Shale gas - Knowledge

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income generation (higher wages); and disturbance to land and/or other economic activity, potentially resulting in compensation. Following these primary direct effects, the following secondary effects occur: in-migration (to meet labour demand), attracting temporary and/or permanent residents, Increased demand for goods and services; leading to increased indirect employment. The latter two of these can fuel each other in a circular relationship during boom conditions (i.e. increased demand for goods and services creates employment which increase demand for goods and services). These increases place strain on existing infrastructure. These conditions lead to tertiary socio-economic effects in the form of increased housing values; increased rental costs; construction of new dwellings (which may take time to be completed); demographic and cultural changes as new types of people move to the host region; changes to income distribution; potential for conflict; potential for increased substance abuse; and provision of new types of services. The reverse of these effects occurs over bust conditions, with a decline in primary effects leading to a decline in secondary effects and so on. However, the bust period of unconventional extraction may not be as severe as from conventional energy extraction. Due to the dispersed nature of the industry and ability to adjust drilling rates, there is debate in the literature as to how intense the bust phase is and how host communities can maintain social resilience during downturns.

956:, which claimed that the Howarth et al. paper's use of a 20-year time horizon for global warming potential of methane is "too short a period to be appropriate for policy analysis." In January 2012, Howarth's colleagues at Cornell University, Lawrence Cathles et al., responded with their own peer-reviewed assessment, noting that the Howarth paper was "seriously flawed" because it "significantly overestimate the fugitive emissions associated with unconventional gas extraction, undervalue the contribution of 'green technologies' to reducing those emissions to a level approaching that of conventional gas, base their comparison between gas and coal on heat rather than electricity generation (almost the sole use of coal), and assume a time interval over which to compute the relative climate impact of gas compared to coal that does not capture the contrast between the long residence time of CO 506: 982:

warming potential. The authors concluded that, in line with most of the published studies for other regions, that shale gas in the United Kingdom would have a global warming potential "broadly similar" to that of conventional North Sea gas, although shale gas has the potential to be higher if fugitive methane emissions are not controlled, or if per-well ultimate recoveries in the UK are small. For the other parameters, the highlighted conclusions were that, for shale gas in the United Kingdom in comparison with coal, conventional and liquefied gas, nuclear, wind and solar (PV).

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deaths. Coal mining is one of the most dangerous professions in the United States, resulting in between 20 and 40 deaths annually, compared to between 10 and 20 for oil and gas extraction. Worker accident risk is also far higher with coal than gas. In the United States, the oil and gas extraction industry is associated with one to two injuries per 100 workers each year. Coal mining, on the other hand, contributes to four injuries per 100 workers each year. Coal mines collapse, and can take down roads, water and gas lines, buildings and many lives with them.

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is present for just 30 days instead of 20–30 years. Between 7 and 15 weeks are spent setting up the drill pad and completing the actual hydraulic fracture. At that point, the drill pad is removed, leaving behind a single garage-sized wellhead that remains for the lifetime of the well. A study published in 2015 on the Fayetteville Shale found that a mature gas field impacted about 2% of the land area and substantially increased edge habitat creation. Average land impact per well was 3 hectares (about 7 acres)

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local water bodies. Sulfates, calcium, carbonates and bicarbonates – the typical runoff products of coalmine waste materials – make water unusable for industry or agriculture and undrinkable for humans. Acid mine wastewater can drain into groundwater, causing significant contamination. Explosive blasting in a mine can cause groundwater to seep to lower-than-normal depths or connect two aquifers that were previously distinct, exposing both to contamination by mercury, lead, and other toxic heavy metals.

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on the type of power plant: plants either use evaporative cooling towers to release excess heat or discharge water to nearby rivers. Natural gas combined-cycle power (NGCC), which captures the exhaust heat generated by combusting natural gas to power a steam generator, are considered the most efficient large-scale thermal power plants. One study found that the life-cycle demand for water from coal power in Texas could be more than halved by switching the fleet to NGCC.

1009:, agents killing microorganism). Since (depending on the size of the area) millions of liters of water are used, this means that hundreds of thousands of liters of chemicals are often injected into the subsurface. About 50% to 70% of the injected volume of contaminated water is recovered and stored in above-ground ponds to await removal by tanker. The remaining volume remains in the subsurface. Hydraulic fracturing opponents fear that it can lead to contamination of 668: 1075:

Gas Exploration had indicated levels of arsenic, barium or manganese in well water at five homes at levels that could present a health concern. In response, water treatment systems that can reduce concentrations of those hazardous substances to acceptable levels at the tap were installed at affected homes. Based on the outcome of sampling after the treatment systems were installed, the EPA concluded that additional action by the Agency was not required.

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Colorado School of Mines in Golden, CO testified that "About 35,000 hydraulically fractured shale gas wells exist in the United States. Only one case of felt seismicity in the United States has been described in which hydraulic fracturing for shale gas development is suspected, but not confirmed. Globally only one case of felt induced seismicity at Blackpool, England has been confirmed as being caused by hydraulic fracturing for shale gas development."

776: 533: 36: 560: 641: 181: 749: 722: 332:(1,100 megajoules). Mitchell Energy achieved the first economical shale fracture in 1998 using slick-water fracturing. Since then, natural gas from shale has been the fastest growing contributor to total primary energy in the United States, and has led many other countries to pursue shale deposits. According to the IEA, shale gas could increase technically recoverable natural gas resources by almost 50%. 1278:, Muller wrote that air pollution, mostly from coal burning, kills over three million people each year, primarily in the developing world. The report states that "Environmentalists who oppose the development of shale gas and fracking are making a tragic mistake." In China, shale gas development is seen as a way to shift away from coal and decrease serious air pollution problems created by burning coal. 4927: 173: 851: m), but its geology is more complicated and the oil and gas more expensive to extract, with a well likely to cost as much as three-and-a-half times more than one in the United States. Europe would be the fastest growing region, accounting for the highest CAGR of 59.5%, in terms of volume owing to availability of shale gas 1421:

investigation of industrial emails and internal documents found that the financial benefits of unconventional shale gas extraction may be less than previously thought, due to companies intentionally overstating the productivity of their wells and the size of their reserves. The article was criticized

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Drilling depths of 1,000 to 3,000 m, then injection of a fluid composed of water, sand and detergents under pressure (600 bar), are required to fracture the rock and release the gas. These operations have already caused groundwater contaminations across the Atlantic, mainly as a result of hydrocarbon

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A comprehensive review of the public health effects of energy fuel cycles in Europe finds that coal causes 6 to 98 deaths per TWh (average 25 deaths per TWh), compared to natural gas’ 1 to 11 deaths per TWh (average 3 deaths per TWh). These numbers include both accidental deaths and pollution-related

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On 19 June 2012, the United States Senate Committee on Energy & Natural Resources held a hearing entitled, "Induced Seismicity Potential in Energy Technologies." Dr. Murray Hitzman, the Charles F. Fogarty Professor of Economic Geology in the Department of Geology and Geological Engineering at the

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In a report dated 25 July 2012, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency announced that it had completed its testing of private drinking water wells in Dimock, Pennsylvania. Data previously supplied to the agency by residents, the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, and Cabot Oil and

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Coal-fired power plants consume two to five times as much water as natural gas plants. Where 520–1040 gallons of water are required per MWh of coal, gas-fired combined cycle power requires 130–500 gallons per MWh. The environmental impact of water consumption at the point of power generation depends

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The impact of natural gas on landscapes is even less and shorter in duration than the impact of wind turbines. The footprint of a shale gas derrick (3–5 acres) is only a little larger than the land area necessary for a single wind turbine. But it requires less concrete, stands one-third as tall, and

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and venting impacts are included, the life-cycle greenhouse gas footprint of shale gas is far worse than those of coal and fuel oil when viewed for the integrated 20-year period after emission. On the 100-year integrated time frame, this analysis claims shale gas is comparable to coal and worse than

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cautioned against a national policy of developing shale gas without a more certain scientific basis for the policy. This umbrella organization that represents 1.4 million scientists noted that shale gas development "may have greater GHG emissions and environmental costs than previously appreciated."

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during extraction, and the pollution caused by the improper processing of natural gas . A challenge to preventing pollution is that shale gas extractions varies widely in this regard, even between different wells in the same project; the processes that reduce pollution sufficiently in one extraction

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One of the byproducts of shale gas exploration is the opening up of deep underground shale deposits to "tight oil" or shale oil production. By 2035, shale oil production could "boost the world economy by up to $ 2.7 trillion, a PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) report says. It has the potential to reach

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of the United States, the wells were often marginally economic. Advances in hydraulic fracturing and horizontal completions have made shale-gas wells more profitable. Improvements in moving drilling rigs between nearby locations, and the use of single well pads for multiple wells have increased the

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In most cases, the life-cycle water intensity and pollution associated with coal production and combustion far outweigh those related to shale gas production. Coal resource production requires at least twice as much water per million British thermal units compared to shale gas production. And while

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With coal mining, waste materials are piled at the surface of the mine, creating aboveground runoff that pollutes and alters the flow of regional streams. As rain percolates through waste piles, soluble components are dissolved in the runoff and cause elevated total dissolved solids (TDS) levels in

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called the EPA draft report "scientifically questionable" and stressed the need for additional testing. The Casper Star-Tribune also reported on 27 December 2011, that the EPA's sampling and testing procedures "didn’t follow their own protocol" according to Mike Purcell, the director of the Wyoming

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noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas, and are much less than those from coal, usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal; the noted exception was a 2011 study

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concluded that "The environmental impacts of shale development are challenging but manageable." The study addressed groundwater contamination, noting "There has been concern that these fractures can also penetrate shallow freshwater zones and contaminate them with fracturing fluid, but there is no

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may be the result of fracking in the area. The EPA stated that the finding was specific to the Pavillion area, where the fracking techniques differ from those used in other parts of the U.S. Doug Hock, a spokesman for the company which owns the Pavillion gas field, said that it is unclear whether

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A 2014 study from Manchester University presented the "First full life cycle assessment of shale gas used for electricity generation." By full life cycle assessment, the authors explained that they mean the evaluation of nine environmental factors beyond the commonly performed evaluation of global

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In April 2013 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency lowered its estimate of how much methane leaks from wells, pipelines and other facilities during production and delivery of natural gas by 20 percent. The EPA report on greenhouse emissions credited tighter pollution controls instituted by the

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Dang, Wei; Zhang, Jinchuan; Nie, Haikuan; Wang, Fengqin; Tang, Xuan; Wu, Nan; Chen, Qian; Wei, Xiaoliang; Wang, Ruijing (2020). "Isotherms, thermodynamics and kinetics of methane-shale adsorption pair under supercritical condition: implications for understanding the nature of shale gas adsorption

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Surface installations must be based on concrete or paved soils connected to the road network. A gas pipeline is also required to evacuate production. In total, each farm would occupy an average area of 3.6 ha. However, the gas fields are relatively small. Exploitation of shale gas could therefore

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Coal mining radically alters whole mountain and forest landscapes. Beyond the coal removed from the earth, large areas of forest are turned inside out and blackened with toxic and radioactive chemicals. There have been reclamation successes, but hundreds of thousands of acres of abandoned surface

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Where coal exploration requires altering landscapes far beyond the area where the coal is, aboveground natural gas equipment takes up just one percent of the total surface land area from where gas will be extracted. The environmental impact of gas drilling has changed radically in recent years.

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Shale gas development leads to a series of tiered socio-economic effects during boom conditions. These include both positive and negative aspects. Along with other forms of unconventional energy, shale oil and gas extraction has three direct initial aspects: increased labour demand (employment);

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The US EIA had made an earlier estimate of total recoverable shale gas in various countries in 2011, which for some countries differed significantly from the 2013 estimates. The total recoverable shale gas in the United States, which was estimated at 862 trillion cubic feet in 2011, was revised

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A recent academic paper on the economic impacts of shale gas development in the US finds that natural gas prices have dropped dramatically in places with shale deposits with active exploration. Natural gas for industrial use has become cheaper by around 30% compared to the rest of the US. This

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levels in the sediment at the discharge point are around 200 times the amount upstream of the facility. The radium levels are "above regulated levels" and present the "danger of slow bio-accumulation" eventually in fish. The Duke study "is the first to use isotope hydrology to connect the dots

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What is happening is the direct result of a lack of any regulation. If the Clean Water Act was applied in 2005 when the shale gas boom started this would have been prevented. In the UK, if shale gas is going to develop, it should not follow the American example and should impose environmental

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Although the shale gas potential of many nations is being studied, as of 2013, only the US, Canada, and China produce shale gas in commercial quantities, and only the US and Canada have significant shale gas production. While China has ambitious plans to dramatically increase its shale gas

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Although the Eastern Gas Shales Project had increased gas production in the Appalachian and Michigan basins, shale gas was still widely seen as marginal to uneconomic without tax credits, and shale gas provided only 1.6% of US gas production in 2000, when the federal tax credits expired.

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Contamination of surface waterways and groundwater with fracking fluids is problematic. Shale gas deposits are generally several thousand feet below ground. There have been instances of methane migration, improper treatment of recovered wastewater, and pollution via reinjection wells.

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represent the volumes of oil and natural gas that could be produced with current technology, regardless of oil and natural gas prices and production costs. Technically recoverable resources are determined by multiplying the risked in-place oil or natural gas by a recovery factor."

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Vertical wells into conventional formations used to take up one-fifth of the surface area above the resource, a twenty-fold higher impact than current horizontal drilling requires. A six-acre horizontal drill pad can thus extract gas from an underground area 1,000 acres in size.

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events much too small to be detected except by sensitive instruments. These microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing. However, as of late 2012, there have been three known instances worldwide of hydraulic fracturing, through

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0.4–3.9) were detected during January 2011 to February 2012 in the Youngstown, Ohio area, where there were no known earthquakes in the past. These shocks were close to a deep fluid injection well. The 14 month seismicity included six felt earthquakes and culminated with a

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productivity of drilling shale gas wells. As of June 2011, the validity of the claims of economic viability of these wells has begun to be publicly questioned. Shale gas tends to cost more to produce than gas from conventional wells, because of the expense of the massive

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fuel oil. However, other studies have pointed out flaws with the paper and come to different conclusions. Among those are assessments by experts at the U.S. Department of Energy, peer-reviewed studies by Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Maryland, and the

1053:(EPA) announced 23 June 2011 that it will examine claims of water pollution related to hydraulic fracturing in Texas, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Colorado and Louisiana. On 8 December 2011, the EPA issued a draft finding which stated that groundwater contamination in 429:

onto the shale matrix. Further, the adsorption of gas is a process of physisorption, exothermic and spontaneous. The gas in the fractures is produced immediately; the gas adsorbed onto organic material is released as the formation pressure is drawn down by the well.

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and the short residence time of methane in the atmosphere." The author of that response, Lawrence Cathles, wrote that "shale gas has a GHG footprint that is half and perhaps a third that of coal," based upon "more reasonable leakage rates and bases of comparison."

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Federal price controls on natural gas led to shortages in the 1970s. Faced with declining natural gas production, the federal government invested in many supply alternatives, including the Eastern Gas Shales Project, which lasted from 1976 to 1992, and the annual

1198:<1.8) were detected by the waveform correlation detector. Accurately located earthquakes were along a subsurface fault trending ENE-WSW—consistent with the focal mechanism of the main shock and occurred at depths 3.5–4.0 km in the Precambrian basement. 1154:. Beginning in 2001, the average number of earthquakes occurring per year of magnitude 3 or greater increased significantly, culminating in a six-fold increase in 2011 over 20th century levels. A researcher in Center for Earthquake Research and Information of 294:. The Department of Energy later partnered with private gas companies to complete the first successful air-drilled multi-fracture horizontal well in shale in 1986. The federal government further incentivized drilling in shale via the Section 29 tax credit for 290:-approved research budget of the Gas Research Institute, where the federal government began extensive research funding in 1982, disseminating the results to industry. The federal government also provided tax credits and rules benefiting the industry in the 1452:

article, generating electricity by burning natural gas is cheaper than burning coal if the price of gas remains below US$ 3 per million British thermal units ($ 10/MWh) or about $ 3 per 1000 cubic feet. Also in 2013, Ken Medlock, Senior Director of the

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The cost of extracting offshore shale gas in the UK were estimated to be more than $ 200 per barrel of oil equivalent (UK North Sea oil prices were about $ 120 per barrel in April 2012). However, no cost figures were made public for onshore shale gas.

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permeability, and so gas production in commercial quantities requires fractures to provide permeability. Shale gas has been produced for years from shales with natural fractures; the shale gas boom in recent years has been due to modern technology in

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Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected. But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of

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regions like Pennsylvania have experienced an absolute increase in water demand for energy production thanks to the shale boom, shale wells actually produce less than half the wastewater per unit of energy compared to conventional natural gas.

921:, than does conventional gas, but still far less than coal. Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas, although it stays in the atmosphere for only one tenth as long a period as carbon dioxide. Recent evidence suggests that methane has a 1071:

evidence that this is occurring". This study blames known instances of methane contamination on a small number of sub-standard operations, and encourages the use of industry best practices to prevent such events from recurring.

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annually from 1990 through 2010, a reduction of more than 850 million metric tons overall. The Associated Press noted that "The EPA revisions came even though natural gas production has grown by nearly 40 percent since 1990."

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Chemicals are added to the water to facilitate the underground fracturing process that releases natural gas. Fracturing fluid is primarily water and approximately 0.5% chemical additives (friction reducer, agents countering

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Measham, Thomas G.; Walton, Andrea; Graham, Paul; Fleming-Muñoz, David A. (1 October 2019). "Living with resource booms and busts: Employment scenarios and resilience to unconventional gas cyclical effects in Australia".

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between shale gas waste, treatment sites and discharge into drinking water supplies." The study recommended "independent monitoring and regulation" in the United States due to perceived deficiencies in self-regulation.

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All told, shale gas development in the United States represents less than half a percent of total domestic freshwater consumption, although this portion can reach as high as 25 percent in particularly arid regions.

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For the United States, EIA estimated (2013) a total "wet natural gas" resource of 2,431 tcf, including both shale and conventional gas. Shale gas was estimated to be 27% of the total resource. "Wet natural gas" is

237:, which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal. More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal, among them, studies by 3757:

Marcos–Martinez, Raymundo; Measham, Thomas G.; Fleming-Muñoz, David A. (2019). "Economic impacts of early unconventional gas mining: Lessons from the coal seam gas industry in New South Wales, Australia".

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As of 2013, the US, Canada, and China are the only countries producing shale gas in commercial quantities. The US and Canada are the only countries where shale gas is a significant part of the gas supply.

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leakage along the casings. In addition, between 2% and 8% of the extracted fuel would be released to the atmosphere at wells (still in the United States). However, it is mainly composed of methane (CH

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Several studies which have estimated lifecycle methane leakage from shale gas development and production have found a wide range of leakage rates, from less than 1% of total production to nearly 8%.

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Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century, and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world.

1729: 2104: 310:. The DOE program also applied two technologies that had been developed previously by industry, massive hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling, to shale gas formations, which led to 4290: 3075: 3304: 4064: 3283: 3206:

Warner, Nathaniel R.; Christie, Cidney A.; Robert B., Jackson; Avner, Vengosh (2 October 2013). "Impacts of Shale Gas Wastewater Disposal on Water Quality in Western Pennsylvania".

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Using data from the Environmental Protection Agency's 2013 Greenhouse Gas Inventory yields a methane leakage rate of about 1.4%, down from 2.3% from the EPA's previous Inventory.

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in the thermogenic gas window, where high heat and pressure have converted petroleum to natural gas. They are sufficiently brittle and rigid enough to maintain open fractures.

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is often used with shale gas wells, with lateral lengths up to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) within the shale, to create maximum borehole surface area in contact with the shale.

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from coal plants create annual damages of $ 156 million per plant compared to $ 1.5 million per gas plant. Coal-fired power plants in the United States emit 17–40 times more

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Timothy J. Skone, "Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Analysis of Natural Gas Extraction & Delivery in the United States." National Energy Technology Laboratory, 12 May 2011

1981: 3010: 3530: 3348: 1626:, 9 September 2013. MacKay and Stone wrote (p.3): "The Howarth estimate may be unrealistically high, as discussed in Appendix A, and should be treated with caution." 932: 2146:"Assessing shale gas reservoir potential using multi-scaled SEM pore network characterizations and quantifications: The Ciñera-Matallana pull-apart basin, NW Spain" 925:(GWP) that is 105-fold greater than carbon dioxide when viewed over a 20-year period and 33-fold greater when viewed over a 100-year period, compared mass-to-mass. 4666:

by Paolo Farah and Riccardo Tremolada. This is a paper presented at the Colloquium on Environmental Scholarship 2013 hosted by Vermont Law School (11 October 2013)

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up to 12 percent of the world’s total oil production — touching 14 million barrels a day — "revolutionizing" the global energy markets over the next few decades."

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will not be mandatory for shale gas exploration activities and shale gas extraction activities will be subject to the same terms as other gas extraction projects.

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Shales that host economic quantities of gas have a number of common properties. They are rich in organic material (0.5% to 25%), and are usually mature petroleum

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downward to 665 trillion cubic feet in 2013. Recoverable shale gas in Canada, which was estimated to be 388 TCF in 2011, was revised upward to 573 TCF in 2013.

3320:[Magnitude 3 and greater earthquakes 6 fold in the midcontinent of the United States. Beginning in 200. extracted shale gas induce earthquakes ?]. 1821: 1623: 311: 2268:

A Comparison between Shale Gas in China and Unconventional Fuel Development in the United States: Water, Environmental Protection, and Sustainable Development

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by, among others, the New York Times' own Public Editor for lack of balance in omitting facts and viewpoints favorable to shale gas production and economics.

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Yes. Natural gas drilling can result in discharges to surface waters. The discharge of this water is subject to requirements under the Clean Water Act (CWA)."

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The extraction and use of shale gas can affect the environment through the leaking of extraction chemicals and waste into water supplies, the leaking of

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lead to fragmentation of landscapes. Finally, a borehole requires about 20 million liters of water, the daily consumption of about 100,000 inhabitants.

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Some Texas residents think fracking is using too much of their groundwater, but drought and other growing uses are also part of the causes of the

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prices. "Some wells are profitable at $ 2.65 per thousand cubic feet, others need $ 8.10…the median is $ 4.85," Medlock said. Energy consultant

1454: 107: 4263: 1880: 1462: 1050: 2308:"Technically Recoverable Shale Oil and Shale Gas Resources: An Assessment of 137 Shale Formations in 41 Countries Outside the United States" 3317: 3280: 2829: 2785: 1411: 868: 3181: 3126: 2719:"Natural Gas Needs Tighter Production Practices to Reduce Global Warming Pollution | Dan Lashof's Blog | Switchboard, from NRDC" 394:). The geological risk of not finding gas is low in resource plays, but the potential profits per successful well are usually also lower. 4664:

A Comparison between Shale Gas in China and Unconventional Fuel Development in the United States: Health, Water and Environmental Risks

4433: 3052: 2388: 2081:"International Energy Agency (IEA). "World Energy Outlook Special Report on Unconventional Gas: Golden Rules for a Golden Age of Gas?"" 1296:

mines in the United States have not been reclaimed, and reclamation of certain terrain (including steep terrain) is nearly impossible.

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benefits from shale gas, by displacing harmful air pollution from coal, far outweigh its environmental costs. In a 2013 report for the

443: 2746:"A commentary on "The greenhouse-gas footprint of natural gas in shale formations" by R.W. Howarth, R. Santoro, and Anthony Ingraffea" 370:

to allow significant fluid flow to a wellbore, most shales are not commercial sources of natural gas. Shale gas is one of a number of

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stimulates local energy intensive manufacturing growth, but brings the lack of adequate pipeline capacity in the US in sharp relief.

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According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, the Clean Water Act applies to surface stream discharges from shale gas wells:

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Weber, Jeremy G. (1 September 2012). "The effects of a natural gas boom on employment and income in Colorado, Texas, and Wyoming".

3600: 4297: 3270:, Attachment to memorandum from James Hanlon, Director of EPA’s Office of Wastewater Management to the EPA regions, 16 March 2011. 2341: 4130:. Energy Technology Innovation Policy Research Group, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School 1474: 371: 225: 192: 1918: 2448: 913:

In late 2010, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency issued a report which concluded that shale gas emits larger amounts of

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Committee on Health, Environmental, and Other External Costs and Benefits of Energy Production and Consumption. October 2009

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has made large volumes of shale gas more economical to produce, and some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand

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by Christopher Gascoyne and Alexis Aik. This is a working paper written for the 2011 Pacific Energy Summit hosted by the

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A study published in May 2011 concluded that shale gas wells have seriously contaminated shallow groundwater supplies in

460:. Numbers for the estimated amount of "technically recoverable" shale gas resources are provided alongside numbers for 4705: 4571: 4495: 4391: 457: 3097: 2929: 2558: 2483:"Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reporting from the Petroleum and Natural Gas Industry, Background Technical Support Document 1046:. However, the study does not discuss how pervasive such contamination might be in other areas drilled for shale gas. 897:

Barack Obama's administration had sometimes promoted shale gas, in part because of its belief that it releases fewer

4647: 4074: 3387: 2786:"The Associated Press. "EPA lowered estimates of methane leaks during natural gas production"(The Houston Chronicle)" 2169: 1711: 1251:

The air quality advantages of natural gas over coal have been borne out in Pennsylvania, according to studies by the

953: 453: 336: 165: 141: 78: 278:, in 1821, in shallow, low-pressure fractures. Horizontal drilling began in the 1930s, and in 1947 a well was first 1259:. The shale boom in Pennsylvania has led to dramatically lower emissions of sulfur dioxide, fine particulates, and 4672: 4587: 3351: 1139: 886: 45: 2722: 4041: 2716:

Dan Lashof, "Natural Gas Needs Tighter Production Practices to Reduce Global Warming Pollution," 12 April 2011

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2011: Annex II: Methodology. In IPCC: Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation

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Dr James Verdon has published a critique of the data produced, and the variables that may affect the results.

4751: 4452: 3531:"Comparative Life-Cycle Air Emissions of Coal, Domestic Natural Gas, LNG, and SNG for Electricity Generation" 2375: 1504: 3990:

Moran, Matthew D. (2015). "Habitat Loss and Modification Due to Gas Development in the Fayetteville Shale".

2951: 4092:"Design and optimization of shale gas energy systems: Overview, research challenges, and future directions" 2482: 307: 2145: 4732: 4643: 4490: 3923: 2974: 2892:

Gao, Jiyao; You, Fengqi (2018). "Integrated Hybrid Life Cycle Assessment and Optimization of Shale Gas".

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Besides using water and industrial chemicals, it is also possible to frack shale gas with only liquified

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In 2000 shale gas provided only 1% of U.S. natural gas production; by 2010 it was over 20% and the U.S.

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Shindell, D. T.; Faluvegi, G.; Koch, D. M.; Schmidt, G. A.; Unger, N.; Bauer, S. E. (30 October 2009).

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Average damages from coal pollutants are two orders of magnitude larger than damages from natural gas.

343: 4477: 4413: 3924:"The Toll From Coal: An Updated Assessment of Death and Disease From America's Dirtiest Energy Source" 3472: 3327: 2996: 1683: 1190: 1174: 1781:

David Hughes (May 2011). "Will Natural Gas Fuel America in the 21st Century?" Post Carbon Institute,

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Jeffrey Logan, Garvin Heath, and Jordan Macknick, Elizabeth Paranhos, William Boyd, and Ken Carlson,

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North America has been the leader in developing and producing shale gas. The economic success of the

1275: 1189:

1.8 were detected by regional network and accurately relocated, whereas 97 small earthquakes (0.4<

1039: 1032: 1025: 4831: 922: 898: 347: 238: 123: 3707:"Local economic impacts of an unconventional energy boom: the coal seam gas industry in Australia" 2354: 4878: 1887: 1818:

Syed Rashid Husain. "Shale Gas Revolution Changes Geopolitics." Saudi Gazette. 24 February 2013.

449:

production, these efforts have been checked by inadequate access to technology, water, and land.

324:

is regarded as the father of the shale gas industry, since he made it commercially viable in the

211: 3706: 4966: 4861: 4856: 4841: 4698: 3846:"The Unconventional Boomtown: Updating the impact model to fit new spatial and temporal scales" 3621: 2209:

US Department of Energy, "Modern shale gas development in the United States," April 2009, p.17.

1183: 1166: 1143: 864: 339:

predicted that by 2035, 46% of the United States' natural gas supply will come from shale gas.

49: 2918: 1964: 1866: 1585: 4866: 4851: 1414:

research report calculated the 2011 worth of the global shale-gas market as $ 26.66 billion.

1155: 936: 4653: 3952:

Hydraulic Fracturing versus Mountaintop-Removal Coal Mining: Comparing Environmental Impacts

266: 3999: 3547: 3215: 2864: 2757: 2689: 2648: 2596: 2508: 1936: 1838: 1430: 1374: 1248:

emissions from coal plants are 1.8-2.3 times greater (per KWh) than natural gas emissions.

439: 406: 367: 329: 299: 279: 207: 3622:"A conceptual model of the socioeconomic impacts of unconventional fossil fuel extraction" 3588: 1782: 1110:"6) Does the Clean Water Act apply to discharges from Marcellus Shale Drilling operations? 60: 8: 4971: 4552:"Pipeline constraints raise average spot natural gas prices in the Northeast this winter" 1523: 1426: 1010: 882: 808: 412: 291: 203: 4677: 4042:"Guidance for the Comanagement of Mill Rejects at Coal-Fired Power Plants, Final Report" 4003: 3551: 3267: 3219: 2868: 2761: 2693: 2652: 2600: 2512: 1613:

US Energy Information Administration, Analysis and Projections, Retrieved 26 August 2012

1611:

World Shale Gas Resources: An Initial Assessment of 14 Regions Outside the United States

425:

Some of the gas produced is held in natural fractures, some in pore spaces, and some is

5065: 4981: 4941: 4654:

The Shale Gas Boom: The global implications of the rise of unconventional fossil energy

4224: 4207: 4023: 3901: 3775: 3739: 3687: 3417: 3249: 2702: 2677: 2661: 2636: 2532: 2330: 2255: 2237: 2175: 1551: 1359: 1234: 1128: 1054: 940: 935:

claimed that the production of electricity using shale gas may lead to as much or more

321: 295: 275: 234: 172: 4611: 4322: 4108: 4091: 3405: 4763: 4746: 4691: 4551: 4364: 4070: 4015: 3905: 3893: 3857: 3845: 3826: 3779: 3731: 3679: 3644: 3563: 3526: 3409: 3268:

Natural Gas Drilling in the Marcellus Shale, NPDES Program Frequently Asked Questions

3241: 2524: 2307: 2241: 2179: 2165: 1952: 1854: 1610: 1365: 1267: 1013:, though the industry deems this "highly unlikely". However, foul-smelling odors and 966: 944: 303: 230: 4631: 4027: 3743: 3691: 3640: 3421: 3253: 2536: 1915: 1663:"Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of shale gas, natural gas, coal, and petroleum" 1244:

emissions per MWh than natural gas, and 1–17 times as much NOx per MWh. Lifecycle CO

4229: 4219: 4162: 4103: 4007: 3885: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3794: 3767: 3721: 3671: 3636: 3555: 3442: 3401: 3231: 3223: 3022: 2901: 2877: 2872: 2852: 2765: 2697: 2656: 2604: 2516: 2229: 2157: 1252: 992:

Shale gas a sound environmental option only if accompanied by stringent regulation.

401: 383: 161: 115: 3349:

Is the Recent Increase in Felt Earthquakes in the Central U.S. Natural or Manmade?

2905: 2283: 1982:"Will Natural Gas Stay Cheap Enough To Replace Coal And Lower US Carbon Emissions" 4836: 4419: 3287: 3026: 1922: 1756: 1733: 1449: 1159: 1079: 989:

It has higher photochemical smog and terrestrial toxicity than the other options.

375: 3771: 3675: 3182:"Dangerous levels of radioactivity found at fracking waste site in Pennsylvania" 2287: 2161: 1795:"After the gold rush: A perspective on future U.S. natural gas supply and price" 986:

Shale gas worse than coal for three impacts and better than renewables for four.

4798: 4595: 4166: 3889: 3156:"Terri White. U.S. EPA. "EPA Completes Drinking Water Sampling in Dimock, Pa."" 2585:"Methane and the greenhouse-gas footprint of natural gas from shale formations" 1737: 1662: 1638:"Methane and the greenhouse-gas footprint of natural gas from shale formations" 1624:

Potential Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Shale Gas Extraction and Use

1465:

estimates that, for the US, "minimum costs in the range $ 4 to $ 6 / mcf. ."

1418: 1404: 1392:

in particular has spurred the search for other sources of shale gas across the

1369: 1220: 976: 918: 874: 119: 4926: 4181: 4011: 3965: 2770: 2745: 2609: 2584: 2550:

Trembath, Alex; Luke, Max; Shellenberger, Michael; Nordhaus, Ted (June 2013).

2233: 1769: 939:

GWP than electricity generated with oil or coal. In the peer-reviewed paper,

831:

Europe has a shale gas resource estimate of 639 trillion cubic feet (18.1

358: 5059: 4997: 4599: 4125:"Water Consumption of Energy Resource Extraction, Processing, and Conversion" 3897: 3861: 3830: 3735: 3683: 3648: 3322: 1825: 1434: 1393: 1385: 1271: 1151: 1135: 592: 325: 156: 24: 3726: 3498:"Hidden Costs of Energy: Unpriced Consequences of Energy Production and Use" 2995:

Energy Policy Act of 2005. Pub. L. 109-58, TITLE III, Subtitle C, SEC. 322.

2520: 1665:, Environmental Science and Technology, 17 January 2012, v.46 n.2 p.619-627. 1182:

3.9 shock on 31 December 2011. Among the 109 shocks, 12 events greater than

841: m) compared with America's reserves 862 trillion cubic feet (24.4 270:

Derrick and platform of drilling gas wells in Marcellus Shale – Pennsylvania

5022: 5007: 4793: 4778: 4773: 4514: 4123:

Mielke, Erik; Diaz Anadon, Laura; Narayanamurti, Venkatesh (October 2010).

4019: 3964:

Denholm, Paul; Hand, Maureen; Jackson, Maddalena; Ong, Sean (August 2009).

3567: 3413: 3245: 2528: 1238: 1123: 1014: 948: 902: 673: 184:

Total natural gas rig count in the US (including conventional gas drilling)

4529: 1937:"Proceedings from the 2nd Annual Methane Recovery from Coalbeds Symposium" 1881:"New York's natural gas history – a long story, but not the final chapter" 1031:

Hydraulic fracturing was exempted from the Safe Drinking Water Act in the

5044: 5039: 4946: 4823: 4788: 4628:

The Shale Dilemma: A Global Perspective on Fracking and Shale Development

4180:

A. Torcellini, Paul; Long, Nicholas; D. Judkoff, Ronald (December 2003).

2830:"5 Reasons Why It's Still Important To Reduce Fugitive Methane Emissions" 2058: 1770:

Natural Gas and the Transformation of the U.S. Energy Sector: Electricity

419: 195: 4206:

Grubert, Emily A.; Beach, Fred C.; Webber, Michael E. (8 October 2012).

3966:"Land-Use Requirements of Modern Wind Power Plants in the United States" 3587:

Moomaw, W., P. Burgherr, G. Heath, M. Lenzen, J. Nyboer, A. Verbruggen,

2678:"The greenhouse impact of unconventional gas for electricity generation" 1636:

Howarth, Robert; Sontaro, Renee; Ingraffea, Anthony (12 November 2010).

1142:

scientists have been investigating the recent increase in the number of

5027: 5017: 5012: 5002: 4951: 4678:

Registry will Help Study Health Impact from Living Near Shale Gas Wells

4335: 4066:

The World's Water Volume 8: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources

3392: 2271: 1458: 1147: 814:

For the rest of the world (excluding US), EIA estimated (2013) a total

409:(fracking) to create extensive artificial fractures around well bores. 4234: 3821: 3795:"Impacts of unconventional gas development on rural community decline" 3620:

Measham, Thomas G.; Fleming, David A.; Schandl, Heinz (January 2016).

3559: 3236: 3227: 1794: 1377:

treatments required to produce shale gas, and of horizontal drilling.

1028:

considerably. The method was invented by GasFrac, of Alberta, Canada.

1017:

contaminating the local water supply above-ground have been reported.

5034: 4956: 4808: 4669: 4389: 2005: 1494: 1484: 1059: 1058:

the contamination came from the fracking process. Wyoming's Governor

781: 700: 538: 379: 362:

An illustration of shale gas compared to other types of gas deposits.

250: 20: 4663: 4250:

Friday Energy Facts: How Much Water Does Fracking for Shale Consume?

4150: 2496: 2267: 1916:

A Retrospective Review of Shale Gas Development in the United States

1364:

Although shale gas has been produced for more than 100 years in the

4976: 4961: 4912: 4813: 4783: 4768: 4741: 4714: 3756: 3326:(in Japanese). Tokyo. 26 April 2012. p. Page 1. Archived from 1749: 1499: 1489: 828: m). Shale gas was estimated to be 32% of the total resource. 4896: 4886: 3443:"Injuries, Illnesses, and Fatalities in the Coal Mining Industry" 2549: 1043: 1021: 914: 804: 565: 180: 3874: 2552:"Coal Killer: How Natural Gas Fuels the Clean Energy Revolution" 2314:. United States Energy Information Administration. 13 June 2013. 1706: 1704: 346:

believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce

221:

is estimated to have the world's largest shale gas reserves.

4891: 4803: 4758: 3305:

How is hydraulic fracturing related to earthquakes and tremors?

2810:. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 12 August 2013 1479: 1397: 1205: 1087: 965:

industry for cutting an average of 41.6 million metric tons of

754: 727: 646: 619: 426: 4122: 3175: 3173: 3098:"Governor Mead: Implications of EPA Data Require Best Science" 2389:"Unlocking the Earth: A Short History of Hydraulic Fracturing" 1736:, 2013 report by Richard A. Muller and Elizabeth A. Muller of 1342:), a greenhouse gas that is considerably more powerful than CO 901:

than other fossil fuels. In a 2010 letter to President Obama,

298:

from 1980–2000. Microseismic imaging, a crucial input to both

4453:"S.E.C. Shift Leads to Worries of Overestimation of Reserves" 4376:

Gloyston, Henning and Johnstone, Christopher (17 April 2012)

4323:

Pad drilling and rig mobility lead to more efficient drilling

2006:

Miller, Rich; Loder, Asjylyn; Polson, Jim (6 February 2012).

1934: 1836: 1701: 1389: 511: 397: 218: 199: 4264:"Exploitation du gaz de schiste : quels dangers ?" 3205: 2637:"Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of Marcellus shale gas" 977:

Life cycle comparison for more than global warming potential

56: 4846: 4683: 4179: 3170: 3127:"The Future of Natural Gas: An Interdisciplinary MIT Study" 2494: 2272:

Brooklyn Journal of International Law, Vol. 41, No. 2, 2016

1006: 4378:

Exclusive – UK has vast shale gas reserves, geologists say

4291:"How Changing Gas Supply Cost Leads to Surging Production" 3529:; Griffin, W. Michael; Matthews, H. Scott (25 July 2007). 3053:"EPA: Natural Gas Drilling May Contaminate Drinking Water" 2419:"Market report on Shale Gas Market Industry now available" 4680:, Birth Defect Research for Children Newsletter, May 2017 4657: 4288: 3714:

Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics

3011:"Study: High-Tech Gas Drilling Is Fouling Drinking Water" 2447:. The Lithuania Tribune. 24 December 2013. Archived from 2445:"EIA studies won't be required for shale gas exploration" 1727:

Why Every Serious Environmentalist Should Favour Fracking

1227: 4390:

Suzanne Goldenberg in Barnhart, Texas (11 August 2013).

3793:

Measham, Thomas G.; Fleming, David A. (1 October 2014).

3525: 2355:"What's The Difference Between Wet And Dry Natural Gas?" 2256:

North America leads the world in production of shale gas

4151:"Life-cycle uses of water in US electricity generation" 3464:

Keating, Martha; Baum, Ellen; Hennen, Amy (June 2001).

3112:"EPA report: Pavillion water samples improperly tested" 2582: 2290:, The National Bureau of Asian Research, November 2013. 1675:

Keating, Martha; Baum, Ellen; Hennen, Amy (June 2001).

1635: 1457:'s Center for Energy Studies, researched US shale gas 1131:, triggering quakes large enough to be felt by people. 1096:

regulation to prevent this kind of radioactive buildup.

947:, a marine ecologist, and colleagues claimed that once 4644:

Unconventional Gas and Implications for the LNG Market

4149:

Fthenakis, Vasilis; Kim, Hyung Chul (September 2010).

3466:"Cradle to Grave: The Environmental Impacts from Coal" 3386:

Markandya, Anil; Wilkinson, Paul (15 September 2007).

2497:"Improved Attribution of Climate Forcing to Emissions" 2107:

Statement on U.S.-China shale gas resource initiative"

1814: 1812: 1677:"Cradle to Grave: The Environmental Impacts from Coal" 1586:"The 'Shale Gas Revolution': Developments and Changes" 1425:

In first quarter 2012, the United States imported 840

164:

with shale gas and oil, in 39 countries, per the U.S.

3963: 3922:

Schneider, Conrad; Banks, Jonathan (September 2010).

3619: 3124: 4670:

Map of Assessed Shale Gas in the United States, 2012

2557:. Breakthrough institute. p. 22. Archived from 4572:"How Much Does a Shale Gas Well Cost? 'It Depends'" 3365:"U.S. Senate Committee on Energy, Washington, D.C." 3281:"The Source for Hydraulic Fracture Characterization 2143: 1839:"Name the gas industry birthplace: Fredonia, N.Y.?" 1809: 1257:

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection

4205: 3385: 2853:"Life cycle environmental impacts of UK shale gas" 818:resource of 20,451 trillion cubic feet (579.1 452:The table below is based on data collected by the 4614:"$ per MM Btu multiplied by 1.025 = $ per Mcf" 4510:"Strange Bedfellows Debate Exporting Natural Gas" 4434:"Insiders Sound an Alarm Amid a Natural Gas Rush" 4340:"Insiders Sound an Alarm Amid a Natural Gas Rush" 4182:"Consumptive Water Use for U.S. Power Production" 3844:Kay, David L.; Jacquet, Jeffrey (25 April 2014). 3463: 2144:Richardson, Ethan J.; Montenari, Michael (2020). 1772:, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A50-55538, Nov. 2012. 1674: 1579: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1571: 1569: 5057: 2971:"Shale gas fracking without water and chemicals" 2850: 2218: 1162:tends to cause earthquake by slippage of fault. 328:by getting costs down to $ 4 per 1 million 3946: 3944: 3008: 2111:. America.gov. 17 November 2009. Archived from 1547:"New way to tap gas may expand global supplies" 274:Shale gas was first extracted as a resource in 4658:The Finnish Institute of International Affairs 4478:"Clashing views on the future of natural gas," 4383: 4044:. Electric Power Research Institute. June 1999 3921: 3792: 3705:Fleming, David A.; Measham, Thomas G. (2015). 3704: 2583:Howarth, RW; Santoro, R; Ingraffea, A (2011). 2270:, Farah, Paolo Davide; Tremolada, Riccardo in 1566: 23:pyrolysis and also referred as shale gas, see 4699: 4527: 3581: 1976: 1974: 1792: 1722: 1720: 1051:United States Environmental Protection Agency 202:formations. Since the 1990s a combination of 104:The examples and perspective in this article 4148: 3941: 3917: 3915: 3073: 2851:Stamford, Laurence; Azapagic, Adisa (2014). 1206:The relative impacts of natural gas and coal 869:Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing 366:Because shales ordinarily have insufficient 4594:, 10 December 2013. Mearns cites data from 4173: 2894:ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 2488: 2387:Morton, Michael Quentin (9 December 2013). 4706: 4692: 4656:, FIIA Briefing Paper 122, 20 March 2013, 4518:22 August 2012. Retrieved: 25 August 2012. 4380:Reuters Edition UK, Accessed 17 April 2012 4334: 3850:Journal of Rural and Community Development 3843: 3445:. United States Bureau of Labor Statistics 3199: 2469:Council of Scientific Society Presidents, 1971: 1910: 1908: 1717: 444:List of countries by recoverable shale gas 241:(2012), and a consortium formed by the US 59:. Please do not remove this message until 4233: 4223: 4107: 3912: 3820: 3810: 3725: 3601:"When, not if, China taps into shale gas" 3519: 3379: 3235: 2876: 2769: 2701: 2660: 2608: 2302: 2300: 2298: 2296: 1622:David J. C. MacKay and Timothy J. Stone, 1191: 1175: 142:Learn how and when to remove this message 79:Learn how and when to remove this message 4367:EnergyCentral, Accessed 30 December 2020 4199: 4155:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 3954:, University of Tulsa, 28 November 2012. 2949: 2543: 2472:, letter to President Obama, 4 May 2009. 1524:"U.S. Energy Information Administration" 1475:Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir 1122:Hydraulic fracturing routinely produces 999: 907:Council of Scientific Society Presidents 357: 265: 179: 171: 155: 55:Relevant discussion may be found on the 4521: 3957: 3457: 3076:"EPA theorizes fracking-pollution link" 2743: 2675: 2008:"Americans Gaining Energy Independence" 1925:, Resources for the Futures, Apr. 2013. 1905: 1583: 1210: 433: 374:sources of natural gas; others include 306:, originated from coalbeds research at 245:with a number of universities (2012). 226:Department of Energy and Climate Change 16:Natural gas trapped in shale formations 5058: 4450: 4431: 4412:The Shale Gas Market Report 2011-2021 4392:"A Texan tragedy: ample oil, no water" 4321:US Energy Information Administration, 4252:, The Energy Collective, 5 April 2013. 4187:. 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(16 January 2014). 4034: 3878:Energy Research & Social Science 3266:US Environmental Protection Agency, 3208:Environmental Science and Technology 2950:Griswold, Eliza (17 November 2011). 2182:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 1290: 855:in more than 14 European countries. 243:National Renewable Energy Laboratory 224:A 2013 review by the United Kingdom 90: 29: 4588:What is the real cost of shale gas? 4549: 3490: 3388:"Electricity Generation and Health" 2425:. Absolute Reports. 1 February 2016 1935:KEN MILAM, EXPLORER Correspondent. 1837:KEN MILAM, EXPLORER Correspondent. 1545:Krauss, Clifford (9 October 2009). 1158:assumes water pushed back into the 13: 4620: 4496:United States Department of Energy 4261: 3610: 3180:Carus, Felicity (2 October 2013). 2130: 458:United States Department of Energy 14: 5077: 4648:National Bureau of Asian Research 4637: 4208:"Can switching fuels save water?" 4109:10.1016/j.compchemeng.2017.01.032 2973:. Dailyyonder.com. Archived from 2968: 2485:, posted to web 30 November 2010. 2326:Technically recoverable resources 2194:"Worldwide shale resource plays," 1914:Zhongmin Wang and Alan Krupnick, 1793:Arthur Berman (8 February 2011). 1281: 954:Natural Resources Defense Council 454:Energy Information Administration 337:Energy Information Administration 166:Energy Information Administration 4925: 4605: 4581: 4565: 4502: 4483: 4470: 4425: 4406: 4370: 4363:Mazur, Karol (3 September 2012) 4357: 4328: 4315: 4282: 4255: 4242: 4090:Gao, Jiyao; You, Fengqi (2017). 3158:. Yosemite.epa.gov. 25 July 2012 3074:Gruver, Mead (8 December 2011). 2952:"The Fracturing of Pennsylvania" 2481:Environmental Protection Agency 887:environmental impact assessments 774: 747: 720: 693: 666: 639: 612: 585: 558: 531: 504: 261: 95: 34: 4673:United States Geological Survey 4528:Thiemo Fetzer (28 March 2014). 4142: 4083: 4056: 3983: 3868: 3837: 3786: 3750: 3698: 3655: 3641:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.12.002 3593: 3435: 3367:Energy.senate.gov. 19 June 2012 3357: 3352:United States Geological Survey 3342: 3310: 3297: 3273: 3260: 3148: 3118: 3104: 3090: 3067: 3045: 3009:Richard A. Kerr (13 May 2011). 3002: 2989: 2962: 2943: 2934: 2923: 2912: 2885: 2844: 2822: 2800: 2778: 2737: 2710: 2669: 2628: 2617: 2576: 2475: 2463: 2437: 2411: 2380: 2369: 2347: 2334: 2318: 2277: 2261: 2248: 2212: 2203: 2186: 2097: 2073: 2051: 2025: 1999: 1928: 1873: 1830: 1786: 1775: 1762: 1742: 1140:United States Geological Survey 486:resource estimates of all types 4630:(U of Pittsburgh Press, 2018) 4626:Gamper-Rabindran, Shanti, ed. 4212:Environmental Research Letters 3812:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2014.04.003 3125:MIT Energy Initiative (2011). 2878:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.08.063 2682:Environmental Research Letters 2641:Environmental Research Letters 1712:Fugitive Fracking Gets Bum Rap 1668: 1655: 1629: 1616: 1603: 1538: 1516: 1117: 1084:Blacklick Creek (Pennsylvania) 1063:Water Development Commission. 899:greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 878:may not be enough in another. 858: 1: 4752:Underground coal gasification 4480:New York Times, 16 July 2001. 3406:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61253-7 2906:10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b03198 2744:Cathles, Lawrence M. (2012). 2150:Stratigraphy & Timescales 2061:. The Economist. 14 July 2012 2059:"America's bounty: Gas works" 1584:Stevens, Paul (August 2012). 1510: 1505:Underground coal gasification 1431:million British thermal units 253:, also known as "shale oil". 198:that is found trapped within 4713: 4499:. Retrieved: 25 August 2012. 4451:Urbina, Ian (27 June 2011). 4432:Urbina, Ian (25 June 2011). 4225:10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/045801 3055:. Redorbit.com. 25 June 2011 3027:10.1126/science.332.6031.775 2788:. Fuelfix.com. 28 April 2013 2703:10.1088/1748-9326/6/4/044008 2662:10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/034014 2222:Chemical Engineering Journal 1353: 1165:Over 109 small earthquakes ( 308:Sandia National Laboratories 7: 3772:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.10.067 3676:10.1016/j.eneco.2011.11.013 3629:Global Environmental Change 2832:. World Resources Institute 2288:Asia's Uncertain LNG Future 2162:10.1016/bs.sats.2020.07.001 1714:, Forbes, 18 February 2013. 1468: 1150:in the midcontinent of the 462:proven natural gas reserves 118:, discuss the issue on the 61:conditions to do so are met 10: 5082: 4167:10.1016/j.rser.2010.03.008 3890:10.1016/j.erss.2019.101221 3318:"シェールガス採掘、地震誘発？米中部、M3以上6倍" 1748:Natural Resources Canada, 1357: 1332: 1261:volatile organic compounds 931:A 2011 study published in 892: 862: 772: 745: 718: 691: 664: 637: 610: 583: 556: 529: 502: 437: 353: 256: 18: 4990: 4934: 4923: 4905: 4877: 4822: 4728: 4721: 4012:10.1007/s00267-014-0440-6 3505:National Research Council 3307:, accessed 20 April 2013. 3294:Winter 2005/2006, p.42–57 2771:10.1007/s10584-011-0333-0 2610:10.1007/s10584-011-0061-5 2342:World Shale Gas Resources 2234:10.1016/j.cej.2019.123191 1276:Centre for Policy Studies 1040:northeastern Pennsylvania 1033:Energy Policy Act of 2005 1026:environmental degradation 4550:EIA (17 February 2011). 4418:23 November 2013 at the 3992:Environmental Management 3799:Journal of Rural Studies 3279:Les Bennett and others, 2676:Hultman, Nathan (2011). 2312:Analysis and projections 1755:21 December 2013 at the 1307: 923:global warming potential 348:greenhouse gas emissions 239:Natural Resources Canada 3727:10.1111/1467-8489.12043 2521:10.1126/science.1174760 2376:What Makes Wet Gas Wet? 933:Climatic Change Letters 212:worldwide energy supply 4967:Natural-gas processing 4365:Economics of Shale Gas 3929:. Clean Air Task Force 3303:US Geological Survey, 3286:25 August 2014 at the 1134:On 26 April 2012, the 1104: 1024:gas. This reduces the 363: 271: 185: 177: 169: 4729:Manufactured fuel gas 3134:MIT Energy Initiative 2940:Kijk magazine, 2/2012 2635:Jiang, Mohan (2011). 2357:. Stateimpact.npr.org 1921:19 March 2015 at the 1609:Staff (5 April 2011) 1156:University of Memphis 1093: 1000:Water and air quality 489:(trillion cubic feet) 480:(trillion cubic feet) 477:recoverable shale gas 475:Estimated technically 361: 330:British thermal units 304:offshore oil drilling 269: 183: 175: 159: 19:For gas generated by 4476:Arthur S. Brisbane, 4325:, 11 September 2012. 2997:Hydraulic fracturing 2919:Man Uni News article 1732:12 July 2017 at the 1661:Burnham and others, 1448:According to a 2013 1437:) due to shale gas. 1375:hydraulic fracturing 1211:Human health impacts 1066:A 2011 study by the 1011:groundwater aquifers 440:Shale gas by country 434:Shale gas by country 407:hydraulic fracturing 344:Obama administration 312:microseismic imaging 300:hydraulic fracturing 208:hydraulic fracturing 124:create a new article 116:improve this article 106:may not represent a 4972:Natural gas storage 4303:on 22 December 2011 4004:2015EnMan..55.1276M 3605:Scientific American 3552:2007EnST...41.6290J 3220:2013EnST...4711849W 3114:. 27 December 2011. 2869:2014ApEn..134..506S 2762:2012ClCh..113..525C 2694:2011ERL.....6d4008H 2653:2011ERL.....6c4014J 2601:2011ClCh..106..679H 2513:2009Sci...326..716S 2451:on 31 December 2013 2115:on 28 November 2009 1759:, 14 December 2012. 883:European Parliament 809:natural gas liquids 413:Horizontal drilling 204:horizontal drilling 48:of this article is 4982:Pipeline transport 4942:Compressor station 4508:Philips, Matthew. 4489:Caudillo, Yvonne. 4344:The New York Times 3607:, 30 October 2013. 3527:Jaramillo, Paulina 3078:. Associated Press 2999:. 6 February 2011 2956:The New York Times 2725:on 13 January 2012 2258:, 23 October 2013. 1963:has generic name ( 1893:on 1 November 2019 1865:has generic name ( 1643:. Springerlink.com 1552:The New York Times 1427:billion cubic feet 1360:Natural gas prices 1270:has said that the 1235:particulate matter 1129:induced seismicity 1055:Pavillion, Wyoming 941:Cornell University 853:resource estimates 484:Proven natural gas 364: 322:George P. Mitchell 296:unconventional gas 276:Fredonia, New York 272: 235:Cornell University 186: 178: 170: 5053: 5052: 4921: 4920: 4764:Blast furnace gas 4747:Coal gasification 4530:"Fracking Growth" 4394:. Theguardian.com 3560:10.1021/es063031o 3546:(17): 6290–6296. 3478:on 4 October 2013 3290:," Schlumberger, 3228:10.1021/es402165b 2564:on 4 October 2013 2507:(5953): 716–718. 2200:, 26 August 2008. 1824:18 April 2013 at 1689:on 4 October 2013 1366:Appalachian Basin 1291:Landscape impacts 1268:Richard A. Muller 967:methane emissions 945:Robert W. Howarth 796: 795: 392:exploration plays 231:Robert W. Howarth 162:structural basins 152: 151: 144: 126:, as appropriate. 89: 88: 81: 5073: 4929: 4726: 4725: 4708: 4701: 4694: 4685: 4684: 4615: 4609: 4603: 4590:by Euan Mearns, 4585: 4579: 4578:, 6 August 2013 4569: 4563: 4562: 4560: 4558: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4525: 4519: 4506: 4500: 4487: 4481: 4474: 4468: 4467: 4465: 4463: 4448: 4446: 4444: 4429: 4423: 4410: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4399: 4387: 4381: 4374: 4368: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4352: 4350: 4338:(25 June 2011). 4332: 4326: 4319: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4308: 4302: 4296:. Archived from 4295: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4259: 4253: 4246: 4240: 4239: 4237: 4227: 4203: 4197: 4196: 4194: 4192: 4186: 4177: 4171: 4170: 4161:(7): 2039–2048. 4146: 4140: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4129: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4087: 4081: 4080: 4069:. Island Press. 4060: 4054: 4053: 4051: 4049: 4038: 4032: 4031: 3998:(6): 1276–1284. 3987: 3981: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3970: 3961: 3955: 3948: 3939: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3928: 3919: 3910: 3909: 3872: 3866: 3865: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3824: 3814: 3790: 3784: 3783: 3754: 3748: 3747: 3729: 3711: 3702: 3696: 3695: 3670:(5): 1580–1588. 3664:Energy Economics 3659: 3653: 3652: 3626: 3617: 3608: 3597: 3591: 3585: 3579: 3578: 3576: 3574: 3535: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3502: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3477: 3470: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3439: 3433: 3432: 3430: 3428: 3400:(9591): 979–90. 3383: 3377: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3361: 3355: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3314: 3308: 3301: 3295: 3292:Oilfield Review, 3277: 3271: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3239: 3214:(20): 11849–57. 3203: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3177: 3168: 3167: 3165: 3163: 3152: 3146: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3131: 3122: 3116: 3115: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3071: 3065: 3064: 3062: 3060: 3049: 3043: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3029:. Archived from 3006: 3000: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2969:Brino, Anthony. 2966: 2960: 2959: 2947: 2941: 2938: 2932: 2927: 2921: 2916: 2910: 2909: 2900:(2): 1803–1824. 2889: 2883: 2882: 2880: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2826: 2820: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2804: 2798: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2782: 2776: 2775: 2773: 2741: 2735: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2721:. Archived from 2714: 2708: 2707: 2705: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2664: 2632: 2626: 2621: 2615: 2614: 2612: 2580: 2574: 2573: 2571: 2569: 2563: 2556: 2547: 2541: 2540: 2492: 2486: 2479: 2473: 2467: 2461: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2415: 2409: 2408: 2406: 2404: 2384: 2378: 2373: 2367: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2351: 2345: 2338: 2332: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2304: 2291: 2281: 2275: 2265: 2259: 2252: 2246: 2245: 2216: 2210: 2207: 2201: 2190: 2184: 2183: 2141: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2120: 2101: 2095: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2085: 2077: 2071: 2070: 2068: 2066: 2055: 2049: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2029: 2023: 2022: 2020: 2018: 2003: 1997: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1978: 1969: 1968: 1962: 1958: 1956: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1932: 1926: 1912: 1903: 1902: 1900: 1898: 1892: 1886:. Archived from 1885: 1877: 1871: 1870: 1864: 1860: 1858: 1850: 1848: 1846: 1834: 1828: 1816: 1807: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1797:. Theoildrum.com 1790: 1784: 1779: 1773: 1766: 1760: 1746: 1740: 1724: 1715: 1708: 1699: 1698: 1696: 1694: 1688: 1681: 1672: 1666: 1659: 1653: 1652: 1650: 1648: 1642: 1633: 1627: 1620: 1614: 1607: 1601: 1600: 1598: 1596: 1581: 1564: 1563: 1561: 1559: 1542: 1536: 1535: 1533: 1531: 1520: 1253:RAND Corporation 1196: 1180: 1102: 875:greenhouse gases 847: 846: 837: 836: 824: 823: 780: 778: 777: 753: 751: 750: 726: 724: 723: 699: 697: 696: 672: 670: 669: 645: 643: 642: 618: 616: 615: 591: 589: 588: 564: 562: 561: 537: 535: 534: 510: 508: 507: 490: 481: 467: 466: 384:methane hydrates 380:tight sandstones 147: 140: 136: 133: 127: 99: 98: 91: 84: 77: 73: 70: 64: 38: 37: 30: 5081: 5080: 5076: 5075: 5074: 5072: 5071: 5070: 5056: 5055: 5054: 5049: 4986: 4930: 4917: 4901: 4873: 4818: 4730: 4717: 4712: 4640: 4623: 4621:Further reading 4618: 4610: 4606: 4586: 4582: 4576:Breaking Energy 4570: 4566: 4556: 4554: 4548: 4544: 4534: 4532: 4526: 4522: 4507: 4503: 4488: 4484: 4475: 4471: 4461: 4459: 4442: 4440: 4430: 4426: 4420:Wayback Machine 4411: 4407: 4397: 4395: 4388: 4384: 4375: 4371: 4362: 4358: 4348: 4346: 4333: 4329: 4320: 4316: 4306: 4304: 4300: 4293: 4287: 4283: 4273: 4271: 4260: 4256: 4248:Jesse Jenkins, 4247: 4243: 4204: 4200: 4190: 4188: 4184: 4178: 4174: 4147: 4143: 4133: 4131: 4127: 4121: 4117: 4088: 4084: 4077: 4061: 4057: 4047: 4045: 4040: 4039: 4035: 3988: 3984: 3974: 3972: 3968: 3962: 3958: 3949: 3942: 3932: 3930: 3926: 3920: 3913: 3873: 3869: 3842: 3838: 3791: 3787: 3755: 3751: 3709: 3703: 3699: 3660: 3656: 3624: 3618: 3611: 3598: 3594: 3586: 3582: 3572: 3570: 3533: 3524: 3520: 3510: 3508: 3500: 3496: 3495: 3491: 3481: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3462: 3458: 3448: 3446: 3441: 3440: 3436: 3426: 3424: 3384: 3380: 3370: 3368: 3363: 3362: 3358: 3354:, 11 April 2012 3347: 3343: 3333: 3331: 3330:on 23 July 2012 3316: 3315: 3311: 3302: 3298: 3288:Wayback Machine 3278: 3274: 3265: 3261: 3204: 3200: 3190: 3188: 3186:theguardian.com 3178: 3171: 3161: 3159: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3139: 3137: 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2000: 1990: 1988: 1980: 1979: 1972: 1960: 1959: 1950: 1949: 1942: 1940: 1933: 1929: 1923:Wayback Machine 1913: 1906: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1883: 1879: 1878: 1874: 1862: 1861: 1852: 1851: 1844: 1842: 1835: 1831: 1817: 1810: 1800: 1798: 1791: 1787: 1780: 1776: 1767: 1763: 1757:Wayback Machine 1747: 1743: 1734:Wayback Machine 1725: 1718: 1709: 1702: 1692: 1690: 1686: 1679: 1673: 1669: 1660: 1656: 1646: 1644: 1640: 1634: 1630: 1621: 1617: 1608: 1604: 1594: 1592: 1582: 1567: 1557: 1555: 1543: 1539: 1529: 1527: 1522: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1471: 1455:Baker Institute 1450:Forbes magazine 1362: 1356: 1345: 1341: 1335: 1310: 1293: 1284: 1247: 1242: 1231: 1224: 1213: 1208: 1195: 1187: 1179: 1170: 1120: 1103: 1100: 1080:Duke University 1042:with flammable 1002: 979: 959: 895: 871: 861: 844: 842: 834: 832: 821: 819: 816:wet natural gas 775: 773: 748: 746: 721: 719: 694: 692: 667: 665: 640: 638: 613: 611: 586: 584: 559: 557: 532: 530: 505: 503: 494: 488: 487: 485: 479: 478: 476: 446: 438:Main articles: 436: 390:(as opposed to 376:coalbed methane 356: 292:1980 Energy Act 264: 259: 148: 137: 131: 128: 113: 100: 96: 85: 74: 68: 65: 54: 39: 35: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5079: 5069: 5068: 5051: 5050: 5048: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5031: 5030: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4994: 4992: 4988: 4987: 4985: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4938: 4936: 4935:Infrastructure 4932: 4931: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4918: 4916: 4915: 4909: 4907: 4903: 4902: 4900: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4883: 4881: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4871: 4870: 4869: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4828: 4826: 4820: 4819: 4817: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4799:Regasification 4796: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4755: 4754: 4749: 4738: 4736: 4723: 4719: 4718: 4711: 4710: 4703: 4696: 4688: 4682: 4681: 4675: 4667: 4661: 4651: 4639: 4638:External links 4636: 4635: 4634: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4616: 4604: 4580: 4564: 4542: 4520: 4501: 4482: 4469: 4457:New York Times 4438:New York Times 4424: 4405: 4382: 4369: 4356: 4327: 4314: 4281: 4254: 4241: 4198: 4172: 4141: 4115: 4082: 4075: 4055: 4033: 3982: 3956: 3940: 3911: 3867: 3836: 3785: 3749: 3697: 3654: 3609: 3592: 3580: 3518: 3489: 3456: 3434: 3378: 3356: 3341: 3309: 3296: 3272: 3259: 3198: 3169: 3147: 3117: 3103: 3089: 3066: 3044: 3033:on 13 May 2011 3001: 2988: 2961: 2942: 2933: 2922: 2911: 2884: 2857:Applied Energy 2843: 2821: 2799: 2777: 2756:(2): 525–535. 2736: 2709: 2668: 2627: 2616: 2595:(4): 679–690. 2575: 2542: 2487: 2474: 2462: 2436: 2410: 2379: 2368: 2346: 2333: 2317: 2292: 2276: 2260: 2247: 2211: 2202: 2185: 2170: 2129: 2096: 2072: 2050: 2024: 1998: 1970: 1927: 1904: 1872: 1829: 1808: 1785: 1774: 1761: 1741: 1738:Berkeley Earth 1716: 1700: 1667: 1654: 1628: 1615: 1602: 1565: 1537: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1508: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1470: 1467: 1419:New York Times 1405:water shortage 1370:Illinois Basin 1355: 1352: 1343: 1339: 1334: 1331: 1309: 1306: 1292: 1289: 1283: 1282:Social impacts 1280: 1245: 1240: 1229: 1222: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1193: 1185: 1177: 1168: 1146:3 and greater 1138:reported that 1119: 1116: 1115: 1114: 1111: 1098: 1001: 998: 994: 993: 990: 987: 978: 975: 957: 919:greenhouse gas 894: 891: 860: 857: 794: 793: 790: 787: 784: 771: 767: 766: 763: 760: 757: 744: 740: 739: 736: 733: 730: 717: 713: 712: 709: 706: 703: 690: 686: 685: 682: 679: 676: 663: 659: 658: 655: 652: 649: 636: 632: 631: 628: 625: 622: 609: 605: 604: 601: 598: 595: 582: 578: 577: 574: 571: 568: 555: 551: 550: 547: 544: 541: 528: 524: 523: 520: 517: 514: 501: 497: 496: 491: 482: 473: 470: 456:agency of the 435: 432: 388:resource plays 372:unconventional 355: 352: 263: 260: 258: 255: 233:and others of 193:unconventional 150: 149: 110:of the subject 108:worldwide view 103: 101: 94: 87: 86: 42: 40: 33: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5078: 5067: 5064: 5063: 5061: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5029: 5026: 5025: 5024: 5021: 5019: 5016: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4998:Bunsen burner 4996: 4995: 4993: 4989: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 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4324: 4318: 4299: 4292: 4285: 4269: 4265: 4258: 4251: 4245: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4218:(4): 045801. 4217: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4183: 4176: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4145: 4126: 4119: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4086: 4078: 4076:9781610914833 4072: 4068: 4067: 4059: 4043: 4037: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3986: 3967: 3960: 3953: 3947: 3945: 3925: 3918: 3916: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3871: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3789: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3760:Energy Policy 3753: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3701: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3658: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3623: 3616: 3614: 3606: 3602: 3599:David Wogan, 3596: 3590: 3584: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3540: 3532: 3528: 3522: 3506: 3499: 3493: 3474: 3467: 3460: 3444: 3438: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3394: 3389: 3382: 3366: 3360: 3353: 3350: 3345: 3329: 3325: 3324: 3323:Asahi Shimbun 3319: 3313: 3306: 3300: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3282: 3276: 3269: 3263: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3238: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3202: 3187: 3183: 3176: 3174: 3157: 3151: 3135: 3128: 3121: 3113: 3107: 3099: 3093: 3077: 3070: 3054: 3048: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3021:(6031): 775. 3020: 3016: 3012: 3005: 2998: 2992: 2976: 2972: 2965: 2957: 2953: 2946: 2937: 2931: 2926: 2920: 2915: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2888: 2879: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2847: 2831: 2825: 2809: 2803: 2787: 2781: 2772: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2740: 2724: 2720: 2713: 2704: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2688:(4): 044008. 2687: 2683: 2679: 2672: 2663: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2647:(3): 034014. 2646: 2642: 2638: 2631: 2625: 2620: 2611: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2579: 2560: 2553: 2546: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2491: 2484: 2478: 2471: 2466: 2450: 2446: 2440: 2424: 2423:Market Report 2420: 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