2588:
1063:
1026:", measured at a distance of 100 km (62 mi). The scale was calibrated by defining a magnitude 0 shock as one that produces (at a distance of 100 km (62 mi)) a maximum amplitude of 1 micron (1 μm, or 0.001 millimeters) on a seismogram recorded by a Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer. Finally, Richter calculated a table of distance corrections, in that for distances less than 200 kilometers the attenuation is strongly affected by the structure and properties of the regional geology.
68:
2941:(1958), an opinion copiously reproduced afterward in Earth's science primers. Recent evidence shows that earthquakes with negative magnitudes (down to −0.7) can also be felt in exceptional cases, especially when the focus is very shallow (a few hundred meters). See: Thouvenot, F.; Bouchon, M. (2008). "What is the lowest magnitude threshold at which an earthquake can be felt or heard, or objects thrown into the air?," in Fréchet, J., Meghraoui, M. & Stucchi, M. (eds),
487:
944:
1195: , saturate for large earthquakes, meaning they are based on the amplitudes of waves that have a wavelength shorter than the rupture length of the earthquakes. These short waves (high-frequency waves) are too short a yardstick to measure the extent of the event. The resulting effective upper limit of measurement for M
934:
ruptured together and moved by 60 metres (200 ft) (or if a similar large-scale rupture occurred elsewhere). Such an earthquake would cause ground motions for up to an hour, with tsunamis hitting shores while the ground is still shaking, and if this kind of earthquake occurred, it would probably
710:
The following describes the typical effects of earthquakes of various magnitudes near the epicenter. The values are typical and may not be exact in a future event because intensity and ground effects depend not only on the magnitude but also on (1) the distance to the epicenter, (2) the depth of the
1098:, from detectable by instruments but not noticeable, to catastrophic. The energy and effects are not necessarily strongly correlated; a shallow earthquake in a populated area with soil of certain types can be far more intense in impact than a much more energetic deep earthquake in an isolated area.
921:
Seismologist Susan Hough has suggested that a magnitude 10 quake may represent a very approximate upper limit for what the Earth's tectonic zones are capable of, which would be the result of the largest known continuous belt of faults rupturing together (along the
Pacific coast of the Americas). A
1005:
showed how he had measured, for several strong earthquakes in Japan, the amplitude of the shaking observed at various distances from the epicenter. He then plotted the logarithm of the amplitude against the distance and found a series of curves that showed a rough correlation with the estimated
699:
Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude. In terms of energy, each whole number increase corresponds to an increase of about 31.6 times the amount of energy released, and each increase of 0.2
1022:. Second, he wanted a magnitude of zero to be around the limit of human perceptibility. Third, he specified the Wood–Anderson seismograph as the standard instrument for producing seismograms. Magnitude was then defined as "the logarithm of the maximum trace amplitude, expressed in
803:
Noticeable shaking of indoor objects and rattling noises. Felt by most people in the affected area. Slightly felt outside. Generally causes zero to minimal damage. Moderate to significant damage is very unlikely. Some objects may fall off shelves or be knocked over.
860:
Causes damage to most buildings, some to partially or completely collapse or receive severe damage. Well-designed structures are likely to receive damage. Felt across great distances with major damage mostly limited to 250 km from the epicenter.
2144:
2363:
648:
1206:
New techniques to avoid the saturation problem and to measure magnitudes rapidly for very large earthquakes are being developed. One of these is based on the long-period P-wave; The other is based on a recently discovered channel wave.
1151: is the scale used for the majority of earthquakes reported (tens of thousands) by local and regional seismological observatories. For large earthquakes worldwide, the moment magnitude scale (MMS) is most common, although M
2890:
909:
Millions of minor earthquakes occur every year worldwide, equating to hundreds every hour every day. On the other hand, earthquakes of magnitude ≥8.0 occur about once a year, on average. The largest recorded earthquake was the
842:
survive with slight to moderate damage. Poorly designed structures receive moderate to severe damage. Felt in wider areas; up to hundreds of kilometers from the epicenter. Strong to violent shaking in the epicentral area.
2541:
966:. ("Size" is used in the sense of the quantity of energy released, not the size of the area affected by shaking, though higher-energy earthquakes do tend to affect a wider area, depending on the local geology.) In 1883,
1704:
1346:) in the energy released. The elastic energy radiated is best derived from an integration of the radiated spectrum, but an estimate can be based on mb because most energy is carried by the high-frequency waves.
2005:
1838:
473:
character of the original and are scaled to have roughly comparable numeric values (typically in the middle of the scale). Due to the variance in earthquakes, it is essential to understand the
Richter scale uses
1013:
Additional developments were required to produce a practical method of assigning an absolute measure of magnitude. First, to span the wide range of possible values, Richter adopted
Gutenberg's suggestion of a
1074:
properties of
Southern California crust and mantle." The particular instrument used would become saturated by strong earthquakes and unable to record high values. The scale was replaced in the 1970s by the
875:
Major damage to buildings, and structures likely to be destroyed. Will cause moderate to heavy damage to sturdy or earthquake-resistant buildings. Damaging in large areas. Felt in extremely large regions.
1033:
told the press that the scale was
Richter's and "should be referred to as such." In 1956, Gutenberg and Richter, while still referring to "magnitude scale", labelled it "local magnitude", with the symbol
2617:
970:
surmised that the shaking of large earthquakes might generate waves detectable around the globe, and in 1899 E. Von Rehbur
Paschvitz observed in Germany seismic waves attributable to an earthquake in
1070:
The
Richter scale was defined in 1935 for particular circumstances and instruments; the particular circumstances refer to it being defined for Southern California and "implicitly incorporates the
1542:
1140: . The mb scale gives somewhat different values than the other scales. The reason for so many different ways to measure the same thing is that at different distances, for different
1438:
1485:
2898:
1344:
1285:
511:
2209:
1605:
1029:
When
Richter presented the resulting scale in 1935, he called it (at the suggestion of Harry Wood) simply a "magnitude" scale. "Richter magnitude" appears to have originated when
2436:
2246:
1387:
954:
Prior to the development of the magnitude scale, the only measure of an earthquake's strength or "size" was a subjective assessment of the intensity of shaking observed near the
703:
Events with magnitudes greater than 4.5 are strong enough to be recorded by a seismograph anywhere in the world, so long as its sensors are not located in the earthquake's
2053:
1568:
2264:
2174:
478:
simply to make the measurements manageable (i.e., a magnitude 3 quake factors 10³ while a magnitude 5 quake factors 10 and has seismometer readings 100 times larger).
2399:
690:
2569:
2033:
1904:
1868:
1732:
1083: ); for earthquakes adequately measured by the Richter scale, numerical values are approximately the same. Although values measured for earthquakes now are M
890:
Near total destruction – severe damage or collapse to all buildings. Heavy damage and shaking extend to distant locations. Permanent changes in ground topography.
3375:
469: ) to report earthquake magnitudes, but much of the news media still erroneously refers to these as "Richter" magnitudes. All magnitude scales retain the
3931:
1125: , abbreviated MMS, have been widely used for decades. A couple of new techniques to measure magnitude are in the development stage by seismologists.
1087: , they are frequently reported by the press as Richter values, even for earthquakes of magnitude over 8, when the Richter scale becomes meaningless.
906:
The intensity and death toll depend on several factors (earthquake depth, epicenter location, and population density, to name a few) and can vary widely.
3966:
1174:, is proportional to the area of the rupture times the average slip that took place in the earthquake, thus it measures the physical size of the event. M
3422:
Di
Giacomo, D., Parolai, S., Saul, J., Grosser, H., Bormann, P., Wang, R. & Zschau, J., 2008. "Rapid determination of the energy magnitude Me," in
501:
of waves recorded by seismographs. Adjustments are included to compensate for the variation in the distance between the various seismographs and the
2458:
274:
1624:
3491:
Lahr, J.C. (1980). HYPOELLIPSE: A computer program for determining local earthquake hypocentral parameters, magnitude, and first-motion pattern.
2986:
2827:
998:. He also recruited the young and unknown Charles Richter to measure the seismograms and locate the earthquakes generating the seismic waves.
4043:
30:
This article is about the earthquake magnitude scale introduced by
Charles Richter in 1935. For a review of earthquake magnitude scales, see
3032:
1922:
1755:
926:
in Japan found that a magnitude 10 earthquake was theoretically possible if a combined 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) of faults from the
3864:
3813:
4079:
3772:
3727:
4089:
2725:
821:
Can cause damage of varying severity to poorly constructed buildings. Zero to slight damage to all other buildings. Felt by everyone.
2920:
3901:
1006:
magnitudes of the earthquakes. Richter resolved some difficulties with this method and then, using data collected by his colleague
692:. In practice, readings from all observing stations are averaged after adjustment with station-specific corrections to obtain the M
446:, and presented in Richter's landmark 1935 paper, where he called it the "magnitude scale". This was later revised and renamed the
4028:
3951:
3084:
1188: . In contrast, the other magnitudes are derived from a simple measurement of the amplitude of a precisely defined wave.
1010:, he produced similar curves, confirming that they could be used to compare the relative magnitudes of different earthquakes.
4038:
4033:
3936:
3714:
2803:
376:
3961:
1489:
987:
1018:
scale, where each step represents a tenfold increase of magnitude, similar to the magnitude scale used by astronomers
4084:
3956:
3590:
3379:
3067:
728:
17:
1392:
3687:
Gutenberg, B.; Richter, C. F. (1956b), "Earthquake magnitude, intensity, energy, and acceleration (Second Paper)",
1128:
All magnitude scales have been designed to give numerically similar results. This goal has been achieved well for M
991:
1442:
3409:
1144:
depths, and for different earthquake sizes, the amplitudes of different types of elastic waves must be measured.
986:, one of the first practical instruments for recording seismic waves. Wood then built, under the auspices of the
839:
1066:
How Richter Magnitude Scale is determined - the larger the value on the log graph, the higher the damage caused.
3874:
3304:
124:
1178: is derived from it empirically as a quantity without units, just a number designed to conform to the M
3987:
3946:
983:
305:
3541:"Local and regional earthquake magnitude calibration of Tabuk analog sub-network, Northwest of Saudi Arabia"
3508:"Local and regional earthquake magnitude calibration of Tabuk analog sub-network, Northwest of Saudi Arabia"
4094:
3894:
3603:
1290:
1231:
2181:
1577:
4074:
3941:
2406:
2216:
1357:
172:
931:
2990:
658:
369:
350:
310:
2139:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=2.92+2.25\ \log _{10}\left(\tau \right)-0.001\ \Delta ^{\circ }\ ,}
4069:
3910:
2612:
2607:
1091:
959:
911:
253:
248:
31:
3036:
2358:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=-2.53+2.85\log _{10}\left(F-P\right)+0.0014\ \Delta ^{\circ }\ ,}
786:
Often felt by people, but very rarely causes damage. Shaking of indoor objects can be noticeable.
3887:
3435:
Rivera, L. & Kanamori, H., 2008. "Rapid source inversion of W phase for tsunami warning," in
2696:
1547:
947:
99:
1062:
4002:
3997:
2843:"S-wave shadows in the Krafla Caldera in NE-Iceland, evidence for a magma chamber in the crust"
2153:
1228:
for an explanation). Thus, a difference in magnitude of 1.0 is equivalent to a factor of 31.6 (
1225:
1076:
1039:
915:
462:
315:
282:
3828:
3645:
1287:) in the energy released; a difference in magnitude of 2.0 is equivalent to a factor of 1000 (
643:{\displaystyle M_{\mathrm {L} }=\log _{10}A-\log _{10}A_{\mathrm {0} }(\delta )=\log _{10},\ }
4048:
3329:
Richter, C.F., "Elementary Seismology", ed, Vol., W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1956.
2593:
2372:
1389:
are alternatives to using Richter correlation tables based on Richter standard seismic event
1214:
release of an earthquake, which closely correlates to its destructive power, scales with the
963:
675:
338:
266:
139:
119:
114:
109:
2733:
1090:
The Richter and MMS scales measure the energy released by an earthquake; another scale, the
3787:
3749:
3657:
3401:
3348:
2548:
2012:
1883:
1847:
1711:
979:
712:
362:
345:
300:
134:
51:
39:
2924:
8:
3982:
1047:
995:
669:
200:
77:
3791:
3753:
3661:
3604:"The Richter scale: its development and use for determining earthquake source parameter"
3352:
1101:
Several scales have been historically described as the "Richter scale",, especially the
3809:
3579:
3469:
2821:
1019:
461: scale, most seismological authorities now use other similar scales such as the
177:
144:
104:
3632:
3710:
3673:
3622:
3586:
3063:
2872:
2809:
2799:
2776:
923:
711:
earthquake's focus beneath the epicenter, (3) the location of the epicenter, and (4)
3795:
3757:
3665:
3618:
3552:
3519:
3356:
2968:
2862:
2854:
2768:
475:
396:
149:
3015:
3859:
3704:
3270:, p. 1. His article is titled: "An Instrumental Earthquake Magnitude Scale".
2602:
744:
439:
167:
129:
3669:
3557:
3540:
3524:
3507:
3449:
Vassiliou, Marius; Kanamori, Hiroo (1982). "The Energy Release in Earthquakes".
2947:
Historical Seismology: Interdisciplinary Studies of Past and Recent Earthquakes,
2756:
67:
1159:
1007:
443:
35:
3870:
4063:
2876:
2867:
2813:
2780:
2536:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=\log _{10}A+1.73\ \log _{10}\Delta -0.83\ ,}
975:
3360:
1699:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=\log _{10}A-2.48+2.76\ \log _{10}\Delta \ }
4007:
3879:
3677:
1608:
1030:
1002:
927:
215:
2894:
1871:
1071:
1038: , to distinguish it from two other scales they had developed, the
838:
Damage to a moderate number of well-built structures in populated areas.
704:
243:
210:
2842:
2858:
2572:
1875:
1739:
1141:
967:
435:
325:
205:
94:
59:
2972:
2000:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=\log _{10}A+3.0\ \log _{10}D-3.38\ ;}
1833:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=\log _{10}A+1.6\ \log _{10}D-0.15\ ,}
486:
3799:
3761:
2959:
McCaffrey, R. (2008). "Global frequency of magnitude 9 earthquakes".
2036:
1907:
1571:
1015:
955:
502:
498:
494:
470:
195:
89:
84:
2989:. United States Geological Survey. November 29, 2012. Archived from
2772:
320:
3865:
USGS Earthquake Magnitude Policy (implemented on January 18, 2002)
3060:
The signal and the noise : the art and science of prediction
1023:
943:
3871:
Perspective: a graphical comparison of earthquake energy release
700:
corresponds to approximately a doubling of the energy released.
3855:
1735:
1211:
225:
220:
493:
The Richter magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the
414:
3339:
Hanks, T. C.; Kanamori, H. (1979). "Moment magnitude scale".
971:
3468:
Spence, William; Sipkin, Stuart A.; Choy, George L. (1989).
2732:. USGS. p. 177. Professional Paper 1515. Archived from
3706:
Richter's scale: measure of an earthquake, measure of a man
2039:, for distances between 200 km and 600 km .
1182: scale. A spectral analysis is required to obtain M
3634:
Regional Relationships Among Earthquake Magnitude Scales.
405:
3424:
European Seismological Commission 31st General Assembly,
34:. For the musical scale used for tuning harmonicas, see
2047:(1958) for epicentre distances between 4° and 160° is:
3932:
Central Weather Administration seismic intensity scale
2643:, pp. 122–126) discusses the name at some length.
1734:
is the amplitude (maximum ground displacement) of the
769:
Felt slightly by some people. No damage to buildings.
752:
Microearthquakes, not felt. Recorded by seismographs.
3076:
2551:
2461:
2409:
2375:
2267:
2219:
2184:
2156:
2056:
2015:
1925:
1886:
1850:
1758:
1714:
1627:
1580:
1550:
1492:
1445:
1395:
1360:
1293:
1234:
914:
of May 22, 1960, which had a magnitude of 9.5 on the
736:
Average frequency of occurrence globally (estimated)
678:
514:
408:
2583:
411:
402:
3644:Gutenberg, B.; Richter, C. F. (February 21, 1936),
3539:Al-Arifi, Nassir S.; Al-Humidan, Saad (July 2012).
3506:al-Arifi, Nassir S.; al-Humidan, Saad (July 2012).
2176:
is the duration of the surface wave in seconds, and
1537:{\displaystyle \ D=100\ {\mathsf {km}}\ {\big )}~.}
399:
3578:
3538:
3505:
2563:
2535:
2430:
2393:
2357:
2240:
2203:
2168:
2138:
2027:
1999:
1898:
1862:
1832:
1726:
1698:
1599:
1562:
1536:
1479:
1432:
1381:
1338:
1279:
684:
642:
3686:
3646:"Discussion: Magnitude and energy of earthquakes"
3448:
3291:
2683:
457:Because of various shortcomings of the original M
4061:
3821:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
3726:Hutton, L. K.; Boore, David M. (December 1987),
3689:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
3643:
3467:
3199:
2618:Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)
2401:is the total duration of oscillation in seconds.
3630:
3394:
3255:
3219:
1349:
2793:
1607:is the same distance represented as sea level
1433:{\displaystyle {\big (}\ M_{\mathsf {L}}=0\ ,}
994:, a network of seismographs stretching across
3895:
3338:
3033:"Largest Earthquakes in the World Since 1900"
2952:
1523:
1398:
370:
3909:
3814:"An Instrumental Earthquake Magnitude Scale"
3437:European Geophysical Union General Assembly,
1480:{\displaystyle \ A=0.001\ {\mathsf {mm}}\ ,}
505:of the earthquake. The original formula is:
3937:Environmental Seismic Intensity scale (ESI)
3725:
3215:
2883:
2719:
2717:
2697:"Discovery Project 17: Orders of Magnitude"
3962:PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
3902:
3888:
3085:"Magnitude 10 temblor could happen: study"
2826:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
958:of the earthquake, categorized by various
901:Based on U.S. Geological Survey documents.
377:
363:
3556:
3545:Journal of King Saud University – Science
3523:
3512:Journal of King Saud University – Science
2958:
2943:Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences
2866:
2840:
2723:
2657:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 608.
3770:
3631:Chung, D. H.; Bernreuter, D. L. (1980),
3532:
3499:
3305:"Explanation of Bulletin Listings, USGS"
2730:The San Andreas Fault System, California
2714:
2667:
2636:
1910:, for distances under 200 km .
1061:
942:
485:
3808:
3378:. Hong Kong Observatory. Archived from
3317:
3267:
3243:
3231:
3211:
3195:
3177:
3165:
3153:
3010:
3008:
2671:
2438:mainly takes on values between 3 and 5.
14:
4062:
3057:
2891:"What is the Richter Magnitude Scale?"
2652:
2471:
2419:
2277:
2229:
2066:
1935:
1768:
1637:
1513:
1510:
1466:
1463:
1412:
1370:
1199: is about 7 and about 8.5 for M
3883:
3702:
3601:
3493:US Geological Survey open-file report
3470:"Measuring the Size of an Earthquake"
3279:
3141:
3129:
3117:
3082:
2754:
2640:
1354:These formulae for Richter magnitude
1339:{\displaystyle =({10^{2.0}})^{(3/2)}}
1280:{\displaystyle =({10^{1.0}})^{(3/2)}}
1155: is also reported frequently.
481:
3771:Kanamori, Hiroo (February 2, 1978),
3581:Earthquakes and geological discovery
3576:
3490:
3484:
3105:
3005:
2755:Brush, Stephen G. (September 1980).
2204:{\displaystyle \ \Delta ^{\circ }\ }
1600:{\displaystyle \ \Delta ^{\circ }\ }
1224:power of the shaking amplitude (see
3373:
3035:. November 30, 2012. Archived from
2431:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}\ }
2241:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}\ }
1382:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}\ }
755:Continual/several million per year
27:Measure of an earthquake's strength
24:
4080:California Institute of Technology
2937:This is what Richter wrote in his
2921:"Magnitude / Intensity Comparison"
2518:
2340:
2189:
2121:
1690:
1585:
1554:
1094:, classifies earthquakes by their
988:California Institute of Technology
521:
434:, is a measure of the strength of
25:
4106:
4090:Logarithmic scales of measurement
3942:European Macroseismic Scale (EMS)
3849:
3374:Woo, Wang-chun (September 2012).
2987:"Earthquake Facts and Statistics"
3016:"How Often Do Earthquakes Occur"
2841:Einarsson, P. (September 1978).
2586:
1113: scale. In addition, the
657:is the maximum excursion of the
395:
66:
3993:Local magnitude (Richter scale)
3952:Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik (MSK)
3773:"Quantification of Earthquakes"
3602:Boore, D. M. (September 1989),
3585:, Scientific American Library,
3461:
3442:
3429:
3416:
3367:
3341:Journal of Geophysical Research
3332:
3323:
3311:
3297:
3285:
3273:
3261:
3249:
3237:
3225:
3205:
3189:
3183:
3171:
3159:
3147:
3135:
3123:
3111:
3099:
3051:
3025:
2979:
2931:
2913:
2757:"Discovery of the Earth's core"
2728:. In Wallace, Robert E. (ed.).
840:Earthquake-resistant structures
4034:Mercalli–Cancani–Sieberg (MCS)
3875:Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
3709:, Princeton University Press,
2834:
2796:A dictionary of earth sciences
2787:
2748:
2724:Ellsworth, William L. (1991).
2689:
2677:
2661:
2646:
2630:
2045:Bisztricsany empirical formula
1570:is the epicentral distance in
1331:
1317:
1313:
1297:
1272:
1258:
1254:
1238:
1109: and the surface wave M
938:
631:
628:
622:
599:
580:
574:
38:. For the single by EPMD, see
13:
1:
3735:scale in Southern California"
3292:Gutenberg & Richter 1956b
2949:Springer, Dordrecht, 313–326.
2684:Gutenberg & Richter 1956b
935:be a 1-in-10,000-year event.
3623:10.1016/0040-1951(89)90200-x
3200:Gutenberg & Richter 1936
1350:Magnitude empirical formulae
7:
3670:10.1126/science.83.2147.183
3558:10.1016/j.jksus.2011.04.001
3525:10.1016/j.jksus.2011.04.001
3256:Chung & Bernreuter 1980
3220:Chung & Bernreuter 1980
3083:Kyodo (December 15, 2012).
2761:American Journal of Physics
2579:
1563:{\displaystyle \ \Delta \ }
733:Average earthquake effects
729:modified Mercalli intensity
10:
4111:
4039:Mercalli–Wood–Neuman (MWN)
3568:
3495:(Report). Vol. 80–59.
3376:"On Earthquake Magnitudes"
2655:Annals of the Former World
2248:is mainly between 5 and 8.
1742:, measured at 0.8 Hz.
1057:
807:10,000 to 15,000 per year
772:Over one million per year
275:Coordinating Committee for
29:
4021:
3975:
3924:
3917:
3827:(1): 1–32, archived from
3474:Earthquakes and Volcanoes
2256:Tsumura empirical formula
2169:{\displaystyle \ \tau \ }
984:Wood–Anderson seismograph
893:One to three per century
871:
856:
762:
661:, the empirical function
659:Wood-Anderson seismograph
428:Richter's magnitude scale
306:Adams–Williamson equation
4085:Seismic magnitude scales
3911:Seismic magnitude scales
2798:(3rd ed.). Oxford.
2624:
2613:Seismic magnitude scales
2608:Seismic intensity scales
1747:Lahr's empirical formula
1616:Lillie empirical formula
1092:Mercalli intensity scale
960:seismic intensity scales
912:Great Chilean earthquake
824:1,000 to 1,500 per year
254:Seismic intensity scales
249:Seismic magnitude scales
32:seismic magnitude scales
3361:10.1029/jb084ib05p02348
3216:Hutton & Boore 1987
2847:Bulletin Volcanologique
2794:Michael Allaby (2008).
2394:{\displaystyle \ F-P\ }
1544:In the formulas below,
948:Charles Francis Richter
685:{\displaystyle \delta }
432:Gutenberg–Richter scale
424:Richter magnitude scale
4003:Surface-wave magnitude
3957:Modified Mercalli (MM)
3451:Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am
3214:, p. 5. See also
2726:"The Richter Scale ML"
2565:
2537:
2448:(University of Tokyo)
2432:
2395:
2359:
2242:
2205:
2170:
2140:
2029:
2001:
1900:
1864:
1834:
1728:
1700:
1601:
1564:
1538:
1481:
1434:
1383:
1340:
1281:
1226:Moment magnitude scale
1077:moment magnitude scale
1067:
1040:surface wave magnitude
951:
932:Kuril–Kamchatka Trench
916:moment magnitude scale
789:Over 100,000 per year
686:
644:
490:
463:moment magnitude scale
442:in collaboration with
316:Earthquake engineering
3703:Hough, S. E. (2007),
3234:, p. 6, Table I.
3058:Silver, Nate (2013).
2939:Elementary Seismology
2653:McPhee, John (1998).
2594:Earth sciences portal
2566:
2564:{\displaystyle \ A\ }
2538:
2433:
2396:
2360:
2243:
2206:
2171:
2141:
2030:
2028:{\displaystyle \ D\ }
2002:
1901:
1899:{\displaystyle \ D\ }
1865:
1863:{\displaystyle \ A\ }
1835:
1729:
1727:{\displaystyle \ A\ }
1701:
1602:
1565:
1539:
1482:
1435:
1384:
1341:
1282:
1117:, mb , and the
1065:
946:
713:geological conditions
687:
645:
489:
448:local magnitude scale
339:Earth Sciences Portal
311:Flinn–Engdahl regions
277:Earthquake Prediction
3577:Bolt, B. A. (1993),
3439:pp. A-06228, Vienna.
2571:is the amplitude in
2549:
2459:
2407:
2373:
2265:
2217:
2182:
2154:
2054:
2013:
1923:
1884:
1874:signal amplitude in
1848:
1756:
1712:
1625:
1578:
1548:
1490:
1443:
1393:
1358:
1291:
1232:
1191:All scales, except M
846:100 to 150 per year
676:
668:depends only on the
512:
450:, denoted as ML or M
301:Shear wave splitting
40:Richter Scale (song)
4095:American inventions
3983:Body-wave magnitude
3792:1978Natur.271..411K
3754:1978Natur.271..411K
3662:1936Sci....83..183G
3353:1979JGR....84.2348H
3282:, pp. 123–124.
3144:, pp. 57, 116.
3062:. London: Penguin.
2701:www.stewartmath.com
1115:body wave magnitude
1048:body wave magnitude
1020:for star brightness
996:Southern California
670:epicentral distance
422:), also called the
201:Epicentral distance
4075:1935 introductions
3988:Duration magnitude
3039:on October 7, 2009
2859:10.1007/bf02597222
2561:
2533:
2428:
2391:
2355:
2238:
2201:
2166:
2136:
2025:
1997:
1896:
1860:
1830:
1724:
1696:
1597:
1560:
1534:
1477:
1430:
1379:
1336:
1277:
1068:
992:Carnegie Institute
952:
864:10 to 20 per year
682:
640:
491:
482:Richter magnitudes
178:Induced seismicity
125:Remotely triggered
4057:
4056:
4022:Historical scales
4017:
4016:
3967:Shindo (Japanese)
3786:(5644): 411–414,
3716:978-0-691-12807-8
3656:(2147): 183–185,
3412:. March 31, 2010.
3087:. The Japan Times
2973:10.1130/G24402A.1
2927:on June 23, 2011.
2901:on August 3, 2021
2868:20.500.11815/4200
2805:978-0-19-921194-4
2736:on April 25, 2016
2560:
2554:
2529:
2504:
2464:
2450:empirical formula
2427:
2412:
2390:
2378:
2351:
2338:
2270:
2237:
2222:
2200:
2187:
2165:
2159:
2132:
2119:
2086:
2059:
2024:
2018:
1993:
1968:
1928:
1895:
1889:
1859:
1853:
1826:
1801:
1761:
1723:
1717:
1695:
1676:
1630:
1596:
1583:
1559:
1553:
1530:
1520:
1507:
1495:
1473:
1460:
1448:
1426:
1405:
1378:
1363:
1186:
1169:
964:Rossi–Forel scale
924:Tohoku University
897:
896:
639:
476:common logarithms
387:
386:
18:Richter magnitude
16:(Redirected from
4102:
3998:Moment magnitude
3976:Magnitude scales
3925:Intensity scales
3922:
3921:
3904:
3897:
3890:
3881:
3880:
3842:
3841:
3839:
3834:on July 10, 2018
3833:
3818:
3812:(January 1935),
3802:
3800:10.1038/271411a0
3777:
3764:
3762:10.1038/271411a0
3739:
3719:
3696:
3680:
3638:, NUREG/CR-1457.
3637:
3625:
3608:
3595:
3584:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3536:
3530:
3529:
3527:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3488:
3482:
3481:
3465:
3459:
3458:
3446:
3440:
3433:
3427:
3420:
3414:
3413:
3398:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3387:
3371:
3365:
3364:
3336:
3330:
3327:
3321:
3315:
3309:
3308:
3301:
3295:
3289:
3283:
3277:
3271:
3265:
3259:
3253:
3247:
3241:
3235:
3229:
3223:
3209:
3203:
3193:
3187:
3181:
3175:
3169:
3163:
3157:
3151:
3145:
3139:
3133:
3127:
3121:
3115:
3109:
3103:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3092:
3080:
3074:
3073:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3029:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3012:
3003:
3002:
3000:
2998:
2983:
2977:
2976:
2956:
2950:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2923:. Archived from
2917:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2897:. Archived from
2887:
2881:
2880:
2870:
2838:
2832:
2831:
2825:
2817:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2721:
2712:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2693:
2687:
2681:
2675:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2650:
2644:
2634:
2596:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2552:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2527:
2514:
2513:
2502:
2489:
2488:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2462:
2437:
2435:
2434:
2429:
2425:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2410:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2392:
2388:
2376:
2364:
2362:
2361:
2356:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2336:
2329:
2325:
2307:
2306:
2282:
2281:
2280:
2268:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2239:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2232:
2220:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2185:
2175:
2173:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2130:
2129:
2128:
2117:
2110:
2096:
2095:
2084:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2057:
2034:
2032:
2031:
2026:
2022:
2016:
2006:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1991:
1978:
1977:
1966:
1953:
1952:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1926:
1905:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1887:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1851:
1839:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1824:
1811:
1810:
1799:
1786:
1785:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1759:
1740:micrometers (μm)
1733:
1731:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1715:
1705:
1703:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1686:
1685:
1674:
1655:
1654:
1642:
1641:
1640:
1628:
1606:
1604:
1603:
1598:
1594:
1593:
1592:
1581:
1569:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1551:
1543:
1541:
1540:
1535:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1518:
1517:
1516:
1505:
1493:
1486:
1484:
1483:
1478:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1458:
1446:
1439:
1437:
1436:
1431:
1424:
1417:
1416:
1415:
1403:
1402:
1401:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1361:
1345:
1343:
1342:
1337:
1335:
1334:
1327:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1286:
1284:
1283:
1278:
1276:
1275:
1268:
1252:
1251:
1250:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1184:
1167:
1119:moment magnitude
980:John A. Anderson
974:. In the 1920s,
922:research at the
727:Typical maximum
718:
717:
691:
689:
688:
683:
672:of the station,
667:
656:
649:
647:
646:
641:
637:
621:
620:
619:
609:
595:
594:
573:
572:
571:
558:
557:
539:
538:
526:
525:
524:
421:
420:
417:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
379:
372:
365:
150:Earthquake swarm
70:
47:
46:
21:
4110:
4109:
4105:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4100:
4099:
4070:1935 in science
4060:
4059:
4058:
4053:
4013:
3971:
3913:
3908:
3860:IRIS Consortium
3856:Seismic Monitor
3852:
3847:
3846:
3837:
3835:
3831:
3816:
3775:
3737:
3734:
3717:
3606:
3593:
3571:
3566:
3537:
3533:
3504:
3500:
3489:
3485:
3466:
3462:
3447:
3443:
3434:
3430:
3421:
3417:
3402:"Richter scale"
3400:
3399:
3395:
3385:
3383:
3382:on May 24, 2017
3372:
3368:
3337:
3333:
3328:
3324:
3316:
3312:
3303:
3302:
3298:
3290:
3286:
3278:
3274:
3266:
3262:
3254:
3250:
3242:
3238:
3230:
3226:
3210:
3206:
3194:
3190:
3184:
3180:, pp. 2–3.
3176:
3172:
3168:, pp. 1–5.
3164:
3160:
3152:
3148:
3140:
3136:
3128:
3124:
3116:
3112:
3104:
3100:
3090:
3088:
3081:
3077:
3070:
3056:
3052:
3042:
3040:
3031:
3030:
3026:
3018:
3014:
3013:
3006:
2996:
2994:
2993:on May 24, 2010
2985:
2984:
2980:
2957:
2953:
2936:
2932:
2919:
2918:
2914:
2904:
2902:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2839:
2835:
2819:
2818:
2806:
2792:
2788:
2773:10.1119/1.12026
2753:
2749:
2739:
2737:
2722:
2715:
2705:
2703:
2695:
2694:
2690:
2682:
2678:
2670:, p. 411;
2666:
2662:
2651:
2647:
2639:, p. 411.
2635:
2631:
2627:
2622:
2603:1935 in science
2592:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2509:
2505:
2484:
2480:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2460:
2457:
2456:
2418:
2417:
2413:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2374:
2371:
2370:
2343:
2339:
2315:
2311:
2302:
2298:
2276:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2228:
2227:
2223:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2192:
2188:
2183:
2180:
2179:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2124:
2120:
2100:
2091:
2087:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2014:
2011:
2010:
1973:
1969:
1948:
1944:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1806:
1802:
1781:
1777:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1681:
1677:
1650:
1646:
1636:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1623:
1622:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1522:
1521:
1509:
1508:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1462:
1461:
1444:
1441:
1440:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1397:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1390:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1352:
1323:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1301:
1300:
1292:
1289:
1288:
1264:
1257:
1253:
1246:
1242:
1241:
1233:
1230:
1229:
1220:
1216:
1215:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1187:
1181:
1177:
1170:
1154:
1150:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1124:
1112:
1108:
1103:local magnitude
1086:
1082:
1060:
1053:
1045:
1037:
941:
857:VIII or higher
696: value.
695:
677:
674:
673:
666:
662:
654:
615:
614:
610:
605:
590:
586:
567:
566:
562:
553:
549:
534:
530:
520:
519:
515:
513:
510:
509:
484:
468:
460:
453:
440:Charles Richter
438:, developed by
398:
394:
383:
331:
330:
296:
288:
287:
279:
276:
269:
259:
258:
239:
231:
230:
191:
190:Characteristics
183:
182:
163:
155:
154:
80:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4108:
4098:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4055:
4054:
4052:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4025:
4023:
4019:
4018:
4015:
4014:
4012:
4011:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3979:
3977:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3928:
3926:
3919:
3915:
3914:
3907:
3906:
3899:
3892:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3868:
3862:
3851:
3850:External links
3848:
3845:
3844:
3810:Richter, C. F.
3805:
3804:
3767:
3766:
3732:
3722:
3721:
3715:
3699:
3698:
3683:
3682:
3640:
3639:
3627:
3626:
3611:Tectonophysics
3598:
3597:
3591:
3573:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3564:
3551:(3): 257–263.
3531:
3518:(3): 257–263.
3498:
3483:
3460:
3441:
3428:
3415:
3393:
3366:
3331:
3322:
3310:
3296:
3284:
3272:
3260:
3248:
3236:
3224:
3204:
3202:, p. 183.
3198:, p. 14:
3188:
3182:
3170:
3158:
3146:
3134:
3122:
3110:
3098:
3075:
3068:
3050:
3024:
3004:
2978:
2967:(3): 263–266.
2951:
2930:
2912:
2882:
2853:(3): 187–195.
2833:
2804:
2786:
2767:(9): 705–724.
2747:
2713:
2688:
2676:
2660:
2645:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2557:
2543:
2532:
2526:
2523:
2520:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2468:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2439:
2421:
2416:
2402:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2365:
2354:
2346:
2342:
2335:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2321:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2285:
2279:
2274:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2249:
2231:
2226:
2212:
2211:is in degrees.
2195:
2191:
2177:
2162:
2146:
2135:
2127:
2123:
2116:
2113:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2068:
2063:
2041:
2040:
2021:
2007:
1996:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1962:
1959:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1937:
1932:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1892:
1879:
1856:
1840:
1829:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1770:
1765:
1744:
1743:
1720:
1706:
1692:
1689:
1684:
1680:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1639:
1634:
1591:
1587:
1556:
1533:
1525:
1515:
1512:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1476:
1468:
1465:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1429:
1423:
1420:
1414:
1409:
1400:
1372:
1367:
1351:
1348:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1319:
1315:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1296:
1274:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1237:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1166:
1160:seismic moment
1152:
1148:
1137:
1136: , and M
1133:
1129:
1122:
1110:
1106:
1084:
1080:
1079:(MMS, symbol M
1059:
1056:
1051:
1043:
1035:
1008:Beno Gutenberg
982:developed the
940:
937:
895:
894:
891:
888:
885:
881:
880:
877:
873:
870:
866:
865:
862:
858:
855:
852:
848:
847:
844:
836:
833:
830:
826:
825:
822:
819:
816:
813:
809:
808:
805:
801:
798:
795:
791:
790:
787:
784:
781:
778:
774:
773:
770:
767:
764:
761:
757:
756:
753:
750:
747:
742:
738:
737:
734:
731:
725:
722:
693:
681:
664:
651:
650:
636:
633:
630:
627:
624:
618:
613:
608:
604:
601:
598:
593:
589:
585:
582:
579:
576:
570:
565:
561:
556:
552:
548:
545:
542:
537:
533:
529:
523:
518:
483:
480:
466:
458:
451:
444:Beno Gutenberg
385:
384:
382:
381:
374:
367:
359:
356:
355:
354:
353:
351:Related topics
348:
342:
341:
333:
332:
329:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
297:
294:
293:
290:
289:
286:
285:
280:
273:
270:
265:
264:
261:
260:
257:
256:
251:
246:
240:
237:
236:
233:
232:
229:
228:
223:
218:
213:
208:
203:
198:
192:
189:
188:
185:
184:
181:
180:
175:
170:
168:Fault movement
164:
161:
160:
157:
156:
153:
152:
147:
142:
137:
132:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
97:
92:
87:
81:
76:
75:
72:
71:
63:
62:
56:
55:
36:Richter tuning
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4107:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4067:
4065:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4026:
4024:
4020:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3974:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3923:
3920:
3918:Modern scales
3916:
3912:
3905:
3900:
3898:
3893:
3891:
3886:
3885:
3882:
3876:
3872:
3869:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3857:
3854:
3853:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3806:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3774:
3769:
3768:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3736:
3731:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3712:
3708:
3707:
3701:
3700:
3694:
3690:
3685:
3684:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3635:
3629:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3617:(1–3): 1–14,
3616:
3612:
3605:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3592:0-7167-5040-6
3588:
3583:
3582:
3575:
3574:
3559:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3535:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3502:
3494:
3487:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3464:
3456:
3452:
3445:
3438:
3432:
3425:
3419:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3397:
3381:
3377:
3370:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3335:
3326:
3319:
3314:
3306:
3300:
3294:, p. 30.
3293:
3288:
3281:
3276:
3269:
3264:
3257:
3252:
3246:, p. 32.
3245:
3240:
3233:
3228:
3222:, p. 10.
3221:
3218:, p. 1;
3217:
3213:
3208:
3201:
3197:
3192:
3186:
3179:
3174:
3167:
3162:
3155:
3150:
3143:
3138:
3132:, p. 57.
3131:
3126:
3119:
3114:
3108:, p. 47.
3107:
3102:
3091:September 15,
3086:
3079:
3071:
3069:9780141975658
3065:
3061:
3054:
3038:
3034:
3028:
3017:
3011:
3009:
2992:
2988:
2982:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2955:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2934:
2926:
2922:
2916:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2886:
2878:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2837:
2829:
2823:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2801:
2797:
2790:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2740:September 14,
2735:
2731:
2727:
2720:
2718:
2702:
2698:
2692:
2686:, p. 30.
2685:
2680:
2673:
2669:
2668:Kanamori 1978
2664:
2656:
2649:
2642:
2638:
2637:Kanamori 1978
2633:
2629:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2595:
2584:
2574:
2555:
2544:
2530:
2524:
2521:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2499:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2466:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2414:
2403:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2352:
2344:
2333:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2272:
2261:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2224:
2213:
2193:
2178:
2160:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2133:
2125:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2061:
2050:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2038:
2019:
2008:
1994:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1930:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1909:
1890:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1854:
1844:
1843:
1841:
1827:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1807:
1803:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1763:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1749:proposal is:
1748:
1741:
1737:
1718:
1707:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1632:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1612:
1610:
1589:
1573:
1531:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1474:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1427:
1421:
1418:
1407:
1365:
1347:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1306:
1302:
1294:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1247:
1243:
1235:
1227:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1189:
1173:
1172:
1161:
1156:
1145:
1143:
1126:
1120:
1116:
1104:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1078:
1073:
1064:
1055:
1049:
1041:
1032:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1011:
1009:
1004:
999:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
976:Harry O. Wood
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
949:
945:
936:
933:
929:
925:
919:
917:
913:
907:
904:
902:
892:
889:
886:
883:
882:
879:One per year
878:
874:
868:
867:
863:
859:
853:
850:
849:
845:
841:
837:
834:
831:
828:
827:
823:
820:
817:
814:
811:
810:
806:
802:
799:
796:
793:
792:
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
775:
771:
768:
765:
759:
758:
754:
751:
748:
746:
743:
740:
739:
735:
732:
730:
726:
723:
720:
719:
716:
714:
708:
706:
701:
697:
679:
671:
660:
634:
625:
616:
611:
606:
602:
596:
591:
587:
583:
577:
568:
563:
559:
554:
550:
546:
543:
540:
535:
531:
527:
516:
508:
507:
506:
504:
500:
496:
488:
479:
477:
472:
464:
455:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
419:
392:
391:Richter scale
380:
375:
373:
368:
366:
361:
360:
358:
357:
352:
349:
347:
344:
343:
340:
337:
336:
335:
334:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
298:
292:
291:
284:
281:
278:
272:
271:
268:
263:
262:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
241:
235:
234:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
216:Seismic waves
214:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
193:
187:
186:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
165:
159:
158:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
91:
88:
86:
83:
82:
79:
74:
73:
69:
65:
64:
61:
58:
57:
53:
49:
48:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
4008:Energy class
3992:
3836:, retrieved
3829:the original
3824:
3820:
3783:
3779:
3745:
3741:
3729:
3705:
3695:(2): 105–145
3692:
3688:
3653:
3649:
3633:
3614:
3610:
3580:
3548:
3544:
3534:
3515:
3511:
3501:
3492:
3486:
3477:
3473:
3463:
3454:
3450:
3444:
3436:
3431:
3426:Hersonissos.
3423:
3418:
3405:
3396:
3386:December 18,
3384:. Retrieved
3380:the original
3369:
3347:(B5): 2348.
3344:
3340:
3334:
3325:
3318:Richter 1935
3313:
3299:
3287:
3275:
3268:Richter 1935
3263:
3258:, p. 5.
3251:
3244:Richter 1935
3239:
3232:Richter 1935
3227:
3212:Richter 1935
3207:
3196:Richter 1935
3191:
3185:
3178:Richter 1935
3173:
3166:Richter 1935
3161:
3156:, p. 2.
3154:Richter 1935
3149:
3137:
3125:
3113:
3101:
3089:. Retrieved
3078:
3059:
3053:
3043:December 18,
3041:. Retrieved
3037:the original
3027:
2997:December 18,
2995:. Retrieved
2991:the original
2981:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2933:
2925:the original
2915:
2903:. Retrieved
2899:the original
2885:
2850:
2846:
2836:
2795:
2789:
2764:
2760:
2750:
2738:. Retrieved
2734:the original
2729:
2706:February 24,
2704:. Retrieved
2700:
2691:
2679:
2672:Richter 1935
2663:
2654:
2648:
2632:
2449:
2445:
2443:
2255:
2253:
2044:
2042:
1915:
1746:
1745:
1615:
1613:
1609:great circle
1353:
1209:
1205:
1190:
1164:
1163:
1157:
1146:
1127:
1118:
1114:
1102:
1100:
1095:
1089:
1069:
1031:Perry Byerly
1028:
1012:
1003:Kiyoo Wadati
1000:
962:such as the
953:
950:(circa 1970)
928:Japan Trench
920:
908:
905:
900:
898:
724:Description
709:
702:
698:
652:
492:
456:
447:
431:
427:
423:
390:
388:
295:Other topics
100:Blind thrust
44:
4049:Rossi–Forel
3748:: 411–414,
2895:GNS Science
2641:Hough (2007
1872:seismograph
1142:hypocentral
1072:attenuative
1016:logarithmic
939:Development
471:logarithmic
436:earthquakes
283:Forecasting
244:Seismometer
238:Measurement
211:Shadow zone
60:Earthquakes
4064:Categories
3457:: 371–387.
3280:Hough 2007
3142:Hough 2007
3130:Hough 2007
3118:Hough 2007
2945:(vol. 2),
1572:kilometers
1132: , M
1054:) scales.
968:John Milne
835:VII to IX
818:VI to VII
783:II to III
721:Magnitude
430:, and the
326:Seismology
267:Prediction
206:Hypocenter
140:Supershear
120:Megathrust
115:Intraplate
110:Interplate
95:Aftershock
4010:(K-class)
3838:March 14,
3106:Bolt 1993
2905:August 3,
2877:0258-8900
2822:cite book
2814:177509121
2781:0002-9505
2522:−
2519:Δ
2516:
2491:
2383:−
2345:∘
2341:Δ
2320:−
2309:
2287:−
2194:∘
2190:Δ
2161:τ
2126:∘
2122:Δ
2112:−
2105:τ
2098:
1986:−
1980:
1955:
1819:−
1813:
1788:
1691:Δ
1688:
1663:−
1657:
1611:degrees.
1590:∘
1586:Δ
1555:Δ
1203: .
1001:In 1931,
956:epicenter
815:Moderate
680:δ
626:δ
597:
578:δ
560:
547:−
541:
503:epicenter
499:amplitude
495:logarithm
454: .
196:Epicenter
173:Volcanism
135:Submarine
90:Foreshock
85:Mainshock
3678:17770563
3406:Glossary
2580:See also
990:and the
887:Extreme
884:9.0–9.9
869:8.0–8.9
851:7.0–7.9
829:6.0–6.9
812:5.0–5.9
800:IV to V
794:4.0–4.9
777:3.0–3.9
760:2.0–2.9
741:1.0–1.9
346:Category
321:Seismite
52:a series
50:Part of
4029:GEOFIAN
3947:Chinese
3788:Bibcode
3750:Bibcode
3658:Bibcode
3650:Science
3569:Sources
3349:Bibcode
2961:Geology
1219:⁄
1171:
1096:effects
1058:Details
1024:microns
930:to the
832:Strong
780:Slight
497:of the
145:Tsunami
105:Doublet
3867:– USGS
3780:Nature
3742:Nature
3713:
3676:
3589:
3066:
2875:
2812:
2802:
2779:
2559:
2553:
2545:where
2528:
2503:
2463:
2446:Tsuboi
2426:
2411:
2389:
2377:
2367:where
2350:
2337:
2334:0.0014
2269:
2236:
2221:
2199:
2186:
2164:
2158:
2148:where
2131:
2118:
2085:
2058:
2035:is in
2023:
2017:
2009:where
1992:
1967:
1927:
1906:is in
1894:
1888:
1858:
1852:
1842:where
1825:
1800:
1760:
1736:P-wave
1722:
1716:
1708:where
1694:
1675:
1629:
1595:
1582:
1574:, and
1558:
1552:
1529:
1519:
1506:
1494:
1472:
1459:
1447:
1425:
1404:
1377:
1362:
1212:energy
1046:) and
872:Great
854:Major
797:Light
763:Minor
705:shadow
653:where
638:
226:S wave
221:P wave
162:Causes
4044:Omori
3832:(PDF)
3817:(PDF)
3776:(PDF)
3738:(PDF)
3728:"The
3607:(PDF)
3019:(PDF)
2625:Notes
2115:0.001
1916:and
1738:, in
1456:0.001
972:Tokyo
745:Micro
78:Types
3840:2018
3711:ISBN
3674:PMID
3587:ISBN
3480:(1).
3410:USGS
3388:2013
3093:2020
3064:ISBN
3045:2013
2999:2013
2907:2021
2873:ISSN
2828:link
2810:OCLC
2800:ISBN
2777:ISSN
2742:2008
2708:2022
2525:0.83
2500:1.73
2452:is:
2444:The
2296:2.85
2290:2.53
2258:is:
2254:The
2082:2.25
2076:2.92
2043:The
1989:3.38
1822:0.15
1672:2.76
1666:2.48
1618:is:
1614:The
1210:The
1158:The
978:and
389:The
130:Slow
3796:doi
3784:271
3758:doi
3746:271
3666:doi
3619:doi
3615:166
3553:doi
3520:doi
3357:doi
2969:doi
2863:hdl
2855:doi
2769:doi
2507:log
2482:log
2300:log
2089:log
1971:log
1964:3.0
1946:log
1878:and
1870:is
1804:log
1797:1.6
1779:log
1679:log
1648:log
1503:100
1307:2.0
1248:1.0
1121:, M
588:log
551:log
532:log
4066::
3873:–
3858:–
3825:25
3823:,
3819:,
3794:,
3782:,
3778:,
3756:,
3744:,
3740:,
3693:46
3691:,
3672:,
3664:,
3654:83
3652:,
3648:,
3613:,
3609:,
3549:24
3547:.
3543:.
3516:24
3514:.
3510:.
3478:21
3476:.
3472:.
3455:72
3453:.
3408:.
3404:.
3355:.
3345:84
3343:.
3007:^
2965:36
2963:.
2893:.
2871:.
2861:.
2851:41
2849:.
2845:.
2824:}}
2820:{{
2808:.
2775:.
2765:48
2763:.
2759:.
2716:^
2699:.
2573:μm
2511:10
2486:10
2304:10
2093:10
2037:km
1975:10
1950:10
1908:km
1876:mm
1808:10
1783:10
1683:10
1652:10
1303:10
1244:10
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