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Researchers focusing solely on whether their results are statistically significant might report findings that are not substantive and not replicable. There is also a difference between statistical significance and practical significance. A study that is found to be statistically significant may not
587:
than a one-tailed test, because the rejection region for a one-tailed test is concentrated on one end of the null distribution and is twice the size (5% vs. 2.5%) of each rejection region for a two-tailed test. As a result, the null hypothesis can be rejected with a less extreme result if a
715:
A statistically significant result may not be easy to reproduce. In particular, some statistically significant results will in fact be false positives. Each failed attempt to reproduce a result increases the likelihood that the result was a false positive.
813:-values as continuous indices, thereby discarding thresholds and statistical significance. Additionally, the change to 0.005 would increase the likelihood of false negatives, whereby the effect being studied is real, but the test fails to show it.
429:
should be rejected or retained. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that no effect exists in the phenomenon being studied. For the null hypothesis to be rejected, an observed result has to be statistically significant, i.e. the observed
1945:"Conclusions about statistical significance are possible with the help of the confidence interval. If the confidence interval does not include the value of zero effect, it can be assumed that there is a statistically significant result."
797: †0.05') as a license for making a claim of a scientific finding (or implied truth) leads to considerable distortion of the scientific process". In 2017, a group of 72 authors proposed to enhance reproducibility by changing the
821:
We conclude, based on our review of the articles in this special issue and the broader literature, that it is time to stop using the term "statistically significant" entirely. Nor should variants such as "significantly different,"
741:=5%, was being relied on too heavily as the primary measure of validity of a hypothesis. Some journals encouraged authors to do more detailed analysis than just a statistical significance test. In social psychology, the journal
588:
one-tailed test was used. The one-tailed test is only more powerful than a two-tailed test if the specified direction of the alternative hypothesis is correct. If it is wrong, however, then the one-tailed test has no power.
680:
Effect size is a measure of a study's practical significance. A statistically significant result may have a weak effect. To gauge the research significance of their result, researchers are encouraged to always report an
152:-value of an observed effect is less than (or equal to) the significance level, an investigator may conclude that the effect reflects the characteristics of the whole population, thereby rejecting the null hypothesis.
816:
In 2019, over 800 statisticians and scientists signed a message calling for the abandonment of the term "statistical significance" in science, and the ASA published a further official statement declaring (page 2):
3249:
2867:
Ioannidis, John P. A.; Ware, Jennifer J.; Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan; Simonsohn, Uri; Chambers, Christopher D.; Button, Katherine S.; Bishop, Dorothy V. M.; Nosek, Brian A.; MunafĂČ, Marcus R. (January 2017).
754:-values, as Basic and Applied Social Psychology recently did, is not going to solve the problem because it is merely treating a symptom of the problem. There is nothing wrong with hypothesis testing and
3182:. There is growing determination to reform statistical analysis... Some suggest changing statistical methods, whereas others would do away with a threshold for defining "significant" results." (p. 63.)
2626:
801:-value threshold for statistical significance from 0.05 to 0.005. Other researchers responded that imposing a more stringent significance threshold would aggravate problems such as
461:-value, which is the probability of observing an effect of the same magnitude or more extreme given that the null hypothesis is true. The null hypothesis is rejected if the
123:
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instead. This is the probability of not rejecting the null hypothesis given that it is true. Confidence levels and confidence intervals were introduced by Neyman in 1937.
846:
534:
503:
483:
452:
345:
305:
270:
250:
64:
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758:-values per se as long as authors, reviewers, and action editors use them correctly." Some statisticians prefer to use alternative measures of evidence, such as
325:
92:
3286:
747:
banned the use of significance testing altogether from papers it published, requiring authors to use other measures to evaluate hypotheses and impact.
770:
can avoid confidence levels, but also requires making additional assumptions, and may not necessarily improve practice regarding statistical testing.
2012:
997:
Myers, Jerome L.; Well, Arnold D.; Lorch, Robert F. Jr. (2010). "Developing fundamentals of hypothesis testing using the binomial distribution".
689:-values. An effect size measure quantifies the strength of an effect, such as the distance between two means in units of standard deviation (cf.
125:. The significance level for a study is chosen before data collection, and is typically set to 5% or much lowerâdepending on the field of study.
4794:
694:
348:
5299:
275:
Despite his initial suggestion of 0.05 as a significance level, Fisher did not intend this cutoff value to be fixed. In his 1956 publication
3306:. The earth is round (p<.05). American Psychologist. Vol 49, p. 997-1003. Reviews problems with null hypothesis statistical testing.
1506:
5449:
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5073:
3714:
220:. Fisher suggested a probability of one in twenty (0.05) as a convenient cutoff level to reject the null hypothesis. In a 1933 paper,
3197:
327:
below which the null hypothesis is rejected even though by assumption it were true, and something else is going on. This means that
4847:
216:
1153:. Wiley Reference Series in Biostatistics (3rd ed.). West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 35â36.
5723:
5286:
552:-value is less than (or equal to) 5%. When drawing data from a sample, this means that the rejection region comprises 5% of the
3267:
3214:
2712:
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2130:
2097:
2072:
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1826:
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1608:
1486:
1461:
1426:
1401:
1376:
1343:
1318:
1290:
1230:
Sham, Pak C.; Purcell, Shaun M (17 April 2014). "Statistical power and significance testing in large-scale genetic studies".
1158:
1042:
1006:
978:
950:
3370:
3709:
3409:
3377:" (February 1994): article by Bruce Thompon hosted by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation, Washington, D.C.
735:
Starting in the 2010s, some journals began questioning whether significance testing, and particularly using a threshold of
2971:
4313:
3461:
1061:
743:
347:
is also the probability of mistakenly rejecting the null hypothesis, if the null hypothesis is true. This is also called
17:
95:, is the probability of obtaining a result at least as extreme, given that the null hypothesis is true. The result is
5096:
4988:
1419:
Compassionate
Statistics: Applied Quantitative Analysis for Social Services (With exercises and instructions in SPSS)
425:
Statistical significance plays a pivotal role in statistical hypothesis testing. It is used to determine whether the
163:
is not the same as research significance, theoretical significance, or practical significance. For example, the term
155:
This technique for testing the statistical significance of results was developed in the early 20th century. The term
2656:
5701:
5274:
5148:
3381:
786:
352:
5332:
4993:
4738:
4109:
3699:
1903:
Neyman, J.; Pearson, E.S. (1933). "The testing of statistical hypotheses in relation to probabilities a priori".
214:
advanced the idea of statistical hypothesis testing, which he called "tests of significance", in his publication
66:, is the probability of the study rejecting the null hypothesis, given that the null hypothesis is true; and the
1846:. Essays in Cognitive Psychology (1st ed.). East Sussex, United Kingdom: Psychology Press. pp. 29â48.
5383:
4595:
4402:
4291:
4249:
895:
381:
31:
4323:
2595:
Principles, Problems, Practices, and
Prospects Reproducibility: Principles, Problems, Practices, and Prospects
5626:
4585:
3488:
646:
3384:" (no date): an article from the Statistical Assessment Service at George Mason University, Washington, D.C.
3153:
Lydia
Denworth, "A Significant Problem: Standard scientific methods are under fire. Will anything change?",
1626:"An argument for Divine Providence, taken from the constant regularity observed in the births of both sexes"
5177:
5126:
5111:
5101:
4970:
4842:
4809:
4635:
4590:
4420:
3206:
1477:
Myers, Jerome L.; Well, Arnold D.; Lorch, Robert F. Jr. (2010). "The t distribution and its applications".
906:
848:," and "nonsignificant" survive, whether expressed in words, by asterisks in a table, or in some other way.
698:
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3434:
3041:
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5378:
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4674:
4385:
4203:
3686:
3558:
3218:
2997:
Amrhein, Valentin; Greenland, Sander (2017). "Remove, rather than redefine, statistical significance".
2737:
916:
2010:(1937). "Outline of a Theory of Statistical Estimation Based on the Classical Theory of Probability".
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4318:
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4169:
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407:
397:
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Clarke, GM; Anderson, CA; Pettersson, FH; Cardon, LR; Morris, AP; Zondervan, KT (February 6, 2011).
5621:
5388:
5251:
4936:
4901:
4865:
4650:
4092:
4001:
3960:
3872:
3563:
3402:
892:
102:
2473:"The earth is flat (p > 0.05): significance thresholds and the crisis of unreplicable research"
1149:
Redmond, Carol; Colton, Theodore (2001). "Clinical significance versus statistical significance".
793:-values, saying that "the widespread use of 'statistical significance' (generally interpreted as '
5530:
5143:
5083:
5020:
4658:
4642:
4380:
4242:
4232:
4082:
3996:
537:
2233:
825:
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5291:
5228:
4983:
4870:
3867:
3764:
3671:
3550:
3449:
3293:
Vol. 506, p. 150-152 (open access). Highlights common misunderstandings about the p value.
2122:
1879:
1873:
1517:
1453:
774:
572:
389:
141:
3195:
The Cult of
Statistical Significance: How the Standard Error Costs Us Jobs, Justice, and Lives
1715:
773:
The widespread abuse of statistical significance represents an important topic of research in
5593:
5535:
5478:
5304:
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4832:
4716:
4575:
4567:
4457:
4449:
4264:
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3950:
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3804:
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3429:
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1818:
1812:
1368:
1360:
901:
883:
553:
519:
488:
468:
437:
418:
330:
290:
255:
235:
176:
164:
137:
49:
1790:. Multivariate Applications Series. East Sussex, United Kingdom: Routledge. pp. 21â52.
5516:
5091:
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5016:
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4896:
4875:
4827:
4706:
4684:
4653:
4562:
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4390:
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4237:
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3955:
3731:
3611:
3323:
3080:
2776:
2683:
2021:
1912:
1625:
1103:
186:
3194:
1995:
1365:
Handbook of
Research Methods: A Guide for Practitioners and Students in the Social Science
1282:
8:
5663:
5588:
5511:
5192:
4956:
4949:
4911:
4819:
4799:
4771:
4504:
4370:
4365:
4355:
4347:
4165:
4126:
4016:
4006:
3915:
3694:
3650:
3568:
3493:
3395:
3155:
2538:
767:
623:
601:
200:
at birth, assuming a null hypothesis of equal probability of male and female births; see
133:
3327:
3084:
2687:
2395:
2025:
1916:
1107:
541:
510:
5677:
5488:
5342:
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5187:
5063:
4960:
4944:
4921:
4698:
4432:
4415:
4375:
4286:
4181:
4143:
4114:
4074:
4034:
3980:
3897:
3583:
3578:
3022:
2896:
2869:
2844:
2811:
2550:
2499:
2472:
2445:
2418:
2399:
2359:
2332:
2308:
2283:
2226:
2115:
2045:
2037:
1973:
1948:
1928:
1788:
Understanding The New
Statistics: Effect Sizes, Confidence Intervals, and Meta-Analysis
1576:
1543:
1444:
1255:
1176:
Understanding The New
Statistics: Effect Sizes, Confidence Intervals, and Meta-Analysis
1126:
1091:
888:
866:
725:
615:
597:
310:
77:
457:
To determine whether a result is statistically significant, a researcher calculates a
5672:
5583:
5553:
5545:
5365:
5356:
5281:
5212:
5068:
5053:
5028:
4916:
4857:
4723:
4711:
4337:
4254:
4198:
4121:
3965:
3887:
3666:
3540:
3341:
3263:
3210:
3189:
3098:
3014:
2952:
2901:
2849:
2831:
2606:
2573:
2542:
2504:
2450:
2364:
2313:
2262:
2237:
2201:
2176:
2151:
2126:
2093:
2068:
1978:
1932:
1883:
1847:
1822:
1791:
1752:
1719:
1691:
1667:
1604:
1581:
1563:
1482:
1457:
1422:
1397:
1372:
1339:
1314:
1286:
1247:
1212:
1154:
1131:
1038:
1002:
974:
946:
860:
584:
568:
144:, there is always the possibility that an observed effect would have occurred due to
3026:
2403:
2049:
1786:
Cumming, Geoff (2011). "From null hypothesis significance to testing effect sizes".
1599:
Brian, Ăric; Jaisson, Marie (2007). "Physico-Theology and
Mathematics (1710â1794)".
1259:
279:
he recommended that significance levels be set according to specific circumstances.
5608:
5563:
5327:
5314:
5207:
5182:
5116:
5048:
4926:
4534:
4427:
4360:
4273:
4220:
4039:
3910:
3704:
3588:
3503:
3470:
3331:
3276:
Beyond
Significance Testing: Reforming Data Analysis Methods in Behavioral Research
3233:
3131:
3088:
3006:
2979:
2942:
2932:
2891:
2881:
2839:
2823:
2790:
2752:
2691:
2598:
2554:
2534:
2494:
2484:
2440:
2430:
2391:
2354:
2344:
2303:
2295:
2029:
1968:
1960:
1920:
1642:
1571:
1555:
1239:
1202:
1121:
1111:
1030:
759:
607:
509:, and is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis given that it is true (a
359:
3136:
3117:
2795:
5525:
5269:
5131:
5058:
4733:
4607:
4580:
4557:
4526:
4153:
4148:
4102:
3832:
3483:
3374:
3367:
3303:
3253:
3224:
Thompson, Bruce (2004). "The "significance" crisis in psychology and education".
3201:
3175:
2756:
2435:
2349:
2261:(1st ed.). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. IiâIii.
1544:"Balancing statistical and clinical significance in evaluating treatment effects"
1275:
710:
561:
557:
426:
385:
197:
39:
5015:
3237:
2812:"Thou Shalt Not Bear False Witness Against Null Hypothesis Significance Testing"
1452:(1st ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp.
1034:
5474:
5469:
3932:
3862:
3508:
3336:
3311:
3185:
3093:
3068:
2382:
Carver, Ronald P. (1978). "The Case
Against Statistical Significance Testing".
2228:
Risk, Chance, and Causation: Investigating the Origins and Treatment of Disease
1947:
Prel, Jean-Baptist du; Hommel, Gerhard; Röhrig, Bernd; Blettner, Maria (2009).
182:
145:
3363:" contains an entry on Significance that provides some historical information.
3010:
2983:
2937:
2920:
2602:
1964:
1924:
1069:
556:. These 5% can be allocated to one side of the sampling distribution, as in a
5717:
5631:
5598:
5461:
5422:
5233:
5202:
4666:
4620:
4225:
3927:
3754:
3518:
3513:
2835:
2827:
2200:(1st ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 146â152.
1744:
1567:
1421:(1st ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 127â138.
945:(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 271â316.
802:
611:
211:
2886:
2259:
Shifting Standards: Experiments in Particle Physics in the Twentieth Century
1334:
Craparo, Robert M. (2007). "Significance level". In Salkind, Neil J. (ed.).
1116:
750:
Other editors, commenting on this ban have noted: "Banning the reporting of
564:, with each tail (or rejection region) containing 2.5% of the distribution.
5573:
5506:
5483:
5398:
4728:
4024:
3922:
3857:
3799:
3784:
3721:
3676:
3345:
3282:
3102:
3018:
2956:
2905:
2853:
2546:
2525:
Hojat, Mohammadreza; Xu, Gang (2004). "A Visitor's Guide to Effect Sizes".
2508:
2454:
2368:
2317:
2299:
2033:
2007:
1996:
StatNews #73: Overlapping Confidence Intervals and Statistical Significance
1982:
1771:
Hald, Anders (1998), "Chapter 4. Chance or Design: Tests of Significance",
1647:
1585:
1559:
1251:
1216:
1135:
763:
690:
225:
221:
3270:â argues that statistical significance is useful in certain circumstances.
2738:"On doing better science: From thrill of discovery to policy implications"
1514:
University of Alberta, Department of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences
626:, with significance thresholds set at a much stricter level (for example 5
548:, is 5%, and a statistically significant result is one where the observed
5616:
5578:
5261:
5162:
5024:
4837:
4804:
4296:
4213:
4208:
3852:
3809:
3789:
3769:
3759:
3528:
3275:
3116:
Wasserstein, Ronald L.; Schirm, Allen L.; Lazar, Nicole A. (2019-03-20).
1740:
911:
874:
682:
675:
631:
201:
2947:
4462:
3942:
3642:
3573:
3523:
3498:
3418:
3167:
2489:
1338:. Vol. 3. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. pp. 889â891.
1207:
1190:
919:(gives examples of tests where the significance level was set too high)
129:
2572:(Student ed.). New York, NY: Psychology Press. pp. 180â210.
657:
are not uncommonâas the number of tests performed is extremely large.
4615:
4467:
4087:
3882:
3794:
3779:
3774:
3739:
3171:
2631:-values and the Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) paradigm"
2041:
1712:
The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty Before 1900
1417:
Faherty, Vincent (2008). "Probability and statistical significance".
3360:
2696:
2671:
2520:
2518:
2121:(1st ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.
1878:(1st ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.
1243:
1025:
Dalgaard, Peter (2008). "Power and the computation of sample size".
973:(3rd ed.). Milwaukee, WI: ASQ Quality Press. pp. 418â472.
38:
when a result at least as "extreme" would be very infrequent if the
4131:
3749:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3310:
Amrhein, Valentin; Greenland, Sander; McShane, Blake (2019-03-20).
3067:
McShane, Blake; Greenland, Sander; Amrhein, Valentin (March 2019).
2471:
Amrhein, Valentin; Korner-Nievergelt, FrÀnzi; Roth, Tobias (2017).
2331:
Barsh, GS; Copenhaver, GP; Gibson, G; Williams, SM (July 5, 2012).
878:
805:; alternative propositions are thus to select and justify flexible
181:
Statistical significance dates to the 18th century, in the work of
1396:(13th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. pp. 185â226.
614:, statistical significance is often expressed in multiples of the
5636:
5337:
3382:
What does it mean for a result to be "statistically significant"?
3179:
3160:
2866:
2515:
2148:
An Introduction To Experimental Design And Statistics For Biology
2092:(2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. pp. 177â205.
1029:. Statistics and Computing. New York: Springer. pp. 155â56.
402:
393:
190:
67:
2777:"The ASA's Statement on p-Values: Context, Process, and Purpose"
2067:(3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. pp. 189â209.
1313:(8th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. pp. 300â344.
5558:
4539:
4513:
4493:
3744:
3535:
3166:
for nearly a century to determine statistical significance of
2713:"P value ban: small step for a journal, giant leap for science"
2593:
Stahel, Werner (2016). "Statistical Issue in Reproducibility".
2232:(1st ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp.
2117:
Statistics Explained: An Introductory Guide for Life Scientists
1905:
Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
1450:
Statistics Explained: An Introductory Guide for Life Scientists
3159:, vol. 321, no. 4 (October 2019), pp. 62â67. "The use of
2281:
3387:
2330:
591:
2470:
2284:"Basic statistical analysis in genetic case-control studies"
2257:
Franklin, Allan (2013). "Prologue: The rise of the sigmas".
2063:
Meier, Kenneth J.; Brudney, Jeffrey L.; Bohte, John (2011).
1191:"Points of significance: Significance, P values and t-tests"
575:
specifies a direction such as whether a group of objects is
560:, or partitioned to both sides of the distribution, as in a
3478:
3361:
Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (S)
2171:
Hinton, Perry R. (2010). "Significance, error, and power".
1481:(3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 124â153.
1367:(2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc. pp.
1311:
Probability and Statistics for Engineering and the Sciences
2065:
Applied Statistics for Public and Nonprofit Administration
1445:"Probability helps you make a decision about your results"
809:-value thresholds before collecting data, or to interpret
583:. A two-tailed test may still be used but it will be less
421:
and makes up 5% of the area under the curve (white areas).
167:
refers to the practical importance of a treatment effect.
3247:
Statistical Significance: Rationale, Validity and Utility
2570:
Measurement, Design, and Analysis: An Integrated Approach
2175:(3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 79â90.
2150:(1st ed.). Boston, MA: CRC press. pp. 123â154.
1842:
Poletiek, Fenna H. (2001). "Formal theories of testing".
1634:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
1001:(3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 65â90.
969:
Borror, Connie M. (2009). "Statistical decision making".
567:
The use of a one-tailed test is dependent on whether the
465:-value is less than (or equal to) a predetermined level,
434:-value is less than the pre-specified significance level
375:
2090:
The Essentials of Statistics: A Tool for Social Research
1946:
1603:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1â25.
3309:
3066:
2972:"'One-size-fits-all' threshold for P values under fire"
2775:
Wasserstein, Ronald L.; Lazar, Nicole A. (2016-04-02).
3115:
2770:
2768:
2766:
1773:
A History of Mathematical Statistics from 1750 to 1930
3312:"Scientists rise up against statistical significance"
3069:"Scientists rise up against statistical significance"
1189:
Krzywinski, Martin; Altman, Naomi (30 October 2013).
828:
522:
491:
471:
440:
333:
313:
293:
258:
238:
105:
80:
52:
5300:
Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)
3109:
1875:
Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologists
1662:
Conover, W.J. (1999), "Chapter 3.4: The Sign Test",
1182:
856:
272:
be set ahead of time, prior to any data collection.
3279:
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
2763:
579:or the performance of students on an assessment is
410:, the rejection region for a significance level of
4762:
2225:
2114:
1443:
1281:. New York, USA: Chapman & Hall/CRC. pp.
1274:
840:
528:
497:
477:
446:
339:
319:
299:
264:
244:
117:
86:
58:
2568:Pedhazur, Elazar J.; Schmelkin, Liora P. (1991).
2567:
2062:
2013:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A
1392:Babbie, Earl R. (2013). "The logic of sampling".
1142:
992:
990:
5715:
2996:
2774:
2419:"Why most published research findings are false"
2333:"Guidelines for Genome-Wide Association Studies"
1470:
1223:
1188:
4848:Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)
3368:The Concept of Statistical Significance Testing
2654:
1872:Quinn, Geoffrey R.; Keough, Michael J. (2002).
1096:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
645:In other fields of scientific research such as
2657:"Psychology Journal Bans Significance Testing"
1739:Bellhouse, David (2001), "John Arbuthnot", in
1623:
1476:
996:
987:
941:Sirkin, R. Mark (2005). "Two-sample t tests".
3403:
1902:
1732:
1148:
277:Statistical Methods and Scientific Inference,
159:does not imply importance here, and the term
42:were true. More precisely, a study's defined
2809:
2466:
2464:
2275:
1598:
1092:"Revised standards for statistical evidence"
2324:
2164:
1871:
1817:. Edinburgh, UK: Oliver and Boyd. pp.
1666:(Third ed.), Wiley, pp. 157â176,
1655:
1229:
1178:. New York, USA: Routledge. pp. 27â28.
730:
3448:
3410:
3396:
3170:results has contributed to an illusion of
2637:. School of Education, University of Leeds
2219:
2217:
2000:
1804:
1679:
1336:Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics
1167:
1020:
1018:
780:
592:Significance thresholds in specific fields
4061:
3335:
3135:
3092:
2946:
2936:
2895:
2885:
2843:
2816:Educational and Psychological Measurement
2794:
2735:
2710:
2695:
2627:"CSSME Seminar Series: The argument over
2498:
2488:
2461:
2444:
2434:
2416:
2410:
2358:
2348:
2307:
2106:
2081:
1972:
1738:
1688:Applied Nonparametric Statistical Methods
1646:
1575:
1304:
1302:
1277:Practical Statistics for Medical Research
1206:
1125:
1115:
3223:
3118:"Moving to a World Beyond "p < 0.05""
3042:"Moving Science's Statistical Goalposts"
2918:
2669:
2561:
2256:
2250:
2198:Scientific Inference: Learning from Data
2112:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1841:
1835:
1814:Statistical Methods for Research Workers
1764:
1479:Research Design and Statistical Analysis
1441:
1435:
1024:
999:Research design and statistical analysis
964:
962:
936:
934:
932:
666:necessarily be practically significant.
401:
217:Statistical Methods for Research Workers
2524:
2223:
2214:
2195:
2189:
1785:
1779:
1709:
1690:(Second ed.), Chapman & Hall,
1661:
1601:The Descent of Human Sex Ratio at Birth
1416:
1410:
1385:
1358:
1352:
1333:
1327:
1173:
1089:
1015:
971:The Certified Quality Engineer Handbook
634:particle's existence was based on the 5
14:
5716:
5374:KaplanâMeier estimator (product limit)
2969:
2919:Benjamin, Daniel; et al. (2018).
2870:"A manifesto for reproducible science"
2810:GarcĂa-PĂ©rez, Miguel A. (2016-10-05).
2592:
2381:
2375:
2170:
2145:
2006:
1896:
1810:
1685:
1391:
1308:
1299:
1272:
1266:
1083:
968:
940:
630:). For instance, the certainty of the
546:given that the null hypothesis is true
376:Role in statistical hypothesis testing
5447:
5014:
4761:
4060:
3830:
3447:
3391:
3287:Scientific method: Statistical errors
2655:Novella, Steven (February 25, 2015).
2527:Advances in Health Sciences Education
2139:
2087:
2056:
1860:
1714:. Harvard University Press. pp.
1541:
1500:
1498:
1090:Johnson, Valen E. (October 9, 2013).
959:
929:
513:). It is usually set at or below 5%.
358:Sometimes researchers talk about the
5684:
5384:Accelerated failure time (AFT) model
3039:
1770:
1056:
1054:
99:by the standards of the study, when
5696:
4979:Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)
3831:
2921:"Redefine statistical significance"
2396:10.17763/haer.48.3.t490261645281841
744:Basic and Applied Social Psychology
417:is partitioned to both ends of the
282:
24:
5074:CochranâMantelâHaenszel statistics
3700:Pearson product-moment correlation
3147:
2672:"Psychology journal bans P values"
2539:10.1023/B:AHSE.0000038173.00909.f6
1664:Practical Nonparametric Statistics
1504:
1495:
943:Statistics for the Social Sciences
704:
642:-value of about 1 in 3.5 million.
638:criterion, which corresponds to a
25:
5735:
3353:
2736:Antonakis, John (February 2017).
1949:"Confidence Interval or P-Value?"
1749:in Statisticians of the Centuries
1051:
27:Concept in inferential statistics
5695:
5683:
5671:
5658:
5657:
5448:
3260:Introducing Statistical Methods,
1151:Biostatistics in Clinical Trials
1062:"Statistical Hypothesis Testing"
859:
787:American Statistical Association
649:, significance levels as low as
5333:Least-squares spectral analysis
3060:
3033:
2990:
2963:
2912:
2860:
2803:
2729:
2704:
2663:
2648:
2619:
2586:
1989:
1939:
1703:
1617:
1592:
1535:
1394:The Practice of Social Research
789:(ASA) published a statement on
647:genome-wide association studies
5724:Statistical hypothesis testing
4314:Mean-unbiased minimum-variance
3417:
3040:Vyse, Stuart (November 2017).
2670:Woolston, Chris (2015-03-05).
2417:Ioannidis, John P. A. (2005).
1027:Introductory Statistics with R
669:
660:
382:Statistical hypothesis testing
32:statistical hypothesis testing
13:
1:
5627:Geographic information system
4843:Simultaneous equations models
3137:10.1080/00031305.2019.1583913
2796:10.1080/00031305.2016.1154108
2711:Siegfried, Tom (2015-03-17).
923:
719:
118:{\displaystyle p\leq \alpha }
4810:Coefficient of determination
4421:Uniformly most powerful test
3207:University of Michigan Press
2757:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.01.006
2436:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124
2350:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002812
2224:Bracken, Michael B. (2013).
1844:Hypothesis-testing Behaviour
1751:, Springer, pp. 39â42,
1710:Stigler, Stephen M. (1986).
1548:Postgraduate Medical Journal
1359:Sproull, Natalie L. (2002).
907:Multiple comparisons problem
7:
5379:Proportional hazards models
5323:Spectral density estimation
5305:Vector autoregression (VAR)
4739:Maximum posterior estimator
3971:Randomized controlled trial
3238:10.1016/j.socec.2004.09.034
1953:Deutsches Ărzteblatt Online
1542:Leung, W.-C. (2001-03-01).
1273:Altman, Douglas G. (1999).
1035:10.1007/978-0-387-79054-1_9
852:
606:In specific fields such as
10:
5740:
5139:Multivariate distributions
3559:Average absolute deviation
3337:10.1038/d41586-019-00857-9
3226:Journal of Socio-Economics
3094:10.1038/d41586-019-00857-9
2384:Harvard Educational Review
1811:Fisher, Ronald A. (1925).
917:Texas sharpshooter fallacy
841:{\displaystyle p\leq 0.05}
723:
708:
673:
595:
379:
174:
170:
97:statistically significant,
5653:
5607:
5544:
5497:
5460:
5456:
5443:
5415:
5397:
5364:
5355:
5313:
5260:
5221:
5170:
5161:
5127:Structural equation model
5082:
5039:
5035:
5010:
4969:
4935:
4889:
4856:
4818:
4785:
4781:
4757:
4697:
4606:
4525:
4489:
4480:
4463:Score/Lagrange multiplier
4448:
4401:
4346:
4272:
4263:
4073:
4069:
4056:
4015:
3989:
3941:
3896:
3878:Sample size determination
3843:
3839:
3826:
3730:
3685:
3659:
3641:
3597:
3549:
3469:
3460:
3456:
3443:
3425:
3217:. Reviews and reception:
3123:The American Statistician
3011:10.1038/s41562-017-0224-0
2984:10.1038/nature.2017.22625
2938:10.1038/s41562-017-0189-z
2782:The American Statistician
2659:. Science-Based Medicine.
2635:www.education.leeds.ac.uk
2603:10.1002/9781118865064.ch5
2088:Healy, Joseph F. (2009).
1965:10.3238/arztebl.2009.0335
1925:10.1017/S030500410001152X
697:between two variables or
398:Type I and type II errors
5622:Environmental statistics
5144:Elliptical distributions
4937:Generalized linear model
4866:Simple linear regression
4636:HodgesâLehmann estimator
4093:Probability distribution
4002:Stochastic approximation
3564:Coefficient of variation
2970:Chawla, Dalmeet (2017).
2828:10.1177/0013164416668232
2745:The Leadership Quarterly
2113:McKillup, Steve (2006).
1442:McKillup, Steve (2006).
731:Overuse in some journals
252:. They recommended that
161:statistical significance
136:that involves drawing a
36:statistical significance
5282:Cross-correlation (XCF)
4890:Non-standard predictors
4324:LehmannâScheffĂ© theorem
3997:Adaptive clinical trial
3262:Sage Publications Ltd,
2887:10.1038/s41562-016-0021
2196:Vaughan, Simon (2013).
1624:John Arbuthnot (1710).
1309:Devore, Jay L. (2011).
1232:Nature Reviews Genetics
1174:Cumming, Geoff (2012).
1117:10.1073/pnas.1313476110
781:Redefining significance
695:correlation coefficient
538:conditional probability
529:{\displaystyle \alpha }
498:{\displaystyle \alpha }
478:{\displaystyle \alpha }
447:{\displaystyle \alpha }
340:{\displaystyle \alpha }
300:{\displaystyle \alpha }
287:The significance level
265:{\displaystyle \alpha }
245:{\displaystyle \alpha }
228:called this cutoff the
59:{\displaystyle \alpha }
5678:Mathematics portal
5499:Engineering statistics
5407:NelsonâAalen estimator
4984:Analysis of covariance
4871:Ordinary least squares
4795:Pearson product-moment
4199:Statistical functional
4110:Empirical distribution
3943:Controlled experiments
3672:Frequency distribution
3450:Descriptive statistics
3296:Cohen, Joseph (1994).
3244:Chow, Siu L., (1996).
3176:reproducibility crises
2999:Nature Human Behaviour
2925:Nature Human Behaviour
2874:Nature Human Behaviour
2300:10.1038/nprot.2010.182
2146:Health, David (1995).
2034:10.1098/rsta.1937.0005
1648:10.1098/rstl.1710.0011
1560:10.1136/pmj.77.905.201
850:
842:
701:, and other measures.
573:alternative hypothesis
530:
499:
479:
448:
422:
390:Alternative hypothesis
341:
321:
301:
266:
246:
119:
88:
60:
5594:Population statistics
5536:System identification
5270:Autocorrelation (ACF)
5198:Exponential smoothing
5112:Discriminant analysis
5107:Canonical correlation
4971:Partition of variance
4833:Regression validation
4677:(JonckheereâTerpstra)
4576:Likelihood-ratio test
4265:Frequentist inference
4177:Locationâscale family
4098:Sampling distribution
4063:Statistical inference
4030:Cross-sectional study
4017:Observational studies
3976:Randomized experiment
3805:Stem-and-leaf display
3607:Central limit theorem
902:Look-elsewhere effect
884:Estimation statistics
843:
819:
596:Further information:
554:sampling distribution
531:
500:
480:
449:
419:sampling distribution
405:
342:
322:
307:is the threshold for
302:
267:
247:
205:-value § History
177:History of statistics
165:clinical significance
120:
89:
61:
5517:Probabilistic design
5102:Principal components
4945:Exponential families
4897:Nonlinear regression
4876:General linear model
4838:Mixed effects models
4828:Errors and residuals
4805:Confounding variable
4707:Bayesian probability
4685:Van der Waerden test
4675:Ordered alternative
4440:Multiple comparisons
4319:RaoâBlackwellization
4282:Estimating equations
4238:Statistical distance
3956:Factorial experiment
3489:Arithmetic-Geometric
3273:Kline, Rex, (2004).
3219:(compiled by Ziliak)
2173:Statistics explained
1641:(325â336): 186â190.
1361:"Hypothesis testing"
826:
520:
489:
469:
438:
331:
311:
291:
256:
236:
187:Pierre-Simon Laplace
103:
78:
50:
5589:Official statistics
5512:Methods engineering
5193:Seasonal adjustment
4961:Poisson regressions
4881:Bayesian regression
4820:Regression analysis
4800:Partial correlation
4772:Regression analysis
4371:Prediction interval
4366:Likelihood interval
4356:Confidence interval
4348:Interval estimation
4309:Unbiased estimators
4127:Model specification
4007:Up-and-down designs
3695:Partial correlation
3651:Index of dispersion
3569:Interquartile range
3328:2019Natur.567..305A
3258:Volume 1 of series
3156:Scientific American
3085:2019Natur.567..305A
2688:2015Natur.519....9W
2026:1937RSPTA.236..333N
1917:1933PCPS...29..492N
1775:, Wiley, p. 65
1686:Sprent, P. (1989),
1108:2013PNAS..11019313J
1102:(48): 19313â19317.
768:Bayesian statistics
624:normal distribution
602:Normal distribution
505:is also called the
232:, which they named
189:, who computed the
5609:Spatial statistics
5489:Medical statistics
5389:First hitting time
5343:Whittle likelihood
4994:Degrees of freedom
4989:Multivariate ANOVA
4922:Heteroscedasticity
4734:Bayesian estimator
4699:Bayesian inference
4548:KolmogorovâSmirnov
4433:Randomization test
4403:Testing hypotheses
4376:Tolerance interval
4287:Maximum likelihood
4182:Exponential family
4115:Density estimation
4075:Statistical theory
4035:Natural experiment
3981:Scientific control
3898:Survey methodology
3584:Standard deviation
3373:2022-09-07 at the
3302:2017-07-13 at the
3252:2013-12-03 at the
3200:2010-06-08 at the
2490:10.7717/peerj.3544
1507:"What is P-value?"
1208:10.1038/nmeth.2698
867:Mathematics portal
838:
726:Misuse of p-values
616:standard deviation
598:Standard deviation
536:is set to 5%, the
526:
516:For example, when
507:significance level
495:
475:
444:
423:
337:
317:
297:
262:
242:
230:significance level
148:alone. But if the
115:
84:
56:
44:significance level
18:Significance level
5711:
5710:
5649:
5648:
5645:
5644:
5584:National accounts
5554:Actuarial science
5546:Social statistics
5439:
5438:
5435:
5434:
5431:
5430:
5366:Survival function
5351:
5350:
5213:Granger causality
5054:Contingency table
5029:Survival analysis
5006:
5005:
5002:
5001:
4858:Linear regression
4753:
4752:
4749:
4748:
4724:Credible interval
4693:
4692:
4476:
4475:
4292:Method of moments
4161:Parametric family
4122:Statistical model
4052:
4051:
4048:
4047:
3966:Random assignment
3888:Statistical power
3822:
3821:
3818:
3817:
3667:Contingency table
3637:
3636:
3504:Generalized/power
3322:(7748): 305â307.
3268:978-0-7619-5205-3
3215:978-0-472-07007-7
3190:Deirdre McCloskey
3180:scientific fields
3079:(7748): 305â307.
2612:978-1-118-86497-5
2579:978-0-8058-1063-9
2268:978-0-8229-4430-0
2243:978-0-300-18884-4
2207:978-1-107-02482-3
2182:978-1-84872-312-2
2157:978-1-85728-132-3
2132:978-0-521-54316-3
2099:978-0-495-60143-2
2074:978-1-111-34280-7
1889:978-0-521-00976-8
1853:978-1-84169-159-6
1828:978-0-05-002170-5
1797:978-0-415-87968-2
1758:978-0-387-95329-8
1725:978-0-674-40341-3
1697:978-0-412-44980-2
1673:978-0-471-16068-7
1610:978-1-4020-6036-6
1523:on March 31, 2020
1488:978-0-8058-6431-1
1463:978-0-521-54316-3
1428:978-1-4129-3982-9
1403:978-1-133-04979-1
1378:978-0-8108-4486-5
1345:978-1-4129-1611-0
1320:978-0-538-73352-6
1292:978-0-412-27630-9
1201:(11): 1041â1042.
1160:978-0-471-82211-0
1066:www.dartmouth.edu
1044:978-0-387-79053-4
1008:978-0-8058-6431-1
980:978-0-87389-745-7
952:978-1-4129-0546-6
760:likelihood ratios
569:research question
320:{\displaystyle p}
87:{\displaystyle p}
16:(Redirected from
5731:
5699:
5698:
5687:
5686:
5676:
5675:
5661:
5660:
5564:Crime statistics
5458:
5457:
5445:
5444:
5362:
5361:
5328:Fourier analysis
5315:Frequency domain
5295:
5242:
5208:Structural break
5168:
5167:
5117:Cluster analysis
5064:Log-linear model
5037:
5036:
5012:
5011:
4953:
4927:Homoscedasticity
4783:
4782:
4759:
4758:
4678:
4670:
4662:
4661:(KruskalâWallis)
4646:
4631:
4586:Cross validation
4571:
4553:AndersonâDarling
4500:
4487:
4486:
4458:Likelihood-ratio
4450:Parametric tests
4428:Permutation test
4411:1- & 2-tails
4302:Minimum distance
4274:Point estimation
4270:
4269:
4221:Optimal decision
4172:
4071:
4070:
4058:
4057:
4040:Quasi-experiment
3990:Adaptive designs
3841:
3840:
3828:
3827:
3705:Rank correlation
3467:
3466:
3458:
3457:
3445:
3444:
3412:
3405:
3398:
3389:
3388:
3349:
3339:
3241:
3142:
3141:
3139:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3096:
3064:
3058:
3057:
3055:
3053:
3037:
3031:
3030:
2994:
2988:
2987:
2967:
2961:
2960:
2950:
2940:
2916:
2910:
2909:
2899:
2889:
2864:
2858:
2857:
2847:
2807:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2772:
2761:
2760:
2742:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2723:
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2667:
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2660:
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2646:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2623:
2617:
2616:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2565:
2559:
2558:
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2513:
2512:
2502:
2492:
2468:
2459:
2458:
2448:
2438:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2379:
2373:
2372:
2362:
2352:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2311:
2288:Nature Protocols
2279:
2273:
2272:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2231:
2221:
2212:
2211:
2193:
2187:
2186:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2120:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2085:
2079:
2078:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2020:(767): 333â380.
2004:
1998:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1976:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1869:
1858:
1857:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1808:
1802:
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1783:
1777:
1776:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1736:
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1677:
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1652:
1650:
1630:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1579:
1554:(905): 201â204.
1539:
1533:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1522:
1516:. Archived from
1511:
1502:
1493:
1492:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1447:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1414:
1408:
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1383:
1382:
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1325:
1324:
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1296:
1280:
1270:
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1227:
1221:
1220:
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1180:
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1171:
1165:
1164:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1129:
1119:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1078:
1077:
1068:. Archived from
1058:
1049:
1048:
1022:
1013:
1012:
994:
985:
984:
966:
957:
956:
938:
869:
864:
863:
847:
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740:
656:
654:
608:particle physics
535:
533:
532:
527:
504:
502:
501:
496:
484:
482:
481:
476:
453:
451:
450:
445:
416:
371:
360:confidence level
346:
344:
343:
338:
326:
324:
323:
318:
306:
304:
303:
298:
283:Related concepts
271:
269:
268:
263:
251:
249:
248:
243:
124:
122:
121:
116:
93:
91:
90:
85:
65:
63:
62:
57:
21:
5739:
5738:
5734:
5733:
5732:
5730:
5729:
5728:
5714:
5713:
5712:
5707:
5670:
5641:
5603:
5540:
5526:quality control
5493:
5475:Clinical trials
5452:
5427:
5411:
5399:Hazard function
5393:
5347:
5309:
5293:
5256:
5252:BreuschâGodfrey
5240:
5217:
5157:
5132:Factor analysis
5078:
5059:Graphical model
5031:
4998:
4965:
4951:
4931:
4885:
4852:
4814:
4777:
4776:
4745:
4689:
4676:
4668:
4660:
4644:
4629:
4608:Rank statistics
4602:
4581:Model selection
4569:
4527:Goodness of fit
4521:
4498:
4472:
4444:
4397:
4342:
4331:Median unbiased
4259:
4170:
4103:Order statistic
4065:
4044:
4011:
3985:
3937:
3892:
3835:
3833:Data collection
3814:
3726:
3681:
3655:
3633:
3593:
3545:
3462:Continuous data
3452:
3439:
3421:
3416:
3375:Wayback Machine
3356:
3304:Wayback Machine
3254:Wayback Machine
3202:Wayback Machine
3186:Ziliak, Stephen
3150:
3148:Further reading
3145:
3114:
3110:
3065:
3061:
3051:
3049:
3038:
3034:
2995:
2991:
2968:
2964:
2917:
2913:
2865:
2861:
2808:
2804:
2773:
2764:
2740:
2734:
2730:
2721:
2719:
2709:
2705:
2697:10.1038/519009f
2668:
2664:
2653:
2649:
2640:
2638:
2625:
2624:
2620:
2613:
2591:
2587:
2580:
2566:
2562:
2523:
2516:
2469:
2462:
2415:
2411:
2380:
2376:
2343:(7): e1002812.
2329:
2325:
2280:
2276:
2269:
2255:
2251:
2244:
2222:
2215:
2208:
2194:
2190:
2183:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2144:
2140:
2133:
2111:
2107:
2100:
2086:
2082:
2075:
2061:
2057:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1990:
1944:
1940:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1870:
1861:
1854:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1809:
1805:
1798:
1784:
1780:
1769:
1765:
1759:
1737:
1733:
1726:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1684:
1680:
1674:
1660:
1656:
1628:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1597:
1593:
1540:
1536:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1509:
1505:Hooper, Peter.
1503:
1496:
1489:
1475:
1471:
1464:
1440:
1436:
1429:
1415:
1411:
1404:
1390:
1386:
1379:
1357:
1353:
1346:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1307:
1300:
1293:
1271:
1267:
1244:10.1038/nrg3706
1228:
1224:
1187:
1183:
1172:
1168:
1161:
1147:
1143:
1088:
1084:
1075:
1073:
1060:
1059:
1052:
1045:
1023:
1016:
1009:
995:
988:
981:
967:
960:
953:
939:
930:
926:
898:of significance
889:Fisher's method
865:
858:
855:
827:
824:
823:
783:
736:
733:
728:
722:
713:
711:Reproducibility
707:
705:Reproducibility
678:
672:
663:
652:
650:
604:
594:
562:two-tailed test
558:one-tailed test
521:
518:
517:
490:
487:
486:
470:
467:
466:
439:
436:
435:
427:null hypothesis
411:
408:two-tailed test
400:
386:Null hypothesis
380:Main articles:
378:
362:
332:
329:
328:
312:
309:
308:
292:
289:
288:
285:
257:
254:
253:
237:
234:
233:
198:human sex ratio
179:
173:
104:
101:
100:
79:
76:
75:
51:
48:
47:
40:null hypothesis
34:, a result has
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5737:
5727:
5726:
5709:
5708:
5706:
5705:
5693:
5681:
5667:
5654:
5651:
5650:
5647:
5646:
5643:
5642:
5640:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5613:
5611:
5605:
5604:
5602:
5601:
5596:
5591:
5586:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5566:
5561:
5556:
5550:
5548:
5542:
5541:
5539:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5503:
5501:
5495:
5494:
5492:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5472:
5470:Bioinformatics
5466:
5464:
5454:
5453:
5441:
5440:
5437:
5436:
5433:
5432:
5429:
5428:
5426:
5425:
5419:
5417:
5413:
5412:
5410:
5409:
5403:
5401:
5395:
5394:
5392:
5391:
5386:
5381:
5376:
5370:
5368:
5359:
5353:
5352:
5349:
5348:
5346:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5319:
5317:
5311:
5310:
5308:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5278:
5277:
5275:partial (PACF)
5266:
5264:
5258:
5257:
5255:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5236:
5231:
5225:
5223:
5222:Specific tests
5219:
5218:
5216:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5174:
5172:
5165:
5159:
5158:
5156:
5155:
5154:
5153:
5152:
5151:
5136:
5135:
5134:
5124:
5122:Classification
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5088:
5086:
5080:
5079:
5077:
5076:
5071:
5069:McNemar's test
5066:
5061:
5056:
5051:
5045:
5043:
5033:
5032:
5008:
5007:
5004:
5003:
5000:
4999:
4997:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4975:
4973:
4967:
4966:
4964:
4963:
4947:
4941:
4939:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4907:Semiparametric
4904:
4899:
4893:
4891:
4887:
4886:
4884:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4862:
4860:
4854:
4853:
4851:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4824:
4822:
4816:
4815:
4813:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4791:
4789:
4779:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4769:
4763:
4755:
4754:
4751:
4750:
4747:
4746:
4744:
4743:
4742:
4741:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4720:
4719:
4714:
4703:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4691:
4690:
4688:
4687:
4682:
4681:
4680:
4672:
4664:
4648:
4645:(MannâWhitney)
4640:
4639:
4638:
4625:
4624:
4623:
4612:
4610:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4600:
4599:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4578:
4573:
4570:(ShapiroâWilk)
4565:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4537:
4531:
4529:
4523:
4522:
4520:
4519:
4511:
4502:
4490:
4484:
4482:Specific tests
4478:
4477:
4474:
4473:
4471:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4454:
4452:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4442:
4437:
4436:
4435:
4425:
4424:
4423:
4413:
4407:
4405:
4399:
4398:
4396:
4395:
4394:
4393:
4388:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4352:
4350:
4344:
4343:
4341:
4340:
4335:
4334:
4333:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4321:
4306:
4305:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4278:
4276:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4258:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4235:
4230:
4229:
4228:
4218:
4217:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4185:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4158:
4157:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4136:
4135:
4134:
4129:
4119:
4118:
4117:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4079:
4077:
4067:
4066:
4054:
4053:
4050:
4049:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4021:
4019:
4013:
4012:
4010:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3993:
3991:
3987:
3986:
3984:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3947:
3945:
3939:
3938:
3936:
3935:
3933:Standard error
3930:
3925:
3920:
3919:
3918:
3913:
3902:
3900:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3863:Optimal design
3860:
3855:
3849:
3847:
3837:
3836:
3824:
3823:
3820:
3819:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3736:
3734:
3728:
3727:
3725:
3724:
3719:
3718:
3717:
3712:
3702:
3697:
3691:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3663:
3661:
3660:Summary tables
3657:
3656:
3654:
3653:
3647:
3645:
3639:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3632:
3631:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3609:
3603:
3601:
3595:
3594:
3592:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3555:
3553:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3494:Contraharmonic
3491:
3486:
3475:
3473:
3464:
3454:
3453:
3441:
3440:
3438:
3437:
3432:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3415:
3414:
3407:
3400:
3392:
3386:
3385:
3378:
3364:
3355:
3354:External links
3352:
3351:
3350:
3307:
3294:
3280:
3271:
3242:
3232:(5): 607â613.
3221:
3183:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3143:
3130:(sup1): 1â19.
3108:
3059:
3032:
2989:
2962:
2911:
2859:
2822:(4): 631â662.
2802:
2789:(2): 129â133.
2762:
2728:
2703:
2662:
2647:
2618:
2611:
2585:
2578:
2560:
2514:
2460:
2409:
2390:(3): 378â399.
2374:
2323:
2274:
2267:
2249:
2242:
2213:
2206:
2188:
2181:
2163:
2156:
2138:
2131:
2105:
2098:
2080:
2073:
2055:
1999:
1988:
1938:
1911:(4): 492â510.
1895:
1888:
1859:
1852:
1834:
1827:
1803:
1796:
1778:
1763:
1757:
1731:
1724:
1702:
1696:
1678:
1672:
1654:
1616:
1609:
1591:
1534:
1494:
1487:
1469:
1462:
1434:
1427:
1409:
1402:
1384:
1377:
1351:
1344:
1326:
1319:
1298:
1291:
1265:
1238:(5): 335â346.
1222:
1195:Nature Methods
1181:
1166:
1159:
1141:
1082:
1050:
1043:
1014:
1007:
986:
979:
958:
951:
927:
925:
922:
921:
920:
914:
909:
904:
899:
891:for combining
886:
881:
871:
870:
854:
851:
837:
834:
831:
782:
779:
732:
729:
721:
718:
709:Main article:
706:
703:
674:Main article:
671:
668:
662:
659:
593:
590:
525:
494:
474:
443:
377:
374:
349:false positive
336:
316:
296:
284:
281:
261:
241:
183:John Arbuthnot
175:Main article:
172:
169:
146:sampling error
114:
111:
108:
83:
55:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5736:
5725:
5722:
5721:
5719:
5704:
5703:
5694:
5692:
5691:
5682:
5680:
5679:
5674:
5668:
5666:
5665:
5656:
5655:
5652:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5632:Geostatistics
5630:
5628:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5614:
5612:
5610:
5606:
5600:
5599:Psychometrics
5597:
5595:
5592:
5590:
5587:
5585:
5582:
5580:
5577:
5575:
5572:
5570:
5567:
5565:
5562:
5560:
5557:
5555:
5552:
5551:
5549:
5547:
5543:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5504:
5502:
5500:
5496:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5467:
5465:
5463:
5462:Biostatistics
5459:
5455:
5451:
5446:
5442:
5424:
5423:Log-rank test
5421:
5420:
5418:
5414:
5408:
5405:
5404:
5402:
5400:
5396:
5390:
5387:
5385:
5382:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5371:
5369:
5367:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5354:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5316:
5312:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5294:(BoxâJenkins)
5290:
5288:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5276:
5273:
5272:
5271:
5268:
5267:
5265:
5263:
5259:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5247:DurbinâWatson
5245:
5243:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5229:DickeyâFuller
5227:
5226:
5224:
5220:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5203:Cointegration
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5178:Decomposition
5176:
5175:
5173:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5160:
5150:
5147:
5146:
5145:
5142:
5141:
5140:
5137:
5133:
5130:
5129:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5089:
5087:
5085:
5081:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5049:Cohen's kappa
5047:
5046:
5044:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5022:
5018:
5013:
5009:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4972:
4968:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4942:
4940:
4938:
4934:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4902:Nonparametric
4900:
4898:
4895:
4894:
4892:
4888:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4861:
4859:
4855:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4821:
4817:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4792:
4790:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4740:
4737:
4736:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4709:
4708:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4700:
4696:
4686:
4683:
4679:
4673:
4671:
4665:
4663:
4657:
4656:
4655:
4652:
4651:Nonparametric
4649:
4647:
4641:
4637:
4634:
4633:
4632:
4626:
4622:
4621:Sample median
4619:
4618:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4611:
4609:
4605:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4583:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4542:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4532:
4530:
4528:
4524:
4518:
4516:
4512:
4510:
4508:
4503:
4501:
4496:
4492:
4491:
4488:
4485:
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4226:loss function
4224:
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4207:
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4197:
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3928:Questionnaire
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3755:Control chart
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3359:The article "
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3313:
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3283:Nuzzo, Regina
3281:
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3205:. Ann Arbor,
3204:
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2467:
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2424:
2423:PLOS Medicine
2420:
2413:
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2389:
2385:
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2361:
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2338:
2337:PLOS Genetics
2334:
2327:
2319:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2294:(2): 121â33.
2293:
2289:
2285:
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2270:
2264:
2260:
2253:
2245:
2239:
2235:
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2101:
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2091:
2084:
2076:
2070:
2066:
2059:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2003:
1997:
1992:
1984:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1959:(19): 335â9.
1958:
1954:
1950:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
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1914:
1910:
1906:
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1109:
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1101:
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1072:on 2020-08-02
1071:
1067:
1063:
1057:
1055:
1046:
1040:
1036:
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1019:
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885:
882:
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876:
873:
872:
868:
862:
857:
849:
835:
832:
829:
818:
814:
812:
808:
804:
803:data dredging
800:
796:
792:
788:
785:In 2016, the
778:
776:
771:
769:
765:
764:Bayes factors
761:
757:
753:
748:
746:
745:
739:
727:
717:
712:
702:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
677:
667:
658:
648:
643:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
612:manufacturing
609:
603:
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589:
586:
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578:
574:
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565:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
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523:
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512:
508:
492:
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464:
460:
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441:
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414:
409:
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391:
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383:
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369:
365:
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354:
350:
334:
314:
294:
280:
278:
273:
259:
239:
231:
227:
223:
219:
218:
213:
212:Ronald Fisher
208:
207:for details.
206:
204:
199:
195:
193:
188:
184:
178:
168:
166:
162:
158:
153:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
126:
112:
109:
106:
98:
94:
81:
73:of a result,
72:
70:
53:
46:, denoted by
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
5700:
5688:
5669:
5662:
5574:Econometrics
5524: /
5507:Chemometrics
5484:Epidemiology
5477: /
5450:Applications
5292:ARIMA model
5239:Q-statistic
5188:Stationarity
5084:Multivariate
5027: /
5023: /
5021:Multivariate
5019: /
4959: /
4955: /
4729:Bayes factor
4628:Signed rank
4540:
4514:
4506:
4494:
4189:Completeness
4025:Cohort study
3923:Opinion poll
3858:Missing data
3845:Study design
3800:Scatter plot
3722:Scatter plot
3715:Spearman's Ï
3677:Grouped data
3319:
3315:
3290:
3274:
3259:
3245:
3229:
3225:
3193:
3168:experimental
3161:
3154:
3127:
3121:
3111:
3076:
3072:
3062:
3050:. Retrieved
3045:
3035:
3002:
2998:
2992:
2975:
2965:
2948:10281/184094
2928:
2924:
2914:
2877:
2873:
2862:
2819:
2815:
2805:
2786:
2780:
2748:
2744:
2731:
2720:. Retrieved
2717:Science News
2716:
2706:
2679:
2675:
2665:
2650:
2639:. Retrieved
2634:
2628:
2621:
2594:
2588:
2569:
2563:
2533:(3): 241â9.
2530:
2526:
2480:
2476:
2426:
2422:
2412:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2340:
2336:
2326:
2291:
2287:
2277:
2258:
2252:
2227:
2197:
2191:
2172:
2166:
2147:
2141:
2116:
2108:
2089:
2083:
2064:
2058:
2017:
2011:
2002:
1991:
1956:
1952:
1941:
1908:
1904:
1898:
1874:
1843:
1837:
1813:
1806:
1787:
1781:
1772:
1766:
1748:
1734:
1711:
1705:
1687:
1681:
1663:
1657:
1638:
1632:
1619:
1600:
1594:
1551:
1547:
1537:
1527:November 10,
1525:. Retrieved
1518:the original
1513:
1478:
1472:
1449:
1437:
1418:
1412:
1393:
1387:
1364:
1354:
1335:
1329:
1310:
1276:
1268:
1235:
1231:
1225:
1198:
1194:
1184:
1175:
1169:
1150:
1144:
1099:
1095:
1085:
1074:. Retrieved
1070:the original
1065:
1026:
998:
970:
942:
820:
815:
810:
806:
798:
794:
790:
784:
772:
755:
751:
749:
742:
737:
734:
714:
686:
679:
664:
644:
639:
635:
627:
619:
605:
580:
576:
566:
549:
545:
542:type I error
515:
511:type I error
506:
462:
458:
456:
431:
424:
412:
367:
363:
357:
353:type I error
286:
276:
274:
229:
226:Egon Pearson
222:Jerzy Neyman
215:
209:
202:
191:
180:
160:
157:significance
156:
154:
149:
127:
96:
74:
68:
43:
35:
29:
5702:WikiProject
5617:Cartography
5579:Jurimetrics
5531:Reliability
5262:Time domain
5241:(LjungâBox)
5163:Time-series
5041:Categorical
5025:Time-series
5017:Categorical
4952:(Bernoulli)
4787:Correlation
4767:Correlation
4563:JarqueâBera
4535:Chi-squared
4297:M-estimator
4250:Asymptotics
4194:Sufficiency
3961:Interaction
3873:Replication
3853:Effect size
3810:Violin plot
3790:Radar chart
3770:Forest plot
3760:Correlogram
3710:Kendall's Ï
3005:(1): 0224.
2931:(1): 6â10.
2880:(1): 0021.
2751:(1): 5â21.
2682:(7541): 9.
2429:(8): e124.
912:Sample size
893:independent
875:A/B testing
775:metascience
685:along with
683:effect size
676:Effect size
670:Effect size
661:Limitations
632:Higgs boson
134:observation
5569:Demography
5287:ARMA model
5092:Regression
4669:(Friedman)
4630:(Wilcoxon)
4568:Normality
4558:Lilliefors
4505:Student's
4381:Resampling
4255:Robustness
4243:divergence
4233:Efficiency
4171:(monotone)
4166:Likelihood
4083:Population
3916:Stratified
3868:Population
3687:Dependence
3643:Count data
3574:Percentile
3551:Dispersion
3484:Arithmetic
3419:Statistics
3046:csicop.org
2722:2016-12-01
2641:2016-12-01
2597:: 87â114.
2008:Neyman, J.
1741:C.C. Heyde
1076:2019-11-11
924:References
724:See also:
720:Challenges
699:its square
618:or sigma (
142:population
130:experiment
4950:Logistic
4717:posterior
4643:Rank sum
4391:Jackknife
4386:Bootstrap
4204:Bootstrap
4139:Parameter
4088:Statistic
3883:Statistic
3795:Run chart
3780:Pie chart
3775:Histogram
3765:Fan chart
3740:Bar chart
3622:L-moments
3509:Geometric
3172:certainty
2836:0013-1644
2483:: e3544.
1933:119855116
1745:E. Seneta
1568:0032-5473
833:≤
691:Cohen's d
524:α
493:α
473:α
442:α
335:α
295:α
260:α
240:α
210:In 1925,
113:α
110:≤
54:α
5718:Category
5664:Category
5357:Survival
5234:Johansen
4957:Binomial
4912:Isotonic
4499:(normal)
4144:location
3951:Blocking
3906:Sampling
3785:QâQ plot
3750:Box plot
3732:Graphics
3627:Skewness
3617:Kurtosis
3589:Variance
3519:Heronian
3514:Harmonic
3371:Archived
3346:30894741
3300:Archived
3285:(2014).
3250:Archived
3209:, 2009.
3198:Archived
3192:(2008),
3178:in many
3103:30894741
3027:46814177
3019:30980046
2957:30980045
2906:33954258
2854:30034024
2547:15316274
2509:28698825
2455:16060722
2404:16355113
2369:22792080
2318:21293453
2050:19584450
1983:19547734
1747:(eds.),
1586:11222834
1260:10961123
1252:24739678
1217:24344377
1136:24218581
879:ABX test
853:See also
766:. Using
585:powerful
196:for the
5690:Commons
5637:Kriging
5522:Process
5479:studies
5338:Wavelet
5171:General
4338:Plug-in
4132:L space
3911:Cluster
3612:Moments
3430:Outline
3324:Bibcode
3081:Bibcode
3052:10 July
2897:7610724
2845:5991793
2684:Bibcode
2555:8045624
2500:5502092
2446:1182327
2360:3390399
2309:3154648
2234:260â276
2022:Bibcode
1974:2689604
1913:Bibcode
1716:225â226
1577:1741942
1127:3845140
1104:Bibcode
693:), the
622:) of a
577:heavier
394:p-value
366:= (1 â
171:History
140:from a
128:In any
5559:Census
5149:Normal
5097:Manova
4917:Robust
4667:2-way
4659:1-way
4497:-test
4168:
3745:Biplot
3536:Median
3529:Lehmer
3471:Center
3344:
3316:Nature
3291:Nature
3266:
3213:
3164:values
3101:
3073:Nature
3025:
3017:
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