832:
409:
1022:
573:
1206:
precious metals were to be gathered from the ground and did not need to be laboriously extracted from the interior of the earth. In spite of their failure, they found it difficult to give up the alluring picture. When they did not find what they sought in the regions which were indicated by the old legends and by the maps based thereon, they hoped for better success in still unexplored regions, and clutched with avidity at every hint that they were here to attain their object.
1085:; “The astonishing quantities and impressive quality of gold treasures recovered in Butuan suggest that its flourishing port settlement played an until recently little-recognized role in early Southeast Asian trade. Surprisingly, the amount of gold discovered in Butuan far exceeds that found in Sumatra, where the much better known flourishing kingdom of Srivijaya is said to have been located.” This despite that most of the gold of Butuan were already looted by invaders.
173:
397:. These finds belong to the period of Funan Kingdom or Nokor Phnom, present-day Cambodia, and South Vietnam including part of Burma, Laos, and Thailand, which was the first political centre established in Southeast Asia. Taking into account the epigraphic and archaeological evidence, the Suvarṇabhūmi mentioned in the early texts must be identified with these areas. Of these areas, only Funan had maritime links with India through its port at
364:
945:, the insular theory argued that other than actually producing gold, it might also be based on such a kingdom's potential for power and wealth (hence, "Land of Gold") as a hub for sea-trade also known from vague descriptions of contemporary Chinese pilgrims to India. The kingdom referred to as the center of maritime trade between China and India was
539:
is one such site with limited excavation work. The site, called Winka Old City by other archaeologists, contains 40 high-grounds of which only four have been excavated. The Winka site, along with nearby walled sites like
Kyaikkatha and Kelasa, have been dated as early as the sixth century. While the
349:
Due to many factors, including the lack of historical evidence, and the absence of scholarly consensus, various cultures in
Southeast Asia identify Suvarṇabhūmi as an ancient kingdom there, and claim ethnic and political descendancy as its successor state. As no such claim or legend existed before
1205:
The thirst for gold formed the most powerful incentive to explorers at the beginning of modern times; but although more and more extensive regions were brought to light by them, they sought in vain in the East Indian
Archipelago for the Gold and Silver Islands where, according to the legends, the
1013:
The interpretation of early travel records is not always easy. Javanese embassies to China in 860 and 873 CE refer to Java as rich in gold, although it was in fact devoid of any deposits. The
Javanese would have had to import gold possibly from neighbouring Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula or Borneo,
378:(1st–7th century) was the first kingdom in Cambodian history and it was also the first Indianized kingdom that prospered in Southeast Asia. Both Hinduism and Buddhism flourished in this kingdom. According to the Chinese records, two Buddhist monks from Funan, named Mandrasena and
327:. In a study of the various literary sources for the location of Suvarṇabhūmi, Saw Mra Aung concluded that it was impossible to draw a decisive conclusion on this and that only thorough scientific research would reveal which of several versions of Suvarṇabhūmi was the original.
1014:
where gold was still being mined in the 19th century and where ancient mining sites were located. Even though Java did not have its own gold deposits, the texts make frequent references to the existence of goldsmiths, and it is clear from the archaeological evidence such as
1225:, was given instructions to search for the legendary Isles of Gold, said to lie to "beyond Sumatra", which he was unable to do, and in 1587 an expedition under the command of Pedro de Unamunu was sent to find them in the vicinity of Zipangu (Japan). According to
1532:
1754:, Paris, 1962, chap.XXV, "Oc-Èo et Kattigara", pp.421-54; "Mr. Caverhill seems very fairly to have proved that the ancient Cattagara is the same with the present Ponteamass , and the modern city Cambodia the ancient metropolis of Sinae, or Thina",
401:. Therefore, although Suvarṇabhūmi in time was broadly applied to all lands east of India, particularly Sumatra, its earliest application was probably to Funan. Furthermore, the Chinese term of “Funan” for Cambodia, may be a transcription of the "
723:
The area surrounding the old capital of
Suvarnabhumi was resettled in 590 when Sri Sittichai Phromthep (ท้าวศรีสิทธิไชยพรหมเทพ) from Yossothon (possibly the city in Chenla) established the new city, Nakhon Chai Si (old name of the present-day
563:
brought back by Mon merchants highlights the cultural significance placed on early
Buddhist missionaries in Myanmar. In many such legends, the narrative of the conversion of Suvarṇabhūmi is that it Burmanizes key historical Buddhist figures.
621:
Culture. These claims are not based on any historical records but on archaeological evidence of human settlements in the area dating back more than 4,000 years and the findings of 3rd-century Roman coins. The Thai government named the new
225:, and describes it as “an island in the ocean, the furthest extremity towards the east of the inhabited world, lying under the rising sun itself, called Chryse... Beyond this country... there lies a very great inland city called
1209:
The history of geography thus shows us how the Gold and Silver
Islands were constantly, so to speak, wandering towards the East. Marco Polo spoke, in the most exaggerated language, of the wealth of gold in
2298:(Memoire composed in the time of the Great T'ang dynasty on the eminent religious who went to seek the Law in the countries of the West, by Yijing), Paris, E. Leroux 1894, pp.179, 181, 186; I-ching,
2506:“Alvaro de Saavedra….anduvieron 250 Leguas, hasta la isla del Oro, adonde tomaron Puerto, que es grande, y de Gente Negra, y con los cabellos crespos, y desnuda”; Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas,
1645:"Solomon gave this command: That they should go along with his own stewards to the land that was of old called Ophir, but now the Aurea Chersonesus, which belongs to India, to fetch him gold.";
1758:, December 1768, "Epitome of Philosophical Transactions", vol.57, p.578; John Caverhill, "Some Attempts to ascertain the utmost Extent of the Knowledge of the Ancients in the East Indies",
772:(Kanchanaburi old city) while the affected area was almost left abandoned. The new settlement was named Suvarṇabhūmi and was then renamed Sri Ayutthaya and Kanchanaburi, respectively.
2505:
2490:, tr. and annotated by W.F. Sinclair, London, Hakluyt Society, Series 2, Vol.9, 1902, p.10; H. R. Wagner and Pedro de Unamuno, "The Voyage of Pedro de Unamuno to California in 1587",
1398:, assisted by Mabel Haynes Bode, with an addendum by G.C. Mendis, London, Luzac & Co. for the Pali Text Society, 1964, Chapter XII, "The Converting of Different Countries", p.86.
1824:
448:
District, which he tentatively dated to 633 AD. According to him, the inscription would “prove that
Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription was issued in the reign of
244:
put it in his popular rendition of
Periegetes: “if your ship… takes you to where the rising sun returns its warm light, then will be seen the Isle of Gold with its fertile soil.”
1803:, Paris, Gallimard, 1987, pp.535-551, pp.537, 538; Amarajiva Lochan, "India and Thailand: Early Trade Routes and Sea Ports", S.K. Maity, Upendra Thakur, A.K. Narain (eds,),
350:
the translation and publication of the Edicts, scholars see these claims as based on nationalism or attempts to claim the title of the first
Buddhists in Southeast Asia.
164:
teachers went to make their fortunes and spread their teachings and bring back gold and other exotic products desired by a rising elite and the wealthy classes at home.”
1143:, came from Bengal. Moreover the region is commonly associated with golden color - the soil of Bengal is known for its golden color (Gangetic alluvial), golden harvest (
482:
in Phnom Penh. However, his claim and the findings are yet to be peer-reviewed, and remain in doubt with other historians and archaeology experts across the region.
1946:"A comparative study of Buddhist nationalistic movements in Myanmar and Sri Lanka: A case study on the 969 movement in Myanmar and the Bodu Bala Sena in Sri Lanka"
1612:”At navem pelago flectenti Aquilonis ab oris / Ad solem calido referentem lumen ab ortu, / Aurea spectetur tibi pinguibus insula glebis”; Priscianus Caesariensis,
2378:
1414:, London, Cambridge University Press, 1897; reprinted Pali Text Society, dist. by Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969, Vol. III, p.124; Vol. IV, p.10; Vol. VI, p.22
1081:
was so rich in treasures that a museum curator, Florina H. Capistrano-Baker, stated it was even richer than the more well-known western maritime kingdom of
156:
as reported in early Indian literature was not a specific location which can be marked on a map. Rather, it was an idealised place, perhaps equivalent to
2530:
1666:
1439:
R.K. Dube, "Southeast Asia as the Indian El-Dorado", in Chattopadhyaya, D. P. and Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy, and Culture (eds.),
192:
means 'golden land' or 'land of gold' and the ancient sources have associated it with one of a variety of places throughout the Southeast Asian region.
393:
The oldest archaeological evidence of Indianized civilization in Southeast Asia comes from central Burma, central and southern Thailand, and the lower
2296:
Mémoire composé à l'époque de la grande dynastie T'ang sur les religieux éminents: qui allèrent chercher la loi dans les pays d'Occident, par I-Tsing
1127:
that borders with Bengal) regularly sailed to Suvarṇabhūmi, and ancient Bengal was in fact situated very close to Anga, connected by rivers of the
478:
The Inscription is the oldest found mention of Suvarṇabhūmi in Southeast Asia, identifying it with Chenla. The inscription is now exhibited in the
938:
and then baked. These pointing out to the direction of western Insular Southeast Asia, especially Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo and Java.
630:, after the mythic kingdom of Suwannaphum, honouring this tradition that is still debated by scholars for the same reasons as the Burman claim.
101:
Though its exact location is unknown and remains a matter of debate, Suvarṇabhūmi was an important port along trade routes that run through the
2021:
1979:
1018:, that this culture had developed a sophisticated gold working technology, which relied on the import of substantial quantities of the metal.
1131:. Bengal has also been described in ancient Indian and Southeast Asian chronicles as a "seafaring country", enjoying trade relations with
1358:
1325:
1214:, situated at the extremity of this part of the world, and had thus pointed out where the precious metals should preferably be sought.
2300:
Chinese Monks in India: Biography of Eminent Monks who went to the Western World in search of the Law during the Great T'ang Dynasty,
872:
The term Suvarṇabhūmi ('land of gold') is commonly thought to refer to the Southeast Asian Peninsula, including lower Burma and the
831:
555:
within Myanmar is attached to various nationalistic and religious narratives about Suvannabhumi. The fifteenth century legend of
371:(1st to 7th century) covers much of mainland Southeast Asia including present-day Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.
752:; however, the new capital together with the other nearest settlement, Pong Tuek (พงตึก, present-day Ratchaburi) were sacked by
2150:
2446:
2412:
1502:
2351:
2583:
276:
2593:
1966:
Damrong Rachanubhab, "History of Siam in the Period Antecedent to the Founding of Ayuddhya by King Phra Chao U Thong",
1880:
1533:"Presidential Address: India Beyond the Ganges—Desultory Reflections on the Origins of Civilization in Southeast Asia"
2588:
2474:
E.W. Dahlgren, "Were the Hawaiian Islands visited by the Spaniards before their Discovery by Captain Cook in 1778?",
2456:
2422:
2388:
1849:
1368:
1430:, Vol. I, London, Henry Frowde, 1895; reprint: Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1982, No.XIV, Supâragajâtaka, pp.453-462.
1226:
179:, the Isles of Gold, near the Aurea Chersonese, the Golden Peninsula, near Java in the Indian Ocean, on the map of
1601:
474:
until the sea, which is the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their heads”.
1974:, New Delhi, Abhinav Publications, 1979, pp.16-24. William J. Gedney, "A Possible Early Thai Route to the Sea",
412:
The oldest Southeast Asian inscription from Cambodia, dated to the 7th century, issued during the reign of King
979:
800:
433:
217:
1968:
Miscellaneous Articles: Written for the Journal of the Siam Society by His late Royal Highness Prince Damrong
1230:
2016:, The Siam Society, Bangkok, B.E. 2505 (1962); William J. Gedney, "A Possible Early Thai Route to the Sea",
1222:
650:("the Dvaravati city of Suvarṇabhūmi"), indicating that Dvaravati at that time identified as Suvarṇabhūmi.
2536:
709:
479:
17:
2172:
1945:
1731:
953:, however, the interpretations of Chinese historical sources are based on supposed correspondences of
160:
in Western history, a distant somewhere to the east of India where traders, sailors, and Buddhist and
1064:
820:
697:
540:
archaeology of early Lower Burmese sites requires more work, other urban centres in Myanmar like the
69:
2179:
The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500
1517:
Ian Glover, “Suvarnabhumi – Myth or Reality?”, Banchā Phongphānit& Somčhēt Thinnaphong (ed.),
576:
Territorial extent of Suvarnabhumi Kingdom, according to Thai chronicles, before it was sacked by
319:
in Asia. Scholars have identified two regions as possible locations for the ancient Suvarṇabhūmi:
1815:, New Delhi, Abhinav Publications, 1979, chapter III, "Buddhist Art in Thailand", pp.16-24, p.17.
1040:
1025:
320:
2188:
1840:
Shorto, H.L. (2002). "The 32 Myos in the medieval Mon Kingdom". In Vladimir I. Braginsky (ed.).
408:
984:
895:
768:
moved westward and founded a new city in 807 in the area of the present-day Ladya subdistrict,
145:
2151:"Researches on Ptolemy's geography of Eastern Asia (further India and Indo-Malay archipelago)"
843:, showing the Golden Chersonese, i.e. the Malay Peninsula. The horizontal line represents the
2508:
Historia General de los Hechos de los Castellanos en las Islas i Tierra Firme del Mar Oceano,
915:
835:
The Golden Chersonese - details from the eleventh map of Asia (Southeast Asia). Details from
769:
441:
2598:
2184:
1021:
869:(literally 'golden peninsula'), which pinpointed exactly that location in South East Asia.
775:
At the peak of power around the 13th-14th centuries, the border of the new Suvarṇabhūmi or
638:, "Golden City") in present west/central Thailand, was founded in 877-882 as a city of the
627:
230:
149:
35:
31:
382:, took up residency in China in the 5th to 6th centuries, and translated several Buddhist
343:
8:
1423:
1164:
1094:
860:
808:
601:
289:
280:
1703:
1667:"Facts and Fiction: The Myth of Suvannabhumi Through the Thai and Burmese Looking Glass"
673:
arrived later, around 50 BCE. The Suvarnabhumi Kingdom was destroyed by the invasion of
311:
The location of Suvarṇabhūmi has been the subject of much debate, both in scholarly and
2603:
2177:
1926:
1918:
1900:"The Gold Coast: Suvannabhumi? Lower Myanmar Walled Sites of the First Millennium A.D."
1560:
1552:
1458:
1099:
541:
524:
437:
180:
1807:, Agra, Y.K. Publishers, 1988, pp.222-235, pp.222, 229-230; Prapod Assavavirulhakarn,
934:
and the making of bricks from the gold rich sands which they inscribed with the name “
34:. For the 18th-century settlement and present-day district in Northeast Thailand, see
2558:
2452:
2418:
2384:
2192:
1989:
1845:
1564:
1498:
1428:
The Jatakamala or Garland of Birth-Stories of Aryasura, Sacred Books of the Buddhists
1364:
1218:, on his globe of 1492, revived the Argyre and Chryse of antiquity in these regions.
1193:
1132:
1103:
serves as the basis for the claim that Suvarṇabhūmi was actually situated in central
1048:
942:
919:
866:
836:
812:
522:). However, dating the Thaton Kingdom independent of traditional chronicles gives an
212:
176:
138:
49:
1930:
2568:
2222:
1910:
1544:
1466:
1299:
1290:
1258:
1176:
1136:
848:
610:
was somewhere on the coast of the central plain, especially at the ancient city of
556:
512:
331:
300:
1727:
1634:
1028:
dated 1286 from Sumatra, mentioned the statue of Amoghapasa Lokesvara taken from
950:
873:
804:
2227:
1718:(Busan University of Foreign Studies, Korea), vol. 3, no.1, June 2011, pp.67-86.
1519:
Suvarnabhumi: the Golden Land: the New Finding for Suvarnabhumi Terra Incognita,
1471:
1043:
of 1286 CE, states that an image of Buddha Amoghapasa Lokeshvara was brought to
902:. Both terms might refer to a powerful coastal or island kingdom in present-day
30:
This article is about the ancient toponym. For the airport serving Bangkok, see
2608:
2312:
1687:
1395:
1304:
1282:
1238:
1015:
962:
677:
around the 1st-2nd centuries, and most of its population was forcibly moved to
536:
500:
491:
2014:
Miscellaneous Articles Written for the JSS by His Late Highness Prince Damrong
606:
In modern Thailand, government proclamations and national museums insist that
2577:
2563:
2255:
2196:
1316:
1215:
1168:
1140:
911:
741:
725:
701:
682:
654:
611:
465:
449:
413:
272:
265:
122:
88:
27:
Name of a land, bordering the Indian Ocean, mentioned in many ancient sources
1714:
Saw Mra Aung, "The Accounts of Suvannabhumi from Various Literary Sources",
811:). In 1351, the Suphannabhumi Kingdom was merged into its succeeding state,
2302:
translated by Latika Lahiri, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1986, pp.120, 137.
1443:, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1999, Vol.1, Pt.3, C.G. Pande (ed.),
1254:
1128:
977:
mentioned in ancient Hindu texts and the island of Chryse mentioned in the
966:
780:
761:
745:
572:
457:
394:
295:
102:
83:
1914:
1249:. This island has not been identified although it seems likely that it is
187:
58:
42:
1197:(My Bengal of Gold), from Tagore's poem - is a reference to this theory.
1180:
1074:
1044:
1033:
792:
784:
756:
300 years later, around the 8th-9th centuries. After that, the center of
748:
was also founded during such a period. Both later created a new kingdom,
729:
717:
713:
692:
The kingdom's area reached Lamphakappa Nakhon (ลัมภกัปปะนคร, present-day
670:
631:
589:
324:
312:
2495:
2337:, Paris, Imprimerie nationale, 1922, p.123-125; See also George Coedès,
2214:
1922:
1899:
847:, which is misplaced too far north due to its being calculated from the
700:
with five royal cities, including Suvarnabhumi (the present old town of
653:
According to Thai chronicles, around 241 BCE, during the times that two
2532:
Thai National Chronicles: the history of the nation since ancient times
1556:
1262:
914:. This corresponds to the gold production areas traditionally known in
851:
using the Ptolemaic degree, which is only five-sixths of a true degree.
796:
733:
705:
666:
639:
615:
496:
379:
2414:
Ancient Indian History and Civilization...Ramayana refers to Yavadvipa
468:
is full of glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over
1825:
Rinith Taing, “Was Cambodia home to Asia’s ancient ‘Land of Gold’?”,
1796:
1179:
and was frequented by Arab, Persian and Chinese travelers, including
1172:
1108:
1082:
995:
954:
946:
903:
887:
765:
757:
749:
737:
643:
618:
593:
535:
that local archaeologists cite as Suvarṇabhūmi. Suvarnabhumi City in
532:
339:
253:
78:
2004:, Volume 14, no.1, January–March 1988, pp.29-44; Sisak Wanliphodom,
1842:
Classical civilisations of South East Asia: an anthology of articles
1548:
2252:
Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië
1716:
Suvannabhumi: Multi-Disciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
1184:
1156:
1078:
958:
662:
316:
257:
245:
241:
161:
157:
130:
94:
73:
1330:
1155:) and yellow-brown skinned people. Bengal is described in ancient
398:
2514:
Documents and Readings in New Guinea History: Pre-history to 1889
1881:"Suvarnabhumi City Excavation to be Continued After Rainy Season"
1441:
History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization
1211:
1112:
999:
970:
907:
899:
856:
844:
693:
658:
623:
597:
504:
445:
387:
200:
110:
65:
293:
as the capital city of the country on the eastern shores of the
2470:
2468:
2294:
tome xiv, Juillet-Août 1919, p.155, citing Edouard Chavannes,
2250:
H. Kern, "Java en het Goudeiland Volgens de Oudste Berichten",
2012:, Bangkok, Thammasat University Press, 2004; The Siam Society,
1811:, Chieng Mai, Silkworm Books, 2010, p.55; Promsak Jermsawatdi,
1242:
1171:, central Bengal was home to a prosperous trading town called "
1104:
1070:
991:
923:
891:
816:
753:
665:
to Suvarṇabhūmi, the majority of the kingdom's population were
560:
453:
421:
172:
126:
118:
1175:" (Golden village), which was connected to North India by the
1067:: the inscription clearly identifies Sumatra as Suvarṇabhūmi.
363:
315:
agendas. It remains one of the most mystified and contentious
1805:
Studies in Orientology: Essays in Memory of Prof. A.L. Basham
1148:
1124:
1120:
1052:
788:
678:
674:
577:
425:
383:
375:
368:
268:
134:
114:
106:
2465:
799:, which was the sea trading harbor of the Chaliang Kingdom (
152:, has said: “It is widely accepted in the 21st century that
2290:.” Gabriel Ferrand, « Le royaume de Çrivijaya »,
1742:通報, vol.49, parts 4/5, 1962, pp.433-439; Claudius Ptolemy,
1698:, Calcutta, Modern Publishing Syndicate, 1937, Chapter IV,
1250:
1191:' (Golden Bengal), and the national anthem of Bangladesh -
1160:
1152:
1144:
1116:
1029:
545:
528:
foundation year of 825; even this date remains unattested.
2130:
2108:
2106:
2091:
2057:
2055:
2042:
2040:
2025:
1867:
History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824
1618:
Habes candide lector in hoc opere Prisciani volumen maius,
681:
resulting in it being left abandoned. After Funan lost to
2270:“Yi-tsing designates this country both under the name of
1495:
The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tang Exotics
2118:
2103:
2079:
2067:
2052:
2037:
1970:, Bangkok, 1962, pp.49-88, p.54; Promsak Jermsawatdi,
1809:
The Ascendancy of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia
1773:
The Ascendancy of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia
1390:"To Suvarnabhumi he sent Sona and Uttara"; Mahānāma,
1163:-Desh' (Golden/Radiant land). During the reign of the
1063:(Sumatra), and erected by order of the Javanese ruler
941:
Benefitting from its strategic location on the narrow
195:
It might also be the source of the Western concept of
1785:
T'oung Pao: International Journal of Chinese Studies.
1187:. Even today, Bengalis often refer to their land as '
1032:
to Suvarṇabhūmi (Sumatra), in order to be erected at
330:
Some have speculated that this country refers to the
1412:
The Jātaka: or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births
215:
of the Greek and Roman geographers and sailors. The
2478:, Band 57. No.1, 1916–1917, pp.1-222, pp.47-48, 66.
1746:, Book I, chapter 17, paragraph 4; Louis Malleret,
2510:Madrid, 1601, Decada IV, libro III, cap.iv, p.60.
2410:
2176:
1990:http://dasta.or.th/en/publicmedia/84-news/news-org
1521:Bangkok, Thailand, GISTDA and BIA, 2019, pp.11-16.
1456:
1356:
1139:tradition holds that the first king of Sri Lanka,
855:A clue referring to the Malay Peninsula came from
2494:, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Jul., 1923), pp. 140-160, p.142.
1598:Dionysios Oecumenis Periegetes (Orbis Descriptio)
1408:Sussondi-Jātaka, Sankha-Jātaka, Mahājanaka-Jātaka
961:equivalents – with known toponyms in the ancient
237:(Gold), situated at the very rising of the Sun”.
2575:
2476:Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar
2448:Himalaya Calling: The Origins of China and India
1459:"Gold in early Southeast Asia (paragraph no. 6)"
1392:The Mahāvaṃsa, or, The Great Chronicle of Ceylon
456:, the successor of Funan and the predecessor of
2339:Les états hindouisés d'Indochine et d'Indonésie
2261:, Paris, Imprimerie nationale, 1922, p.121-134.
2257:; See also Gabriel Ferrand, "Suvarņadvīpa", in
1799:, «Le Bouddhisme au Cambodge», René de Berval,
876:. However there is another gold-referring term
807:, and the north to Phraek Siracha (present-day
2171:
1530:
1245:reached a large island which he took for the
2535:(in Thai). S. Thammasamakkhi. Archived from
1897:
1200:
689:became a tributary state of Chenla as well.
657:named Sona Thera and Uttara Thera came from
2356:Philippine Gold: Treasures of Lost Kingdoms
1909:(1). University of Hawai'i Press: 202–232.
548:were Buddhist as early as the 5th century.
432:In December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the
2208:
2206:
353:
2528:
2376:
2226:
2136:
2124:
2112:
2097:
2085:
2073:
2061:
2046:
2031:
1898:Moore, Elizabeth; San Win (Spring 2007).
1775:, Chieng Mai, Silkworm Books, 2010, p.55.
1588:, Princeton University Press, 1989, p.91.
1470:
1115:texts, it is mentioned that merchants of
990:The Chinese pilgrim and Buddhist scholar
882:(the Golden Island or Peninsula, where “–
826:
819:, moved eastward to create a new capital
367:The territorial extent of the Kingdom of
105:, setting sail from the wealthy ports in
1620:Venetiis, Boneto Locatello, 1496, p.281.
1020:
830:
571:
407:
362:
171:
2492:California Historical Society Quarterly
2212:
2203:
1692:Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East
1492:
1457:Anna T. N. Bennett (31 December 2009).
1445:India's Interaction with Southeast Asia
1360:Ancient Indian History and Civilization
1281:Spelled in various local languages as:
1135:kingdoms, Sri Lanka, Java and Sumatra.
14:
2576:
2148:
1864:
1839:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
148:in Southeast Asian Archaeology at the
2522:
2444:
2010:Muang Suphan Through Changing Periods
2000:Manit Vallibhotama, "Muang U-Thong",
1943:
1298:
803:), while the south to the tip of the
460:. The inscription, translated, read:
440:stone inscription in the Province of
2516:, Milton, Jacaranda, 1975, pp,183-4.
2333:Gabriel Ferrand, "Suvarņadvīpa", in
2008:, Bangkok, 1998; Warunee Osatharom,
1463:Archeosciences. Revue d'Archéométrie
839:' 1467 copy of a map from Ptolemy's
424:(6th-9th century), the successor of
1944:Zhang, Yifan (July–December 2016).
1869:. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
1652:
648:Meuang Thawarawadi Si Suphannaphumi
614:, which might be the origin of the
24:
1497:. University of California Press.
25:
2620:
2341:, Paris, De Boccard, 1948, p.337.
2335:L'empire sumatranais de Crivijaya
2259:L'empire sumatranais de Crivijaya
926:. The eighth-century Indian text
823:on present-day Ayutthaya Island.
696:) in the north, and was ruled in
252:(Golden Isle) located where “the
167:
2529:Thepthani, Phra Borihan (1953).
2324:Wahyono Martowikrido, 1994; 1999
2315:, 1999: 19; Manning et al., 1980
1748:L’Archéologie du Delta du Mékong
1602:Dionysii Orbis Terrae Descriptio
1227:Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas
2499:
2481:
2438:
2404:
2370:
2344:
2327:
2318:
2305:
2264:
2244:
2235:
2165:
2142:
1994:
1983:
1972:Thai Art with Indian Influences
1960:
1937:
1891:
1873:
1858:
1833:
1818:
1813:Thai Art with Indian Influences
1790:
1778:
1765:
1721:
1708:
1681:
1639:
1623:
1606:
1591:
1578:
1531:Paul Wheatley (March 1, 2011).
1524:
894:), which may correspond to the
791:on the coast of the outer sea (
764:, and the people of the sacked
728:). Most of its population were
685:of Chenla in 550, Suvarṇabhūmi
531:There are several sites within
2254:, Volume 16, 1869, pp.638-648.
2215:"Gold in early Southeast Asia"
1586:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
1511:
1486:
1450:
1433:
1417:
1401:
1384:
1350:
1275:
1002:in 672 and identified it with
980:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
559:enshrining a few hairs of the
452:(616–637 AD) of the Cambodian
434:Royal University of Phnom Penh
279:brought back the gold for the
218:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
13:
1:
2488:The Travels of Pedro Teixeira
1410:, in Edward B. Cowell (ed.),
1394:, translated into English by
1151:), golden minerals (gold and
1088:
994:(義淨), visited the kingdom of
795:), northwest to the south of
581:
499:tradition maintains that the
334:. The main port of Funan was
264:”, which he equates with the
256:seas give rise to the Dawn”.
2213:Bennett, Anna T. N. (2009).
2020:, Volume 76, 1988, pp.12-16.
1978:, Volume 76, 1988, pp.12-16.
1537:The Journal of Asian Studies
1465:(33). Open Edition: 99–107.
1344:
1093:A popular interpretation of
221:refers to the Land of Gold,
7:
2584:History of Buddhism in Asia
2552:
2411:Sailendra Nath Sen (1999).
2228:10.4000/archeosciences.2072
2018:Journal of the Siam Society
1976:Journal of the Siam Society
1762:, vol.57, 1767, pp.155-174.
1543:(1). cambridge org: 13–28.
1493:Schafer, Edward H. (1963).
1472:10.4000/archeosciences.2072
1357:Sailendra Nath Sen (1999).
1331:
567:
480:National Museum of Cambodia
358:
306:
287:was described by Ptolemy’s
188:
59:
43:
10:
2625:
2512:June L. Whittaker, (ed.),
2282:"the island of gold": "金洲
2185:University of Malaya Press
2155:Asiatic Society Monographs
1956:(2). Thammasat University.
1844:. Routledge. p. 590.
1771:Prapod Assavavirulhakarn,
1760:Philosophical Transactions
930:describes a sea voyage to
587:
489:
485:
233:mentioned: “The island of
29:
2594:History of Southeast Asia
2445:Chung, Tan (2015-03-18).
2417:. New Age International.
1738:(Kuala Lumpur, 1961), in
1363:. New Age International.
1320:
1308:
1294:
1201:European Age of Discovery
1006:, the Island of Gold (金洲
787:in the east, the west to
551:The scholarly search for
516:
53:
2589:Ancient Indian geography
2377:Chung Tan (2015-03-18).
1756:The Gentleman's Magazine
1669:. Academia. July 1, 2018
1629:Rufius Festus Avienius,
1300:[θṵwʊ̀ɰ̃na̰bùmḭ]
1268:
1231:Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón
1129:Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta
922:, Sumatra, and interior
865:, who referred to it as
815:, after its last ruler,
336:Cattigara Sinarum statio
209:India beyond the Ganges,
141:to fabled Suvarṇabhūmi.
2358:. Asia Society New York
2352:"The Kingdom of Butuan"
2278:; he twice calls it 金洲
1635:Descriptio orbis terrae
1631:Descriptio orbis terrae
1447:, Chapter 6, pp.87-109.
1055:- was transported from
1041:Padang Roco Inscription
1026:Padang Roco Inscription
906:, possibly centered on
354:Mainland Southeast Asia
68:, that appears in many
2149:Gerini, G. E. (1909).
1865:Harvey, G. E. (1925).
1801:Présence du Bouddhisme
1286:
1261:on the north coast of
1036:
985:Rufius Festus Avienius
951:Chinese writing system
896:Indonesian Archipelago
886:may refer to either a
852:
827:Insular Southeast Asia
585:
476:
429:
372:
321:Insular Southeast Asia
271:, whence the ships of
184:
2006:Suwannaphum yu thi ni
1915:10.1353/asi.2007.0007
1736:The Golden Khersonese
1584:Lionel Casson (ed.),
1237:on a voyage from the
1223:Cristóvão de Mendonça
1024:
957:– and their possible
916:Minangkabau Highlands
834:
575:
462:
411:
405:" in “Suvaṇṇabhumī”.
366:
175:
144:Ian Glover, Emeritus
72:literary sources and
2451:. World Scientific.
2383:. World Scientific.
1950:Liberal Arts Journal
1827:The Phnom Penh Post,
1752:La culture du Fu-nan
1616:(lines 593-594), in
1614:Periegesis Prisciani
634:(from the Sanskrit,
628:Suvarnabhumi Airport
420:with the kingdom of
386:from Sanskrit (or a
231:Dionysius Periegetes
205:Trans-Gangetic India
150:University of London
36:Suwannaphum District
32:Suvarnabhumi Airport
2002:Muang Boran Journal
1095:Rabindranath Tagore
760:culture shifted to
602:History of Thailand
436:, discovered a Pre-
281:Temple of Jerusalem
137:and on through the
2539:on 5 November 2023
2523:General references
2292:Journal Asiatique,
1903:Asian Perspectives
1750:, Tome Troisiéme,
1194:Amar Shonar Bangla
1147:), golden fruits (
1100:Amar Shonar Bangla
1037:
853:
586:
584:1st-2nd centuries.
542:Sri Ksetra Kingdom
525:terminus post quem
450:King Isanavarman I
430:
428:(1st-7th century).
373:
185:
181:Andreas Walsperger
76:texts such as the
2559:Golden Chersonese
2286:exactly embraces
1633:, III, v.750-779.
1600:, lines 589-90;
1504:978-0-520-05462-2
1329:
943:Strait of Malacca
920:Barisan Mountains
867:Golden Chersonese
837:Nicolaus Germanus
454:Kingdom of Chenla
262:Aurea Chersonesus
213:Golden Chersonese
139:Strait of Malacca
16:(Redirected from
2616:
2569:Nanyang (region)
2548:
2546:
2544:
2517:
2503:
2497:
2485:
2479:
2472:
2463:
2462:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2380:Himalaya Calling
2374:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2348:
2342:
2331:
2325:
2322:
2316:
2309:
2303:
2268:
2262:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2210:
2201:
2200:
2183:. Kuala Lumpur:
2182:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2146:
2140:
2139:, p. 45-46.
2134:
2128:
2122:
2116:
2110:
2101:
2100:, p. 34-35.
2095:
2089:
2083:
2077:
2071:
2065:
2059:
2050:
2044:
2035:
2034:, p. 22-23.
2029:
2023:
1998:
1992:
1987:
1981:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1941:
1935:
1934:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1887:. 5 August 2014.
1877:
1871:
1870:
1862:
1856:
1855:
1837:
1831:
1829:5 January, 2018.
1822:
1816:
1794:
1788:
1782:
1776:
1769:
1763:
1725:
1719:
1712:
1706:
1685:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1663:
1650:
1643:
1637:
1627:
1621:
1610:
1604:
1595:
1589:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1528:
1522:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1474:
1454:
1448:
1437:
1431:
1421:
1415:
1405:
1399:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1354:
1338:
1336:
1324:
1322:
1310:
1302:
1296:
1279:
1259:Schouten Islands
1177:Grand Trunk Road
1119:(in present-day
1073:on the southern
857:Claudius Ptolemy
849:Tropic of Cancer
583:
557:Shwedagon Pagoda
518:
464:“The great King
458:the Khmer Empire
390:) into Chinese.
342:the port of the
332:Kingdom of Funan
301:Gulf of Thailand
248:referred to the
191:
177:Crisa and Aureia
62:
55:
46:
21:
2624:
2623:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2574:
2573:
2555:
2542:
2540:
2525:
2520:
2504:
2500:
2486:
2482:
2473:
2466:
2459:
2443:
2439:
2429:
2427:
2425:
2409:
2405:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2375:
2371:
2361:
2359:
2350:
2349:
2345:
2332:
2328:
2323:
2319:
2311:Colless, 1975;
2310:
2306:
2269:
2265:
2249:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2211:
2204:
2170:
2166:
2147:
2143:
2135:
2131:
2123:
2119:
2111:
2104:
2096:
2092:
2084:
2080:
2072:
2068:
2060:
2053:
2045:
2038:
2030:
2026:
1999:
1995:
1988:
1984:
1965:
1961:
1942:
1938:
1896:
1892:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1863:
1859:
1852:
1838:
1834:
1823:
1819:
1795:
1791:
1783:
1779:
1770:
1766:
1726:
1722:
1713:
1709:
1686:
1682:
1672:
1670:
1665:
1664:
1653:
1644:
1640:
1628:
1624:
1611:
1607:
1596:
1592:
1583:
1579:
1569:
1567:
1549:10.2307/2055365
1529:
1525:
1516:
1512:
1505:
1491:
1487:
1477:
1475:
1455:
1451:
1438:
1434:
1422:
1418:
1406:
1402:
1389:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1342:
1341:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1203:
1091:
1051:- the river of
969:concluded that
965:civilizations.
963:Southeast Asian
874:Malay Peninsula
829:
805:Malay Peninsula
646:with the name,
604:
570:
494:
488:
361:
356:
309:
260:speaks of the “
170:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2622:
2612:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2572:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2518:
2498:
2480:
2464:
2457:
2437:
2423:
2403:
2389:
2369:
2343:
2326:
2317:
2304:
2263:
2243:
2234:
2221:(33): 99–107.
2219:Archeosciences
2202:
2164:
2141:
2137:Thepthani 1953
2129:
2125:Thepthani 1953
2117:
2113:Thepthani 1953
2102:
2098:Thepthani 1953
2090:
2086:Thepthani 1953
2078:
2074:Thepthani 1953
2066:
2062:Thepthani 1953
2051:
2047:Thepthani 1953
2036:
2032:Thepthani 1953
2024:
1993:
1982:
1959:
1936:
1890:
1872:
1857:
1850:
1832:
1817:
1789:
1777:
1764:
1720:
1707:
1688:R. C. Majumdar
1680:
1651:
1638:
1622:
1605:
1590:
1577:
1523:
1510:
1503:
1485:
1449:
1432:
1416:
1400:
1396:Wilhelm Geiger
1383:
1369:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1273:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1257:or one of the
1202:
1199:
1165:Bengal Sultans
1090:
1087:
1016:Wonoboyo Hoard
928:Samaraiccakaha
828:
825:
801:Si Satchanalai
744:river basins.
655:Buddhist monks
569:
566:
537:Bilin Township
501:Thaton Kingdom
492:Thaton Kingdom
487:
484:
360:
357:
355:
352:
325:Southern India
308:
305:
283:. The city of
169:
168:Historiography
166:
82:, some of the
70:ancient Indian
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2621:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2564:Greater India
2562:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2538:
2534:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2515:
2511:
2509:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2489:
2484:
2477:
2471:
2469:
2460:
2458:9781938134616
2454:
2450:
2449:
2441:
2426:
2424:9788122411980
2420:
2416:
2415:
2407:
2392:
2390:9781938134609
2386:
2382:
2381:
2373:
2357:
2353:
2347:
2340:
2336:
2330:
2321:
2314:
2308:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2288:Suvarna-dvipa
2285:
2281:
2277:
2276:Che-li-fo-che
2273:
2267:
2260:
2256:
2253:
2247:
2241:Dube, 2003: 6
2238:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2209:
2207:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2180:
2174:
2173:Paul Wheatley
2168:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2145:
2138:
2133:
2127:, p. 31.
2126:
2121:
2115:, p. 30.
2114:
2109:
2107:
2099:
2094:
2088:, p. 27.
2087:
2082:
2076:, p. 25.
2075:
2070:
2064:, p. 26.
2063:
2058:
2056:
2049:, p. 24.
2048:
2043:
2041:
2033:
2028:
2022:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1997:
1991:
1986:
1980:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1963:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1940:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1901:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1876:
1868:
1861:
1853:
1851:9780700714100
1847:
1843:
1836:
1830:
1828:
1821:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1786:
1781:
1774:
1768:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1732:Paul Wheatley
1729:
1728:George Coedès
1724:
1717:
1711:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1684:
1668:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1632:
1626:
1619:
1615:
1609:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1587:
1581:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1527:
1520:
1514:
1506:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1446:
1442:
1436:
1429:
1425:
1420:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1397:
1393:
1387:
1372:
1370:9788122411980
1366:
1362:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1335:
1334:
1327:
1318:
1314:
1306:
1301:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1278:
1274:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1219:
1217:
1216:Martin Behaim
1213:
1207:
1198:
1196:
1195:
1190:
1189:Shonar Bangla
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1169:Mughal Empire
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1141:Vijaya Singha
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1123:, a state of
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1101:
1096:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1047:on the Upper
1046:
1042:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1017:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
988:
986:
982:
981:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
949:. Due to the
948:
944:
939:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
898:, especially
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
880:
875:
870:
868:
864:
863:
858:
850:
846:
842:
838:
833:
824:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
777:Suphannabhumi
773:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
726:Nakhon Pathom
721:
719:
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2537:the original
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2440:
2430:November 30,
2428:. Retrieved
2413:
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2396:November 30,
2394:. Retrieved
2379:
2372:
2360:. Retrieved
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1743:
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1735:
1730:, review of
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1715:
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1704:Suvarnadvipa
1700:Suvarnadvipa
1699:
1696:Suvarnadvipa
1695:
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1673:November 30,
1671:. Retrieved
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1570:November 30,
1568:. Retrieved
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1478:November 30,
1476:. Retrieved
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1427:
1424:J. S. Speyer
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1411:
1407:
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1376:November 30,
1374:. Retrieved
1359:
1352:
1332:
1313:Sovannaphoum
1312:
1287:Suwarna Bumi
1277:
1247:Isla del Oro
1246:
1234:
1233:in the ship
1220:
1208:
1204:
1192:
1188:
1098:
1092:
1069:
1061:Suvarnabhumi
1060:
1056:
1038:
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1007:
1004:Suvarnadvipa
1003:
989:
978:
975:Suvarnadvipa
974:
967:Hendrik Kern
940:
935:
932:Suvarnadvipa
931:
927:
883:
879:Suvarnadvipa
878:
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861:
854:
840:
781:Lavo Kingdom
776:
774:
770:Kanchanaburi
722:
691:
686:
652:
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640:Mon-speaking
635:
607:
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553:Suvannabhumi
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519:
509:Suvannabhumi
508:
495:
477:
471:Suvarnabhumi
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442:Kampong Speu
431:
418:Suvarnabhumi
417:
402:
395:Mekong Delta
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348:
335:
329:
310:
296:Magnus Sinus
294:
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261:
250:Insula Aurea
249:
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226:
222:
216:
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199:in Claudius
196:
194:
189:Suvarṇabhūmi
186:
154:Suvarnabhumi
153:
143:
103:Indian Ocean
100:
93:
87:
84:Jataka tales
77:
60:Suvaṇṇabhūmi
57:
44:Suvarṇabhūmi
41:
40:
2599:Mon history
2284:kin-tcheou
2187:. pp.
1702:, pp.37-47.
1694:, Vol. II,
1647:Antiquities
1333:Suwannaphum
1181:Ibn Battuta
1065:Kertanegara
1049:Batang Hari
1045:Dharmasraya
1034:Dharmasraya
793:Andaman Sea
785:Pasak River
730:Thai people
718:Tanintharyi
714:Phetchaburi
671:Thai people
642:kingdom of
636:Suvarnapura
632:Suphan Buri
608:Suwannaphum
590:Suphan Buri
507:was called
466:Isanavarman
197:Aurea Regio
18:Suwannaphum
2578:Categories
2543:5 November
2280:kin-tcheou
1740:T'oung Pao
1321:สุวรรณภูมิ
1309:សុវណ្ណភូមិ
1295:သုဝဏ္ဏဘူမိ
1263:New Guinea
1229:, in 1528
1159:texts as '
1111:. In some
1089:Bangladesh
1077:island of
1075:Philippine
1059:(Java) to
1057:Bhumi Java
1030:Bhumi Jawa
809:Sankhaburi
797:Mawlamyine
706:Ratchaburi
667:Mon people
661:to spread
588:See also:
544:in modern
517:သုဝဏ္ဏဘူမိ
490:See also:
380:Sanghapala
117:, through
54:सुवर्णभूमि
2604:Srivijaya
2197:504030596
2161:: 77–111.
1797:Pang Khat
1744:Geography
1565:161697583
1345:Citations
1221:In 1519,
1173:Sonargaon
1137:Sinhalese
1133:Dravidian
1109:Sonargaon
1083:Srivijaya
996:Srivijaya
955:ideograms
947:Srivijaya
904:Indonesia
888:peninsula
862:Geography
841:Geography
821:Ayutthaya
766:Dvaravati
758:Dvaravati
750:Dvaravati
732:from the
644:Dvaravati
626:airport,
619:Dvaravati
594:Dvaravati
533:Mon State
503:in Lower
438:Angkorian
340:Kattigara
290:Geography
79:Mahavamsa
2553:See also
2362:March 8,
2175:(1961).
1931:49343386
1923:42928710
1885:Mon News
1649:, 8:6:4.
1239:Moluccas
1185:Zheng He
1167:and the
1157:Sanskrit
1097:'s poem
1079:Mindanao
1008:jin-zhou
973:was the
959:phonetic
936:dharana”
813:Ayuttaya
710:Singburi
687:de facto
669:, while
663:Buddhism
568:Thailand
359:Cambodia
317:toponyms
307:Location
266:Biblical
258:Josephus
254:Scythian
246:Avienius
242:Priscian
211:and the
158:Atlantis
131:Nicobars
95:Ramayana
92:and the
74:Buddhist
56:; Pali:
50:Sanskrit
1557:2055365
1328::
1291:Burmese
1235:Florida
1212:Zipangu
1149:mangoes
1000:Sumatra
983:and by
971:Sumatra
908:Sumatra
900:Sumatra
845:Equator
783:at the
742:Salween
694:Lampang
659:Magadha
624:Bangkok
612:U Thong
598:Tun Sun
513:Burmese
505:Myanmar
486:Myanmar
446:Basedth
403:Suvaṇṇa
388:Prakrit
240:Or, as
201:Ptolemy
123:Malabar
111:Ubullah
66:toponym
64:) is a
2455:
2421:
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2272:Fo-che
2195:
2191:–184.
1929:
1921:
1848:
1563:
1555:
1501:
1367:
1315:; and
1243:Mexico
1105:Bengal
1071:Butuan
992:Yijing
924:Borneo
892:island
890:or an
884:dvipa”
817:Uthong
754:Chenla
740:, and
716:, and
600:, and
561:Buddha
422:Chenla
384:sūtras
277:Israel
235:Chryse
223:Chryse
146:Reader
129:, the
127:Ceylon
119:Muscat
113:, and
86:, the
2609:Funan
1927:S2CID
1919:JSTOR
1561:S2CID
1553:JSTOR
1305:Khmer
1283:Malay
1269:Notes
1255:Manus
1125:India
1121:Bihar
1053:Jambi
789:Dawei
679:Funan
675:Funan
578:Funan
426:Funan
399:Óc Eo
376:Funan
369:Funan
344:Sinae
285:Thina
269:Ophir
227:Thina
162:Hindu
135:Kedah
115:Siraf
107:Basra
2545:2023
2453:ISBN
2432:2018
2419:ISBN
2398:2018
2385:ISBN
2364:2019
2274:and
2193:OCLC
1846:ISBN
1675:2018
1572:2018
1499:ISBN
1480:2018
1378:2018
1365:ISBN
1326:RTGS
1317:Thai
1251:Biak
1183:and
1161:Gaud
1153:clay
1145:rice
1117:Anga
1113:Jain
1039:The
912:Java
779:met
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