Social War (91–87 BC)

1033:, argues that Appian's citizenship narrative is highly anachronistic. For writers in the imperial period, Roman citizenship was highly desirable. Those writers then retrojected that desirability onto the Italians who lived centuries before their time. His analysis of the evidence also concludes that before the Social War, there was little agitation for citizenship, multiple citizenships still being invalid, which would have been incompatible with local autonomy. As to the possibility of votes for land, he writes "Flaccus' citizenship bill would have been infinitely more far-reaching in its implications than the reform promoted... it would lead to a total upheaval of the traditional alliance system on which Roman domination in Italy had been based for centuries... as an attempt to restart the land distribution process the bill would probably have been of scant value". The extent of the upheaval of the alliance system similarly leads Mouritsen to reject granting citizenship as part of Drusus' attempt to change jury composition as means far in excess of the ends sought. 1960:, paints the dominant Appianic narrative as being coloured by his second century AD imperialist world view and thereby creating an anachronistic and inaccurate interpretation of first century Italian war goals. He identifies two separate traditions, one for citizenship and one for independence. Mouritsen's account has been extremely influential in recent research, both in terms of a more convincing reconstruction of the war's start, especially in a non-teleological manner, but also in triggering scholarly re-evaluation of Romanisation in Italy and Italian war goals more generally. It has not, however, won universal acceptance. Other scholars have also connected the burdens of allied service in the Roman army with resentment against segregation and mistreatment. 1049:, Italians started to complain about Roman magistrates illegally encroaching on their land holdings; in 129 BC, the senate acted and deprived the land redistribution commission of its survey jurisdiction, putting a pause on land distributions. The commission, before the pause in 129 BC, likely quickly surveyed and parceled out the unoccupied and recently surveyed Hannibalic war-era lands. The older holdings elsewhere, however, were impossible to disentangle from private lands. Never surveyed and with unclear borders, Italians objected to the land commission's infringements on their property, which was guaranteed by treaty. The objections brought the redistributive process quickly to a halt. 1002:) drove romanisation in an attempt to share in the rewards of empire. The exalted position of Italian businessmen in the provinces may have reinforced their status inferiority at home; combined with a desire to influence Roman provincial policy, they may have sought to secure their business rights by becoming Roman citizens. This thesis, however, is not widely accepted since the Italians who were most exposed to the Greek East were not those who led the revolt and had to be coerced into joining it. Similarly, A N Sherwin-White believed that the Italians wanted Roman citizenship to secure legal equality. Less convincingly, D B Nagle argued that economic factors could explain the start of the war. 1268: 1011: 1429:, consul in 91 BC and promagistrate this year, moved to relieve Firmum some time in October. Between Sextus' army and Pompey Strabo's forces, Labrenius' forces were routed and forced into Asculum, which was then besieged by Strabo. Sextus' forces then forced back Vidacilius into Apulia and placed it too under siege in December. The northern front of the war largely collapsed after these victories. Attempts to incite rebellion in Etruria and Umbria could have opened a third front against Rome, but were quickly suppressed; Appian notes also that the senate acceded to garrisoning Cumae with freedmen, recruited into the army for the first time. 1155:) possible hints for the lost portions of Livy's narrative on the Social War. Because much of Livy's work on early history have long been recognised to be anachronistic, Mouritsen believes that the narrative on the Latin War may anachronistically reflect Social War-era realities. In the Livian Latin War, the Latin allies demanded a real power-sharing arrangement where magistracies and senatorial seats were to be set aside for the Latins in proportion to military contributions. If the Italians had similar aims in 91 BC, they would have been incompatible with a centralised Roman state and the supremacy of Rome's urban elite. 57: 875:, which was allied in a collection of bilateral treaties with the many city-states on the peninsula. In general, those cities received guarantees of territorial integrity and internal self-government in exchange for supporting Rome with men during its many wars. Allied contingents made up an increasing portion of Roman manpower: by 295 BC, the allied contingents of Roman-led armies as a whole outnumbered the Romans on the field and, by 218 BC, there were three allies on the field for every two Romans. This made allied manpower indispensable for Roman military superiority. 1256: 1247:, then a plebeian tribune, set up a permanent court searching around for conspirators who incited the Italians to war. Mouritsen writes of the court, "such stab-in-the-back theories are plausible only when no other explanation is at hand; apparently the Romans did not see any direct connection between the franchise question and the outbreak of the war". It is possible that in the early winter of 90 BC there was an abortive attempt to negotiate a peace before fighting started; if it occurred, the senate refused to negotiate. 1551: 1019: 710:. Other Italian towns quickly declared for the rebels and the Roman response was initially confused. By the new year, the Romans had levied huge armies to crush the rebels but found initial headway difficult; by the end of the year, however, they were able to cut the Italian rebels into two, isolating them into northern and southern sectors. The Italian rebels attempted to invade Etruria and Umbria at the start of 89 BC but were defeated. In the south, they were defeated by 1240:

sources such as Diodorus (via Photius), Florus, and Velleius Paterclus recount events non-chronologically. There were two main theatres of the war, with one in the north and one in the south. There also was an abortive attempt to incite rebellion in Etruria and Umbria, but the Romans moved quickly and brutally to suppress it. The northern theatre was centred on Asculum (in the lands of the Piceni and Marsi) with the southern theatre in Samnium, Lucania, Apulia, and Campania.

1632: 1721:, challenged this plan. He brought and passed legislation, possibly by force, which would have the new citizens inscribed in the existing thirty-five tribes instead; he could only bring that proposal successfully with the support of Marius, whom he won over with the promise of the Mithridatic command. But his legislation was abrogated after Sulla – at the time continuing the siege at Nola – marched on Rome in response to the Mithridatic reassignment. 1386: 1798:, further speculates that the conflict may have driven a wedge between the common soldiery and the voters at Rome, reducing their loyalty to the state. Combined, these factors made the republic's victory in the Social war "a Pyrrhic one at best", creating "both Sulla the consul and Sulla's own particular kind of client army that was willing to march on Rome at his bidding, for the first time in Roman history". 1586:

still controlled large tracts of territory. The Italians reorganised around Quintus Poppaedius Silo and designated him supreme commander; according to Diodorus, Silo command a force of some 50,000 men, which would have been hopelessly insufficient to fight the Romans. Regardless, Silo was able to reverse Roman advances in Samnium and also recapture Bovianum. He then crossed the Apennines and engaged

991:. As part of a complex scheme to change criminal court jury composition, Drusus allegedly would have to seduce the people with free land, which required public lands, which required pushing Italians off that land, which required a sweetener of citizenship to quell objections. When the proposals failed, the Italians went to war to secure the citizenship and legal equality denied to them in peace. 1057:, in the senate some time in September. Rome responded to these rumours of Italian unrest by sending garrison forces into Italy, which explains their capture at the start of the war. Drusus may have then attempted to rescue his standing and placate the allies by trying to pass a law to give the allies citizenship. After this attempt failed amid Drusus' declining popularity, the attempts of the 1223:(the Varian court) to prosecute those who aided the Italians secure citizenship. After the double blow of Drusus' death and the prosecution of their allies at Rome, Appian then has the Italians form their conspiracy and revolt. However, as the Italians could not have had enough time between Drusus' death and the start of the war to organise, Appian's timing cannot be correct. 731:, who wrote in the imperial period during the 2nd century AD, and whose narrative is largely one based on demands of the allies for Roman citizenship. Other historians, most especially Henrik Mouritsen, have focused instead on a perceived alternative tradition which has the Italian allies rebelling against Roman hegemony and encroachment on allied lands. 4466: 1306:. According to the summary of Livy, Livy included tables of the Latin and foreign communities that sent auxiliaries to join the Romans. Modern estimates of Roman manpower exceed 140,000, split between fourteen legions (two for each consul and one each for ten legates). Rome also conscripted ships and mercenaries from its overseas allies; two 1204:, rushed to the city and threatened violence if Asculum did not desist. The inhabitants, however, fearful of Roman discovery, responded by killing the praetor and his legate Fonteius. They then killed all the Romans in the city and ransacked their goods. Violence having been committed against the Romans openly, the Italians revolted as one. 743:. The conflict also blurred the distinction between Romans and their enemies; the presence of large armies in Italy during the war also provided opportunities for generals to seize power extralegally. For these reasons and others, some historians believe the conflict played an important role in setting up the collapse of the republic. 1807: 1088:

locations. Already by late 91 BC, the Romans had sent praetors with levied troops around the peninsula to investigate rumours of a plot. But by the time the investigations completed (or as a result of those investigations), the war had started. Regardless, preparations for a revolt likely were brewing

1053:

the law passed over their objections and Rome started seizing allied lands; the allies therefore started preparations for an insurrection by late summer 91 BC. Amid this distrust, Drusus was blamed for breaking down relations with the allies, which led to a confrontation between Drusus and the consul,

951:, concludes that "it seems certain that the Social War is best understood as a revolt from Rome" but synthesises the approaches in that the desires for citizenship and independence are themselves expressions of an underlying desire for equality and freedom, inside or outside the Roman political system. 1525:

Asculum surrendered in November 89 BC after its commander, Vidacilius, committed suicide. For this victory, Pompey Strabo celebrated a triumph on 25 December over Asculum and Picenum. Strabo, however, infamously refused to give any of the plunder to the state, even though the public treasury was

1128:

in 1854 proposed that the Italians self-organised basically along the same lines as the Romans. Alfred von Domaszewski in 1924 suggested that Silo and Mutilus were merely leaders of two major factions in the Italian forces and that the twelve "praetors" reflected twelve tribal divisions arranged in a

1036:

Instead, Mouritsen focuses on Italian discontent with Roman public land reform. Rome's public lands had been won centuries prior to the 90s BC when the nascent republic had subjugated the Italian peninsula. Newer lands had also been forcibly taken from southern Italian cities that had sided with

994:

The most convincing theme which Appian presents, however, is an Italian desire for political equality: he says the Italians aspired to be "partners in rule rather than subjects". However, it is likely that poor and rich Italians sought different goals: poorer Italians were likely seeking freedom from

1052:

Mouritsen proposed instead the following reconstruction for the start of the war in the late 90s BC. Drusus, seeking to placate the plebs in exchange for a change in the jury courts, proposed a law to do more widespread land distributions against the allies' protests. Their anger increased when

1657:

than during the conflict", indicating the financial strain imposed on the Roman state in supplying and paying for an unprecedented number of troops. Devastation of the war in the central and southern portions of Italy was "profound". Archaeological evidence points towards the Social war, along with

1933:

in 1841. The first modern narrative history was that of Adolf Kiene in 1844, which established the narrative separation between northern and southern fronts and cast the consuls of 90 BC as engaging in a personalistic feud with their Italian counterparts. Kiene also was the first to recognise

1790:

The war also politicised the Roman army and broke down civil-military norms. Defections, lax discipline, and mutinies were tolerated as commanders could not afford to lose the support of the men. Conflict with the Italians also blurred the distinction between Romans and foreign enemies: for Andrew

1762:

The immediate aftermath of the war proved grounds for continued conflict. Beyond the unrest associated with Sulpicius' tribunate and Sulla's overturning of Sulpicius' laws, the continuing dispute over enfranchisement was one of the factors which motivated men to support Lucius Cornelius Cinna, who

1740:

The new citizens that were enrolled after the Social war also were distributed across the whole of the Italian peninsula. Only a few had the means to travel to Rome and vote in person. Those nearer the city likely had little connection to Rome's oligarchic political system. This new electorate was

1732:

both by the victor and the senate. This process started only in 70 BC with the election of new censors, who very likely stepped down before the census was complete. This was not helped by the irregular election of censors after the Social war: only two pairs completed their tasks (those of 86

1712:

The first proposals, emerging during the Social war itself, were merely to expand the number of tribes and to allot the Italians to those new tribes. This solution was also elegantly traditional: Rome's tribes had in the past been adduced to represent citizens living in new territories, though the

1585:

Early in the year, Pompey Strabo's command in the northern theatre was prorogued and he quickly accepted the surrender of multiple Italian towns and communities, putting an effective end to the war in the north. The remaining northern insurgents fled south to Samnium and Apulia, where the Italians

1940:

was the first to break from the ancient accounts, arguing that the Italian goals shifted during the war from citizenship before the war to independence during it, viewing this as a consequence of the Italian's parallel political institutions established at Corfinium and their christening of a new

1785:

for the first time in over a hundred years... large-scale military campaigning back to Italian soil. The impact on Roman politics was profound as well as instantaneous. Already in 88, Sulla exploited the presence of standing armies in Italy to seize power and for a period suspended the republican

919:

during the conquest of Italy; even afterwards, these allies retained their cohesiveness, having defected from Rome as a single bloc during the Second Punic war. Romanisation through to the second century proceeded with considerable heterogeneity: in Apulia and Samnium, Latin influence was largely

1780:

Longer-term impacts also were triggered by the war's change in political norms. In the immediate sense, of domestic politics in the period 91–88 BC, nothing at all can be said with certainty. But the war's extensive militarisation of Italy triggered an opening for generals to grab political

1622:

Even in ancient times the conflict was perplexing and the final outcome of the war or its immediate impacts were not entirely clear. One can interpret the terms under which the various Italian communities at different times reached with the Roman state as victory for either Italians or Romans or

1440:

to invade, but Mithridates responded equivocally. As Rome started to gain the upper hand, the senate decreed some time around October that consul Lucius Julius Caesar should bring legislation allowing any Italian community that had not revolted or otherwise promptly laid down their arms to elect

1083:

after an attempted revolt in 125 BC, it was an enormous risk to rebel against Rome. The Italians, in planning their war, would have to form reliable alliances secured with hostages. Appian describes a long series of secret negotiations between the Italian states, of which Rome was ignorant.

943:

The "Italian question" refers to the relationship between Rome and her Italian allies. It is still not entirely clear what the Italian allies were fighting for. There are two threads in the ancient accounts: one depicting the struggle as one for Roman citizenship and another as one against Roman

1517:

by June. Sulla then moved into Samnium, subjugating the Hirpini and giving gentle terms, before taking Bovianum by September after a bitter struggle, forcing the Italians to move their capital again to Aesernia (now under their full control). That year, Sulla stood for and won the consulship of

906:

By the tune of the Social War, the allies were mainly located in the following regions: two northern ones (Etruria and Umbria) and more further south (Lucania, Apulia, and Magna Graecia). As far back as the fifth century, the Oscan and Umbrian-speaking communities in southern Italy had formed a

1845:

Most of the ancient accounts attributed the war to allied demands for citizenship. However, these accounts were written in the aftermath of the war, which extended that citizenship, and largely fail to justify how citizenship became an Italian demand. The core surviving source is Appian; other

1239:

The main sources for the course of the war are relatively confused. Appian's account present events roughly geographically, producing a confusing non-chronological account. Livy's summaries indicate that Livy wrote chronologically, but the details of the original Livian volumes are lost. Other

1087:

The Romans were likely aware of some kind of unrest, even if they did not know of its scope. This is evidenced by Roman garrisons being captured at the start of the war in unfriendly cities. It is likely those garrisons had been dispatched before the start of the war to strategically important

1753:

The impact of these new Italian citizens was felt, for example, in the legislation recalling Cicero from exile in 58 BC. It passed due to the support of the Italian landowners who had been enfranchised by the conflict, using Italian enfranchisement to support Italian political champions.

1836:

in 1998, which read the war not as a struggle for citizenship and political equality, as depicted in imperial accounts, but rather as an attempt by certain Italian allies to throw off the Roman yoke. Archaeological evidence also has continued to show substantial heterogeneity prior to Roman

734:

The massive expansion of the citizenship that followed the Social War remained a politically-charged topic, especially in terms of how they would be allocated into voting blocks. Disputes over enfranchisement played a role in Sulla's march on Rome in 88 BC to depose plebeian tribune

920:

absent in both the archaeological and literary sources, while in Marsic lands inscriptions indicate adoption of the Latin alphabet. On the whole, Italian tribes and peoples on the eve of the Social war still held themselves distinct from Rome, just as they had in previous centuries.

1415:, was able to pull off a decisive victory by forcing the river when alerted to the disaster by the bodies that flowed downstream; he eventually assumed command after Rutilius' replacement was assassinated at false surrender negotiations. Marius, assisted by a flanking manoeuvre by 1276:

Appian reports that the Italians at the start of the war mobilised some 100,000 men. Rome's Latin allies remained loyal. Rome also continued to control Capua and central Campania, which proved logistically vital. The consuls of the year, elected in a time of relative peace, were

3892:, p. 38. " was not a matter of concern for some Romans; they preferred to defer registration... as much as possible, so as to minimise their impact on political life... registration of all Italian residents as Roman citizens was completed only under the reign of Augustus". 1322:; the war also assumed a "distinctive character" in the extent to which Roman soldiers defected to the Italians. For example, when Nola was captured, the Italians were able to induce the defection of most of the Roman soldiers (the officers refused and were starved to death). 1215:, had his legislation invalidated by the senate. He was shortly thereafter killed by an unknown assassin. Around this time, the Italians send a delegation to Rome but the Romans refuse to negotiate. Appian asserts that after Drusus' death but before the start of the war, the 4448:

Beginning with Henrik Mouritsen's reassessment of the Social War as a fight for Italian independence, not enfranchisement, historians have abandoned this teleology and begun to reflect instead upon the many decentralized and multilinear processes that ultimately reshaped

1199:

In late 91 or early 90 BC, a rumour was heard that Asculum was exchanging hostages with another city. Such an exchange was customary in the preparations for war to prevent allied cities from defecting. A Roman praetor by the name of Quintus Servilius, possibly the

1877:

via Photius. It was written some time between 70 and 65 BC and describes two Italian motives: demands for citizenship which were refused and rebellion against Roman hegemony ("The Italians, who so many times before had fought with distinction on behalf of Rome's

1389:

Modern image of the Fucine lake, which was drained in the 19th century. Much of the rectangular land now used for agriculture would have been inundated in ancient times. The area around the lake was strategically important and repeatedly fought over during the war.

1709:, a Roman popular legislative and electoral assembly. With each tribe getting one vote irrespective of population and with tribal status being hereditary, how the enormous multitude of Italian citizens were tribally organised would sway politics for generations. 1791:

Lintott, "Roman armies were only to be used for civil war after their scruples had been drowned in a blood-bath of fighting with their own Italian allies... it may as well be argued that civil war created the self-seeking unprincipled soldier as the converse".

1377:. Aesernia fell later in the year after repeated failures by Lucius Julius Caesar to relieve the town; turning south, Caesar attempted to stop Mutilius from forcing the fortress at Acerrae, but both sides found themselves in a series of indecisive engagements. 1158:

However, beyond Diodorus' summarised description of the Italian government, there few other sources which describe the Italian coalition's internal politics or offices. Instead, they refer to various tribal and ethnic leaders without distinction of office.

1301:

The Romans levied a massive force over the winter, allowing the consuls of 90 BC to depart for war immediately. All consuls and praetors that year were assigned to Italy; the provincial governors at the start of the war had their terms continuously

1486:, and forced the Marsi to petition for peace. These victories allowed the Romans a free hand in the siege of Asculum and freedom to attack into southern theatre from the north. Corfinium was also taken, forcing the Italians to transfer their capital to 4104:

What was eroded... was the fundamental distinction between Romans and foreign enemies... older certainties were so radically overturned that soldiers deserting one Roman commander could apparently see both Sulla and as plausible options for their new

1658:

the following Sullan civil war, devastating the central Apennines. The literary sources indicate that after these conflicts much of the Italian countryside was both lawless, as men strove to take advantage of the breakdown in order, and miserable.

1317:

The initial Italian offensive struck in late 91 and early 90 BC. It was clearly planned with full knowledge of typical Roman strategy and operations. There was a policy of mercy toward pro-Roman combatants in the southern theatre commanded by

1041:. With each victory, the Romans demanded and received from the Italians a latent title to lands the Italians still occupied. For centuries, Roman claims on those lands were unenforced. After the start of the land reform process in 133 BC with 898:

in 216 BC, the defectors were defeated and harsh terms applied. Over time, the Romans started to interfere in the internal affairs of their allies, though historians differ as to its extent. For example, when the senate acted to suppress the

1749:

who had fallen on harder times sold their votes to the highest bidders. The distribution of the tribes across the whole of Italy also empowered magnates close to Rome, whose votes were few and the focus of much political and financial attention.

980:. Gaius Gracchus is said to have brought similar proposals. These attempts were largely brought because Roman tribunes and magistrates believed that granting citizenship could be traded for Italian elites acquiescing over occupied public lands. 1406:

when his undertrained men were routed during the crossing. After this battle, when the huge number of bodies returned to Rome caused a panic, the senate decreed that war dead should in the future be buried on the field. In this same engagement,

1597:

and even sent appeals to Mithridates of Pontus for an intervention in Italy. Faced with death or slavery, they refused to surrender. Late in 88 or in 87, after Sulla's departure for the east, this rebel force unsuccessfully attacked Isiae and

971:

were meant to support the Italians. However, there is no good evidence to verify this claim and most historians reject it as a political tactic either to distinguish between free and slave or as an anachronism interjected by his brother

3784:, p. 163, adding in n. 32, that the number of new tribes is unclear: "Sisenna, 17P, mentions an early proposal to create two new tribes, while Velleius, 2.20.2, states that the new citizens were to be inscribed in eight tribes". 1177:), which may have been appointed by each ethnic group. They did not seem to have been replaced after death in battle, implying the lack of any Italian elections. Christopher Dart suggests that the Italians converted the victory title 1271:

Coin of Quintus Pompeius Rufus, dated to 54 BC, which depicts Sulla. Sulla was a legate at the start of the war and was a notable victorious general in the southern theatre of the war, which led to his election as consul for

935:. Citizenship was linked to territories: a person who received Roman citizenship gave up their local citizenship; losing local citizenship and living outside of Roman territory meant a local reduction in socio-economic status. 726:

Views differ as to the causes of the war, primarily on whether Roman citizenship was already a coveted status whose extension was the goal of the Social War or not. The main ancient source for the period is the relatively late

1100:

At the outbreak of the war, the Italians levied forces and formed up armies to oppose the Romans. To have done this so quickly, agreements must have been reached on power-sharing and command before the outbreak of the war.

1065:

became known. With the prospect of the Latins deserting Rome, the balance of military power would shift into the Italians' favour. After secret negotiations, the Italians then launched their bid to throw off Roman hegemony.

1717:, which would deprive the overwhelming number of new citizens of much of their political influence. Appian further posits this number may have been ten. During Sulla's consulship, one of the tribunes of the plebs, 966:

is the main source for much of this period. It provides three themes for the Italians: support for agrarian reform, votes for land, and demands for political equality. According to Appian, the agrarian reforms of

722:

that year. At various stages of the war, Romans brought legislation allowing Italian towns to elect Roman citizenship if they had not revolted or would otherwise put down arms, draining support from the rebels.

3243:, p. 122. "The Roman strategy of opening a route to the Adriatic to split the enemy in two was now apparent. Success came only in the following year; but in this area the initiative now lay with the Roman." 1231:

While the inciting incident of the war is clear, its end is not. One could argue various dates, ranging from 89 BC, when most of the fighting was practically complete, down to November 82 BC and the

927:, were allied soldiers granted Roman citizenship at the close of their service. For example, Cicero deliberately contrasts Italic single citizenship against Greek multiple citizenship in his speech for 1913:, which Ovid claims had been "compelled to honest arms" by their "love of liberty" (either from Roman hegemony or the burdens of their alliances). An explicit statement to this effect comes also from 1141:. But others, such as Mouritsen, have taken a more critical eye at the evidence and viewed the Italian magistrates and senate as a more formally federal structure without direct popular involvement. 714:, who for his victories would win a consulship the next year. The Romans retained the initiative and by 88 BC, the conflict was largely over and Roman attention had been captured by the ongoing 1745:

more concentrated into those who had vested personal interests in the elections. Moreover, because no censuses were held to reclassify citizens on their wealth, those grandfathered into the upper

1661:

The extension of citizenship to the allies also redrew the political and legal maps of Italy. In place of the former sovereign and autonomous Italian communities, there was a sea of Roman citizen

1649:

The war was a "supreme effort" on both sides. For example, Appian reports the need for soldiers was so great that freedmen were for the first time inducted into the army. Edward Bispham, in a

1570:

By 88 BC, the war was largely over, except for some isolated holdouts. Elections for the consulship of 88 were delayed by Pompey Strabo's late return to the city, but eventually returned

1728:

took control of the city, espousing the cause of Italian suffrage, he settled the matter in favour of distributing the new citizens among the old tribes, which was confirmed during and after

1593:

Following Silo's death, Italian organised resistance collapsed. For Livy and Appian, his death marks the end of the Social war. However, a remnant of Samnite and Lucanian rebels fought on in

2278:, p. 46. "With Rome severely crippled , the Italian states chose their own allies and enemies according to earlier patterns of interstate rivalry which predated the Roman expansion". 1163:, for example, mentions no Italian senate or magistrates, but instead says that the Italians served each under their own standards. Coinage, along with Livy, seem to refer to a number of 1815: 1733:

and 70 BC). The process of registering those new citizens, however, took many years – probably delayed by Rome's purposeful inaction – and was only completed during the reign of

461: 1837:

assumption of direct rule over the peninsula. These field surveys have brought up new work in reassessing the extent of Italian regionalism in economic, military, and social terms.

565: 359: 878:

Cities cooperated with Rome for various reasons. They received shares of the war spoils and land assignments. Rome also supported allied elites against popular revolts (eg at

1475:

the Marsi near the Fucine lake, but was himself killed in battle. It is likely that Cato was killed early in the year, leaving only Strabo as consul for the remainder of 89.

1236:

when an identifiably Italian group of rebels was at last defeated. This article presents events down to the nominal pacification of the Samnites and Lucanians in 87 BC.

5377: 1432:

With a collapsing northern front and the division of the Italians into two, Italian defeat became largely inevitable. The Italians attempted opening negotiations, inviting

4360:, pp. 9–10 ("Ovid is likely to express a local tradition of the Social war as a glorious moment when the Italians had stood up to Rome and fought for their freedom"). 1873:

The earliest accounts of the Social war emerge before the fall of the republic. The first is an excerpt of what is believed to be Posidonius' history of Rome preserved by

1211:' assassination in Rome and Roman prosecution of Italian allies. In this narrative, Drusus, whose political star was waning since the death of his influential supporter 1116:

and five-hundred-man senate. The senate then appointed two consuls and twelve praetors, dividing them evenly between northern and southern fronts (with Italian consuls

1866:(who wrote more on the Social war than the Second Punic War) – are fragmentary or lost. No Italian perspectives survive, except that which can be gleamed from the few 454: 558: 3044:, 72, adding "for the consuls to have departed immediately, the muster must have begun in November/December 91 and the levy would have been truly enormous". 792:

Usage in the late republican and early imperial period treated the names Marsic and Italian war as largely interchangeable. Cicero's works refer to it as

1610:

at Rome in 87 BC allowed them to nonetheless reach a negotiated settlement with the weakened Roman government; the rebels sided with the faction of

352: 1467:. In January, the Marsi attempted to support the rebellions in Etruria and Umbria. The two consuls moved to intercept the Marsi, who were commanded by 1891:, a broad term describing legal protections against unjust punishment, the vote, the right to appeal, and the rule of law. Sources voicing demands for 1532:(though the Samnites and Lucanians, still under arms, were excepted). New legislation was also brought by Pompey Strabo to incorporate new colonies in 1582:'s invasion of Asia in the east, assigned neither consul to commands against the Italians; Sulla by lot was assigned the command against Mithridates. 1810:

Theodor Mommsen, pictured in 1902, put forward the proposition that the Italians had been fighting first for Roman citizenship then for independence.

447: 1832:

account of demands for Roman citizenship. More recently, however, a "much debated" re-evaluation emerged with the publication of Henrik Mouritsen's

1329:

was put under prolonged siege: the consul Lucius Julius Caesar moved to break it but was unsuccessful; the Romans suffered further reverses, losing

1645:– in Spain. Similar municipal laws, predecessors to the later Flavian-era laws, would have been drawn up through Italy in the aftermath of the war. 551: 1777:, stoked fears that Sulla might – if victorious – strip some Italians of their hard-won citizenship rights by abrogating Cinna-era legislation. 1667:. Municipal constitutions dating from time immemorial over the next decades were replaced by laws and charters passed under the auspices of the 3172:, pp. 136, 152, citing Oros. 5.18.11. "Marius had urged the consul Rutilius to delay... because of undertrained recruits in their armies". 345: 5483: 3806: 2010:, p. 439 – "late sources suggest that Livy may have estimated that 50,000 were killed on each side" – citing Eutrop. 5.9. However, 1451:

would be created for new citizens. Between the citizenship law and the costs of the war, only the Italian hard-liners remained in the field.

1447:; it also removed one of the main causes of the war – be it demands for citizenship or for security of land holdings – and provided that new 995:

unfair treatment by Roman magistrates; it would have been their richer compatriots that would benefit from direct access to Roman politics.

5064: 976:

to legitimate Gaius' reform agenda some ten years later. Attempts to actually grant citizenship started in 125 BC with a proposal by

3997:, pp. 182–83, noting also that Sulla attempted to calm this fear by disclaiming any grudge against the mass of new or old citizens. 1614:

and Gaius Marius after being promised citizenship, the return of hostages and deserters and the return of all loot taken by the Romans.

2155: 1679:. The dating of this municipalisation process is not entirely straightforward: the formation of the quattorvirates likely dates to the 1201: 2651:, p. 41, noting also that the prospect of Drusus taking on the whole of Italy as clients would have motivated his assassination. 1542:

as well as surveying of their lands and establishment of their charters. This longer process would continue until the age of Caesar.

17: 3386:, p. 124, adding "we do not know why was excluded from the command... his age should have been outweighed by his experience"; 1263:. Actual identification of the bust is disputed. The historical Marius, regardless, was a legate during the early stages of the war. 1969: 1471:. Strabo defeated the Marsi near Asculum, forcing them into retreat across the snowy mountains. Cato, taking command from Marius, 903:

in 186 BC, historians differ as to whether this applied only to Roman land or was extended extraterritorially to the allies.

5320: 5212: 5073: 3430:, who was killed by his own men either on false charges of treason (Val. Max., 9.8.3) or intolerable arrogance (Oros., 5.18.22). 1054: 923:

Also importantly, before the 1st century AD, it was not possible for a person to hold more than one citizenship. Nor, before the

649: 998:

More modern versions of the citizenship thesis have been advanced by Emilio Gabba, arguing that Italian commercial classes (the

5367: 5081: 3427: 977: 928: 765:, meaning "ally"). Today, the name is used more generally in classics scholarship to refer to any war between allies. The name 1014:

Denarius of Gaius Papius Mutilus, one of the Italian generals during the war, depicting an Italian bull goring the Roman wolf.

5498: 5024: 4919: 4890: 4841: 4814: 4776: 4747: 4726: 4585: 4089: 4056: 1713:

last time this had been done was in 242 BC. Plans were made to create possibly two or eight new tribes, pursuant to the

1575: 1519: 5493: 4980:. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Shipley, Frederick W. Cambridge: Harvard University Press – via LacusCurtius. 1770: 575: 5406: 1426: 1278: 256: 218: 5488: 1818:

Gaetano De Sanctis brought a similar view as that of Mommsen, interpreting Italian war goals in the context of Italian

61:

Roman territory in red. Initial insurgent territories in dark green, with later insurgents' territories in light green.

1501:

Rome also took the offensive in the south. Sulla, commanding an army and supported by a fleet, besieged Nola and took

5005: 4795: 4645: 4564: 3959: 1124:

assigned to the north and south, respectively). Reconstructions have differed over the Italian state's organisation.

4944:. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by White, Horace. Cambridge: Harvard University Press – via LacusCurtius. 5453: 5441: 5057: 4975: 4955:. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Forster, ES. Cambridge: Harvard University Press – via LacusCurtius. 1207:

This sequence is at odds with Appian's account, which paints Asculum as rioting in late 91 BC in response to

1061:– who actually were agitating for citizenship – to assassinate the consuls, who opposed Latin citizenship, at the 4539: 1587: 1395: 1282: 1208: 988: 522: 223: 781:, an Italian tribe located east of Rome who during the war killed two Roman consuls, or otherwise called it the 2151: 718:. The few Italian rebels on the field by 87 BC eventually reached a negotiated settlement during a short 5111: 4950: 2631:

Indeed, Drusus and his associates were blamed for the start of the war during the confused operations of the

1267: 507: 4694:

Dart, Christopher J. (2009). "The 'Italian constitution' in the Social war: a reassessment (91 to 88 BCE)".

1498:. By summer, the Romans had pacified the northern theatre, except for Asculum, which was still under siege. 48: 3215:, 1.44. The initial replacement was Quintus Servilius Caepio, who was probably praetor the previous year. 2901:

was passed after the outbreak of the Social War... Appian deliberately distorts and inverts this sequence.

1671:

in Rome. The varying magistrates of the Italian city-states were largely replaced by a relatively uniform

1373:. Vidacilius took the opportunity then to advance into down the eastern Italian coast into Apulia, taking 5436: 5050: 1399: 398: 33: 1341:. The most important victories for the Italians were in Campania and Picenum. In Campania, Mutilus took 1233: 408: 4939: 5478: 5473: 5411: 5394: 1483: 1131: 403: 1917:, where the Italians rose up seeking liberty, citizenship, and equality with the Romans. Similarly, 5421: 5387: 5340: 5091: 1847: 634: 472: 413: 4964: 1010: 5426: 5325: 5116: 5096: 1718: 1212: 1117: 786: 736: 502: 487: 277: 5431: 5303: 5202: 1725: 1696: 1611: 1579: 1571: 1479: 1460: 1433: 1416: 1394:

While attempting to lead his men across a river in the northern theatre on 11 June, the consul

1366: 1290: 1244: 711: 428: 236: 4869: 3815:, pp. 167–68 (distribution among the tribes, Marius' support), 169–71 (Sulla's response). 5416: 5330: 5308: 5298: 5195: 5185: 5143: 5121: 1918: 1563: 1559: 1472: 1243:

The immediate reaction in Rome to the rebellion was one of confusion. After the war's start,

715: 624: 532: 423: 56: 4718:

The Social War, 91 to 88 BCE: a history of the Italian insurgency against the Roman republic

5288: 5190: 5180: 5106: 2015: 1930: 1828:

Views on the Social war have changed over the years. For many years, scholars accepted the

1774: 1729: 1319: 1255: 1121: 740: 609: 497: 290: 2678: 1786:

government altogether... offered unprecedented opportunities for generals to grab power.

890:

in 302, 296, and 264 BC, respectively). While some of the cities defected during the

773:, and only became common during the imperial period. The Romans of the time called it the 8: 1528: 1526:

empty. Further legislation was enacted to extend the citizenship with the passage of the

1468: 1464: 819: 241: 1554:

Coin depicting Mithridates VI Eupator. On the right, it displays in Greek, his title as

1018: 5269: 5101: 4703: 4553: 1946: 1354: 1137: 739:. Fears of Sulla rolling back hard-won Italian rights contributed to resistance during 594: 492: 388: 3282:, p. 31 n. 11 noting that Appian's general confusion of Sextus and Lucius Caesar. 1478:

The Romans continued on the offensive against the Marsi, under the command of legates

5282: 5274: 5264: 5170: 5030: 5020: 5001: 4915: 4896: 4886: 4847: 4837: 4820: 4810: 4791: 4772: 4753: 4743: 4722: 4651: 4641: 4640:. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 4591: 4581: 4560: 4490: 4439: 4213: 4174: 4095: 4085: 4062: 4052: 3965: 3955: 2888: 1765: 1607: 1603: 1437: 1042: 968: 837: 823: 719: 619: 604: 589: 383: 1025:

depicting a soldier standing next to an Italian bull and on top of a Roman standard.

983:

Appian similarly frames the war as a reaction to the failed reform proposals of the

5382: 5293: 5217: 5158: 4865: 4482: 4463:, pp. 80 et seq, for example, presents an account largely based on Mouritsen. 4432:"Review of "Processes of integration and identity formation in the Roman republic"" 4206:"Review of "Processes of integration and identity formation in the Roman republic"" 1874: 1859: 1533: 1506: 1358: 1311: 1105: 1038: 984: 895: 891: 848: 827: 418: 393: 281: 245: 227: 1905:

in which the Italians are painted as rebelling against Roman rule. The later poet

1536:

with Latin rights. The reorganisation of Italy also required the formation of new

5399: 5237: 5175: 5163: 5153: 4995: 4737: 4716: 4635: 3954:. Jerome Lectures, 22. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. pp. 150–51. 1937: 1705: 1550: 1125: 1135:

in 1932. Later reconstructions have interjected popular elements à la the Roman

5346: 5249: 5222: 1637: 1362: 1168: 1062: 973: 872: 688: 639: 110: 4099: 543: 5467: 5357: 5335: 5232: 5227: 5034: 5017:

The struggle for Roman citizenship: Romans, allies, and the wars of 91-77 BCE

4900: 4851: 4824: 4595: 4494: 4443: 4431: 4217: 4205: 4178: 4166: 2892: 2654: 1934:

the impact and occurrence of delays in the registration of the new citizens.

1867: 1699:) was how the newly enfranchised Italian citizens would be enrolled into the 1188: 1113: 871:

The Italian peninsula during the second century BC was dominated by the

815: 707: 654: 629: 614: 4066: 5352: 5259: 5254: 5207: 5126: 4909: 1950: 1820: 1700: 1412: 1408: 1286: 1022: 924: 916: 644: 512: 439: 261: 4880: 4655: 2982:, p. 26, giving 90 BC as the date of Varius Hybrida's tribunate. 2752: 1129:

federal structure; this position was accepted in the first edition of the

5315: 5244: 5131: 1514: 1448: 1420: 1346: 1338: 1108:, which is accepted by most modern scholars, the Italians established at 900: 700: 517: 82: 4707: 1949:(drawing parallels between the Social war-era Italians and 19th century 337: 5148: 2876: 2180: 2178: 1814: 1806: 1631: 1537: 1303: 1260: 180: 1763:

posed as a champion for the Italians to gain their support during the

5042: 4882:

The end of the Roman republic, 146 to 44 BC: conquest and crisis

2494: 1590:

in Apulia, where his forces were badly defeated and Silo was killed.

1495: 1442: 1334: 1179: 1145: 1109: 1080: 912: 190: 185: 148: 2175: 1642: 1385: 4486: 3479: 3361: 3147: 2609: 1910: 1851: 1734: 1594: 1374: 1330: 1326: 908: 887: 879: 175: 158: 153: 138: 4757: 4612:

Bispham, Edward (2016b). "The civil wars and the triumvirate". In

3747: 3644: 2945: 4885:. Edinburgh History of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh University Press. 4271: 1599: 1510: 1502: 1491: 1350: 1307: 883: 811: 195: 143: 3969: 907:

flexible confederal league; the most powerful of these were the

3454: 1914: 1829: 1487: 1370: 1160: 1058: 959: 932: 770: 728: 200: 4790:. BICS Supplement 70. London: Institute of Classical Studies. 3723: 2233: 2014:, pp. 696–97 notes that many of the Social war and later 3656: 2163: 1855: 1403: 778: 694: 671: 266: 133: 3823: 3821: 2484: 2482: 4960: 4546:. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association. 4499:

This is now the best modern introduction to the Social war.

2961: 2701: 2211: 2209: 1953:) and, most influentially and radically, Henrik Mouritsen. 1921:

attributes the insurgents as fighting for "equal freedom".

1906: 1863: 1342: 3919: 3711: 2414:, 1.21.86–87 ("they preferred the citizenship to lands"). 2344: 2281: 2018:

estimates may be exaggerations taken from Sulla's memoirs.

706:

The war started in late 91 BC, with the rebellion of

4516: 4299: 4024: 4012: 3818: 2718: 2716: 2515: 2513: 2479: 2388: 2386: 2361: 2359: 1901:, in which a speech is putatively being given before the 1641:, a 1st century AD municipal charter for Malaca – modern 769:

was first used in the second century AD by the historian

3531: 2856: 2844: 2780: 2689: 2597: 2585: 2573: 2561: 2549: 2206: 2036: 2026: 2024: 1882:, were now risking life and limb to secure their own"). 1695:

One of the main issues in 88 BC (the consulship of

4969:. Translated by Lendering, Jona – via Livius.org. 4621:

Scopacasa, Raphael. "Rome's encroachment on Italy". In

4185: 3907: 3895: 3735: 3699: 3584: 3582: 3351: 3349: 3278:, 1.48, claiming Sextus died of illness at Asculum and 2257: 2245: 2221: 2194: 1929:

The first coherent study of the Social war was that of

687:, was fought largely from 91 to 88 BC between the 4504: 4411: 4399: 4146: 4122: 4110: 3976: 3871: 3859: 3668: 3543: 2911: 2909: 2713: 2525: 2510: 2467: 2417: 2383: 2371: 2356: 1991: 1989: 4134: 4000: 3763: 3615:, p. 169 instead title him "probably proconsul". 2021: 1885:

The sources also attribute to the allies demands for

3579: 3567: 3555: 3507: 3346: 3246: 3016: 2985: 2080: 2068: 1653:, notes that the republic "never minted more silver 1183:

into an official magisterial title, in the same way

4387: 4311: 4287: 4259: 3931: 3495: 3408: 3396: 3222: 3187: 3175: 3059: 3047: 2933: 2921: 2906: 2812: 2740: 2728: 1986: 1509:. After the capture of Pompeii, Sulla quickly took 1419:, then inflicted a victory over the Marsi near the 1314:on the Black Sea and returned eleven years later. 931:, a provincial who had been granted citizenship by 4552: 1945:. Other historians also hold this view, including 1757: 1687:came only during the time of Caesar and Augustus. 1441:Roman citizenship. This was passed and became the 785:. The focus on the Marsi may also have to do with 1285:. The two men had access to experienced legates: 866: 5465: 4167:"Review of "The struggle for Roman citizenship"" 1505:, defeating an attempt to relieve the cities by 703:. Some of the allies held out until 87 BC. 4672:Gabba, E. "Rome and Italy: the social war". In 4663:Lintott, A. "Political history, 146–95 BC". In 1411:, another of Rutilius' legates and hero of the 1144:Mouritsen reads from Livy's description of the 1029:Henrik Mouritsen, in the influential 1998 book 573: 4603:Bispham, Edward (2016a). "The Social war". In 2325:example of such a grant before the Social war. 759:, which means "war of the allies" (from Latin 5058: 4859:Scullard, H H; Derow, P S. "Social Wars". In 4858: 4832:Hornblower, Simon; et al., eds. (2012). 4637:The last age of the Roman Republic, 146–43 BC 2042: 1794:Harriet Flower, in the influential 2010 book 559: 455: 353: 5442:Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire 5000:(2nd ed.). Liverpool University Press. 4233:, pp. 27–35, citing among others, Cic. 3607:, p. 131. Mackay calls him propraetor; 3457:served in Sulla's army during this campaign. 2676: 1690: 915:. The Romans had fought with the Samnites a 469: 2777:, pp. 138–39, citing Livy, 8.4 et seq. 2308:. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 125. 2128: 2104: 1892: 1886: 1675:of city magistrates and more rarely with a 1662: 853: 841: 831: 805: 799: 793: 760: 692: 674: 5065: 5051: 2121:, 1.99, 2.54, 2.59. Gell., 2.27.2 = Sall. 566: 552: 462: 448: 360: 346: 55: 4836:(4th ed.). Oxford University Press. 4804: 4785: 4771:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4696:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 4620: 4538: 4357: 4333: 4305: 4191: 4030: 4018: 3839: 3827: 3781: 3608: 3489: 3371: 3279: 3268: 3216: 3157: 2979: 2967: 2897:Asconius' facts must here be right: the 2881:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 2862: 2850: 2830: 2786: 2774: 2762: 2707: 2695: 2664: 2619: 2603: 2591: 2579: 2567: 2555: 2500: 2365: 2350: 2334: 2318: 2299: 2287: 2275: 2263: 2251: 2239: 2227: 2215: 2200: 2188: 2184: 2169: 1623:alternatively as a negotiated stalemate. 954: 367: 4993: 4611: 4602: 4046: 3741: 3729: 3717: 3705: 2951: 2722: 2543: 2531: 2519: 2504: 2473: 2454: 2423: 2404: 2392: 2377: 2030: 1813: 1805: 1630: 1558:, followed by his name. His invasion of 1549: 1384: 1325:In the initial offensive, the colony of 1266: 1254: 1017: 1009: 679:, "war of the allies"), also called the 27:War between Rome and its Italian allies 5213:Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula 5014: 4907: 4870:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5977 4662: 4634:Crook, John; et al., eds. (1994). 4429: 4203: 4116: 3925: 3913: 3901: 3889: 3877: 3865: 3753: 789:, who was one of the Italian leaders. 14: 5466: 5072: 4973: 4937: 4766: 4735: 4682: 4680: 4673: 4664: 4633: 4622: 4613: 4604: 4575: 4250: 4238: 4152: 4140: 4128: 4042: 4006: 3994: 3982: 3952:The crowd in Rome in the late republic 3949: 3843: 3812: 3797: 3757: 3690: 3674: 3628: 3604: 3549: 3470: 3447: 3387: 3337: 3295: 3272: 3209: 3138: 3119: 3100: 3081: 3007: 2874: 2834: 2458: 2439: 2408: 2303: 2146: 2074: 1956:Mouritsen's account, in the 1998 book 1337:in Lucania, and suffering defeat near 755:is an improper English translation of 691:and several of its autonomous allies ( 5046: 4959: 4878: 4671: 4550: 4544:The magistrates of the Roman republic 4464: 4460: 4281: 4164: 4079: 4051:. London: Routledge. pp. 71–92. 3850: 3793: 3769: 3686: 3635: 3537: 3525: 3513: 3485: 3466: 3443: 3383: 3367: 3355: 3333: 3317: 3302: 3291: 3264: 3252: 3240: 3205: 3181: 3153: 3134: 3115: 3096: 3038: 3022: 2991: 2955: 2915: 2660: 2648: 2636: 2615: 2435: 2011: 2007: 1995: 1846:literary accounts – such as those of 1703:. The thirty-five tribes made up the 1626: 1365:, and one Publius Ventidius defeated 1357:from advancing on Capua. In Picenum, 1171: 547: 443: 341: 5484:1st century BC in the Roman Republic 5321:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain 4911:Roman elections in the age of Cicero 4860: 4831: 4714: 4693: 4522: 4510: 4417: 4405: 4393: 4381: 4369: 4349: 4329: 4317: 4293: 4277: 4265: 4230: 3937: 3662: 3650: 3624: 3612: 3600: 3588: 3573: 3561: 3528:, pp. 126–27, citing Asc. 2–3C. 3501: 3431: 3414: 3402: 3228: 3193: 3169: 3077: 3065: 3053: 3034: 3003: 2939: 2927: 2818: 2798: 2758: 2746: 2734: 2682: 2546:, p. 78 (emphasis in original). 2488: 2098: 2086: 2054: 1459:The new consuls for 89 BC were 1296: 1194: 947:Edward Bispham, writing in the 2016 840:dated to 22 May 78 BC calls it 4769:The breakdown of the Roman republic 4372:, p. 38, citing Strab., 5.4.2. 2321:, p. 90, noting there is only 1840: 1423:, which split the Italians in two. 1187:later turned into the title of the 1148:(when Rome's Latin allies rebelled 1095: 1079:As evidenced by the destruction of 24: 4986: 4930: 4384:, p. 39, citing Etur., 5.3.1. 1924: 1578:. The senate, troubled by news of 938: 25: 5510: 5019:. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. 4997:Rome and the unification of Italy 4948: 4531: 4242: 3320:, p. 122, citing Posidonius 2838: 2802: 2058: 1801: 1490:. The Romans also subjugated the 1380: 1104:According to Photius' summary of 1092:Drusus' tribunate in 91 BC. 5454:Military history of ancient Rome 4540:Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon 4454: 4423: 4375: 4363: 4343: 4323: 4224: 4197: 4158: 4073: 4049:The army in the Roman revolution 4036: 3988: 3943: 3883: 3842:, p. 41, citing Asc., 64C; 3833: 3787: 3775: 3680: 3618: 3594: 2149:, 2.15.1. Asc. 73. Iul. Ob. 54. 1635:This bronze tablet contains the 5437:Civil wars of the Third Century 4834:The Oxford classical dictionary 4082:SPQR: a history of ancient Rome 3519: 3460: 3437: 3420: 3377: 3327: 3311: 3285: 3258: 3234: 3199: 3163: 3128: 3109: 3090: 3071: 3028: 2997: 2973: 2868: 2824: 2792: 2768: 2670: 2642: 2625: 2537: 2448: 2429: 2398: 2328: 2312: 2293: 2269: 1758:Destabilisation of the republic 1588:Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius 1545: 1310:, for example, were taken from 1074: 4809:. Cambridge University Press. 4807:Politics in the Roman republic 4767:Mackay, Christopher S (2009). 4742:. Princeton University Press. 4715:Dart, Christopher J. (2016) . 3453:, 1.50. Gabba notes also that 2092: 2048: 2001: 1259:The so-called "Marius" at the 867:Italy in the second century BC 13: 1: 4908:Vishnia, Rachel Feig (2012). 4555:Italian Manpower 225 BC–AD 14 1975: 1149: 861: 508:Roman conquest of the Hernici 326: 5499:Crisis of the Roman Republic 4974:Velleius Paterculus (1924). 4576:Cooley, Alison, ed. (2016). 4204:Bernard, Seth (2013-03-03). 4165:Raggi, Andrea (2014-09-13). 3653:, p. 170, 194–195, 199. 1980: 1683:; a uniform and generalised 1562:in 89 BC triggered the 1005: 49:Crisis of the Roman Republic 7: 5494:Roman Republican civil wars 4681:Seager, Robin. "Sulla". In 4559:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 4465:Smith, Christopher (1999). 4352:, p. 37, citing Ovid. 3796:, p. 86 n. 25, citing 3426:The fleet was commanded by 1963: 1402:while fighting against the 1400:Battle of the Tolenus River 1069: 818:, calls it the Marsic war; 34:Social War (disambiguation) 10: 5515: 4994:Keaveney, Arthur (2005) . 4805:Mouritsen, Henrik (2017). 4786:Mouritsen, Henrik (1998). 4578:A companion to Roman Italy 4436:Bryn Mawr Classical Review 4210:Bryn Mawr Classical Review 4171:Bryn Mawr Classical Review 3324:, 87 F 36; Diod., 37.2.11. 2337:, p. 88, citing Cic. 2101:, pp. 40–41, citing: 1773:, during preparations for 1353:, before being stopped at 1234:Battle of the Colline Gate 650:Pompeian–Parthian invasion 31: 5489:1st-century BC rebellions 5450: 5395:Roman conquest of Britain 5366: 5080: 4879:Steel, Catherine (2013). 4047:Keaveney, Arthur (2007). 2677:Salmon, ET; Potter, TW. " 2635:in the war's first year. 2306:The making of Roman Italy 2043:Scullard & Derow 2012 1970:Coinage of the Social War 1691:Enrolment of new citizens 1617: 1484:Marcus Caecilius Cornutus 1226: 1132:Cambridge Ancient History 585: 483: 379: 325: 312: 299: 209: 101: 65: 54: 46: 41: 4952:Epitome of Roman History 4736:Flower, Harriet (2010). 4475:Journal of Roman Studies 3665:, pp. 194, 199–200. 1848:Lucius Cornelius Sisenna 1651:Companion to Roman Italy 1454: 1250: 1055:Lucius Marcius Philippus 949:Companion to Roman Italy 474:Roman expansion in Italy 5092:Roman conquest of Italy 4551:Brunt, Peter A (1971). 3950:Millar, Fergus (1998). 3428:Aulus Postumius Albinus 2807:sub suis quisque signis 2801:, p. 220, quoting 2457:, p. 80, quoting, 1775:civil war against Sulla 1719:Publius Sulpicius Rufus 1213:Lucius Licinius Crassus 1202:quaestor of 103 BC 1118:Quintus Poppaedius Silo 929:Lucius Cornelius Balbus 787:Quintus Poppaedius Silo 746: 737:Publius Sulpicius Rufus 278:Quintus Poppaedius Silo 5015:Kendall, Seth (2013). 4467:"Review of Mouritsen, 4430:Bernard, Seth (2013). 4045:, p. 159, citing 3627:, p. 169, citing 3080:, p. 129, citing 3037:, p. 121, citing 3006:, p. 122, citing 2875:Badian, Ernst (1969). 2833:, p. 129, citing 2765:, pp. 139 et seq. 2407:, p. 79, quoting 2129: 2105: 1899:Rhetorica ad Herennium 1893: 1887: 1825: 1811: 1788: 1726:Lucius Cornelius Cinna 1697:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1663: 1646: 1612:Lucius Cornelius Cinna 1580:Mithridates VI Eupator 1576:Quintus Pompeius Rufus 1572:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1567: 1520:Quintus Pompeius Rufus 1480:Lucius Cornelius Cinna 1461:Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo 1434:Mithridates VI Eupator 1417:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1396:Publius Rutilius Lupus 1391: 1367:Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo 1291:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1283:Publius Rutilius Lupus 1273: 1264: 1245:Quintus Varius Hybrida 1026: 1015: 978:Marcus Fulvius Flaccus 955:Desire for citizenship 854: 842: 832: 806: 800: 794: 761: 712:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 693: 675: 267:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 237:Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo 224:Publius Rutilius Lupus 210:Commanders and leaders 5422:Domitian's Dacian War 5341:Liberators' civil war 3732:, pp. 97 et seq. 3689:, p. 85, citing 3271:, p. 27, citing 2663:, p. 40 n. 117; 2302:, p. 82, citing 2242:, pp. 45 et seq. 2172:, pp. 2, 40, 44. 2061:, 2.18.1; Aur. Vict. 1817: 1809: 1783: 1771:Gnaeus Papirius Carbo 1634: 1564:First Mithridatic War 1553: 1444:lex Julia de civitate 1388: 1270: 1258: 1112:a new capital with a 1021: 1013: 846:and the Augustan-era 804:(though he also uses 716:First Mithridatic War 371:Social War (91–87 BC) 313:Casualties and losses 18:Social War (91–88 BC) 5427:Trajan's Dacian Wars 5112:Roman–Hernician wars 4080:Beard, Mary (2015). 2877:"Quaestiones Variae" 2491:, p. 223 n. 84. 2158:(senatus consultum). 1427:Sextus Julius Caesar 1369:and forced him into 1320:Gaius Papius Mutilus 1279:Lucius Julius Caesar 1209:Marcus Livius Drusus 1191:in the Flavian era. 1122:Gaius Papius Mutilus 1037:Hannibal during the 1031:Italian Unification 989:Marcus Livius Drusus 291:Gaius Papius Mutilus 257:Sextus Julius Caesar 219:Lucius Julius Caesar 32:For other uses, see 5326:Roman–Parthian Wars 5117:Roman–Volscian wars 5097:Roman–Etruscan Wars 4788:Italian unification 4685:, pp. 165–207. 4676:, pp. 104–128. 4525:, p. 20 n. 28. 4469:Italian Unification 4336:, pp. 134–37; 3446:, pp. 124–25; 3118:, pp. 120–21; 2438:, pp. 113–14; 2304:Salmon, ET (1982). 1958:Italian Unification 1834:Italian Unification 1529:lex Plautia Papiria 1469:Titus Vettius Scato 1465:Lucius Porcius Cato 820:Velleius Paterculus 503:Roman–Volscian wars 488:Roman–Etruscan Wars 242:Lucius Porcius Cato 5432:Roman–Persian Wars 5331:Caesar's civil war 5203:Roman–Seleucid war 5102:Roman-Aequian wars 5074:Ancient Roman wars 4667:, pp. 40–103. 4616:, pp. 90–102. 4280:, pp. 24–26; 3928:, pp. 147–48. 3540:, pp. 127–28. 3267:, p. 122. Cf 2970:, pp. 137–38. 2710:, pp. 130–31. 2667:, pp. 150–51. 1947:Gaetano De Sanctis 1909:also sings of the 1826: 1812: 1647: 1627:Economic and legal 1606:. The outbreak of 1568: 1522:as his colleague. 1392: 1274: 1265: 1153: 340 BC 1138:comitia centuriata 1027: 1016: 493:Roman-Aequian wars 5461: 5460: 5417:Jewish–Roman wars 5289:Sulla's civil war 5283:Bellum Octavianum 5171:Illyro-Roman Wars 5144:Roman–Gallic wars 5122:Roman–Sabine wars 5026:978-1-4632-0309-2 4921:978-1-136-47872-7 4892:978-0-7486-2902-2 4843:978-0-19-954556-8 4816:978-1-139-41086-1 4778:978-0-521-51819-2 4749:978-0-691-14043-8 4728:978-1-4724-1676-6 4625:, pp. 35-56. 4607:, pp. 76–89. 4587:978-1-118-99310-1 4513:, pp. 19–20. 4420:, pp. 14–21. 4408:, pp. 12–13. 4091:978-1-84765-441-0 4058:978-0-415-39486-4 3720:, pp. 94–96. 3611:, p. 42 and 2639:, pp. 81–82. 2353:, pp. 89–90. 2290:, pp. 80–81. 2089:, pp. 40–41. 1769:. Both Cinna and 1766:bellum Octavianum 1730:Sulla's civil war 1608:a short civil war 1604:Strait of Messina 1546:88 and 87 BC 1518:88 BC, with 1297:Initial offensive 1261:Munich Glyptothek 1195:Inciting incident 1043:Tiberius Gracchus 969:Tiberius Gracchus 838:senatus consultum 824:Asconius Pedianus 741:Sulla's civil war 663: 662: 605:Bellum Octavianum 576:Roman Republican 541: 540: 533:Roman–Sabine wars 437: 436: 336: 335: 97: 96: 16:(Redirected from 5506: 5479:80s BC conflicts 5474:90s BC conflicts 5383:Marcomannic Wars 5294:Mithridatic Wars 5218:Celtiberian Wars 5107:Roman–Latin wars 5067: 5060: 5053: 5044: 5043: 5038: 5011: 4981: 4970: 4956: 4945: 4938:Appian (1913) . 4925: 4904: 4864: 4855: 4828: 4801: 4782: 4761: 4732: 4711: 4686: 4677: 4668: 4659: 4626: 4617: 4608: 4599: 4570: 4558: 4547: 4526: 4520: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4501: 4458: 4452: 4451: 4427: 4421: 4415: 4409: 4403: 4397: 4391: 4385: 4379: 4373: 4367: 4361: 4347: 4341: 4327: 4321: 4315: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4291: 4285: 4275: 4269: 4263: 4257: 4245:, 2.18.1; Plut. 4228: 4222: 4221: 4201: 4195: 4189: 4183: 4182: 4162: 4156: 4150: 4144: 4138: 4132: 4126: 4120: 4114: 4108: 4107: 4077: 4071: 4070: 4040: 4034: 4028: 4022: 4016: 4010: 4004: 3998: 3992: 3986: 3980: 3974: 3973: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3905: 3899: 3893: 3887: 3881: 3875: 3869: 3863: 3857: 3837: 3831: 3825: 3816: 3810: 3804: 3791: 3785: 3779: 3773: 3767: 3761: 3751: 3745: 3739: 3733: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3703: 3697: 3684: 3678: 3672: 3666: 3660: 3654: 3648: 3642: 3622: 3616: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3577: 3571: 3565: 3559: 3553: 3547: 3541: 3535: 3529: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3505: 3499: 3493: 3483: 3477: 3464: 3458: 3441: 3435: 3424: 3418: 3412: 3406: 3400: 3394: 3381: 3375: 3365: 3359: 3353: 3344: 3331: 3325: 3315: 3309: 3289: 3283: 3262: 3256: 3250: 3244: 3238: 3232: 3226: 3220: 3203: 3197: 3191: 3185: 3179: 3173: 3167: 3161: 3151: 3145: 3132: 3126: 3113: 3107: 3094: 3088: 3075: 3069: 3063: 3057: 3051: 3045: 3032: 3026: 3020: 3014: 3001: 2995: 2989: 2983: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2959: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2904: 2903: 2872: 2866: 2860: 2854: 2848: 2842: 2828: 2822: 2816: 2810: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2766: 2756: 2750: 2744: 2738: 2732: 2726: 2720: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2687: 2686: 2674: 2668: 2658: 2652: 2646: 2640: 2629: 2623: 2613: 2607: 2601: 2595: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2571: 2565: 2559: 2553: 2547: 2541: 2535: 2529: 2523: 2517: 2508: 2498: 2492: 2486: 2477: 2471: 2465: 2452: 2446: 2433: 2427: 2421: 2415: 2402: 2396: 2390: 2381: 2375: 2369: 2363: 2354: 2348: 2342: 2332: 2326: 2316: 2310: 2309: 2297: 2291: 2285: 2279: 2273: 2267: 2261: 2255: 2249: 2243: 2237: 2231: 2225: 2219: 2213: 2204: 2198: 2192: 2182: 2173: 2167: 2161: 2132: 2108: 2096: 2090: 2084: 2078: 2072: 2066: 2052: 2046: 2040: 2034: 2028: 2019: 2016:Sullan civil war 2005: 1999: 1993: 1896: 1890: 1875:Diodorus Siculus 1860:Diodorus Siculus 1841:Ancient accounts 1666: 1534:Transpadane Gaul 1507:Lucius Cluentius 1359:Gaius Vidacilius 1312:Heraclea Pontica 1173: 1154: 1151: 1106:Diodorus Siculus 1096:Military command 1039:Second Punic War 985:plebeian tribune 896:Battle of Cannae 892:Second Punic war 857: 849:fasti consulares 845: 835: 828:Julius Obsequens 809: 807:bella cum sociis 803: 797: 764: 698: 678: 580: 568: 561: 554: 545: 544: 498:Roman–Latin wars 478: 477: 475: 464: 457: 450: 441: 440: 374: 372: 362: 355: 348: 339: 338: 331: 328: 286: 250: 232: 67: 66: 59: 39: 38: 21: 5514: 5513: 5509: 5508: 5507: 5505: 5504: 5503: 5464: 5463: 5462: 5457: 5446: 5412:Civil war of 69 5400:Boudican revolt 5369: 5362: 5238:Cantabrian Wars 5176:Macedonian Wars 5083: 5076: 5071: 5041: 5027: 5008: 4989: 4987:Further reading 4984: 4949:Florus (1929). 4933: 4931:Ancient sources 4928: 4922: 4893: 4844: 4817: 4798: 4779: 4750: 4739:Roman republics 4729: 4648: 4588: 4567: 4534: 4529: 4521: 4517: 4509: 4505: 4459: 4455: 4428: 4424: 4416: 4412: 4404: 4400: 4392: 4388: 4380: 4376: 4368: 4364: 4348: 4344: 4328: 4324: 4316: 4312: 4308:, pp. 5–6. 4304: 4300: 4292: 4288: 4276: 4272: 4264: 4260: 4229: 4225: 4202: 4198: 4190: 4186: 4163: 4159: 4151: 4147: 4139: 4135: 4127: 4123: 4115: 4111: 4092: 4084:. p. 244. 4078: 4074: 4059: 4041: 4037: 4029: 4025: 4017: 4013: 4005: 4001: 3993: 3989: 3981: 3977: 3962: 3948: 3944: 3936: 3932: 3924: 3920: 3912: 3908: 3900: 3896: 3888: 3884: 3876: 3872: 3864: 3860: 3838: 3834: 3826: 3819: 3811: 3807: 3792: 3788: 3780: 3776: 3768: 3764: 3752: 3748: 3740: 3736: 3728: 3724: 3716: 3712: 3704: 3700: 3685: 3681: 3673: 3669: 3661: 3657: 3649: 3645: 3623: 3619: 3603:, p. 169; 3599: 3595: 3587: 3580: 3572: 3568: 3560: 3556: 3548: 3544: 3536: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3500: 3496: 3488:, p. 126; 3484: 3480: 3469:, p. 125; 3465: 3461: 3442: 3438: 3425: 3421: 3413: 3409: 3401: 3397: 3382: 3378: 3370:, p. 124; 3366: 3362: 3354: 3347: 3336:, p. 123; 3332: 3328: 3316: 3312: 3294:, p. 122; 3290: 3286: 3263: 3259: 3251: 3247: 3239: 3235: 3227: 3223: 3208:, p. 121; 3204: 3200: 3192: 3188: 3180: 3176: 3168: 3164: 3156:, p. 121; 3152: 3148: 3137:, p. 121; 3133: 3129: 3114: 3110: 3099:, p. 120; 3095: 3091: 3076: 3072: 3064: 3060: 3052: 3048: 3033: 3029: 3021: 3017: 3002: 2998: 2990: 2986: 2978: 2974: 2966: 2962: 2950: 2946: 2938: 2934: 2926: 2922: 2914: 2907: 2873: 2869: 2861: 2857: 2849: 2845: 2829: 2825: 2817: 2813: 2797: 2793: 2785: 2781: 2773: 2769: 2761:, p. 218; 2757: 2753: 2745: 2741: 2733: 2729: 2721: 2714: 2706: 2702: 2694: 2690: 2675: 2671: 2659: 2655: 2647: 2643: 2630: 2626: 2614: 2610: 2602: 2598: 2590: 2586: 2578: 2574: 2566: 2562: 2554: 2550: 2542: 2538: 2530: 2526: 2518: 2511: 2499: 2495: 2487: 2480: 2472: 2468: 2453: 2449: 2434: 2430: 2422: 2418: 2403: 2399: 2391: 2384: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2357: 2349: 2345: 2333: 2329: 2317: 2313: 2298: 2294: 2286: 2282: 2274: 2270: 2262: 2258: 2250: 2246: 2238: 2234: 2226: 2222: 2214: 2207: 2199: 2195: 2183: 2176: 2168: 2164: 2130:bellum Italicum 2106:bellum Marsicum 2097: 2093: 2085: 2081: 2073: 2069: 2053: 2049: 2041: 2037: 2029: 2022: 2006: 2002: 1994: 1987: 1983: 1978: 1966: 1938:Theodor Mommsen 1931:Prosper Mérimée 1927: 1925:Modern accounts 1843: 1804: 1796:Roman republics 1760: 1706:comitia tributa 1693: 1685:lex municipalis 1681:Cinnanum tempus 1629: 1620: 1548: 1457: 1383: 1363:Titus Lafrenius 1299: 1253: 1229: 1197: 1152: 1126:Theodor Mommsen 1098: 1077: 1072: 1008: 987:of 91 BC, 957: 941: 939:Italian demands 869: 864: 855:bellum Marsicum 843:bellum Italicum 833:bellum Italicum 814:, according to 801:bellum Italicum 795:bellum Marsicum 749: 664: 659: 581: 577: 574: 572: 542: 537: 523:Cisalpine Gauls 479: 473: 471: 470: 468: 438: 433: 375: 370: 368: 366: 332:killed in total 329: 295: 282: 271: 246: 228: 205: 172: 171: 163: 130: 129: 118: 85: 60: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5512: 5502: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5459: 5458: 5451: 5448: 5447: 5445: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5404: 5403: 5402: 5392: 5391: 5390: 5385: 5374: 5372: 5364: 5363: 5361: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5347:Bellum Siculum 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5312: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5291: 5286: 5279: 5278: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5257: 5252: 5250:Jugurthine War 5247: 5242: 5241: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5223:Lusitanian War 5220: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5199: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5173: 5168: 5167: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5146: 5141: 5140: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5088: 5086: 5084:Roman Republic 5078: 5077: 5070: 5069: 5062: 5055: 5047: 5040: 5039: 5025: 5012: 5006: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4982: 4971: 4957: 4946: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4926: 4920: 4905: 4891: 4875: 4874: 4873: 4872: 4842: 4829: 4815: 4802: 4796: 4783: 4777: 4763: 4762: 4748: 4733: 4727: 4712: 4702:(2): 215–224. 4690: 4689: 4688: 4687: 4678: 4669: 4646: 4630: 4629: 4628: 4627: 4618: 4609: 4586: 4572: 4571: 4565: 4548: 4535: 4533: 4532:Modern sources 4530: 4528: 4527: 4515: 4503: 4487:10.2307/300760 4453: 4422: 4410: 4398: 4386: 4374: 4362: 4358:Mouritsen 1998 4342: 4334:Mouritsen 1998 4332:, p. 35; 4322: 4310: 4306:Mouritsen 1998 4298: 4286: 4270: 4258: 4223: 4196: 4192:Mouritsen 1998 4184: 4157: 4155:, p. 159. 4145: 4133: 4131:, p. 160. 4121: 4109: 4090: 4072: 4057: 4035: 4033:, p. 171. 4031:Mouritsen 2017 4023: 4021:, p. 129. 4019:Mouritsen 2017 4011: 3999: 3987: 3985:, p. 175. 3975: 3960: 3942: 3930: 3918: 3916:, p. 147. 3906: 3904:, p. 146. 3894: 3882: 3870: 3858: 3840:Broughton 1952 3832: 3830:, p. 168. 3828:Mouritsen 1998 3817: 3805: 3786: 3782:Mouritsen 1998 3774: 3772:, p. 123. 3762: 3756:, p. 32; 3746: 3734: 3722: 3710: 3698: 3679: 3677:, p. 176. 3667: 3655: 3643: 3617: 3609:Broughton 1952 3593: 3591:, p. 168. 3578: 3576:, p. 167. 3566: 3564:, p. 166. 3554: 3552:, p. 165. 3542: 3530: 3518: 3516:, p. 126. 3506: 3504:, p. 158. 3494: 3490:Broughton 1952 3478: 3459: 3436: 3434:, p. 161. 3419: 3417:, p. 153. 3407: 3405:, p. 152. 3395: 3376: 3372:Broughton 1952 3360: 3358:, p. 124. 3345: 3326: 3310: 3284: 3280:Broughton 1952 3269:Broughton 1952 3257: 3255:, p. 122. 3245: 3233: 3231:, p. 136. 3221: 3217:Broughton 1952 3198: 3196:, p. 137. 3186: 3174: 3162: 3158:Broughton 1952 3146: 3127: 3108: 3089: 3070: 3068:, p. 126. 3058: 3056:, p. 122. 3046: 3027: 3025:, p. 120. 3015: 2996: 2994:, p. 115. 2984: 2980:Broughton 1952 2972: 2968:Mouritsen 1998 2960: 2958:, p. 118. 2954:, p. 87; 2944: 2942:, p. 128. 2932: 2930:, p. 149. 2920: 2905: 2867: 2865:, p. 132. 2863:Mouritsen 1998 2855: 2853:, p. 128. 2851:Mouritsen 1998 2843: 2831:Mouritsen 1998 2823: 2821:, p. 224. 2811: 2791: 2789:, p. 139. 2787:Mouritsen 1998 2779: 2775:Mouritsen 1998 2767: 2763:Mouritsen 1998 2751: 2749:, p. 216. 2739: 2737:, p. 215. 2727: 2712: 2708:Mouritsen 1998 2700: 2698:, p. 130. 2696:Mouritsen 1998 2688: 2669: 2665:Mouritsen 1998 2653: 2641: 2633:quaestio Varia 2624: 2622:, p. 150. 2620:Mouritsen 1998 2618:, p. 40; 2608: 2606:, p. 149. 2604:Mouritsen 1998 2596: 2594:, p. 143. 2592:Mouritsen 1998 2584: 2582:, p. 142. 2580:Mouritsen 1998 2572: 2570:, p. 117. 2568:Mouritsen 1998 2560: 2558:, p. 112. 2556:Mouritsen 1998 2548: 2536: 2524: 2509: 2503:, p. 72; 2501:Mouritsen 1998 2493: 2478: 2466: 2447: 2428: 2416: 2397: 2382: 2370: 2366:Mouritsen 1998 2355: 2351:Mouritsen 1998 2343: 2335:Mouritsen 1998 2327: 2319:Mouritsen 1998 2311: 2300:Mouritsen 1998 2292: 2288:Mouritsen 1998 2280: 2276:Scopacasa 2016 2268: 2264:Scopacasa 2016 2256: 2252:Scopacasa 2016 2244: 2240:Mouritsen 1998 2232: 2228:Scopacasa 2016 2220: 2218:, p. 147. 2216:Mouritsen 1998 2205: 2201:Scopacasa 2016 2193: 2189:Mouritsen 1998 2187:, p. 45; 2185:Scopacasa 2016 2174: 2170:Mouritsen 1998 2162: 2160: 2159: 2126: 2091: 2079: 2077:, p. 125. 2067: 2057:, p. 40; 2047: 2035: 2020: 2000: 1998:, p. 439. 1984: 1982: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1973: 1972: 1965: 1962: 1926: 1923: 1903:quaestio Varia 1842: 1839: 1803: 1802:Historiography 1800: 1759: 1756: 1692: 1689: 1638:lex Malacitana 1628: 1625: 1619: 1616: 1547: 1544: 1456: 1453: 1382: 1381:Roman breakout 1379: 1298: 1295: 1252: 1249: 1228: 1225: 1221:quaestio Varia 1196: 1193: 1097: 1094: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1063:Latin Festival 1007: 1004: 956: 953: 940: 937: 917:number of wars 873:Roman Republic 868: 865: 863: 860: 836:. An official 777:named for the 767:bellum sociale 757:bellum sociale 748: 745: 689:Roman Republic 676:bellum sociale 661: 660: 658: 657: 652: 647: 642: 640:Bellum Siculum 637: 632: 627: 622: 617: 612: 607: 602: 597: 592: 586: 583: 582: 571: 570: 563: 556: 548: 539: 538: 536: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 484: 481: 480: 467: 466: 459: 452: 444: 435: 434: 432: 431: 426: 421: 416: 414:Mount Falernus 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 380: 377: 376: 365: 364: 357: 350: 342: 334: 333: 330: 100,000 323: 322: 319: 315: 314: 310: 309: 306: 302: 301: 297: 296: 294: 293: 288: 274: 272: 270: 269: 264: 259: 253: 252: 239: 234: 221: 215: 212: 211: 207: 206: 204: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 166: 165: 164: 162: 161: 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 124: 123: 122: 121:Italian rebels 119: 117: 116: 115:Italian allies 113: 111:Roman Republic 107: 104: 103: 99: 98: 95: 94: 91: 87: 86: 81: 79: 75: 74: 71: 63: 62: 52: 51: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5511: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5471: 5469: 5456: 5455: 5449: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5396: 5393: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5378:Germanic wars 5376: 5375: 5373: 5371: 5365: 5359: 5358:War of Actium 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5348: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5336:War of Mutina 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5296: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5262: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5233:Sertorian War 5231: 5229: 5228:Numantine War 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5215: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5178: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5151: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5093: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5085: 5079: 5075: 5068: 5063: 5061: 5056: 5054: 5049: 5048: 5045: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5022: 5018: 5013: 5009: 5007:1-904675-37-9 5003: 4999: 4998: 4992: 4991: 4979: 4978: 4977:Roman History 4972: 4968: 4967: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4953: 4947: 4943: 4942: 4936: 4935: 4923: 4917: 4914:. Routledge. 4913: 4912: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4888: 4884: 4883: 4877: 4876: 4871: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4856: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4839: 4835: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4799: 4797:0-9005-8781-4 4793: 4789: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4770: 4765: 4764: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4745: 4741: 4740: 4734: 4730: 4724: 4721:. Routledge. 4720: 4719: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4691: 4684: 4679: 4675: 4670: 4666: 4661: 4660: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4647:0-521-85073-8 4643: 4639: 4638: 4632: 4631: 4624: 4623:Cooley (2016) 4619: 4615: 4614:Cooley (2016) 4610: 4606: 4605:Cooley (2016) 4601: 4600: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4583: 4579: 4574: 4573: 4568: 4566:0-19-814283-8 4562: 4557: 4556: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4536: 4524: 4519: 4512: 4507: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4470: 4462: 4457: 4450: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4426: 4419: 4414: 4407: 4402: 4396:, p. 12. 4395: 4390: 4383: 4378: 4371: 4366: 4359: 4356:, 3.15.8–10; 4355: 4351: 4346: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4326: 4320:, p. 35. 4319: 4314: 4307: 4302: 4296:, p. 27. 4295: 4290: 4284:, p. 80. 4283: 4279: 4274: 4268:, p. 23. 4267: 4262: 4255: 4254: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4227: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4200: 4193: 4188: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4161: 4154: 4149: 4143:, p. 91. 4142: 4137: 4130: 4125: 4119:, p. 92. 4118: 4113: 4106: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4087: 4083: 4076: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4054: 4050: 4044: 4039: 4032: 4027: 4020: 4015: 4009:, p. 92. 4008: 4003: 3996: 3991: 3984: 3979: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3961:0-472-10892-1 3957: 3953: 3946: 3940:, p. 40. 3939: 3934: 3927: 3922: 3915: 3910: 3903: 3898: 3891: 3886: 3880:, p. 79. 3879: 3874: 3868:, p. 38. 3867: 3862: 3855: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3841: 3836: 3829: 3824: 3822: 3814: 3809: 3802: 3801: 3795: 3790: 3783: 3778: 3771: 3766: 3760:, p. 21. 3759: 3755: 3750: 3744:, p. 98. 3743: 3742:Bispham 2016b 3738: 3731: 3730:Bispham 2016b 3726: 3719: 3718:Bispham 2016b 3714: 3708:, p. 87. 3707: 3706:Bispham 2016a 3702: 3695: 3694: 3688: 3683: 3676: 3671: 3664: 3659: 3652: 3647: 3640: 3639: 3633: 3632: 3626: 3621: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3597: 3590: 3585: 3583: 3575: 3570: 3563: 3558: 3551: 3546: 3539: 3534: 3527: 3522: 3515: 3510: 3503: 3498: 3492:, p. 32. 3491: 3487: 3482: 3475: 3474: 3468: 3463: 3456: 3452: 3451: 3445: 3440: 3433: 3429: 3423: 3416: 3411: 3404: 3399: 3392: 3391: 3385: 3380: 3374:, p. 32. 3373: 3369: 3364: 3357: 3352: 3350: 3342: 3341: 3335: 3330: 3323: 3319: 3314: 3307: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3293: 3288: 3281: 3277: 3276: 3270: 3266: 3261: 3254: 3249: 3242: 3237: 3230: 3225: 3219:, p. 28. 3218: 3214: 3213: 3207: 3202: 3195: 3190: 3184:, p. 87. 3183: 3178: 3171: 3166: 3160:, p. 25. 3159: 3155: 3150: 3143: 3142: 3136: 3131: 3124: 3123: 3117: 3112: 3105: 3104: 3098: 3093: 3086: 3085: 3079: 3074: 3067: 3062: 3055: 3050: 3043: 3042: 3036: 3031: 3024: 3019: 3012: 3011: 3005: 3000: 2993: 2988: 2981: 2976: 2969: 2964: 2957: 2953: 2952:Bispham 2016a 2948: 2941: 2936: 2929: 2924: 2918:, p. 80. 2917: 2912: 2910: 2902: 2900: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2871: 2864: 2859: 2852: 2847: 2840: 2837:, 2.15.1 and 2836: 2832: 2827: 2820: 2815: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2795: 2788: 2783: 2776: 2771: 2764: 2760: 2755: 2748: 2743: 2736: 2731: 2725:, p. 86. 2724: 2723:Bispham 2016a 2719: 2717: 2709: 2704: 2697: 2692: 2684: 2680: 2673: 2666: 2662: 2657: 2650: 2645: 2638: 2634: 2628: 2621: 2617: 2612: 2605: 2600: 2593: 2588: 2581: 2576: 2569: 2564: 2557: 2552: 2545: 2544:Bispham 2016a 2540: 2534:, p. 82. 2533: 2532:Bispham 2016a 2528: 2522:, p. 83. 2521: 2520:Bispham 2016a 2516: 2514: 2507:, p. 82. 2506: 2505:Bispham 2016a 2502: 2497: 2490: 2485: 2483: 2476:, p. 81. 2475: 2474:Bispham 2016a 2470: 2463: 2462: 2456: 2455:Bispham 2016a 2451: 2444: 2443: 2437: 2432: 2426:, p. 80. 2425: 2424:Bispham 2016a 2420: 2413: 2412: 2406: 2405:Bispham 2016a 2401: 2395:, p. 79. 2394: 2393:Bispham 2016a 2389: 2387: 2380:, p. 85. 2379: 2378:Bispham 2016a 2374: 2367: 2362: 2360: 2352: 2347: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2324: 2320: 2315: 2307: 2301: 2296: 2289: 2284: 2277: 2272: 2266:, p. 36. 2265: 2260: 2254:, p. 45. 2253: 2248: 2241: 2236: 2230:, p. 52. 2229: 2224: 2217: 2212: 2210: 2203:, p. 46. 2202: 2197: 2190: 2186: 2181: 2179: 2171: 2166: 2157: 2154: 2153: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2131: 2127: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2107: 2103: 2102: 2100: 2095: 2088: 2083: 2076: 2071: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2044: 2039: 2033:, p. 76. 2032: 2031:Bispham 2016a 2027: 2025: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2004: 1997: 1992: 1990: 1985: 1971: 1968: 1967: 1961: 1959: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1941:state called 1939: 1935: 1932: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1895: 1889: 1883: 1881: 1876: 1871: 1869: 1868:Italian coins 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1838: 1835: 1831: 1824: 1822: 1816: 1808: 1799: 1797: 1792: 1787: 1782: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1767: 1755: 1751: 1748: 1744: 1738: 1736: 1731: 1727: 1722: 1720: 1716: 1710: 1708: 1707: 1702: 1698: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1673:quattorvirate 1670: 1665: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1644: 1640: 1639: 1633: 1624: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1591: 1589: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1552: 1543: 1541: 1540: 1535: 1531: 1530: 1523: 1521: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1499: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1476: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1452: 1450: 1446: 1445: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1387: 1378: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1323: 1321: 1315: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1294: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1269: 1262: 1257: 1248: 1246: 1241: 1237: 1235: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1203: 1192: 1190: 1189:Roman emperor 1186: 1182: 1181: 1176: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1156: 1147: 1142: 1140: 1139: 1134: 1133: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1093: 1091: 1085: 1082: 1067: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1050: 1048: 1047:lex Sempronia 1044: 1040: 1034: 1032: 1024: 1020: 1012: 1003: 1001: 996: 992: 990: 986: 981: 979: 975: 970: 965: 961: 952: 950: 945: 944:domination. 936: 934: 930: 926: 921: 918: 914: 910: 904: 902: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 876: 874: 859: 856: 851: 850: 844: 839: 834: 829: 825: 821: 817: 816:Aulus Gellius 813: 808: 802: 796: 790: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 763: 758: 754: 744: 742: 738: 732: 730: 724: 721: 717: 713: 709: 704: 702: 697: 696: 690: 686: 682: 677: 673: 669: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 633: 631: 628: 626: 623: 621: 618: 616: 613: 611: 608: 606: 603: 601: 598: 596: 593: 591: 588: 587: 584: 579: 569: 564: 562: 557: 555: 550: 549: 546: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 485: 482: 476: 465: 460: 458: 453: 451: 446: 445: 442: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 399:Tolenus River 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 381: 378: 373: 363: 358: 356: 351: 349: 344: 343: 340: 324: 321:50,000 killed 320: 318:50,000 killed 317: 316: 311: 307: 304: 303: 298: 292: 289: 287: 285: 279: 276: 275: 273: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 255: 254: 251: 249: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 231: 225: 222: 220: 217: 216: 214: 213: 208: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 173: 169: 168:Samnite group 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 131: 127: 120: 114: 112: 109: 108: 106: 105: 100: 93:Roman victory 92: 89: 88: 84: 80: 77: 76: 72: 69: 68: 64: 58: 53: 50: 45: 40: 35: 30: 19: 5452: 5407:Armenian War 5370:Roman Empire 5353:Perusine War 5345: 5281: 5260:Servile Wars 5255:Cimbrian War 5208:Galatian War 5136: 5127:Samnite Wars 5016: 4996: 4976: 4965: 4951: 4940: 4910: 4881: 4833: 4806: 4787: 4768: 4738: 4717: 4699: 4695: 4683:CAH 9 (1994) 4674:CAH 9 (1994) 4665:CAH 9 (1994) 4636: 4577: 4554: 4543: 4518: 4506: 4498: 4478: 4474: 4468: 4456: 4447: 4435: 4425: 4413: 4401: 4389: 4377: 4365: 4353: 4345: 4337: 4325: 4313: 4301: 4289: 4273: 4261: 4252: 4246: 4234: 4226: 4209: 4199: 4194:, p. 2. 4187: 4170: 4160: 4148: 4136: 4124: 4117:Lintott 1994 4112: 4103: 4081: 4075: 4048: 4038: 4026: 4014: 4002: 3990: 3978: 3951: 3945: 3933: 3926:Vishnia 2012 3921: 3914:Vishnia 2012 3909: 3902:Vishnia 2012 3897: 3890:Vishnia 2012 3885: 3878:Vishnia 2012 3873: 3866:Vishnia 2012 3861: 3852: 3845: 3835: 3808: 3799: 3789: 3777: 3765: 3754:Vishnia 2012 3749: 3737: 3725: 3713: 3701: 3692: 3682: 3670: 3658: 3646: 3637: 3630: 3620: 3596: 3569: 3557: 3545: 3533: 3521: 3509: 3497: 3481: 3472: 3462: 3449: 3439: 3422: 3410: 3398: 3389: 3379: 3363: 3339: 3329: 3321: 3313: 3304: 3297: 3287: 3274: 3260: 3248: 3236: 3224: 3211: 3201: 3189: 3177: 3165: 3149: 3140: 3130: 3121: 3111: 3102: 3092: 3083: 3073: 3061: 3049: 3040: 3030: 3018: 3009: 2999: 2987: 2975: 2963: 2947: 2935: 2923: 2898: 2896: 2884: 2880: 2870: 2858: 2846: 2826: 2814: 2806: 2794: 2782: 2770: 2754: 2742: 2730: 2703: 2691: 2672: 2656: 2644: 2632: 2627: 2611: 2599: 2587: 2575: 2563: 2551: 2539: 2527: 2496: 2469: 2460: 2450: 2441: 2431: 2419: 2410: 2400: 2373: 2368:, p. 5. 2346: 2338: 2330: 2322: 2314: 2305: 2295: 2283: 2271: 2259: 2247: 2235: 2223: 2196: 2165: 2150: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2094: 2082: 2070: 2063:De vir. ill. 2062: 2050: 2038: 2003: 1957: 1955: 1951:risorgimento 1942: 1936: 1928: 1902: 1898: 1884: 1879: 1872: 1844: 1833: 1827: 1821:risorgimento 1819: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1784: 1779: 1764: 1761: 1752: 1746: 1742: 1739: 1723: 1714: 1711: 1704: 1701:Roman tribes 1694: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1660: 1654: 1650: 1648: 1636: 1621: 1592: 1584: 1569: 1555: 1538: 1527: 1524: 1500: 1477: 1458: 1443: 1431: 1425: 1413:Cimbric wars 1409:Gaius Marius 1398:fell in the 1393: 1324: 1316: 1300: 1287:Gaius Marius 1275: 1242: 1238: 1230: 1220: 1216: 1206: 1198: 1184: 1178: 1174: 1164: 1157: 1143: 1136: 1130: 1103: 1099: 1089: 1086: 1078: 1075:Preparations 1051: 1046: 1035: 1030: 1028: 1023:Italian coin 999: 997: 993: 982: 963: 958: 948: 946: 942: 922: 905: 877: 870: 847: 830:call it the 791: 782: 774: 766: 756: 752: 750: 733: 725: 705: 684: 680: 667: 665: 599: 527: 513:Samnite Wars 369: 283: 262:Gaius Marius 247: 229: 167: 126:Marsic group 125: 102:Belligerents 47:Part of the 29: 5368:Wars of the 5316:Gallic Wars 5245:Achaean War 5132:Pyrrhic War 5082:Wars of the 4481:: 227–227. 4153:Flower 2010 4141:Flower 2010 4129:Flower 2010 4105:allegiance. 4043:Flower 2010 4007:Flower 2010 3995:Seager 1994 3983:Seager 1994 3849:, 1.55–56; 3813:Seager 1994 3758:Mackay 2009 3675:Seager 1994 3634:, 1.53 and 3605:Mackay 2009 3550:Seager 1994 2464:, 1.34.152. 2075:Mackay 2009 1515:Herculaneum 1421:Fucine lake 1347:Herculaneum 1339:Alba Fucens 1272:88 BC. 1219:set up the 1165:imperatores 901:Bacchanalia 783:Italian war 681:Italian War 635:Liberators' 620:3rd Servile 595:2nd Servile 590:1st Servile 518:Pyrrhic War 424:Fucine Lake 308:130,000 men 305:175,000 men 83:Roman Italy 5468:Categories 5388:Gothic War 5149:Punic Wars 5137:Social War 4941:Civil Wars 4861:OCD (2012) 4758:2009004551 4461:Steel 2013 4282:Steel 2013 4249:, 32; and 4239:Vell. Pat. 4100:1100981198 3794:Steel 2013 3770:Gabba 1994 3687:Steel 2013 3538:Gabba 1994 3526:Gabba 1994 3514:Gabba 1994 3486:Gabba 1994 3476:, 1.50–52. 3467:Gabba 1994 3444:Gabba 1994 3384:Gabba 1994 3368:Gabba 1994 3356:Gabba 1994 3334:Gabba 1994 3318:Gabba 1994 3292:Gabba 1994 3265:Gabba 1994 3253:Gabba 1994 3241:Gabba 1994 3206:Gabba 1994 3182:Steel 2013 3154:Gabba 1994 3144:, 1.42–45. 3135:Gabba 1994 3116:Gabba 1994 3097:Gabba 1994 3023:Gabba 1994 2992:Gabba 1994 2956:Gabba 1994 2916:Steel 2013 2887:(4): 459. 2835:Vell. Pat. 2683:OCD (2012) 2661:Steel 2013 2649:Steel 2013 2637:Steel 2013 2616:Steel 2013 2436:Gabba 1994 2147:Vell. Pat. 2012:Brunt 1971 2008:Brunt 1971 1996:Brunt 1971 1976:References 1741:therefore 1560:Roman Asia 964:Civil Wars 894:after the 862:Background 775:Marsic war 753:Social war 685:Marsic War 668:Social War 578:civil wars 528:Social War 181:Campanians 42:Social War 5035:878406233 4966:Periochae 4901:840473534 4852:959667246 4825:981917178 4596:934513985 4580:. Wiley. 4523:Dart 2016 4511:Dart 2016 4495:1753-528X 4444:1055-7660 4418:Dart 2016 4406:Dart 2016 4394:Dart 2016 4382:Dart 2016 4370:Dart 2016 4350:Dart 2016 4338:Ad Heren. 4330:Dart 2016 4318:Dart 2016 4294:Dart 2016 4278:Dart 2016 4266:Dart 2016 4237:, 12.27; 4231:Dart 2016 4218:1055-7660 4179:1055-7660 3938:Dart 2016 3663:Dart 2016 3651:Dart 2016 3625:Dart 2016 3613:Dart 2016 3601:Dart 2016 3589:Dart 2016 3574:Dart 2016 3562:Dart 2016 3502:Dart 2016 3432:Dart 2016 3415:Dart 2016 3403:Dart 2016 3229:Dart 2016 3194:Dart 2016 3170:Dart 2016 3125:, 1.47.1. 3078:Dart 2016 3066:Dart 2016 3054:Dart 2016 3035:Dart 2016 3004:Dart 2016 2940:Dart 2016 2928:Dart 2016 2899:lex Varia 2893:0018-2311 2819:Dart 2009 2805:, 1.18.6 2799:Dart 2009 2759:Dart 2009 2747:Dart 2009 2735:Dart 2009 2679:Fregellae 2489:Dart 2009 2445:, 1.38.1. 2139:Leg. agr. 2111:Leg. agr. 2099:Dart 2016 2087:Dart 2016 2055:Dart 2016 1981:Citations 1919:Eutropius 1880:hegemonia 1747:centuriae 1715:lex Julia 1677:duovirate 1664:municipia 1602:near the 1539:municipia 1496:Marrucini 1335:Grumentum 1304:prorogued 1185:imperator 1180:imperator 1146:Latin War 1110:Corfinium 1081:Fregellae 1006:Rebellion 1000:publicani 913:Lucanians 751:The name 720:civil war 615:Sertorian 191:Lucanians 186:Iapygians 149:Marrucini 4963:(2003). 4708:25598463 4542:(1952). 4241:, 2.15; 4067:73994209 3970:97-50351 3301:, 1.49; 2841:, 2.6.4. 2341:, 28–30. 2141:, 2.80; 2117:, 8.31; 2113:, 2.90; 1964:See also 1911:Paeligni 1897:include 1894:libertas 1888:libertas 1852:Lucullus 1830:Appianic 1743:de facto 1735:Augustus 1595:Bruttium 1556:basileos 1494:and the 1488:Bovianum 1473:defeated 1375:Canusium 1351:Salernum 1331:Venafrum 1327:Aesernia 1308:triremes 1175:embratur 1070:Outbreak 909:Samnites 888:Volsinii 880:Arretium 852:call it 645:Perusine 625:Caesar's 409:Canusium 389:Aesernia 300:Strength 176:Samnites 159:Frentani 154:Picentes 139:Paeligni 78:Location 73:91–87 BC 4340:, 4.13. 4256:, 1.21. 3803:, 1.49. 3696:, 1.49. 3393:, 1.50. 3343:, 1.49. 3106:, 1.41. 3087:, 1.42. 3013:, 1.39. 2133:: Cic. 2125:, 1.77. 2109:: Cic. 2065:, 75.5. 1781:power: 1669:comitia 1655:denarii 1600:Rhegium 1511:Stabiae 1503:Pompeii 1492:Vestini 1355:Acerrae 1217:equites 884:Lucania 812:Sallust 708:Asculum 683:or the 610:Sulla's 404:Asculum 384:Acerrae 284:† 248:† 230:† 201:Venusia 196:Hirpini 144:Vestini 5304:Second 5270:Second 5196:Fourth 5186:Second 5159:Second 5033: 5023: 5004: 4918: 4899: 4889: 4850: 4840: 4823: 4813: 4794: 4775: 4756: 4746: 4725: 4706: 4656:121060 4654: 4644: 4594: 4584: 4563: 4493: 4449:Italy. 4442: 4216: 4177: 4098: 4088: 4065: 4055: 3968: 3958: 3455:Cicero 2891: 2681:". In 2156:I, 588 2137:, 21; 1943:Italia 1915:Strabo 1862:, and 1724:After 1643:Málaga 1618:Impact 1449:tribes 1438:Pontus 1371:Firmum 1349:, and 1227:Course 1161:Florus 1090:before 1059:Latins 960:Appian 933:Pompey 925:empire 886:, and 826:, and 771:Florus 762:socius 729:Appian 670:(from 655:Actium 630:Mutina 600:Social 419:Firmum 394:Taenum 280: 244: 226: 90:Result 5309:Third 5299:First 5275:Third 5265:First 5191:Third 5181:First 5164:Third 5154:First 4704:JSTOR 4253:BCiv. 4251:App. 4243:Flor. 4235:Phil. 3856:, 77. 3851:Livy 3846:BCiv. 3844:App. 3800:BCiv. 3798:App. 3693:BCiv. 3691:App. 3641:, 76. 3636:Livy 3631:BCiv. 3629:App. 3473:BCiv. 3471:App. 3450:BCiv. 3448:App. 3390:BCiv. 3388:App. 3340:BCiv. 3338:App. 3308:, 74. 3303:Livy 3298:BCiv. 3296:App. 3275:BCiv. 3273:App. 3212:BCiv. 3210:App. 3141:BCiv. 3139:App. 3122:BCiv. 3120:App. 3103:BCiv. 3101:App. 3084:BCiv. 3082:App. 3039:Livy 3010:BCiv. 3008:App. 2839:Flor. 2803:Flor. 2461:BCiv. 2459:App. 2442:BCiv. 2440:App. 2411:BCiv. 2409:App. 2339:Balb. 2143:Arch. 2123:Hist. 2115:Phil. 2059:Flor. 1856:Sulla 1455:89 BC 1404:Marsi 1251:90 BC 1169:Oscan 1114:forum 974:Gaius 779:Marsi 701:Italy 699:) in 695:socii 672:Latin 134:Marsi 5031:OCLC 5021:ISBN 5002:ISBN 4961:Livy 4916:ISBN 4897:OCLC 4887:ISBN 4848:OCLC 4838:ISBN 4821:OCLC 4811:ISBN 4792:ISBN 4773:ISBN 4754:LCCN 4744:ISBN 4723:ISBN 4652:OCLC 4642:ISBN 4592:OCLC 4582:ISBN 4561:ISBN 4491:ISSN 4440:ISSN 4247:Mar. 4214:ISSN 4175:ISSN 4096:OCLC 4086:ISBN 4063:OCLC 4053:ISBN 3966:LCCN 3956:ISBN 3853:Per. 3638:Per. 3322:FGrH 3305:Per. 3041:Per. 2889:ISSN 2135:Clu. 2119:Div. 1907:Ovid 1864:Livy 1574:and 1513:and 1482:and 1463:and 1343:Nola 1289:and 1281:and 1120:and 911:and 747:Name 666:The 429:Nola 70:Date 4866:doi 4483:doi 4354:Am. 2323:one 2152:CIL 2145:4. 1436:of 1293:. 1172:sg. 1045:'s 962:'s 810:); 798:or 5470:: 5029:. 4895:. 4846:. 4819:. 4752:. 4700:58 4698:. 4650:. 4590:. 4497:. 4489:. 4479:89 4477:. 4473:. 4446:. 4438:. 4434:. 4212:. 4208:. 4173:. 4169:. 4102:. 4094:. 4061:. 3964:. 3820:^ 3581:^ 3348:^ 2908:^ 2895:. 2885:18 2883:. 2879:. 2715:^ 2512:^ 2481:^ 2385:^ 2358:^ 2208:^ 2177:^ 2023:^ 1988:^ 1870:. 1858:, 1854:, 1850:, 1737:. 1566:. 1361:, 1345:, 1333:, 1150:c. 882:, 858:. 822:, 327:c. 5066:e 5059:t 5052:v 5037:. 5010:. 4924:. 4903:. 4868:: 4863:. 4854:. 4827:. 4800:. 4781:. 4760:. 4731:. 4710:. 4658:. 4598:. 4569:. 4485:: 4471:" 4220:. 4181:. 4069:. 3972:. 2809:. 2685:. 2191:. 2045:. 1823:. 1167:( 567:e 560:t 553:v 463:e 456:t 449:v 361:e 354:t 347:v 170:: 128:: 36:. 20:)

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Knowledge

Social War (91–87 BC)

Index