinstein H, Damak S, Margolskee RF (2001). "Tas1r3, encoding a new candidate taste receptor, is allelic to the sweet responsiveness locus Sac".
316:(table sugar) is the prototypical example of a sweet substance. Sucrose in solution has a sweetness perception rating of 1, and other substances are rated relative to this. For example, another sugar,
1027:
To depolarize the cell, and ultimately generate a response, the body uses different cells in the taste bud that each express a receptor for the perception of sweet, sour, salty, bitter or
1003:
like domestic cats cannot perceive sweetness at all. The ability to taste sweetness often atrophies genetically in species of carnivores who do not eat sweet foods like fruits, including
242:
basis for detecting sweetness, which varies between both individuals and species, has only begun to be understood since the late 20th century. One theoretical model of sweetness is the
950:, the biomolecular mechanism of sweet taste was sufficiently elusive that as recently as the 1990s, there was some doubt whether any single "sweetness receptor" actually exists.
976:
Another research has shown that the threshold of sweet taste perception is in direct correlation with the time of day. This is believed to be the consequence of oscillating
1164:. According to this theory, the AH-B unit of a sweetener binds with a corresponding AH-B unit on the biological sweetness receptor to produce the sensation of sweetness.
953:
The breakthrough for the present understanding of sweetness occurred in 2001, when experiments with laboratory mice showed that mice possessing different versions of the
2250:
1142:
2488:"Calcium homeostasis modulator 1 (CALHM1) is the pore-forming subunit of an ion channel that mediates extracellular Ca2+ regulation of neuronal excitability"
2205:"Evolution of the Sweetness Receptor in Primates. I. Why Does Alitame Taste Sweet in all Prosimians and Simians, and Aspartame only in Old World Simians?"
980:
levels in blood that may impact the overall sweetness of food. Scientists hypothesize that this is an evolutionary relict of diurnal animals like humans.
1189:
3173:
Tinti, Jean-Marie; Nofre, Claude (1991). "Why does a sweetener taste sweet? A new model". In
Walters, D.E.; Orthoefer, F.T; DuBois, G.E. (eds.).
1193:
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Kitagawa M, Kusakabe Y, Miura H, Ninomiya Y, Hino A (2001). "Molecular genetic identification of a candidate receptor gene for sweet taste".
1146:
807:
Hundreds of synthetic organic compounds are known to be sweet, but only a few of these are legally permitted as food additives. For example,
688:
2914:
703:
1788:
O'Brien-Nabors, Lyn, ed. (2012). Alternative sweeteners (4th ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-4614-8. Retrieved 25 June 2014.
942:
Despite the wide variety of chemical substances known to be sweet, and knowledge that the ability to perceive sweet taste must reside in
882:. It is used in some jellies and other fruit preserves to bring out their fruit flavors by suppressing their otherwise strong sweetness.
176:
most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are generally regarded as pleasurable. In addition to sugars like
1985:
Yamashita H, Akabane T, Kurihara Y (April 1995). "Activity and stability of a new sweet protein with taste-modifying action, curculin".
3080:
Schiffman, S.S.; Diaz, C; Beeker, T.G (March 1986). "Caffeine
Intensifies Taste of Certain Sweeteners: Role of Adenosine Receptor".
1141:
From these beginnings in the early 20th century, the theory of sweetness enjoyed little further academic attention until 1963, when
983:
Sweetness perception may differ between species significantly. For example, even amongst the primates sweetness is quite variable.
3207:"Opioid hedonic hotspot in nucleus accumbens shell: mu, delta, and kappa maps for enhancement of sweetness "liking" and "wanting""
1882:
Kinghorn, A.D. and
Compadre, C.M. Alternative Sweeteners: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, Marcel Dekker ed., New York, 2001.
1138:. Based on those compounds known to be sweet at the time, they proposed a list of six candidate glucophores and nine auxoglucs.
2572:
Shankar MU, Levitan CA, Spence C (2010). "Grape expectations: the role of cognitive influences in color-flavor interactions".
1667:
261:. Newborn human infants also demonstrate preferences for high sugar concentrations and prefer solutions that are sweeter than
2710:
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1832:
1727:
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in 1972. While previous researchers had noted that among some groups of compounds, there seemed to be a correlation between
1050:-receptor and induces calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum. This increase in intracellular calcium activates the
369:. It is roughly 250 times sweeter than sucrose. Another class of potent natural sweeteners are the sweet proteins such as
2998:
249:
Studies indicate that responsiveness to sugars and sweetness has very ancient evolutionary beginnings, being manifest as
2486:
Ma, Z; Siebert, AP; Cheung, KH; Lee, RJ; Johnson, B; Cohen, AS; Vingtdeux, V; Marambaud, P; Foskett, JK (10 July 2012).
2324:"Steviol glycosides enhance pancreatic beta-cell function and taste sensation by potentiation of TRPM5 channel activity"
2146:
Nakamura, Y.; Sanematsu, K.; Ohta, R.; Shirosaki, S.; Koyano, K.; Nonaka, K.; Shigemura, N.; Ninomiya, Y. (2008-07-15).
97:
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Montmayeur JP, Liberles SD, Matsunami H, Buck LB (2001). "A candidate taste receptor gene near a sweet taste locus".
1887:
1773:
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116:
312:, are sweet. Among common biological substances, all of the simple carbohydrates are sweet to at least some degree.
3313:
2381:"Intracellular Ca(2+) and TRPM5-mediated membrane depolarization produce ATP secretion from taste receptor cells"
76:
3250:"Hedonic hot spot in nucleus accumbens shell: where do mu-opioids cause increased hedonic impact of sweetness?"
1899:
Kurihara Y (1992). "Characteristics of antisweet substances, sweet proteins, and sweetness-inducing proteins".
54:
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proposed the AH-B theory of sweetness. Simply put, they proposed that to be sweet, a compound must contain a
232:
83:
339:
The sweetness of 5% solution of glycine in water compares to a solution of 5.6% glucose or 2.6% fructose.
2081:"Sweet taste receptor in the hypothalamus: a potential new player in glucose sensing in the hypothalamus"
283:
266:
144:
2148:"Diurnal Variation of Human Sweet Taste Recognition Thresholds Is Correlated With Plasma Leptin Levels"
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65:
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The most elaborate theory of sweetness to date is the multipoint attachment theory (MPA) proposed by
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atoms are often sweet, and that among a series of structurally similar compounds, those with smaller
2545:
Johnson, J.; Clydesdale, F. (1982). "Perceived sweetness and redness in colored sucrose solutions".
1066:
gets activated by the depolarization and releases ATP neurotransmitter which activates the afferent
17:
3177:. ACS Symposium Series. Vol. 450. Washington DC: American Chemical Society. pp. 209–213.
1114:) that produces that taste. With regard to sweetness, he noted that molecules containing multiple
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that are sweet at concentrations much lower than common sugars. The most well-known example is
140:
2705:. (papers presented at a symposium held in Geneva, May 21–23, 1986). London: Springer-Verlag.
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root, which is about 30 times sweeter than sucrose. Another commercially important example is
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in the 19th century introduced many new chemical compounds and the means to determine their
246:, which involves multiple binding sites between a sweetness receptor and a sweet substance.
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Two natural products have been documented to have similar sweetness-inhibiting properties:
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T1R3 prefer sweet foods to different extents. Subsequent research has shown that the
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Some odors smell sweet and memory confuses whether sweetness was tasted or smelled.
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are the sweetest. Some other amino acids are perceived as both sweet and bitter.
3026:
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The perceived intensity of sugars and high-potency sweeteners, such as
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1283:
911:). Gymnemic acid has been widely promoted within
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915:as a treatment for sugar cravings and diabetes.
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1205:, is about 225,000 times sweeter than sucrose.
961:forms a complex with a related protein, called
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2614:
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1876:
1745:Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science
1714:Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology
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1126:were often sweeter than the larger compounds.
3307:
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2247:"Strange but True: Cats Cannot Taste Sweets"
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938:Sweetness is perceived by the taste buds.
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117:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1668:"Sweeteness Relative to Sucrose (table)"
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1426:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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918:On the other hand, two plant proteins,
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1392:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
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1201:sweeteners. The most potent of these,
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2085:The Journal of Physiological Sciences
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1407:The Psychology of Eating and Drinking
784:. The latter may have contributed to
278:, while bitterness tends to indicate
2379:Huang, YA; Roper, SD (1 July 2010).
1768:. Woodhead Publishing. p. 264.
1710:; Hall, John; Hall, John E. (2006).
1039:to generate inositol trisphosphate (
55:adding citations to reliable sources
26:
2999:The New England Journal of Medicine
2253:from the original on March 19, 2011
1321:The New England Journal of Medicine
889:, extracted from the leaves of the
286:increases craving for sweet foods.
24:
3182:
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2722:Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
2559:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1982.tb12706.x
1673:The World of Chemistry: Essentials
342:A number of plant species produce
25:
3530:
2846:"Mammalian sweet taste receptors"
2245:Biello, David (August 16, 2007).
1511:10.1038/scientificamerican0893-86
1046:), this subsequently opens the IP
903:, from the leaves of the Chinese
3189:
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999:(including most humans) all do.
792:aristocracy: the Roman delicacy
31:
3205:Castro DC, Berridge KC (2014).
2694:Die Organischen Geschmackstoffe
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2238:
2196:
2139:
2072:
2013:
1978:
1927:
1841:
1825:Lehrbuch der Lebensmittelchemie
1816:
1791:
1782:
1765:Optimising Sweet Taste in Foods
1755:
1736:
1482:
1465:
1430:
1098:is the sweetest chemical known.
973:feeling of hunger and satiety.
796:was prepared by boiling soured
396:Sweetness of various compounds
243:
42:needs additional citations for
3266:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2329-05.2005
3248:Peciña S, Berridge KC (2005).
3223:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4458-13.2014
1537:Textbook of Medical Physiology
1396:
1381:
1362:
1347:
1312:
1277:
1260:
1219:
1197:sweeteners known to date, the
13:
1:
2863:10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00451-2
2079:Kohno, Daisuke (2017-04-04).
1956:10.1126/science.161.3847.1241
1208:
1183:
1054:channel and induces cellular
233:neohesperidin dihydrochalcone
3094:10.1016/0091-3057(86)90536-8
3033:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
2908:Parkes, A.S (January 1963).
2901:10.1016/0308-8146(96)00023-4
2629:10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.01.001
2586:10.1016/j.concog.2009.08.008
2397:10.1113/jphysiol.2010.191106
2026:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
1118:groups and those containing
1073:
290:Examples of sweet substances
244:multipoint attachment theory
7:
3012:10.1056/nejm198305263082107
2701:Dobbing, John, ed. (1987).
2278:The Journal of Cell Biology
2274:"The cell biology of taste"
1333:10.1056/NEJM198306023082207
1167:B-X theory was proposed by
1160:(B) separated by about 0.3
1070:innervating the taste bud.
864:– On The Quays, New Orleans
819:are sweet, but also toxic.
284:fibroblast growth factor 21
267:taste recognition threshold
220:. Other compounds, such as
145:Sweetening (disambiguation)
10:
3535:
2928:10.1177/003591576305600111
2684:
1762:Spillane WJ (2006-07-17).
1629:cited as "Derma, 1947" in
1568:10.1021/bk-1991-0450.ch020
1535:Guyton, Arthur C. (1991).
1451:10.1177/053901848001900603
1439:Social Science Information
967:G-protein coupled receptor
293:
154:Sweet foods, such as this
138:
134:Sweetness (disambiguation)
131:
3470:
3429:
3398:
3367:
3329:
3321:
2959:Journal of Neurochemistry
2667:10.1007/s12078-007-9003-z
2385:The Journal of Physiology
2098:10.1007/s12576-017-0535-y
1913:10.1080/10408399209527598
1411:. New York: W.H. Freeman.
878:, a compound produced by
350:, the sweet component of
2696:. Berlin: F. Siemenroth.
1805:. 2011-04-13. p. 16
1213:
1178:London dispersion forces
3154:Journal of Food Science
3136:10.1093/chemse/25.2.131
3054:10.1073/pnas.80.19.6136
2655:Chemosensory Perception
2547:Journal of Food Science
2513:10.1073/pnas.1204023109
2249:. Scientific American.
2224:10.1093/chemse/20.5.573
1999:10.1093/chemse/20.2.239
2763:10.1006/bbrc.2001.4760
2734:10.1002/jps.2600610910
2047:10.1073/pnas.072090199
1901:Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr
1358:. New York: Doubleday.
1099:
1023:Sweet receptor pathway
939:
930:The sweetness receptor
870:
166:
161:, are often eaten for
141:Sweet (disambiguation)
2328:Nature Communications
2290:10.1083/jcb.201003144
1590:John McMurry (1998).
1094:
937:
858:
776:are sweet, including
654:Modified disaccharide
626:Oxathiazinone dioxide
300:A great diversity of
294:Further information:
184:are sweet, including
153:
3519:Culinary terminology
2692:Cohn, Georg (1914).
1403:Logue, A.W. (1986).
1354:McAleer, N. (1985).
1143:Robert Shallenberger
1108:molecular structures
1031:. Downstream of the
833:acesulfame potassium
758:230,000 (estimated)
743:200,000 (estimated)
728:200,000 (estimated)
713:188,000 (estimated)
698:162,000 (estimated)
622:Acesulfame potassium
202:non-sugar sweeteners
132:For other uses, see
51:improve this article
3045:1983PNAS...80.6136S
2809:Nature Neuroscience
2617:Acta Psychol (Amst)
2504:2012PNAS..109E1963M
2455:10.1038/nature11906
2447:2013Natur.495..223T
2348:10.1038/ncomms14733
2340:2017NatCo...814733P
2038:2002PNAS...99.4692L
1948:1968Sci...161.1241K
1862:10.1056/NEJMc062352
1503:1993SciAm.269b..86M
1491:Scientific American
1274:, pp. 115–124)
1245:10.1017/thg.2015.42
1102:The development of
1087:Historical theories
1005:bottlenose dolphins
866:, 1853 painting by
851:Sweetness modifiers
847:are commonly used.
774:inorganic compounds
397:
2391:(Pt 13): 2343–50.
1633:American Scientist
1388:Johns, T. (1990).
1371:American Scientist
1232:Twin Res Hum Genet
1100:
940:
871:
778:beryllium chloride
395:
324:are mildly sweet:
302:chemical compounds
182:chemical compounds
167:
3501:
3500:
2712:978-0-387-17045-9
2164:10.2337/db07-1103
2158:(10): 2661–2665.
1834:978-3-540-73201-3
1729:978-0-7216-0240-0
1683:978-0-495-01213-9
1605:978-0-13-286261-5
1594:Organic Chemistry
1479:, pp. 83–98)
1124:molecular weights
1104:organic chemistry
993:Old World monkeys
985:New World monkeys
896:Gymnema sylvestre
868:George Henry Hall
767:hydrochloric acid
762:
761:
680:Aspartame analog
586:Steviol glycoside
404:Type of compound
392:, is also sweet.
388:protein found in
257:bacteria such as
198:sugar substitutes
127:
126:
119:
101:
16:(Redirected from
3526:
3316:
3309:
3302:
3293:
3292:
3287:
3277:
3260:(50): 11777–86.
3244:
3234:
3199:
3194:
3193:
3178:
3169:
3148:
3138:
3113:
3076:
3066:
3056:
3039:(19): 6136–640.
3023:
2992:
2974:
2949:
2939:
2904:
2883:
2865:
2840:
2803:
2774:
2745:
2728:(9): 1394–1397.
2716:
2697:
2679:
2678:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2569:
2563:
2562:
2542:
2536:
2535:
2525:
2515:
2498:(28): E1963–71.
2483:
2477:
2476:
2466:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2408:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2359:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2301:
2269:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2209:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2183:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2118:
2100:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2059:
2049:
2017:
2011:
2010:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1942:(3847): 1241–3.
1931:
1925:
1924:
1896:
1890:
1880:
1874:
1873:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1811:
1810:
1795:
1789:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1717:
1708:Guyton, Arthur C
1704:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1628:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1597:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1550:
1541:
1540:
1532:
1523:
1522:
1486:
1480:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1434:
1428:
1427:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1351:
1345:
1344:
1316:
1310:
1309:
1298:10.1037/h0034906
1281:
1275:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1247:
1223:
1190:Jean-Marie Tinti
1062:release channel
804:) in lead pots.
782:lead(II) acetate
635:Sodium saccharin
571:Sodium cyclamate
443:(α,α-trehalose)
398:
394:
296:Sugar substitute
122:
115:
111:
108:
102:
100:
59:
35:
27:
21:
3534:
3533:
3529:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3524:
3523:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3497:
3466:
3425:
3394:
3363:
3325:
3320:
3290:
3217:(12): 4239–50.
3195:
3188:
3185:
3183:Further reading
3123:Chemical Senses
2780:Nature Genetics
2713:
2687:
2682:
2648:
2644:
2613:
2609:
2574:Conscious. Cogn
2570:
2566:
2543:
2539:
2484:
2480:
2441:(7440): 223–6.
2426:
2422:
2377:
2373:
2319:
2315:
2270:
2266:
2256:
2254:
2243:
2239:
2212:Chemical Senses
2207:
2201:
2197:
2144:
2140:
2077:
2073:
2018:
2014:
1983:
1979:
1932:
1928:
1897:
1893:
1881:
1877:
1856:(18): 1935–36.
1846:
1842:
1835:
1821:
1817:
1808:
1806:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1760:
1756:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1705:
1698:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1664:
1660:
1617:
1613:
1606:
1588:
1584:
1578:
1551:
1544:
1533:
1526:
1487:
1483:
1470:
1466:
1435:
1431:
1420:
1416:
1401:
1397:
1386:
1382:
1367:
1363:
1352:
1348:
1327:(22): 1337–43.
1317:
1313:
1282:
1278:
1265:
1261:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1186:
1089:
1076:
1049:
1044:
1037:phospholipase C
1025:
932:
913:herbal medicine
909:Ziziphus jujuba
860:Boys Pilfering
853:
817:ethylene glycol
719:Sucrononic acid
380:fruit. Hen egg
373:, found in the
298:
292:
148:
137:
130:
123:
112:
106:
103:
60:
58:
48:
36:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3532:
3522:
3521:
3516:
3499:
3498:
3496:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3474:
3472:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3452:Scoville scale
3449:
3444:
3442:Acquired taste
3439:
3433:
3431:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3402:
3400:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3371:
3369:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3335:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3319:
3318:
3311:
3304:
3296:
3289:
3288:
3245:
3201:
3200:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3179:
3170:
3149:
3129:(2): 131–140.
3114:
3088:(3): 429–432.
3077:
3024:
3006:(21): 1275–9.
2993:
2965:(3): 896–903.
2950:
2905:
2895:(3): 263–274.
2889:Food Chemistry
2884:
2856:(3): 381–390.
2841:
2804:
2775:
2757:(1): 236–242.
2746:
2717:
2711:
2698:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2680:
2651:Hayes, John E.
2642:
2607:
2564:
2553:(3): 747–752.
2537:
2478:
2420:
2371:
2313:
2264:
2237:
2218:(5): 573–584.
2195:
2138:
2091:(4): 459–465.
2071:
2012:
1977:
1926:
1891:
1875:
1840:
1833:
1815:
1790:
1781:
1774:
1754:
1735:
1728:
1696:
1682:
1658:
1639:(6): 538–545.
1611:
1604:
1582:
1576:
1542:
1524:
1481:
1464:
1445:(6): 937–953.
1429:
1414:
1395:
1380:
1361:
1346:
1311:
1292:(3): 496–501.
1276:
1259:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1185:
1182:
1173:hydrophobicity
1088:
1085:
1075:
1072:
1056:depolarization
1047:
1042:
1033:taste receptor
1024:
1021:
1013:spotted hyenas
931:
928:
852:
849:
786:lead poisoning
760:
759:
756:
751:
745:
744:
741:
736:
730:
729:
726:
721:
715:
714:
711:
706:
700:
699:
696:
691:
685:
684:
681:
678:
672:
671:
668:
665:
659:
658:
655:
652:
646:
645:
642:
637:
631:
630:
627:
624:
618:
617:
614:
603:
597:
596:
593:
588:
582:
581:
578:
573:
567:
566:
563:
562:Monosaccharide
560:
554:
553:
550:
545:
539:
538:
529:
526:
520:
519:
516:
513:
507:
506:
503:
502:Monosaccharide
500:
494:
493:
490:
488:Monosaccharide
485:
479:
478:
475:
470:
464:
463:
460:
457:
451:
450:
447:
444:
437:
436:
433:
430:
424:
423:
420:
415:
409:
408:
405:
402:
360:South American
291:
288:
276:energy density
194:sugar alcohols
128:
125:
124:
39:
37:
30:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3531:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3469:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3428:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3317:
3312:
3310:
3305:
3303:
3298:
3297:
3294:
3285:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3203:
3202:
3198:
3192:
3187:
3176:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
3000:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2821:10.1038/87440
2818:
2814:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2792:10.1038/88270
2789:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2704:
2699:
2695:
2690:
2689:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2611:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2580:(1): 380–90.
2579:
2575:
2568:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2541:
2533:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2482:
2474:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2424:
2416:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2375:
2367:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2317:
2309:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2284:(3): 285–96.
2283:
2279:
2275:
2268:
2252:
2248:
2241:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2206:
2199:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2142:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2075:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2032:(7): 4692–6.
2031:
2027:
2023:
2016:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1993:(2): 239–43.
1992:
1988:
1981:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1930:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1907:(3): 231–52.
1906:
1902:
1895:
1889:
1888:0-8247-0437-1
1885:
1879:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1844:
1836:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1804:
1800:
1794:
1785:
1777:
1775:9781845691646
1771:
1767:
1766:
1758:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1731:
1725:
1721:
1716:
1715:
1709:
1703:
1701:
1685:
1679:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1662:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1607:
1601:
1596:
1595:
1586:
1579:
1577:9780841219038
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1549:
1547:
1538:
1531:
1529:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1485:
1478:
1474:
1471:Fischler, C.
1468:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1433:
1425:
1418:
1409:
1408:
1399:
1391:
1384:
1376:
1372:
1365:
1357:
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1151:hydrogen bond
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991:sweet, while
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927:
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888:
887:gymnemic acid
883:
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857:
848:
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842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
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790:ancient Roman
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548:sugar alcohol
546:
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459:Disaccharide
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68: –
67:
63:
62:Find sources:
56:
52:
46:
45:
40:This article
38:
34:
29:
28:
19:
3353:
3331:Basic tastes
3257:
3253:
3214:
3210:
3174:
3160:(5): 584–9.
3157:
3153:
3126:
3122:
3085:
3081:
3036:
3032:
3003:
2997:
2962:
2958:
2922:(1): 47–51.
2919:
2913:
2892:
2888:
2853:
2849:
2815:(5): 492–8.
2812:
2808:
2786:(1): 58–63.
2783:
2779:
2754:
2750:
2725:
2721:
2702:
2693:
2661:(1): 48–57.
2658:
2654:
2645:
2623:(1): 105–9.
2620:
2616:
2610:
2577:
2573:
2567:
2550:
2546:
2540:
2495:
2491:
2481:
2438:
2434:
2423:
2388:
2384:
2374:
2331:
2327:
2316:
2281:
2277:
2267:
2255:. Retrieved
2240:
2215:
2211:
2198:
2155:
2151:
2141:
2088:
2084:
2074:
2029:
2025:
2015:
1990:
1987:Chem. Senses
1986:
1980:
1939:
1935:
1929:
1904:
1900:
1894:
1878:
1853:
1850:N Engl J Med
1849:
1843:
1824:
1818:
1807:. Retrieved
1802:
1793:
1784:
1764:
1757:
1748:
1744:
1738:
1713:
1689:14 September
1687:. Retrieved
1672:
1661:
1636:
1632:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1593:
1585:
1559:
1536:
1497:(2): 70–77.
1494:
1490:
1484:
1477:Dobbing 1987
1472:
1467:
1442:
1438:
1432:
1423:
1417:
1406:
1398:
1389:
1383:
1374:
1370:
1364:
1355:
1349:
1324:
1320:
1314:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1272:Dobbing 1987
1267:
1266:Blass, E.M.
1262:
1238:(4): 361–7.
1235:
1231:
1221:
1194:Claude Nofre
1187:
1166:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1128:
1111:
1101:
1077:
1026:
987:do not find
982:
975:
971:
965:, to form a
959:T1R3 protein
952:
941:
917:
908:
894:
884:
880:Domino Sugar
872:
859:
813:nitrobenzene
806:
800:(containing
793:
771:
763:
565:1.17 – 1.75
533:
532:
528:Disaccharide
462:0.40 - 0.50
455:Isomaltulose
435:0.33 – 0.45
432:Disaccharide
418:Disaccharide
390:chicken eggs
375:West African
363:
348:glycyrrhizin
341:
338:
299:
258:
248:
240:chemosensory
237:
226:
169:
168:
113:
104:
94:
87:
80:
73:
61:
49:Please help
44:verification
41:
3457:Supertaster
3421:Hypergeusia
3385:Soft palate
3254:J. Neurosci
3211:J. Neurosci
3197:Food portal
1169:Lemont Kier
1156:(AH) and a
1147:Terry Acree
802:acetic acid
689:Sucrooctate
518:0.6 – 0.86
505:0.74 – 0.8
473:Polyalcohol
358:, from the
322:amino acids
174:basic taste
129:Basic taste
66:"Sweetness"
3508:Categories
3462:Tongue map
3437:Aftertaste
3416:Hypogeusia
3375:Epiglottis
3339:Bitterness
1809:2023-12-10
1560:Sweeteners
1377:: 256–263.
1209:References
1184:MPA theory
1162:nanometres
1158:Lewis base
1132:glucophore
944:taste buds
809:chloroform
788:among the
772:Even some
704:Bernardame
644:300 – 675
616:180 – 250
515:Amino acid
449:max. 0,45
407:Sweetness
386:antibiotic
367:rebaudiana
356:stevioside
344:glycosides
304:, such as
271:bitterness
251:chemotaxis
156:strawberry
107:April 2024
77:newspapers
3514:Gustation
3411:Dysgeusia
3399:Gustology
3354:Sweetness
3344:Saltiness
2703:Sweetness
2675:145694059
2334:: 14733.
2172:0012-1797
2107:1880-6546
1803:d-nb.info
1645:0003-0996
1459:143766021
1203:lugduname
1199:guanidine
1112:sapophore
1096:Lugduname
1074:Cognition
1009:sea lions
989:aspartame
920:miraculin
876:lactisole
837:sucralose
829:aspartame
825:cyclamate
821:Saccharin
754:Guanidine
749:Lugduname
739:Guanidine
734:Carrelame
724:Guanidine
709:Guanidine
694:Guanidine
663:Thaumatin
650:Sucralose
606:Dipeptide
601:Aspartame
595:40 – 300
591:Glycoside
576:Sulfonate
534:reference
483:Galactose
441:Trehalose
371:thaumatin
306:aldehydes
229:aspartame
222:miraculin
214:sucralose
210:aspartame
206:saccharin
186:aldehydes
170:Sweetness
159:shortcake
3471:See also
3447:Pungency
3349:Sourness
3284:16354936
3241:24647944
3145:10781019
3110:20419613
2989:11296598
2981:11331418
2946:13941509
2880:11886074
2872:11509186
2837:21010650
2829:11319557
2800:11326277
2771:11322794
2637:20097323
2602:32230245
2594:19828330
2532:22711817
2473:23467090
2415:20498227
2366:28361903
2308:20696704
2257:July 28,
2251:Archived
2190:18633111
2152:Diabetes
2125:28378265
2116:10717116
2066:11917125
1972:24451890
1870:17079773
1751:: 15–18.
1653:29775325
1627:: 15–18.
1254:26181574
1136:auxogluc
1120:chlorine
1116:hydroxyl
924:curculin
901:ziziphin
862:Molasses
640:Sulfonyl
558:Fructose
468:Sorbitol
382:lysozyme
352:licorice
318:fructose
280:toxicity
253:even in
204:include
18:Sweetest
3483:Hearing
3406:Ageusia
3380:Pharynx
3368:Anatomy
3275:6726018
3232:3960467
3102:3010333
3073:6577473
3041:Bibcode
3020:6341841
2937:1896974
2742:5068944
2685:General
2523:3396471
2500:Bibcode
2464:3600154
2443:Bibcode
2406:2915511
2357:5380970
2336:Bibcode
2299:2922655
2232:8564432
2181:2551675
2133:3984011
2034:Bibcode
2007:7583017
1964:5673432
1944:Bibcode
1936:Science
1921:1418601
1519:8351513
1499:Bibcode
1341:6341845
1306:4745817
1134:and an
1068:neurons
946:on the
845:neotame
841:alitame
676:Neotame
667:Protein
543:Xylitol
524:Sucrose
511:Glycine
498:Glucose
428:Maltose
413:Lactose
378:katemfe
330:glycine
326:alanine
314:Sucrose
310:ketones
263:lactose
259:E. coli
200:. Such
190:ketones
178:sucrose
163:dessert
91:scholar
3390:Tongue
3282:
3272:
3239:
3229:
3143:
3108:
3100:
3071:
3064:534376
3061:
3018:
2987:
2979:
2944:
2934:
2878:
2870:
2835:
2827:
2798:
2769:
2740:
2709:
2673:
2635:
2600:
2592:
2530:
2520:
2471:
2461:
2435:Nature
2413:
2403:
2364:
2354:
2306:
2296:
2230:
2188:
2178:
2170:
2131:
2123:
2113:
2105:
2064:
2057:123709
2054:
2005:
1970:
1962:
1919:
1886:
1868:
1831:
1772:
1726:
1680:
1651:
1643:
1602:
1574:
1517:
1457:
1339:
1304:
1252:
1064:CALHM1
1058:. The
1017:fossas
1001:Felids
978:leptin
948:tongue
905:jujube
891:Indian
843:, and
815:, and
609:methyl
531:1.00 (
365:Stevia
362:shrub
334:serine
332:, and
255:motile
218:stevia
192:, and
93:
86:
79:
72:
64:
3493:Touch
3488:Smell
3478:Sight
3430:Other
3359:Umami
3323:Taste
3106:S2CID
2985:S2CID
2876:S2CID
2833:S2CID
2671:S2CID
2598:S2CID
2208:(PDF)
2129:S2CID
1968:S2CID
1649:JSTOR
1455:S2CID
1214:Cited
1154:donor
1080:color
1052:TRPM5
1029:umami
893:vine
683:8000
670:2000
612:ester
552:1,02
492:0.65
422:0.16
401:Name
384:, an
172:is a
98:JSTOR
84:books
3280:PMID
3237:PMID
3141:PMID
3098:PMID
3069:PMID
3016:PMID
2977:PMID
2942:PMID
2868:PMID
2850:Cell
2825:PMID
2796:PMID
2767:PMID
2738:PMID
2707:ISBN
2633:PMID
2590:PMID
2528:PMID
2469:PMID
2411:PMID
2362:PMID
2304:PMID
2259:2009
2228:PMID
2186:PMID
2168:ISSN
2121:PMID
2103:ISSN
2062:PMID
2003:PMID
1960:PMID
1917:PMID
1884:ISBN
1866:PMID
1829:ISBN
1770:ISBN
1724:ISBN
1691:2010
1678:ISBN
1641:ISSN
1600:ISBN
1572:ISBN
1515:PMID
1337:PMID
1302:PMID
1250:PMID
1192:and
1145:and
1078:The
1015:and
997:apes
995:and
963:T1R2
955:gene
922:and
899:and
798:wine
794:sapa
780:and
657:600
629:200
477:0.6
308:and
238:The
231:and
216:and
143:and
70:news
3270:PMC
3262:doi
3227:PMC
3219:doi
3162:doi
3131:doi
3090:doi
3059:PMC
3049:doi
3008:doi
3004:308
2967:doi
2932:PMC
2924:doi
2897:doi
2858:doi
2854:106
2817:doi
2788:doi
2759:doi
2755:283
2730:doi
2663:doi
2625:doi
2621:134
2582:doi
2555:doi
2518:PMC
2508:doi
2496:109
2459:PMC
2451:doi
2439:495
2401:PMC
2393:doi
2389:588
2352:PMC
2344:doi
2294:PMC
2286:doi
2282:190
2220:doi
2176:PMC
2160:doi
2111:PMC
2093:doi
2052:PMC
2042:doi
1995:doi
1952:doi
1940:161
1909:doi
1858:doi
1854:355
1720:664
1564:doi
1507:doi
1495:269
1447:doi
1329:doi
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1240:doi
1060:ATP
580:26
53:by
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