Reign of Cleopatra

838: 2590: 4096:, p. 312) writes the following about the raised relief on the gilded silver dish: "Conspicuously mounted on the cornucopia is a gilded crescent moon set on a pine cone. Around it are piled pomegranates and bunches of grapes. Engraved on the horn are images of Helios (the sun), in the form of a youth dressed in a short cloak, with the hairstyle of Alexander the Great, the head surrounded by rays... The symbols on the cornucopia can indeed be read as references to the Ptolemaic royal house and specifically to Cleopatra Selene, represented in the crescent moon, and to her twin brother, Alexander Helios, whose eventual fate after the conquest of Egypt is unknown. The viper seems to be linked with the pantheress and the intervening symbols of fecundity rather than the suicide of Cleopatra. The elephant scalp could refer to Cleopatra Selene's status as ruler, with Juba II, of Mauretania. The visual correspondence with the veiled head from Cherchel encourages this identification, and many of the symbols used on the dish also appear on the coinage of Juba II." 965: 2498: 3955:: "The matter of parentage became so tangled in the propaganda war between Antonius and Octavian in the late 30s B.C. – it was essential for one side to prove and the other to reject Caesar's role – that it is impossible today to determine Caesar's actual response. The extant information is almost contradictory: it was said that Caesar denied parentage in his will but acknowledged it privately and allowed use of the name Caesarion. Caesar's associate C. Oppius even wrote a pamphlet proving that Caesarion was not Caesar's child, and C. Helvius Cinna – the poet who was killed by rioters after Antonius's funeral oration – was prepared in 44 BC to introduce legislation to allow Caesar to marry as many wives as he wished for the purpose of having children. Although much of this talk was generated after Caesar's death, it seems that he himself wished to be as quiet as possible about the child but had to contend with Cleopatra's repeated assertions." 974: 2963: 22: 3464: 805:. Given his close relationship with the Ptolemies, he ultimately decided that Egypt would be his place of refuge, where he could replenish his forces. Ptolemy XIII's advisers, however, feared the idea of Pompey using Egypt as his base of power in a protracted Roman civil war. They also wished to ensure that none of the Gabiniani would leave their campaign against Cleopatra to join Pompey's forces instead. In a scheme devised by Theodotos, Pompey arrived by ship near Pelousion after being invited by written message, only to be ambushed and stabbed to death on 28 September 48 BC. Ptolemy XIII believed he had demonstrated his power and simultaneously defused the situation by having Pompey's severed head sent to Caesar, who arrived in Alexandria by early October and resided at the royal palace. Theodotos presented Caesar with his son-in-law Pompey's 2101: 422: 2735:. However, on 1 August 30 BC, Antony's naval fleet surrendered to Octavian, followed by his cavalry. Cleopatra hid herself in her tomb with her close attendants, sending a message to Antony that she had committed suicide. In despair, Antony responded by stabbing himself in the stomach, taking his own life at age 53. According to Plutarch, however, Antony was allegedly still dying when he was brought to Cleopatra at her tomb. Plutarch told her Antony had died honorably in a contest against a fellow Roman, and that she could trust Octavian's companion Gaius Proculeius over anyone else in his entourage. It was Proculeius, however, who infiltrated her tomb using a ladder and detained the queen, denying her the ability to immolate herself with her treasures. Cleopatra was then allowed to 74: 2819: 2175: 706: 1725: 2679: 3194: 1611: 1602: 1164: 2047:. As he did so, Octavia traveled to Athens with 2,000 troops in alleged support of Antony. This was most likely a scheme devised by Octavian to embarrass Antony for his military losses. Antony received the troops but ordered Octavia not to stray east of Athens. He and Cleopatra traveled together to Antioch, only to suddenly and inexplicably abandon the military campaign and head back to Alexandria. When Octavia returned to Rome, Octavian portrayed his sister as a victim wronged by Antony. She refused to leave Antony's household, however, and return to Octavian's in Rome. Octavian's confidence grew as he eliminated his rivals in the west, including 2092: 2743: 1472: 2159:, king of Syria and Cilicia. Cleopatra Selene was also bestowed with Crete and Cyrene. Given the polemic, contradictory, and fragmentary nature of primary sources from the period, it is uncertain if Cleopatra and Antony were also formally wed at this ceremony, or if they even had any marriage at all. However, coins of Antony and Cleopatra depict them in the typical manner of a Hellenistic royal couple. Antony then sent a report to Rome requesting ratification of these territorial claims, which Octavian wanted to publicize for propaganda purposes, but the two consuls, both supporters of Antony, had it censored from public view. 3185: 715: 1463:, the latter whom the priests of Artemis at Ephesus had associated with Antony prior to this meeting with Cleopatra. Some surviving coins of Cleopatra also depict her as Venus–Aphrodite. Cleopatra managed to clear her name as a supposed supporter of Cassius, arguing she had really attempted to help Dolabella in Syria. At the same time, she convinced Antony to have her rival sister Arsinoe IV dragged from her place of exile at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus and executed. Her former governor of Cyprus, Serapion, who had rebelled against her and joined Cassius, was found at Tyre and handed over to Cleopatra. 1513:, those who ruled independently at times were married for most of their careers. Cleopatra, however, reigned for most of her 21 years as a sole monarch, with nominal joint rulers and a possible marriage to Antony very late in her life. Having Caesarion as her sole heir produced both benefits and dangers. His sudden death could extinguish the dynasty, but rivalry with other potential heirs and siblings could also spell his downfall. Cleopatra carefully chose Antony as her partner to produce further heirs, as he was deemed to be the most powerful Roman figure following Caesar's demise. With his 3886:...killed Arsinoë's small children in front of her. Now queen without a kingdom, Arsinoë fled to Egypt, where she was welcomed by her full brother Ptolemy II. Not content, however, to spend the rest of her life as a guest at the Ptolemaic court, she had Ptolemy II's wife exiled to Upper Egypt and married him herself around 275 B.C. Though such an incestuous marriage was considered scandalous by the Greeks, it was allowed by Egyptian custom. For that reason the marriage split public opinion into two factions. The loyal side celebrated the couple as a return of the divine marriage of 1105: 1789: 3455: 2016: 431: 2372:

accusations against the consuls. Intimidated by this act, the consuls and over two-hundred senators still in support of Antony fled Rome the next day and joined his side. Antony established his own counter Roman Senate. Although he held military office and his reputation was still largely intact, Antony was still fundamentally reliant on Cleopatra for military support. The couple traveled together to Ephesus in 32 BC, where Cleopatra provided him with 200 of the 800 total naval ships he was able to acquire.

2337: 940:. Caesar managed to execute Potheinos after he attempted an assassination plot against him. Arsinoe IV joined forces with Achillas and was declared queen. Soon afterwards, she had her tutor Ganymedes kill Achillas and take his position as commander of her army. Ganymedes then tricked Caesar into requesting the presence of his erstwhile captive Ptolemy XIII as a negotiator, only to have him join the army of Arsinoe IV. With his detailed knowledge of the palace, Ganymedes pumped 2635:, Mark Antony's appointed governor of Cyrene, received word that Octavian had won the Battle of Actium before Antony's messengers could arrive at his court. Pinarius had these messengers executed and defected to Octavian's side, surrendering to him the four legions under his command that Antony wanted to obtain. Antony nearly committed suicide after this news but his staff officers stopped him. In Alexandria, he built a reclusive cottage on the island of 11365: 11353: 3351: 2954: 610: 862: 1173: 11389: 11377: 2553:, at the rear of the fleet. This was likely a move by Antony's officers to marginalize her during the battle. Antony had ordered that their ships have sails on board for a better chance to pursue or flee from the enemy. Cleopatra, ever-concerned about defending Egypt, took advantage of the favourable winds and used them to move swiftly through the area of major combat in a strategic withdrawal to the 2442: 2779:, a rare recording of her exact words. Octavian cryptically promised that he would keep her alive but offered no explanation about his plans for her kingdom. When a spy informed her that Octavian planned to move her and her children to Rome in three days, she prepared for suicide. She had no intention of being paraded in a Roman triumph like her sister Arsinoe IV. It is unclear if 2675:, managed to burn Cleopatra's fleet in revenge for his losses in a war with Herod largely initiated by Cleopatra. Cleopatra had no option but to stay in Egypt and negotiate with Octavian. Although most likely pro-Octavian propaganda, it was reported at this time that Cleopatra had begun testing the strengths of various poisons on prisoners and even her own servants. 1409:, Cleopatra's governor of Cyprus, defected to Cassius and provided him with ships. Cleopatra took her own fleet to Greece to personally assist Octavian and Antony. Her ships were heavily damaged in a Mediterranean storm, however, and she arrived too late to aid in the fighting. By the autumn of 42 BC, Antony had defeated the forces of Caesar's assassins at the 2845:, Ethiopia or India. The sixteen-year-old Caesarion, now Ptolemy XV, reigned for a mere eighteen days until he was executed on the orders of Octavian on 29 August 30 BC. He had been returning to Alexandria under the false pretense that Octavian would allow him to be king. Octavian hesitated to have him killed at first, but the advice of philosopher and friend 2715:, although Octavian seems to have replied only to Cleopatra. Cleopatra requested that her children inherit Egypt and that Antony be allowed to live there in exile. She offered Octavian money in the future and immediately sent him gifts of a golden scepter, crown, and throne. Octavian sent his diplomat Thyrsos to Cleopatra after she had threatened to 3894:, whereas the other side did not refrain from profuse and obscene criticism. One of the most sarcastic commentators, a poet with a very sharp pen, had to flee Alexandria. The unfortunate poet was caught off the shore of Crete by the Ptolemaic navy, put in an iron basket, and drowned. This and similar actions seemingly slowed down vicious criticism." 2001:, Lebanon) in December. He engaged in heavy drinking before Cleopatra arrived to provide funds and clothing for his battered troops. Octavia offered to lend him more troops for another expedition. Antony wished to avoid the political pitfalls of returning to Rome, however, so traveled with Cleopatra back to Alexandria to see his newborn son. 2565:. Antony apparently avoided Cleopatra during this three-day voyage, until her ladies in waiting at Tainaron urged him to speak with her. The Battle of Actium raged on without Cleopatra and Antony until the morning of 3 September, when there were massive defections of both officers, troops, and even allied kings to Octavian's side. 1354: 2486:, which would prove to have strategic consequences. Antony and Cleopatra lost several skirmishes against Octavian around Actium during the summer of 31 BC. Defections to Octavian's camp continued, including Antony's long-time companion Quintus Dellius. The allied kings also began to defect to Octavian's side, starting with 1405:, proconsul of Syria and a Caesarian loyalist, requesting military aid. She decided to write Cassius an excuse that her kingdom faced too many internal problems, while sending the four legions left by Caesar in Egypt to Dolabella. However, Cassius captured these troops in Palestine, while they traveled en route to Syria. 2557:. Burstein writes that partisan Roman writers would later accuse Cleopatra of cowardly deserting Antony, but their original intention of keeping their sails on board may have been to break the blockade and salvage as much of their fleet as possible. Antony followed her and boarded her ship, identified by its distinctive 3290:'s annual floods allowed for exceptional yields of crops, most in particular wheat, barley, and olives. Owing to Egypt's impressively fertile soil, there was more often than not a surplus in food, which was stockpiled and shipped to various empires throughout the Mediterranean world. The Ptolemaic rulers exacted high 657:. This led her to send the Gabiniani culprits to Bibulus as prisoners awaiting his judgment. Although a seemingly shrewd act by the young queen, Bibulus sent the prisoners back to her and chastised her for interfering in Roman affairs that should have been handled directly by the Roman Senate. Bibulus, siding with 911:

at the head of his army, in clear defiance of Caesar's demand that he disband and leave his army before his arrival. Cleopatra initially sent emissaries to Caesar, but upon allegedly hearing that Caesar was inclined to having affairs with royal women, she came to Alexandria to see him personally. The historian

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citizen, now that Antony's triumviral authority had expired. Octavian's wish to invade Egypt also coincided with his financial concern of collecting the massive debts owed to Caesar by Cleopatra's father Ptolemy XII. These were passed on to Cleopatra and were now the prerogative of Octavian, Caesar's heir.

1044:. This lasted for a year, until October 47 BC, providing Caesar with the legal authority to settle the dynastic dispute in Egypt. Wary of repeating the mistake of Berenice IV in having a sole-ruling female monarch, Caesar appointed 12-year-old Ptolemy XIV as 22-year-old Cleopatra's joint ruler in a nominal 2062:

between the Armenian king's daughter and Antony and Cleopatra's son Alexander Helios. When this was declined, Antony marched his army into Armenia, defeated its forces, and captured the king and the Armenian royal family. They were sent back to Alexandria as prisoners in golden chains befitting their

1553:. Cleopatra provided Antony with 200 ships for his campaign and as payment for her newly acquired territories. She would not see him again until 37 BC, but they maintained correspondence, and evidence suggests she kept a spy in his camp. By the end of 40 BC, Cleopatra gave birth to twins, a boy named 910:

Caesar's request for partial repayment of the 17.5 million drachmas owed to Rome (to pay for immediate military expenditures) was met with a response by Potheinos, who replied that it would be made later if Caesar would leave Alexandria, but this offer was rejected. Ptolemy XIII arrived at Alexandria

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Cleopatra perhaps wedded her brother Ptolemy XIII, but it is unknown if their marriage ever took place. By 29 August 51 BC, official documents began listing Cleopatra as the sole ruler, evidence that she had rejected her brother as a co-ruler by this point. Cleopatra faced several pressing issues and

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Antony summoned Cleopatra to Antioch to discuss pressing issues such as Herod's kingdom and financial support for his Parthian campaign. Cleopatra brought her three-year-old twins to Antioch, where Mark Antony saw them for the first time. They probably first received their surnames Helios and Selene

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Cleopatra invited Antony to visit Egypt before departing from Tarsos, which led Antony to visit Alexandria by November 41 BC. He was well received by the populace of Alexandria for his heroic actions in restoring Ptolemy XII to power and, unlike Caesar, coming to Egypt without an occupational force.

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on Caesar's head, which he refused. This was most likely a staged performance, perhaps to gauge the Roman public's mood about accepting Hellenistic-style kingship. Cicero, who was present at the festival, mockingly asked where the diadem came from, an obvious reference to the Ptolemaic queen whom he

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with Calpurnia, Caesar remained silent about Caesarion. There is conflicting evidence that he publicly denied fathering him, but privately accepted him as his son. Cleopatra, on the other hand, made repeated official declarations about Caesarion's parentage, with Caesar as the father. She also built

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Octavian entered Alexandria and gave a speech of reconciliation at the gymnasium before settling in the palace and seizing Cleopatra's three youngest children. When she met with Octavian, she looked disheveled, but still retained her poise and classic charm. She told him bluntly, "I will not be led

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made the counterargument that Cleopatra was funding the war effort and, as a long-reigning monarch, was by no means inferior to the male allied kings Antony had summoned for the campaign. Cleopatra refused Antony's requests that she return to Egypt, judging that by blocking Octavian in Greece, she

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Potheinos judged that this agreement actually favored Cleopatra over Ptolemy XIII and that the latter's army of 20,000, including the Gabiniani, could most likely defeat Caesar's army of 4,000 unsupported troops. He decided to have Achillas lead their forces to Alexandria to attack both Caesar and

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When Ptolemy XIII realized that his sister was in the palace consorting directly with Caesar instead of at Pelousion, he attempted to rouse the populace of Alexandria into a riot. Caesar promptly detained him and used his oratorical skills to calm the frenzied crowd gathered outside the palace. He

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invaded Egypt the following year. Although the couple offered military resistance, Octavian defeated their forces, driving Antony to suicide. When Cleopatra learned that Octavian intended to transport her to Rome as a prisoner in his triumphal procession, she likewise committed suicide, reportedly

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herself and vast amounts of her treasure within a tomb already under construction. Thyrsos advised her to kill Antony so that her life would be spared. When Antony suspected foul intent, however, he had this diplomat flogged and sent back to Octavian without a deal. From Octavian's point of view,

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would be associated with a civil war and thus cause Octavian to lose support. The legal argument for war was based less on Cleopatra's territorial acquisitions of former Roman territories, ruled by her children with Antony, and more on the fact that she was providing military support to a private

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Antony's rival Octavian exploited the enlargement of the Ptolemaic realm by relinquishing directly controlled Roman territory. Octavian tapped into public sentiment in Rome against the empowerment of a foreign queen at the expense of their Republic. He also fostered the narrative that Antony was

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around the same time Cleopatra decided to depart for Egypt. A few months later, Cleopatra ordered the assassination of Ptolemy XIV by means of poisoning, elevating her son Caesarion instead as her co-ruler. The murder of political opponents, even if they were family members, was alarmingly common

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in Egypt and parted ways. Antony went to Cyrene to raise more troops; Cleopatra sailed into the harbor at Alexandria in a misleading attempt to portray the activities in Greece as a victory. Conflicting reports make it unclear if Cleopatra had financial difficulties at this juncture or not. Some

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Antony and Cleopatra had greater numbers of troops (i.e. 100,000 men) and ships (i.e. 800 vessels) than Octavian, who had some 200 ships and 80,000 men. However, the crews of Antony and Cleopatra's navy were not all well-trained, some of them perhaps from merchant vessels, whereas Octavian had a

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that would last for years. Antony argued that his rival had illegally deposed Lepidus from their triumvirate and barred him from raising troops in Italy. Octavian accused Antony of unlawfully detaining the king of Armenia, marrying Cleopatra despite still being married to his sister Octavia, and

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and revealed the written will of Ptolemy XII – previously possessed by Pompey – naming Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs. Caesar then attempted to arrange for the other two siblings, Arsinoe IV and Ptolemy XIV, to rule together over Cyprus, thus removing

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further: "Cleopatra's hair was maintained by her highly skilled hairdresser Eiras. Although rather artificial looking wigs set in the traditional tripartite style of long straight hair would have been required for her appearances before her Egyptian subjects, a more practical option for general

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against Octavian in the hopes of making her husband the undisputed leader of Rome. Although it has been suggested that part of her motivation was to cleave Antony from Cleopatra, this is unlikely, as the conflict emerged in Italy even before Cleopatra's meeting with Antony at Tarsos. Fulvia and

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in 36 BC. However, Cleopatra's position in Egypt was secure. Her rival Herod was occupied with civil war in Judea that required heavy Roman military assistance, but received none from Cleopatra. Since the triumviral authority of Mark Antony and Octavian had expired on 1 January 37 BC, Octavia

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were elected as consuls. On 1 February 32 BC, Sosius gave a fiery speech condemning Octavian, now a private citizen without public office, introducing pieces of legislation against him. During the next senatorial session, Octavian entered the Senate house with armed guards and levied his own

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Before returning to Rome to attend to urgent political matters, Caesar is alleged to have joined Cleopatra for a cruise of the Nile and sightseeing of monuments, although this may be a romantic tale reflecting later well-to-do Roman proclivities and not a real historic event. The historian

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to gather an invasion force that would head to Egypt. She returned with an army, perhaps right around the time of Caesar's arrival, but her brother's forces, including some Gabiniani, mobilized to fight against her. They blocked her advance to Alexandria, and she had to make camp outside

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indicates that Ptolemy XII could have been alive as late as May, while an ancient Egyptian source affirms he was still ruling with Cleopatra by 15 July 51 BC, although by this point Cleopatra most likely "hushed up her father's death" so that she could consolidate her control of

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claimed that by early 48 BC, Pompey named Ptolemy XIII as the legitimate sole ruler of Egypt; whether true or not, Cleopatra was forced to flee Alexandria and withdraw to the region of Thebes. However, by the spring of 48 BC, Cleopatra traveled to Syria with her younger sister

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Cleopatra and Antony had the support of various allied kings. Conflict between Cleopatra and Herod had previously erupted and an earthquake in Judea provided an excuse for him and his forces not to be present at Actium in support of the couple. They also lost the support of

776:. In perhaps their last joint decree, both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII agreed to Gnaeus Pompeius' request. They sent his father 60 ships and 500 troops, including the Gabiniani, a move that helped erase some of the debt owed to Rome by the Ptolemies. The Roman writer 2356:

on the first day of his consulship on 1 January 33 BC, Octavian accused Antony of attempting to subvert Roman freedoms and authority as a slave to Cleopatra, who he said was given lands that rightfully belonged to the Romans. Before Antony and Octavian's joint

3322:. However, the effectiveness of these policies and the authority of Ptolemaic rulers, including Cleopatra, to execute them fully were more of an ideal than a reality. Cleopatra and many of her royal predecessors found it necessary to clear all the private 2412:. It was a useful tool in the propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra. In the selective public reading of the will, Octavian highlighted the claim that Caesarion was heir to Caesar, that the Donations of Alexandria were legal, that Antony should be 3250:

could be classified as Greeks if they abandoned their original cultures, received a Greek education, labeled their gods and goddesses with Greek names, and embraced the Greek lifestyle. Native Egyptians had been largely excluded from serving in

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or southwest Asia Minor. Cleopatra's control over much of these new territories was nominal, and they were still administered by Roman officials. Nevertheless, they enriched her kingdom and led her to declare the inauguration of a new era by

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It is disputed whether Cleopatra was deliberately depicted as a male or whether a stele made under her father with his portrait was later inscribed with an inscription for Cleopatra. On this and other uncertainties regarding this stele, see

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head, which Caesar retrieved and planned to bury properly along the shores of Alexandria. Caesar expressed grief and outrage over the killing of Pompey and called on both Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra to disband their forces and reconcile.

1713:, who was executed while Herod was in mid-flight towards Cleopatra's court. Cleopatra attempted to provide him with a military assignment, but Herod declined and traveled to Rome, where the triumvirs Octavian and Mark Antony named him 3334:

until the government agreed to meet their demands. At the beginning of her reign, local officials harassed destitute farmers by collecting taxes during a famine and drought. Cleopatra curtailed these predatory measures and introduced

2962: 1444:, inviting Antony and his officers for two nights of lavish banquets aboard her ship. Antony attempted to return the favor on the third night of dining with his own far less luxurious banquet. Cleopatra presented herself as the 3984:, the style had fallen from fashion for almost two centuries until revived by Cleopatra; yet as both traditionalist and innovator, she wore her version without her predecessor's fine head veil. And whereas they had both been 3213: 1428:

to Alexandria, convincing her to come. The meeting would allow Cleopatra to clear up the misconception that she seemed to support Cassius during the civil war, and would address pressing issues about territorial exchanges in

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were the dominant power? This was a question never far from Cleopatra's mind. But it is quite certain that she considered the Greek epoch to be by no means finished, and intended to do everything in her power to ensure its

3781:, looking back upon all that her ancestors had done during that time, was not likely to make the same mistake. But she and her contemporaries of the first century BC had another, peculiar, problem of their own. Could the ' 1314:, it is unclear if this represented a single, two-year-long trip to Rome or two separate visits. The latter is more likely according to Roller. Cleopatra's presence in Rome most likely had an effect on the events at the 3428:. Surviving coins minted under Cleopatra include those from virtually every year of her reign. They commonly bore an image of her, along with that of the goddess Isis. Some imitate the coinage of her Ptolemaic ancestor 2461:

and blockade Octavian at either Tarentum or Brundisium, but Cleopatra, concerned primarily with defending Egypt, overrode the decision to attack Italy directly. Antony and Cleopatra set up their winter headquarters at

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by 19 November 38 BC with a mention of her governor Diogenes who administered both, the transfer probably occurred earlier in the winter of 41–40 BC, during her time spent with Antony. Plutarch asserted that Cleopatra

4045: 2494:. While some in Antony's camp suggested abandoning the naval conflict to retreat inland and face Octavian in the Greek interior, Cleopatra urged for a naval confrontation to keep Octavian's fleet away from Egypt. 2226:

in toppling the order of civilization. Antony was generally viewed as having lost his judgment, brainwashed by Cleopatra's magic spells. Antony's supporters rebutted with tales of Octavian's wild and promiscuous

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to meet Octavian and resign his kingship out of loyalty to Antony. Impressed by his speech and sense of loyalty, Octavian allowed him to maintain his position in Judea, further isolating Antony and Cleopatra.

369:, one of its members, that would produce three children. Antony continually used his triumviral authority to the benefit of Cleopatra and became increasingly reliant on her for funding and military aid during 3168:. Many administrators of Cleopatra's royal court had served during her father's reign, although some of them were killed in the civil war between her and Ptolemy XIII. The names of more than twenty regional 1012:

and forced Ptolemy XIII to flee by boat. It capsized, and he drowned. His body was later found nearby in the mud. Ganymedes was perhaps killed in the battle, while Theodotos was found years later in Asia by

2731:, marching eastward from Cyrene, defeated Antony's forces near Paraitonion. Octavian advanced quickly to Alexandria. Antony returned and won a small victory over Octavian's tired troops outside the city's 2589: 2375:

Domitius Ahenobarbus, wary of having Octavian's propaganda confirmed to the public, attempted to persuade Antony to have Cleopatra excluded entirely from the military efforts launched against Octavian.

4084:, image plates between pp. 246–247) disagrees about the veiled head, arguing that it was commissioned by Cleopatra Selene II at Iol (Caesarea Mauretaniae) and was meant to depict her mother, Cleopatra. 4065: 1538:, and attended military exercises with Antony. These masculine activities did not endear her to later Roman authors, but they demonstrated the close relationship she fostered with her Roman partner. 837: 2167:

wrongfully claiming Caesarion as the heir of Caesar instead of Octavian. The litany of accusations and gossip associated with this propaganda war have shaped popular perceptions of Cleopatra from

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By the end of 42 BC, Octavian gained control over much of the western half of the Roman Republic and Antony the eastern half, with Lepidus largely marginalized. Antony moved his headquarters from

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Although Cleopatra had rejected her 11-year-old brother as a joint ruler in 51 BC, Ptolemy XIII still retained strong allies, including Potheinos, his tutor and administrator of his properties.

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with Caesar and Cleopatra trapped inside lasted into the following year of 47 BC. It included Caesar's burning of ships in the harbor that spread fires and potentially burned down part of the

4072:, p. 242) indicates it as a possible portrait of Cleopatra, not Cleoptra Selene II, from the early 1st century AD while also arguing that its masculine features, earrings, and apparent 2923:. Unlike regular Roman provinces, Octavian established Egypt as territory under his personal control. He barred the Roman Senate from intervening in any of its affairs and appointed his own 1021:. Cleopatra was conspicuously absent from these events and resided in the palace, most likely because she was pregnant with Caesar's child (perhaps since September 47 BC). She gave birth to 2659:

Cleopatra perhaps started to view Antony as a liability by the late summer of 31 BC, when she prepared to leave Egypt to her son Caesarion. As an object of Roman hostility, Cleopatra would

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of their wealth to pay for her military expenditures, were likely Augustan propaganda. It is also uncertain if she actually executed Artavasdes II of Armenia and sent his head to his rival

688:, but by October of 50 BC, Ptolemy XIII had the upper hand in their conflict and began signing documents with his name before that of his sister, followed by the establishment of his first 307:. Upon arrival, Caesar discovered that Pompey had been assassinated on the orders of Ptolemy XIII. Caesar attempted to reconcile the siblings, but a discontent Ptolemy XIII and his adviser 1948:, was the first living Roman woman to have a statue dedicated in her honor. She was followed by Octavian's sister Octavia and his wife Livia, whose statues were most likely erected in the 4197:, affirms that Caesarion's reign "was essentially a fiction created by Egyptian chronographers to close the gap between death and official Roman control of Egypt (under the new pharaoh, 3636:, built by her father Ptolemy XII, Cleopatra erected two granite statues of Horus guarding the miniature figure of Caesarion. Construction of a temple dedicated to the goddess Isis at 1330:(15 March 44 BC), but Cleopatra lingered in Rome until about mid-April, in the vain hope of having Caesarion recognized as Caesar's heir. However, Caesar's will named his grandnephew 1769:, Antony not only enlarged Cleopatra's domain, but also established new ruling dynasties and client rulers who would be loyal to him yet would ultimately outlast him. These included 3620:. The cult center of Montu at Hermonthis was refashioned with images of Caesarion's divine birth by Julius Caesar, depicted as Amun-Ra. It included an elaborate facade and entrance 2381:

could defend Egypt more easily from him. Cleopatra's insistence that she be involved in the battle for Greece led to defections of prominent Romans such as Domitius Ahenobarbus and

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was debased roughly 40% by the end of her reign. Coins struck under Cleopatra's reign came from a wide geographical expanse, including sites in Egypt like Alexandria, but also the

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or supervised by the central government headquartered in Alexandria. Most of the population in Ptolemaic Egypt was involved in the agricultural industry, mainly as farmers. The

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Although Egyptian priests were often wealthy landowners who rivaled the wealth of the Ptolemaic pharaohs, the Ptolemaic monarchs technically owned all Egyptian lands as part of

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on 25 September 46 BC, contained a golden statue of Cleopatra (which still stood there during the 3rd century AD), associating the mother of Caesar's child directly with the

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Cleopatra and her nominal joint ruler Ptolemy XIV visited Rome sometime around autumn of 46 BC, possibly with Caesarion. They were given lodging in Caesar's Villa within the

10470: 1048:, but Cleopatra continued living privately with Caesar. The exact date at which Cyprus was returned to her control is not known, although she had a governor there by 42 BC. 1740:

Relations between Mark Antony and Cleopatra perhaps soured when he not only married Octavia in 40 BC, but also moved his headquarters to Athens and sired her two children,

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Aside from casual criticisms of Cleopatra's extravagant lifestyle and corruption of Antony with her opulence, she was alleged by various Roman authors to have resorted to

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expired on 31 December 33 BC, Antony declared Caesarion as the true heir of Julius Caesar in an attempt to undermine Octavian. On 1 January 32 BC, the Antonian loyalists

1017:

and executed. Arsinoe IV was forcefully paraded in Caesar's triumph in Rome, where she was the object of public sympathy, before being exiled to the Temple of Artemis at

10944:

DeMaria Smith, Margaret Mary (2011), "HRH Cleopatra: the Last of the Ptolemies and the Egyptian Paintings of Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.),

653:. However, the Gabiniani tortured and murdered them, perhaps with secret encouragement by rogue senior administrators in Cleopatra's court such as the eunuch-regent 964: 3557:

in Alexandria. The city required extensive rebuilding following the civil war with her brother Ptolemy XIII, including necessary repairs to the Gymnasium and the

2671:, where she could spend time recuperating. However, these plans were ultimately abandoned when Malichus I of Nabataea, as advised by Octavian's governor of Syria 1243:. Like he did with their father Ptolemy XII, Julius Caesar awarded both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV with the legal status of 'friend and ally of the Roman people' ( 3976:' in which her natural hair was drawn back in sections resembling the lines on a melon and then pinned up in a bun at the back of the head. A trademark style of 2720:

Lepidus could be trusted under house arrest. Antony, however, had to be eliminated, and Caesarion, the rival heir to Julius Caesar, could not be trusted either.

2497: 1517:

powers, Antony also had the broad authority to restore former Ptolemaic lands to Cleopatra now in Roman hands. While it is clear that Cleopatra controlled both

1498:

In Egypt, Antony continued to enjoy the lavish royal lifestyle he had witnessed aboard Cleopatra's ship docked at Tarsos. He also had his subordinates, such as

1132:, wanted to avoid being seen together with Cleopatra when she had their son. He left three legions in Egypt, later increased to four, under the command of the 928:

potential rival claimants to the Egyptian throne. This would also appease the Ptolemaic subjects still bitter over the loss of Cyprus to the Romans in 58 BC.

2474:. With this position, Cleopatra had the defense of Egypt in mind, as any southward movement by Octavian's fleet along the coast of Greece could be detected. 2152: 1424:

to Tarsos in Anatolia by the summer of 41 BC. He summoned Cleopatra to Tarsos in several letters, invitations she initially rebuffed until he sent his envoy

2052: 3561:

on the island of Pharos. It is not known if Cleopatra made significant repairs or alterations to the Library of Alexandria or the royal palace, although

3510:

works of art and literature depicting the queen, Cleopatra's legacy has partially survived in some of her ambitious building programs in Egypt utilizing

2841:

Cleopatra, though long desiring to preserve her kingdom, decided in her last moments to send Caesarion away to Upper Egypt perhaps with plans to flee to

1985:

in 36 BC turned into a complete debacle, having been stymied by a number of factors such as extreme weather, the spread of disease, and the betrayal of

1069:, it measured 300 ft (91 m) in length and 80 ft (24 m) in height and was complete with dining rooms, state rooms, holy shrines, and 919:

provides an entirely different and perhaps mythical account that alleges she was bound inside a bed sack to be smuggled into the palace to meet Caesar.

2703:

dated to 21 September 31 BC, demonstrate that she was now grooming her son to become the sole ruler of Egypt. In a show of solidarity, Antony also had

1146:

in Memphis. In the stele, he was named "Pharaoh Caesar", but the Alexandrians preferred the patronymic Caesarion. Perhaps owing to his still childless

915:

records that she simply did so without informing her brother, dressing in an attractive manner and charming Caesar with her wit and linguistic skills.

9930: 1666:

in Italy in September 40 BC. Although the agreement struck at Brundisium solidified Antony's control of the Roman Republic's territories east of the

1263:. He was not flattered by her and found her to be arrogant, especially after one of her advisers failed to provide him with requested books from the 4112:, p. 29 says that the marriage publicly sealed Antony's alliance with Cleopatra, in defiance of Octavian now that he was divorced from Octavia. 2427:. His legal standing was also improved by being elected consul in 31 BC, reentering public office. With Antony's will made public, Octavian had his 2419:, and that Alexandria would be made the new capital of the Roman Republic. In a show of loyalty to Rome, Octavian decided to begin construction of 649:, sent his two eldest sons to Egypt, most likely to negotiate with the Gabiniani and recruit them as soldiers in the desperate defense of Syria 2787:

also took their own lives to accompany her. Octavian was apparently angered by this outcome but had her buried in royal fashion next to Antony

1302:

Fletcher asserts that it is unclear if Cleopatra consistently stayed in Rome until 44 BC or briefly returned to Egypt after Caesar traveled to

2433:

and Rome declared war on Cleopatra, not Antony. Scholars argue that this decision was made on the basis that the declaration of war against a

1963:, on the first leg of his journey to invade the Parthian Empire. She then toured of some of her newly acquired territories. She traveled past 2907:, but unlike the Ptolemaic rulers, they did not reside there. Octavian, now Augustus, distanced himself from Egyptian royal rituals, such as 2506: 530:

states it could have occurred as late as May of that year. Cleopatra's first known act as queen occurred on 22 March 51 BC. She traveled to

2727:

where his new ally Herod entertained him and provided his army with fresh supplies. Octavian moved south and swiftly took Pelousion, while

1004:

for his timely aid (a status that would be inherited by his son Herod the Great). Ptolemy XIII and Arsinoe IV withdrew their forces to the

3246:, they were forbidden to marry native Egyptians (although Greeks living outside of these municipalities could). Native Egyptians and even 760:, son of Pompey, arrived at Alexandria in the summer of 49 BC seeking military aid on behalf of his father. After returning to Italy from 21: 10518:

Pina Polo, Francisco (2013), "The Great Seducer: Cleopatra, Queen and Sex Symbol", in Knippschild, Silke; García Morcillo, Marta (eds.),

3530:

dedicated to the worship of her partner Julius Caesar near the palatial seafront of Alexandria. Its entrance was flanked by 200-ton rose

3463: 1036:

Caesar's term as consul had expired at the end of 48 BC. However, his officer Mark Antony, recently returned to Rome from the battle at

2723:

After lengthy negotiations that ultimately produced no results, Octavian set out to invade Egypt in the spring of 30 BC. He stopped at

2368: 1402: 377:, in which Cleopatra and her children received various titles and territories under Antony's triumviral authority, along with Antony's 3003: 2156: 1979:

in what Cleopatra almost certainly intended as a prophetic gesture that the Ptolemaic Kingdom would be restored to its former glory.

1307: 757: 385:, marked a turning point that led to Octavian declaring war on Cleopatra. In 31 BC, Antony and Cleopatra led a joint naval force at 3659: 2943: 1647: 937: 171: 3172:

serving under Cleopatra are known from inscriptions and papyri records, indicating some were ethnic Greeks and others were native

1097:, and perhaps wanted to discover the source of the river, but his troops reportedly demanded they turn back after nearly reaching 10359:

Gurval, Robert A. (2011), "Dying Like a Queen: the Story of Cleopatra and the Asp(s) in Antiquity", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.),

1972: 676:, including Caesar, initially viewed him as the power behind the throne. Others involved in the cabal against Cleopatra included 4064:, p. 139) points out that it could be either Cleopatra or Cleopatra Selene II, while arguing the same ambiguity applies to 3019: 2267: 2100: 1641:(41–40 BC) disrupted Mark Antony's focus on confronting the Parthians in the east. The war was initiated by his ambitious wife 1585:), the moon, were symbolic of a new era of societal rejuvenation, as well as sign that Cleopatra hoped Antony would repeat the 3124:

from all over the Hellenistic world, who were also allowed to live in Egypt with total tax exemptions. Cleopatra was also the

11248: 11141: 11103: 11057: 10999: 10980: 10955: 10913: 10722: 10615: 10569: 10529: 10389: 10370: 10339: 10325: 10306: 10228: 10046: 3565:

hints at the latter. Cleopatra also began construction of her tomb (finished by Augustus) in the same palace precinct as the

2993: 2831: 2791:. Cleopatra's physician Olympos did not give an account of the cause of her death. The popular belief is that she allowed an 2651:. Herod the Great, who had personally advised Antony after the Battle of Actium that he should betray Cleopatra, traveled to 1714: 732: 421: 3116:

to Antony's Roman colleague Quintus Cascellius, she was directly involved in the administrative affairs of her kingdom. The

2783:, in August 30 BC at age 39, took place within the palace or her tomb. Ancient authors reported that her servants Erias and 2254:, Cleopatra allegedly made a bet that she could spend 2.5 million drachmas in a single evening. She proved it by removing a 10092: 9892: 1430: 3230:

Two legally-defined classes divided Ptolemaic Egyptian society: Greeks and Egyptians. Greeks inhabited the city-states of

2849:

convinced him there was room for only one Caesar in the world. With the fall of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, Egypt was formally

2580: 2413: 1717:. This act put Herod on a collision course with Cleopatra, who wished to reclaim former Ptolemaic territories of his new 819: 773: 197: 2711:

at the same time. Separate messages and envoys from Antony and Cleopatra were then sent to Octavian, still stationed at

1971:. Her main reason for returning to Egypt was her advanced state of pregnancy. By the summer of 36 BC, she gave birth to 73: 11122: 11018: 3569:. Although the exact location of both of these is still unknown, Cleopatra's tomb may have served as the model for the 3373:

bust of Cleopatra VII; reverse: an inscription reading "ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ ΚΛΕΟΠΑΤΡΑΣ", with an eagle standing on a thunderbolt

2888: 2168: 2118: 2080: 1624: 1541:

By the spring of 40 BC, troubles in Syria forced Mark Antony to end his vacation in Egypt with Cleopatra. His governor

1382: 1374: 258:

frequently interfered in its internal affairs. Her personal rule of Egypt was characterized by a continued reliance on

10427:, Ann Arbor: Cushing Malloy Inc., Journal of Roman Archaeology: Supplementary Series Number Eighteen, pp. 67–90, 558:

emergencies shortly after taking the throne. These included food shortages and famine caused by drought and low-level

11220: 11079: 10866: 10808: 10781: 10760: 10741: 10703: 10679: 10591: 10548: 10508: 10456: 10432: 10410: 10349: 10282: 10255: 10204: 10156: 10135: 10111: 10068: 10025: 9998: 9971: 3589: 2491: 582:

from power. As an astute financial administrator of her kingdom, Cleopatra eventually brought the combined wealth of

11409: 3542: 3413: 3315: 3161: 2815:

was found with her body, but she did have tiny puncture wounds on her arm that could have been caused by a needle.

2626: 1414: 2818: 2174: 2121:, AlgeriaRight: A likely depiction of Cleopatra Selene II, wearing an elephant skin cap, raised relief image on a 1299:. Caesar may have had plans to build a temple to Isis in Rome, as was voted by the Senate a year after his death. 3831:

and accession of Cleopatra to the throne, although she apparently suppressed the news of his death, alerting the

2784: 2211: 2179: 1724: 1390: 1109: 394: 10194: 3275:

to Egypt ceased by the 2nd century BC, so the Greek minority in Ptolemaic Egypt remained demographically small.

2392:

and then Athens, where Cleopatra was ostensibly well received. She persuaded Antony to send Octavia an official

1128:

and needed to be confronted. It is possible, however, that Caesar, who was married to the prominent Roman woman

10934: 10885: 3785:' (which we ourselves often regard as coming to an end in about her time) still be said to exist at all, could 3546: 2678: 2044: 1662:

in Greece while attempting to reach Antony. Her sudden death led to a reconciliation of Octavian and Antony at

1311: 891:, mid-1st century BC (i.e. around the time of her visits to Rome in 46–44 BC), discovered in a villa along the 594:

of some of her Ptolemaic predecessors. In the meantime, however, she inherited her father's debts and owed the

350: 10125: 2803:) was used to introduce the toxin by scratching. Cassius Dio says that she injected the poison with a needle ( 2079:. News of this event was heavily criticized in Rome as being distasteful, if not a perversion of time-honored 353:

in 44 BC, Cleopatra attempted to have Caesarion named as his heir, which was thwarted by Caesar's grandnephew

11419: 3519: 2259: 1610: 1601: 1163: 997: 271: 3326:

of their subjects to the government at the start of their reigns, due to widespread financial corruption by

2396:. This encouraged Munatius Plancus to advise Octavian that he should seize Antony's will, invested with the 10169:(1933), "Ikonographische Beitrage zum Portrar der romischen Republik und der Julisch-Claudischen Familie", 3217: 2788: 2584: 2353: 1620: 684:, another tutor of Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra seems to have attempted a short-lived alliance with her brother 378: 259: 166: 1967:

and entered the lands of Herod, who escorted her in lavish conditions back to the Egyptian border town of

996:

Sometime between January and March 47 BC, Caesar's reinforcements arrived. These included soldiers led by

705: 3904: 3605: 3566: 3397: 3121: 3029: 3011: 2262:

and dissolving it in vinegar at her dinner party. The accusation that Antony had stolen the books of the

1586: 1026: 933: 823: 346: 315: 107: 4224:, p. 187, wrote in vague terms that "Octavian had Caesarion killed later, after Cleopatra's death." 2235:

now often appeared slandering either side as being sexually obscene. Cleopatra had a conveniently timed

2218:, Antony included, but also intended to conquer and punish Rome itself. She was a woman as dangerous as 1907:. This restored much of the territory lost by the Ptolemies, but did not include any territories in the 11343: 11335: 11269: 10925: 10335: 4048:

and its ambiguities, noting that it could represent Cleopatra, but that it is more likely her daughter

3842: 3754: 3511: 3193: 2393: 2136: 2058:

Antony sent Quintus Dellius as his envoy to Artavasdes II of Armenia in 34 BC to negotiate a potential

1129: 1030: 1009: 827: 527: 452: 319: 301: 112: 11310: 3093:. Cleopatra's kingdom was based in Egypt, but she desired to expand it and incorporate territories of 270:

with other states, the tackling of corruption, strategic management of the bureaucracy, and ambitious

11295: 3032: 2908: 2742: 2228: 1471: 1136: 669:. He failed at the task, which ultimately allowed Julius Caesar to reach Egypt in pursuit of Pompey. 638: 547: 2155:, was made king of Armenia, Medes, and Parthia, and two-year-old Ptolemy Philadelphos, dressed as a 2071:

and rode into the city on a chariot presenting the royal prisoners to Queen Cleopatra, who sat on a

562:

and assaults by gangs of armed brigands. Another problem was the lawless behavior instigated by the

334:

co-rulers of Egypt. However, Caesar maintained a private affair with Cleopatra that produced a son,

10498: 9848: 4129: 3558: 3388:

are known from Cleopatra's reign, while use of bronze coins was revived (absent since the reign of

3133: 2920: 2704: 2644: 2534: 2416: 2401: 2377: 2286: 2183: 1986: 1982: 1518: 1503: 1499: 1394: 1348: 1280: 1147: 802: 390: 370: 358: 131: 10972: 9648: 1114: 318:. Reinforcements lifted the siege in early 47 BC, and Ptolemy XIII died shortly afterwards in the 10240:"197 Marble portrait, perhaps of Cleopatra VII's daughter, Cleopatra Selene, Queen of Mauretania" 10056: 4128:, p. 33 provides the name Quintus Cascellius as the recipient of the tax exemption, not the 3654: 3527: 3523: 2382: 2244: 2140: 2091: 2010: 1976: 1865: 1845: 1782: 1765:

here as part of Antony and Cleopatra's ambitious plans for the future. In order to stabilize the

1702: 1694: 1433:. Mark Antony also undoubtedly desired to form a personal, romantic relationship with the queen. 1268: 852: 666: 567: 411: 374: 223: 190: 136: 89: 11305: 10858: 10850: 10800: 10792: 10274: 10266: 10247: 10239: 10017: 10009: 9990: 9982: 3184: 3065:. They were heavily influenced and in many cases dominated by the Hellenistic monarchies of the 2759: 2298: 2191: 1120:

Caesar departed from Egypt around April 47 BC. The reason for his departure was apparently that

801:

on 9 August 48 BC, leading to the destruction of most of Pompey's army and his forced flight to

7156: 5993: 5991: 3581: 3574: 3538: 3149: 2980: 2724: 2345: 2051:

and even Lepidus, the third member of the triumvirate, who was placed under house arrest after

1960: 1578: 1566: 1531: 1398: 1121: 924: 900: 263: 84: 34: 10423:(1996), "Parthia and Rome: eastern perspectives", in Kennedy, David L.; Braund, David (eds.), 4056:, pp. 155–156) argues in favor of it depicting Cleopatra rather than her daughter, while 2518: 2297:. A subscript in a different handwriting at the bottom of the papyrus reads "make it happen" ( 2270:. He may have been the source of many other slanders of Antony in support of Octavian's side. 11369: 11318: 10625: 10490:

Griechische und lateinische Inschriften zum Ptolemäerreich und zur römischen Provinz Aegyptus

4208: 4194: 3973: 3685: 3570: 3303: 3231: 3141: 2927: 2290: 2163: 2114: 1264: 1142:

Cleopatra's alleged child with Caesar was born 23 June 47 BC, as preserved on a stele at the

1029:

together. Caesar also ensured the proper burial of Pompey's embalmed head in a tomb near the

662: 94: 5988: 1139:, to secure Cleopatra's tenuous position, but also perhaps to keep her activities in check. 714: 326:(Cleopatra's younger sister and a rival claimant to the throne) was exiled, and Caesar, now 11357: 4001: 3629: 3207: 3160:

staffed the upper levels of government administrations, albeit within the framework of the

2916: 2668: 1734: 1542: 1406: 1104: 1014: 769: 756:

and her forces were still holding their ground against Ptolemy XIII within Alexandria when

587: 559: 50: 11092:(2011), "The Amazing Afterlife of Cleopatra's Love Potions", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), 4275: 3438:

with dual images of Cleopatra and Antony, the first time that a foreign queen appeared on

8: 11381: 10121: 4121: 4049: 3989: 3828: 3746: 3401: 3102: 2985: 2866: 2315: 2263: 2126: 2110: 2015: 1778: 1683: 1558: 798: 650: 479: 357:. Cleopatra then had Ptolemy XIV killed and elevated Caesarion as her co-monarch. In the 227: 2043:

Antony prepared for another Parthian expedition in 35 BC, this time aimed at their ally

1989:, who defected to the Parthian side. After losing some 30,000 men, more so than Crassus 11414: 11234: 10837: 10653: 10645: 10605: 10584:

The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier

10492:. Einführungen und Quellentexte zur Ägyptologie (in German). Vol. 9. Münster: Lit. 10059:(1983), "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), 3931:, pp. 64–65 states that at this point (47 BC) Ptolemy XIV was 12 years old, while 3758: 3750: 3742: 3693: 3649: 3515: 3319: 3247: 3129: 3058: 2885: 2780: 2605: 2574: 2487: 2239:

claim that Rome would be punished, but that peace and reconciliation would follow in a

1774: 1770: 1535: 1410: 1386: 1370: 1318:

festival a month before Caesar's assassination. Mark Antony attempted to place a royal

1230: 1125: 681: 630: 495: 362: 235: 231: 183: 161: 42: 11156: 10503:, Getty Museum Studies on Art, Los Angeles: Getty Publications (J. Paul Getty Trust), 2799:, to bite and poison her. Plutarch relates this tale, but then suggests an implement ( 11331: 11289: 11244: 11216: 11199: 11180: 11163: 11137: 11118: 11099: 11089: 11075: 11053: 11036: 11014: 10995: 10976: 10966: 10951: 10930: 10909: 10881: 10862: 10804: 10793:"324 Gilded silver dish, decorated with a bust perhaps representing Cleopatra Selene" 10777: 10756: 10737: 10718: 10699: 10689: 10675: 10665: 10657: 10611: 10587: 10565: 10544: 10525: 10504: 10476: 10452: 10428: 10406: 10385: 10366: 10345: 10321: 10302: 10296: 10278: 10251: 10224: 10200: 10178: 10152: 10131: 10107: 10088: 10082: 10064: 10042: 10021: 9994: 9967: 4161:, pp. 194–195 writes that the implement used to puncture Cleopatra's skin was a 3875: 3774: 3637: 3381: 3340: 3239: 3203: 3112:

in her kingdom. As proven by the discovery of a papyrus signed by Cleopatra granting

3109: 3074: 3066: 3007: 2858: 2750: 2483: 2434: 2236: 2215: 2072: 2059: 1990: 1937: 1929: 1913: 1872: 1757:

granted by Octavian and a thousand soldiers lent by Octavia, Mark Antony traveled to

1741: 1706: 1590: 1510: 1288: 1218: 1214: 1001: 868: 736: 622: 487: 215: 38: 3148:

nature of Ptolemaic cities like Alexandria, Cleopatra was also obligated to oversee

11067: 10827: 10637: 10420: 9873: 9854: 3879: 3766: 3714:

that date. Those in favor of arguing her death occurred on 10 August 30 BC include

3613: 3425: 3409: 3405: 3090: 3070: 3036: 2728: 2538: 2420: 2331: 2248: 1933: 1849: 1718: 1693:

in Alexandria as an unexpected guest and refugee who fled a turbulent situation in

1554: 1546: 1445: 1421: 1198: 1190: 1085:. Caesar could have been interested in a Nile cruise owing to his fascination with 1045: 724: 658: 386: 251: 239: 143: 1920:

neglecting his virtuous Roman wife Octavia. Octavian granted her and his own wife

772:

in January of 49 BC, Caesar forced Pompey and his supporters to flee to Greece in

11424: 11238: 11237:(2011), "Glamour Girls: Cleomania in Mass Culture", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), 11093: 10945: 10771: 10693: 10669: 10601: 10579: 10559: 10519: 10446: 10400: 10360: 10146: 10078: 10036: 9961: 9957: 9911: 4190: 4133: 4076:(the veil being a component of it) could likely mean it was intended to depict a 3841:, p. 30 argues that the Senate was informed of his death on 1 August 51 BC. 3782: 3588:, Egypt). Reliefs were made depicting Cleopatra and her son Caesarion presenting 3454: 3393: 3283: 3279: 3153: 3086: 3078: 3015: 2862: 2822:

Fragments of a Roman oil lamp with an erotic scene of a nude Cleopatra wearing a

2716: 2664: 2632: 2622: 2502: 2409: 2063:

royal status. Antony then held a military parade in Alexandria in the style of a

2048: 1956: 1949: 1864:

in Palestine, but she leased this territory back to Herod. At the expense of the

1797: 1788: 1550: 1491: 1476: 1425: 1284: 1276: 1205: 1086: 983: 880: 599: 591: 519: 297: 267: 26: 9858: 2835: 2162:

In late 34 BC, following the Donations, Antony and Octavian engaged in a heated

1993:(an indignity he had hoped to avenge), Antony finally arrived at Leukokome near 11393: 10975:" series, translated by Bonfante-Warren, Alexandra, New York: Harry N. Abrams, 10857:, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 10799:, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), pp. 10773:

Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture

10695:

Antony and Cleopatra: The Doomed Love Affair That United Ancient Rome and Egypt

10292: 10166: 3790: 3770: 3633: 3601: 3481: 3443: 3331: 3307: 3295: 3272: 3252: 2939: 2854: 2827: 2812: 2796: 2686: 2672: 2600:, early 1st century AD, most likely depicting Cleopatra VII, wearing her royal 2550: 2471: 2424: 2397: 2232: 2144: 1941: 1837: 1296: 1272: 1255:

loyal to Rome. Cleopatra's distinguished visitors at Caesar's villa across the

1244: 1240: 1062: 1041: 595: 575: 523: 430: 327: 312: 255: 243: 11193: 10832: 10558:

Pucci, Giuseppe (2011), "Every Man's Cleopatra", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.),

10273:, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 10246:, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 10016:, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 9989:, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p. 2266:

to restock the Library of Alexandria, however, was an admitted fabrication by

1353: 506:

as co-rulers in the event of his death. On 31 May 52 BC, Cleopatra was made a

11403: 11203: 11184: 11040: 10480: 10466: 10442: 10182: 8841: 4108:, p. 100 says that it is unclear if they were ever truly married, while 4017: 3948: 3912: 3824: 3778: 3609: 3550: 3354: 3311: 3299: 3221: 3145: 3113: 2904: 2892: 2846: 2792: 2712: 2558: 2446: 2282: 2223: 2148: 2064: 1925: 1892: 1876: 1857: 1829: 1793: 1745: 1449: 1327: 1186: 1073:

along its two decks resembling a floating villa. Cleopatra possibly used the

872: 740: 626: 614: 603: 535: 499: 491: 382: 289: 219: 11265: 4263: 3710: 3537:, monuments placed there by Augustus in 13/12 BC. These were later known as 3350: 1952:

to rival that of Cleopatra's statue erected there earlier by Julius Caesar.

522:

asserts that Ptolemy XII perhaps died sometime before 22 March 51 BC, while

155: 11323: 11285: 11028: 10190: 3832: 3762: 3616:

and images depicting her worshiping Montu and her son Caesarion worshiping

3336: 3094: 3062: 2900: 2458: 2364: 2314:), undoubtedly the autograph of the queen, as it was Ptolemaic practice to 1945: 1841: 1754: 1638: 1522: 1480: 1437: 1291:, mother of the Romans. The statue also subtly linked the Egyptian goddess 1090: 896: 673: 551: 503: 469:, but honouring a queen Cleopatra (probably Cleopatra VII), located in the 304: 286: 278: 11167: 2190:

of Cleopatra VII in a different hand, with her statement "make it happen"

952:, but Cleopatra and Caesar countered this by ordering the construction of 11151: 6003: 4154: 4021: 3981: 3968: 3871: 3507: 3489: 3318:

production, and forced farming peasants to stay in their villages during

3165: 3137: 3125: 3082: 2850: 2648: 2617: 2554: 2429: 2036: 1904: 1853: 1817: 1809: 1671: 1527: 1487: 1362: 1335: 1303: 1252: 953: 912: 797:

In Greece, Caesar and Pompey's forces engaged each other at the decisive

761: 689: 685: 646: 583: 579: 366: 331: 11281: 10841: 665:, was then charged with preventing Caesar from landing a naval fleet in 578:

to garrison Egypt after restoring Ptolemy XII and removing his daughter

277:

Cleopatra initially acceded to the throne alongside her younger brother

11230: 10223:, translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 10214: 4186: 3977: 3867: 3863: 3835:

to this fact months later in a message they received on 30 June 51 BC.

3553:

and the pro-Jewish policies of Julius Caesar, Cleopatra also erected a

3549:

in the 19th century. In conjunction with renewing a grant of asylum to

3498: 3439: 3429: 3389: 3378: 3362: 3287: 3268: 3264: 3256: 3040: 2896: 2739:

and bury Antony within her tomb before she was escorted to the palace.

2732: 2660: 2479: 2336: 2240: 1908: 1868: 1679: 1667: 1663: 1315: 1182: 1082: 1077:

again years later to sail to Mark Antony's provisional headquarters at

1066: 1058: 1005: 949: 844: 791: 782: 531: 339: 323: 46: 10649: 10148:

Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society Under the Ptolemies

10063:, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 21–99, 8384: 3996:, judging from the portrait of a flame-haired woman wearing the royal 3734: 3732: 11013:, vol. 1–3 (reprint ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 10344:, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson; Richard Clay (the Chaucer Press), 4182: 4077: 3952: 3625: 3554: 3477: 3421: 3385: 3330:

abusing the general populace. Abuses often led workers to partake in

3235: 3173: 3098: 3081:, founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the Ptolemaic Kingdom had fought 3054: 3050: 2976: 2972: 2912: 2609: 2593: 2522: 2514: 2405: 2278: 2187: 1821: 1698: 1452: 1226: 1222: 1210: 1172: 1152: 1143: 1070: 1053: 1022: 945: 892: 884: 787: 753: 654: 642: 618: 563: 440: 399: 335: 308: 282: 247: 65: 10218: 10151:, translated by David Lorton, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 3580:

Although established earlier, Cleopatra resumed construction of the

2441: 2035:

inscription "CLEOPATRAFILIORVM REGVM", and on the reverse a bust of

1124:, son of Mithridates the Great, was stirring up trouble for Rome in 10641: 9768: 7363: 7098: 7096: 7094: 7092: 7090: 7088: 5629: 4217: 4203: 4198: 4150: 3729: 3260: 3169: 3057:. These city-states continued to have these forms of government in 3024: 2989: 2953: 2881: 2562: 2542: 2537:, met those of Antony and Cleopatra for a decisive engagement, the 2359: 2341: 2068: 2020: 1968: 1964: 1801: 1753:, where the triumvirate was officially extended to 33 BC. With two 1675: 1628: 1514: 1484: 1460: 1366: 1331: 1133: 1098: 1056:

provided considerable details about the voyage, including use of a

941: 916: 728: 677: 609: 354: 9626: 9624: 5561: 5559: 2919:

in Egyptian temples as a typical pharaoh making sacrifices to the

1081:. Its design almost certainly had an influence on the later Roman 613:

Possible sculpted head of Cleopatra VII wearing an Egyptian-style

11299: 8920: 6956: 6168: 5821: 4162: 3993: 3883: 3617: 3534: 3531: 3434: 3417: 3366: 3344: 3327: 3117: 2924: 2877: 2597: 2510: 2319: 2274: 2143:, Cleopatra dressed as Isis and Antony declared that she was the 2122: 2024: 1994: 1880: 1861: 1825: 1758: 1750: 1710: 1690: 1655: 1651: 1094: 1037: 1018: 987: 861: 848: 515: 483: 466: 10521:

Seduction and Power: Antiquity in the Visual and Performing Arts

8196: 8194: 8192: 8097: 8095: 7634: 7632: 7630: 7085: 6589: 5600: 4607: 3765:

as having declined and diminished in greatness since the age of

2277:

document dated to February 33 BC contains with little doubt the

10628:(1953), "The Last Days of Cleopatra: A Chronological Problem", 10475:(in German), vol. 3, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 9732: 9672: 9636: 9621: 8408: 6526: 6524: 6465: 6426: 6282: 6280: 6252: 6250: 6248: 6044: 6042: 5665: 5556: 3997: 3985: 3859: 3769:, an attitude that has continued even into the works of modern 3681: 3679: 3370: 3358: 3291: 3282:. Virtually all aspects of the Egyptian economy were nominally 3157: 3105:

that had belonged to her illustrious ancestor Ptolemy I Soter.

3045: 2823: 2808: 2736: 2700: 2695: 2652: 2636: 2616:

While Octavian occupied Athens, Antony and Cleopatra landed at

2601: 2467: 2463: 2450: 2294: 2028: 1998: 1896: 1888: 1871:(a cousin of Herod), Cleopatra was also given a portion of the 1805: 1766: 1709:. Antigonus had imprisoned Herod's brother and fellow tetrarch 1659: 1642: 1456: 1369:(right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the 1358: 1319: 1310:. Since Cleopatra was also present in the city in 44 BC during 1260: 1194: 1155:

temple near the harbor of Alexandria dedicated to his worship.

1078: 986:

possibly depicting Cleopatra, from the House of the Orchard at

888: 806: 539: 511: 510:

of Ptolemy XII as indicated by an inscription in the Temple of

507: 470: 462: 448: 444: 293: 30: 11243:, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 172–194, 11098:, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 132–149, 10950:, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 150–171, 10564:, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 195–207, 9381: 9103: 8628: 6895: 6893: 5039: 5037: 4995: 4929: 4927: 4595: 4060:, p. 20) only mentions Cleopatra as a possible likeness. 9983:"194 Marble head of a Ptolemaic queen with vulture headdress" 9599: 9597: 9536: 9534: 9461: 9459: 9446: 9444: 9175: 9151: 9042: 9040: 9000: 8998: 8817: 8616: 8517: 8515: 8343: 8341: 8305: 8303: 8189: 8092: 7942: 7760: 7758: 7745: 7743: 7718: 7716: 7627: 7615: 7468: 7407: 7405: 7336: 6839: 6616: 6066: 5964: 5748: 5746: 5160: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4724: 4457: 3621: 3597: 3562: 3494: 3473: 2842: 2526: 2389: 2388:

During the spring of 32 BC, Antony and Cleopatra traveled to

2255: 2219: 2083:

to be enjoyed instead by an Egyptian queen and her subjects.

2032: 1921: 1900: 1884: 1833: 1256: 777: 744: 543: 458: 10451:, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 10365:, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 54–77, 9792: 9756: 9684: 9192: 9190: 9081: 9079: 8973: 8971: 8764: 8704: 8502: 8500: 8498: 8425: 8423: 8328: 8326: 8324: 8322: 8320: 8318: 8264: 7971: 7969: 7967: 7965: 7963: 7961: 7959: 7957: 7932: 7930: 7509: 7507: 7309: 7307: 6764: 6762: 6760: 6758: 6756: 6754: 6659: 6521: 6367: 6355: 6316: 6292: 6277: 6245: 6216: 6144: 6105: 6078: 6054: 6039: 5952: 5913: 5797: 5692: 5493: 5148: 5124: 5022: 4415: 4413: 3676: 2293:

and Antony's confidant who would command his land forces at

1761:, where he made preparations for war against the Parthians. 9558: 9471: 8740: 8694: 8692: 8690: 8177: 8122: 7480: 7392: 7390: 7265: 7263: 7002: 7000: 6890: 6741: 6739: 6714: 6712: 6710: 6333: 6331: 6235: 6233: 6231: 5763: 5761: 5733: 5731: 5682: 5680: 5522: 5520: 5418: 5416: 5414: 5336: 5114: 5112: 5110: 5108: 5106: 5104: 5102: 5100: 5034: 4924: 4914: 4912: 4753: 4751: 4631: 4400: 4398: 4181:, pp. 99–100 explain the nominal short-lived reign of 4073: 3935:, p. 19 argues that he was still only 10 years of age. 3891: 3887: 3640:

was overseen by Cleopatra's regional governor Kallimachos.

3585: 3485: 3323: 2776: 2076: 1292: 1271:, one of the members of Cleopatra's court, aided Caesar in 765: 731:(27 BC – 14 AD), a copy of an original bust from 70–60 BC, 571: 9744: 9720: 9696: 9660: 9594: 9570: 9546: 9531: 9519: 9507: 9456: 9441: 9393: 9357: 9333: 9323: 9321: 9306: 9127: 9091: 9037: 9015: 9013: 8995: 8908: 8640: 8589: 8565: 8512: 8485: 8483: 8481: 8479: 8477: 8475: 8473: 8471: 8435: 8396: 8338: 8300: 8206: 8134: 8031: 8029: 8027: 8025: 8023: 7981: 7840: 7789: 7779: 7777: 7775: 7773: 7755: 7740: 7713: 7701: 7691: 7689: 7676: 7674: 7672: 7670: 7668: 7666: 7664: 7555: 7543: 7531: 7492: 7458: 7456: 7402: 7353: 7351: 7248: 7207: 7021: 7019: 7017: 7015: 6649: 6647: 6645: 6643: 6606: 6604: 6499: 6497: 6495: 6453: 6443: 6441: 6156: 6134: 6132: 6117: 5855: 5853: 5743: 5578: 5576: 5574: 5387: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5012: 5010: 4983: 4956: 4899: 4897: 4778: 4702: 4700: 4660: 4658: 4371: 4347: 2182:

document dated February 33 BC granting military commander

1975:, her second son with Antony. He was also named after the 1658:, Italy) and exiled from Italy. Fulvia died after this at 1025:

on 23 June 47 BC. Caesar and Cleopatra likely visited the

234:

in August 30 BC, which also marked the conclusion of the

11275: 9809: 9807: 9657:, pp. 219, image plates and caption between 246–247. 9609: 9483: 9187: 9139: 9076: 8968: 8944: 8884: 8874: 8872: 8870: 8868: 8805: 8795: 8793: 8791: 8776: 8677: 8675: 8673: 8671: 8669: 8667: 8606: 8604: 8555: 8553: 8551: 8538: 8536: 8534: 8532: 8530: 8495: 8458: 8456: 8454: 8452: 8450: 8420: 8374: 8372: 8370: 8368: 8315: 8276: 8242: 8240: 8238: 8225: 8223: 8221: 8167: 8165: 8163: 8161: 8082: 8080: 8010: 8008: 8006: 8004: 8002: 8000: 7998: 7996: 7954: 7927: 7905: 7903: 7901: 7899: 7897: 7895: 7893: 7891: 7818: 7816: 7651: 7649: 7647: 7603: 7504: 7304: 6985: 6815: 6751: 6695: 6204: 6015: 5785: 5653: 5399: 5215: 5213: 5211: 5049: 4973: 4971: 4858: 4810: 4736: 4712: 4571: 4561: 4559: 4410: 4383: 4287: 4251: 4241: 4239: 3692:, pp. 98–100, uses historical data to calculate the 3593: 2992:

of Cleopatra and Caesarion, Egypt, Ptolemaic Period, the

2770: 2309: 2202: 1393:

for five-year terms to restore order to the Republic and

1342: 9819: 9780: 9708: 9257: 9255: 9253: 9214: 8716: 8687: 8112: 8110: 8053: 7828: 7579: 7443: 7441: 7439: 7437: 7435: 7422: 7420: 7387: 7326: 7324: 7322: 7294: 7292: 7290: 7275: 7260: 7238: 7236: 7234: 7195: 7183: 7173: 7171: 7144: 7120: 7075: 7073: 7058: 7048: 7046: 6997: 6975: 6973: 6971: 6944: 6934: 6932: 6917: 6878: 6856: 6854: 6827: 6805: 6803: 6801: 6736: 6724: 6707: 6628: 6579: 6577: 6575: 6560: 6548: 6509: 6482: 6480: 6416: 6414: 6412: 6410: 6408: 6406: 6343: 6328: 6267: 6265: 6228: 6180: 6095: 6093: 5976: 5942: 5940: 5901: 5865: 5840: 5838: 5836: 5773: 5758: 5728: 5704: 5677: 5641: 5619: 5617: 5615: 5588: 5517: 5505: 5440: 5411: 5348: 5283: 5281: 5242: 5097: 4909: 4748: 4395: 3919:, p. 63 says that his reinforcements came in March. 2933: 2665:

taking her fleet from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea

11072:

Women in Hellenistic Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra

9495: 9429: 9417: 9405: 9345: 9318: 9202: 9064: 9010: 8956: 8829: 8652: 8577: 8468: 8353: 8041: 8020: 7915: 7864: 7770: 7686: 7661: 7591: 7567: 7453: 7348: 7132: 7108: 7031: 7012: 6905: 6640: 6601: 6492: 6438: 6304: 6192: 6129: 5889: 5850: 5571: 5544: 5532: 5471: 5469: 5467: 5452: 5428: 5377: 5375: 5360: 5326: 5324: 5322: 5320: 5305: 5225: 5198: 5196: 5194: 5192: 5190: 5177: 5175: 5085: 5007: 4946: 4944: 4942: 4894: 4834: 4800: 4798: 4768: 4766: 4697: 4687: 4685: 4655: 4583: 4546: 4544: 4517: 4505: 4481: 4447: 4445: 4443: 4323: 3708:, p. 277 tepidly support this, saying it occurred 2109:

Left: A Roman head of either Cleopatra or her daughter

10087:, translated by W. J. Smyth, Cambridge: Polity Press, 9872: 9804: 9582: 9369: 9272: 9270: 9226: 9115: 9052: 9025: 8865: 8788: 8664: 8601: 8548: 8527: 8447: 8365: 8252: 8235: 8218: 8158: 8146: 8077: 7993: 7888: 7876: 7852: 7813: 7801: 7728: 7644: 7519: 7369: 7165:, pp. 87, 246–247, see image plates and captions. 6683: 5925: 5266: 5254: 5208: 4968: 4882: 4846: 4822: 4643: 4619: 4556: 4493: 4430: 4428: 4335: 4236: 4066:

the other sculpted head from Cherchel featuring a veil

3267:

in the late 3rd century BC, they were reintroduced as

3128:

in the kingdom, carrying out rituals and rites in the

2533:

On 2 September 31 BC, Octavian's naval forces, led by

11341: 9910:

Raia, Ann R.; Sebesta, Judith Lynn (September 2017),

9282: 9250: 9163: 8983: 8932: 8896: 8853: 8752: 8728: 8107: 8065: 7432: 7417: 7375: 7319: 7287: 7231: 7219: 7168: 7070: 7043: 6968: 6929: 6866: 6851: 6798: 6774: 6572: 6536: 6477: 6403: 6391: 6262: 6090: 6027: 5937: 5877: 5833: 5809: 5716: 5612: 5278: 5073: 4529: 4469: 4311: 4189:, as lasting eighteen days in August 30 BC. However, 3377:

Both Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra found it necessary to

2466:

in Greece, and by the spring of 31 BC, they moved to

2457:

fully professional force. Antony wanted to cross the

2408:, Octavian forcefully acquired the document from the 1944:, and love interest of Cleopatra's great-grandfather 10851:"325 Painting with a portrait of a woman in profile" 10496: 8288: 6786: 6671: 6379: 5481: 5464: 5372: 5317: 5187: 5172: 4939: 4870: 4795: 4763: 4682: 4541: 4440: 4359: 3855: 3816: 3814: 3704:, p. 206 provide the same date as Skeat, while 3049:) possessing various forms of government, including 2693:

Cleopatra had Caesarion enter into the ranks of the

2039:

with the inscription reading ANTONI ARMENIA DEVICTA.

1561:, both of whom Antony acknowledged as his children. 1549:, a former officer under Cassius who now served the 9294: 9267: 9238: 5293: 5061: 4670: 4425: 4168: 4044:, p. 219) provide a detailed discussion about 2549:, Cleopatra commanded 60 ships at the mouth of the 2258:, one of the most expensive known, from one of her 1836:, which remained in Roman hands. She also received 11155: 10405:, Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 10384:, translated by Tina Saavedra, London: Routledge, 9850:Cat. 22 Tetradrachm Portraying Queen Cleopatra VII 6000:, pp. image plates and caption between 82–83. 4299: 4284:, pp. image plates and caption between 82-83. 3628:of Cleopatra and Caesarion. In the front entrance 3259:, replaced by Greek and Jewish landholders called 1816:In this arrangement, Cleopatra gained significant 1804:and her distinct facial features, wearing a royal 1413:in Greece, leading to the suicides of Cassius and 813: 10524:, London: Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 183–197, 5136: 3811: 11401: 11179:, T.J. Cadoux, trans, New York: Sagamore Press, 10698:, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing, 10298:Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend 9846: 5130: 2629:, in an attempt to strike an alliance with him. 2612:, also wearing a royal diadem, stands behind her 2449:struck in 32/31 BC, showing her wearing a royal 1848:established. Given her ancestral relations with 1466: 11195:The Life and Times of Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt 10818:Walker, Susan (2008), "Cleopatra in Pompeii?", 10497:Pfrommer, Michael; Towne-Markus, Elana (2001), 10267:"262 Veiled head from a marble portrait statue" 3604:, Cleopatra erected a large granite stela with 3028:, spread this style of monarchy throughout the 2561:, as the two escaped the battle and headed for 2117:, from the late 1st century BC, located in the 1697:. Mark Antony had established Herod there as a 566:, the now unemployed, assimilated, and largely 542:bull, worshiped as an intermediary for the god 443:inscribed on the upper right arm and wearing a 250:reigned over Egypt and other territories as an 11229: 9897:, Encyclopaedia Romana (University of Chicago) 4035: 3432:. Coins struck with Mark Antony include Roman 2281:handwriting of Cleopatra. It concerns certain 1955:In 36 BC, Cleopatra accompanied Antony to the 1000:and Antipater the Idumaean, who would receive 11177:Cleopatra: a Study in Politics and Propaganda 10943: 3120:and adjacent Library of Alexandria attracted 1792:Most likely a posthumous painted portrait of 1623:of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt from the 330:, declared Cleopatra and her younger brother 191: 10196:The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt 10189: 9847:Sabino, Rachel; Gross-Diaz, Theresa (2016), 3858:, p. 34 writes the following about the 3705: 3596:, mirroring images of offerings to Isis and 3294:on imported and exported goods, established 3002:Cleopatra's personal rule of Egypt followed 1860:. She was even given the region surrounding 439:Left: a marble statue of Cleopatra with her 124: 119: 10848: 9928: 9909: 6884: 5565: 4245: 2699:. This, along with reliefs on a stele from 2186:tax exemptions in Egypt and containing the 1820:in the Levant. This included nearly all of 405: 365:and developed a personal relationship with 11210: 10968:Cleopatra: The Life and Death of a Pharaoh 10264: 10237: 7537: 4069: 4041: 2930:, the first of whom was Cornelius Gallus. 2004: 1306:in November 46 BC to wage war against the 1279:, put into effect on 1 January 45 BC. The 695: 246:. In the style of her Greek predecessors, 198: 184: 10964: 10853:, in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), 10831: 10795:, in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), 10750: 10731: 10712: 10517: 10269:, in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), 10242:, in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), 10213: 10077: 10012:, in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), 9985:, in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.), 9878:, Classical Numismatic Group, 17 May 2010 9615: 9489: 9477: 9196: 9181: 9085: 8950: 8823: 8622: 8506: 8429: 8332: 8282: 8200: 8059: 7975: 7948: 7936: 7834: 7621: 7585: 7513: 7313: 6991: 6821: 6768: 6337: 6210: 6021: 6009: 5997: 5767: 5422: 5366: 5154: 5118: 5091: 5028: 4918: 4757: 4589: 4511: 4487: 4293: 4281: 4024:with 1,200 troops, not 2,000 as given in 4013: 3967:, p. 87 describes the painting from 3823:, pp. 85–86 states that the partial 3701: 2880:. In January 27 BC, Octavian was renamed 2667:and then setting sail to a foreign port, 2139:soon after the triumph, now known as the 1181:Left image: an Egyptian statue of either 281:, but a fallout between them led to open 11174: 11131: 10922: 10903: 10855:Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth 10797:Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth 10688: 10664: 10487: 10472:Die Skulpturen des Vaticanischen Museums 10291: 10271:Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth 10244:Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth 10144: 10120: 10014:Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth 9987:Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth 9956: 9825: 9798: 9786: 9762: 9714: 9690: 9666: 9654: 9552: 9540: 9525: 9465: 9450: 9435: 9423: 9411: 9399: 9387: 9351: 9339: 9327: 9312: 9220: 9208: 9157: 9109: 9070: 9046: 9019: 8962: 8926: 8770: 8722: 8710: 8698: 8634: 8489: 8414: 8390: 8347: 8101: 8035: 7987: 7783: 7749: 7680: 7638: 7498: 7474: 7462: 7411: 7357: 7342: 7254: 7162: 7138: 7102: 7025: 6962: 6911: 6845: 6653: 6622: 6610: 6595: 6566: 6530: 6503: 6471: 6459: 6447: 6432: 6373: 6361: 6322: 6298: 6286: 6256: 6186: 6174: 6150: 6138: 6111: 6084: 6060: 6048: 5970: 5958: 5919: 5895: 5871: 5859: 5827: 5803: 5779: 5752: 5698: 5686: 5671: 5647: 5635: 5606: 5582: 5550: 5526: 5511: 5499: 5458: 5405: 5393: 5342: 5236: 5219: 5055: 5043: 5001: 4977: 4933: 4888: 4864: 4852: 4828: 4816: 4789: 4742: 4730: 4718: 4637: 4625: 4613: 4577: 4565: 4523: 4499: 4463: 4419: 4389: 4377: 4353: 4341: 4125: 4109: 4081: 4029: 4004:which has been identified as Cleopatra." 3964: 3947:, p. 70 writes the following about 3932: 3908: 3820: 3805: 3723: 3719: 3697: 3660:List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra 3349: 3039:(480–336 BC) had contained a variety of 2944:Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination 2817: 2811:argued for an ointment of some kind. No 2741: 2677: 2663:and remove herself from the equation by 2588: 2496: 2440: 2335: 2173: 2014: 1787: 1723: 1650:were eventually besieged by Octavian at 1470: 1397:. Cleopatra received messages from both 1352: 1103: 1065:. First constructed during the reign of 608: 20: 11191: 11088: 11066: 11027: 10538: 10465: 10441: 10419: 10165: 10101: 10007: 9980: 9564: 8902: 8835: 8746: 8658: 8583: 8359: 8128: 8047: 7921: 7870: 7807: 7695: 7597: 7486: 7114: 7037: 6899: 6701: 6689: 6310: 6198: 5931: 5287: 5079: 4649: 4535: 4475: 4317: 4269: 4257: 4053: 3915:'s reinforcements came in January, but 3696:as having occurred on 12 August 30 BC. 3472:Left: one of two statues of the falcon 1977:second monarch of the Ptolemaic dynasty 1808:and pearl-studded hairpins, from Roman 1225:), which is most likely a depiction of 148: 11402: 11334:". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History ( 11112: 11008: 10904:Bradford, Ernle Dusgate Selby (2000), 10817: 10790: 10769: 10600: 10578: 10358: 10034: 9813: 9774: 9750: 9738: 9726: 9702: 9678: 9642: 9630: 9603: 9588: 9576: 9513: 9375: 9363: 9232: 9133: 9121: 9097: 9058: 9031: 9004: 8914: 8878: 8859: 8850:, pp. 146–147, 213, footnote #83. 8847: 8799: 8681: 8646: 8610: 8595: 8571: 8559: 8542: 8521: 8462: 8441: 8402: 8378: 8309: 8270: 8258: 8246: 8229: 8212: 8183: 8171: 8152: 8140: 8086: 8014: 7909: 7882: 7858: 7846: 7822: 7795: 7764: 7734: 7722: 7707: 7655: 7609: 7561: 7549: 7525: 7447: 7426: 7396: 7381: 7330: 7298: 7281: 7269: 7242: 7225: 7213: 7201: 7189: 7177: 7150: 7126: 7079: 7064: 7052: 7006: 6979: 6950: 6938: 6923: 6872: 6860: 6833: 6809: 6745: 6730: 6718: 6665: 6634: 6583: 6554: 6542: 6515: 6486: 6420: 6349: 6271: 6239: 6222: 6162: 6123: 6099: 6072: 6033: 5982: 5946: 5907: 5883: 5844: 5815: 5791: 5737: 5722: 5710: 5659: 5623: 5594: 5475: 5434: 5381: 5354: 5311: 5202: 5166: 5016: 4950: 4903: 4876: 4840: 4804: 4772: 4706: 4691: 4664: 4601: 4550: 4404: 4365: 4329: 4272:, pp. 184 ff. Abb. 3 Taf. 25—27.. 4212: 4174: 4137: 4105: 4093: 4061: 4057: 4025: 3944: 3928: 3916: 3749:(336–323 BC), came to an end with the 3715: 2647:, who was famous for his cynicism and 1689:In December 40 BC, Cleopatra received 1545:had been killed and his army taken by 1343:Cleopatra in the Liberators' civil war 680:, a prominent military commander, and 393:, who won after they fled the battle. 373:of various eastern domains. The 34 BC 361:of 43–42 BC, Cleopatra sided with the 285:. Further chaos ensued when the Roman 11047: 10875: 10624: 10557: 10398: 10379: 10334: 10315: 10055: 9929:Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2017) , 9890: 9501: 9300: 9288: 9276: 9261: 9244: 9169: 9145: 8989: 8977: 8938: 8890: 8811: 8782: 8758: 8734: 8294: 8116: 8071: 7573: 6792: 6780: 6677: 6397: 6385: 5538: 5487: 5446: 5330: 5299: 5272: 5260: 5248: 5181: 5142: 5067: 4989: 4962: 4676: 4451: 4434: 4305: 4221: 4178: 4158: 3972:day-to-day wear was the no-nonsense ' 3838: 3827:of 7 March 51 BC marked the death of 3738: 3689: 2994:Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology 2934:Egypt under the monarchy of Cleopatra 2568: 2216:toyed with the idea of poisoning many 1891:). To the west, Cleopatra was handed 1670:, it also stipulated that he concede 1197:, second half of the 1st century BC; 923:then brought the siblings before the 733:Venice National Archaeological Museum 465:man named Onnophris depicting a male 11192:Weigall, Arthur E. P. Brome (1914), 11150: 10989: 10849:Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2001), 10820:Papers of the British School at Rome 10318:The Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire 10106:, London & New York: Routledge, 10010:"164 Marble statue of Cleopatra VII" 4215:, pp. 149, 214, footnote 103). 4149:For the translated accounts of both 3242:. Considered full citizens of those 3164:that had existed in Egypt since the 3077:realms. Beginning with the reign of 3022:, before he and his successors, the 2053:revolting against Octavian in Sicily 11240:Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited 11095:Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited 10947:Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited 10674:(2nd ed.), London: Routledge, 10610:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 10561:Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited 10362:Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited 2581:Epaphroditus (freedman of Augustus) 2414:buried alongside Cleopatra in Egypt 2325: 2243:led by the queen. In an account of 2129:, dated to the early 1st century AD 1895:along the Libyan coast, as well as 1852:, Antony granted her the region of 1729:The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra 1686:, a potential rival for Cleopatra. 1395:bring Caesar's assassins to justice 1334:as the primary heir. He arrived in 1089:. He was well-read in the works of 820:Military campaigns of Julius Caesar 502:should reign alongside her brother 13: 10896: 3136:subjects viewed as preventing the 2891:that established him as the first 2171:to various media in modern times. 2119:Archaeological Museum of Cherchell 14: 11436: 11284:, a Victorian children's book by 11259: 10878:Cleopatra: Queen of Ancient Egypt 10715:The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt 10500:Greek Gold from Hellenistic Egypt 10382:A History of the Ptolemaic Empire 10130:, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 4068:. In regards to the latter head, 3992:, Cleopatra may well have been a 2903:. Roman emperors were thereafter 2865:that had begun with the reign of 2707:, his son with Fulvia, enter the 2151:. Alexander Helios, dressed as a 1401:, one of Caesar's assassins, and 11387: 11375: 11363: 11351: 11319:Cleopatra: Facts & Biography 10734:Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt 9834: 4143: 4115: 4099: 4087: 4007: 3958: 3938: 3922: 3897: 3856:Pfrommer & Towne-Markus 2001 3462: 3453: 3310:over certain industries such as 3298:for various goods, imposed high 3224:in the Vatican Museums, 40–30 BC 3192: 3183: 2984:Right: a limestone stela of the 2961: 2952: 2909:coronation in the Egyptian style 2627:Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene 2212:witchcraft as a lethal sorceress 2099: 2090: 1924:the extraordinary privileges of 1824:(centered in what is now modern 1609: 1600: 1415:Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger 1171: 1162: 972: 963: 860: 836: 743:in the Archaeological Museum of 713: 704: 606:arrived at Alexandria in 48 BC. 429: 420: 230:, by March 51 BC. It ended with 72: 10543:(1 ed.), Walker Pub. Co., 10199:, London: Thames & Hudson, 10084:A History of the Roman Republic 6012:, pp. 186, 194 footnote10. 3882:, who wanted to become king of 3849: 3797: 3624:with large columns bearing the 3600:. At the Hathor-Isis temple of 3506:In addition to various ancient 3320:planting and harvesting periods 3020:homeland of Alexander the Great 2871: 2596:from the House of Giuseppe II, 1701:, but he was soon at odds with 1587:exploits of Alexander the Great 1326:Caesar was assassinated on the 814:Relationship with Julius Caesar 739:, a contemporary Roman bust of 586:and foreign trade up to 12,000 526:offers the date 7 March 51 BC. 16:Queen of Egypt from 51 to 30 BC 11330:Hill, Marsha (October 2016). " 11317:Jarus, Owen (13 March 2014). " 10753:Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt 5131:Sabino & Gross-Diaz (2016) 4201:)," citing, for instance, the 3745:, beginning with the reign of 3493:Right: ruins of the Temple of 3476:behind a smaller depiction of 3384:due to financial troubles. No 1682:, and marry Octavian's sister 1448:Isis in the appearance of the 1249:socius et amicus populi Romani 1: 11332:Egypt in the Ptolemaic Period 10217:; Takács, Sarolta A. (2003), 10104:The Persians: An Introduction 9891:Grout, James (1 April 2017), 8393:, pp. xxii–xxiii, 30–31. 3741:, pp. 5–6 says that the 3665: 2874: 336 – 323 BC 2853:on 31 August and made into a 1467:Relationship with Mark Antony 1459:in the form of the Greek god 1455:, meeting her divine husband 617:, discovered in Rome, either 11074:, New York: Schocken Books, 10929:, Cornell University Press, 10630:The Journal of Roman Studies 9853:, Art Institute of Chicago, 9777:, pp. 113–114, 176–177. 4230: 3872:practice of sibling marriage 3761:were viewed by contemporary 3108:Cleopatra was nominally the 3061:(336–146 BC) and even later 2905:considered pharaohs of Egypt 2884:('the revered') and amassed 2771: 2585:Tomb of Antony and Cleopatra 2507:House of Marcus Fabius Rufus 2310: 2203: 2031:bust of Cleopatra, with the 1818:former Ptolemaic territories 1040:, helped to secure Caesar's 982:Ancient Roman fresco in the 843:Coin of Cleopatra struck in 345:Cleopatra visited Rome as a 316:against Caesar and Cleopatra 7: 11162:. Oxford University Press. 11035:, New York: Coward-McCann, 10399:Jones, Prudence J. (2006), 10265:Ferroukhi, Mafoud (2001b), 10238:Ferroukhi, Mafoud (2001a), 10008:Ashton, Sally-Ann (2001b), 9981:Ashton, Sally-Ann (2001a), 9859:10.13140/RG.2.2.23475.22560 3905:Siege of Alexandria (47 BC) 3643: 3567:Tomb of Alexander the Great 2369:Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus 1936:, mother of the reformists 1883:, including Ailana (modern 1403:Publius Cornelius Dolabella 1381:Octavian, Mark Antony, and 1027:Tomb of Alexander the Great 990:, Italy, mid-1st century AD 895:; it is now located in the 824:Siege of Alexandria (47 BC) 389:against Octavian's general 349:in 46 and 44 BC; following 29:of Cleopatra VII wearing a 10: 11441: 11336:Metropolitan Museum of Art 10926:Cleopatra: Beyond the Myth 10425:The Roman Army in the East 10145:Chauveau, Michel (2000) , 10035:Ashton, Sally-Ann (2008), 7370:Classical Numismatic Group 5638:, pp. xxi, 19–21, 76. 4016:, p. 301 states that 3592:to the deities Hathor and 3273:Large migrations of Greeks 2937: 2763: 2578: 2572: 2400:. Although a violation of 2340:A reconstructed statue of 2329: 2302: 2195: 2169:Augustan-period literature 2008: 1983:Antony's Parthian campaign 1749:arranged for a meeting at 1582: 1570: 1346: 1010:where Caesar attacked them 828:Battle of the Nile (47 BC) 817: 538:, to install a new sacred 453:Metropolitan Museum of Art 409: 11211:Whitehorne, John (1994), 10965:Flamarion, Edith (1997), 10923:Chauveau, Michel (2002), 10833:10.1017/S0068246200000404 10751:Tyldesley, Joyce (2008), 10732:Tyldesley, Joyce (2006), 10713:Strudwick, Helen (2013), 10488:Pfeiffer, Stefan (2015). 10061:Cambridge History of Iran 9916:, College of New Rochelle 9875:Mark Antony and Cleopatra 6885:Walker & Higgs (2017) 5566:Walker & Higgs (2001) 4246:Raia & Sebesta (2017) 3911:, p. 19 states that 3202:Left: a granite Egyptian 3130:ancient Egyptian religion 3126:chief religious authority 3033:Achaemenid Persian Empire 2604:, consuming poison in an 2289:(or Quintus Caecillius), 1914:double-dating her coinage 1373:by Octavian, Antony, and 1361:bearing the portraits of 932:Cleopatra. The resulting 727:made during the reign of 639:Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus 548:Ancient Egyptian religion 11198:, Edinburgh: Blackwood, 10992:The Search for Cleopatra 10770:Varner, Eric R. (2004), 10380:Hölbl, Günther (2001) , 9966:, Melbourne: Macmillan, 9894:Was Cleopatra Beautiful? 9741:, pp. 109, 112–113. 9681:, pp. 110, 112–113. 9645:, pp. 107, 182–186. 9633:, pp. 106, 182–186. 8929:, pp. xxiii, 31–32. 6965:, pp. xxii, 25, 73. 6177:, pp. 195–196, 201. 4616:, pp. 13–14, 16–17. 4604:, pp. 24–26, 53–54. 4130:Publius Canidius Crassus 3706:Dodson & Hilton 2004 3670: 3559:Lighthouse of Alexandria 3138:destruction of the world 3010:that had existed in the 2705:Marcus Antonius Antyllus 2643:, after the philosopher 2621:claims, such as robbing 2535:Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa 2492:Deiotaros of Paphlagonia 2378:Publius Canidius Crassus 2287:Publius Canidius Crassus 2184:Publius Canidius Crassus 2147:with her son Caesarion, 2135:In an event held at the 2023:minted in 32 BC; on the 1987:Artavasdes II of Armenia 1705:of the long-established 1500:Publius Ventidius Bassus 1436:Cleopatra sailed up the 1281:Temple of Venus Genetrix 406:Accession to the thrones 11410:1st century BC in Egypt 11311:Encyclopædia Britannica 11175:Volkmann, Hans (1958), 10876:Worth, Richard (2006), 10736:, Thames & Hudson, 10717:, London: Amber Books, 10586:, New York: Routledge, 10539:Preston, Diana (2009), 10402:Cleopatra: a sourcebook 10193:; Hilton, Dyan (2004), 10102:Brosius, Maria (2006), 8283:Eck & Takács (2003) 8060:Eck & Takács (2003) 7835:Eck & Takács (2003) 7586:Eck & Takács (2003) 7105:, pp. xxii, 25–26. 6598:, pp. xxi, 24, 76. 5830:, p. 108, 149–150. 5609:, pp. xxi, 19, 76. 5169:, pp. 54, 174–175. 3655:Early life of Cleopatra 2383:Lucius Munatius Plancus 2268:Gaius Calvisius Sabinus 2245:Lucius Munatius Plancus 2141:Donations of Alexandria 2081:Roman rites and rituals 2011:Donations of Alexandria 2005:Donations of Alexandria 1812:, Italy, 1st century AD 1783:Archelaus of Cappadocia 1703:Antigonus II Mattathias 1506:of Anatolia and Syria. 1504:drive the Parthians out 1269:Sosigenes of Alexandria 998:Mithridates of Pergamon 696:Assassination of Pompey 590:a year, surpassing the 574:Roman soldiers left by 412:Early life of Cleopatra 375:Donations of Alexandria 137:Donations of Alexandria 125:Assassination of Pompey 11132:Southern, Pat (2000), 11113:Schiff, Stacy (2011), 10990:Foss, Michael (1999), 10791:Walker, Susan (2001), 10607:Cleopatra: a biography 10316:Gómez, Carlos (2019), 10127:The Reign of Cleopatra 8417:, pp. xxii–xxiii. 6474:, pp. xxi, 22–23. 6435:, pp. xxi, 21–22. 6075:, pp. 21, 57, 72. 5674:, pp. xxi, 19–20. 5004:, pp. xxi, 17–18. 3582:Dendera Temple complex 3541:and were relocated to 3374: 2838: 2754: 2725:Ptolemais in Phoenicia 2690: 2683:Cleopatra and Octavian 2639:. He nicknamed it the 2613: 2530: 2453: 2394:declaration of divorce 2349: 2207: 2157:Macedonian-Greek ruler 2040: 1961:Seleucia at the Zeugma 1813: 1737: 1494: 1399:Gaius Cassius Longinus 1391:They were each elected 1378: 1312:Caesar's assassination 1248: 1122:Pharnaces II of Pontus 1117: 925:assembly of Alexandria 901:Antikensammlung Berlin 634: 351:Caesar's assassination 238:and the annexation of 212:reign of Cleopatra VII 54: 11215:, London: Routledge, 11009:Fraser, P.M. (1985), 10994:, Arcade Publishing, 10041:, Oxford: Blackwell, 9390:, pp. 50, 53–54. 9112:, pp. xxiii, 32. 8637:, pp. xxiii, 31. 8273:, pp. 35, 42–44. 6668:, pp. 77–79, 82. 6225:, pp. 71–72, 74. 4992:, pp. 39–43, 53. 4965:, pp. 39–41, 53. 4733:, pp. 73, 92–93. 4466:, pp. xx, 15–16. 4209:Clement of Alexandria 4195:Theodore Cressy Skeat 4028:, pp. 97–98 and 3951:and his parentage of 3870:, who introduced the 3777:, Grant argues that " 3686:Theodore Cressy Skeat 3571:Mausoleum of Augustus 3353: 3210:, mid-1st century BC 3152:honoring the various 3083:a series of conflicts 2938:Further information: 2857:, marking the end of 2821: 2745: 2681: 2661:relinquish her throne 2592: 2579:Further information: 2500: 2444: 2339: 2177: 2125:silver dish from the 2018: 1791: 1727: 1625:Archaeological Museum 1474: 1356: 1349:Liberators' civil war 1347:Further information: 1339:among the Ptolemies. 1283:, established in the 1265:Library of Alexandria 1259:included the senator 1107: 938:Library of Alexandria 818:Further information: 651:against the Parthians 612: 381:of Octavian's sister 359:Liberators' civil war 338:, before he departed 132:Liberators' civil war 24: 11420:Ptolemaic Alexandria 11158:The Roman Revolution 11011:Ptolemaic Alexandria 10541:Cleopatra and Antony 10443:Kleiner, Diana E. E. 10301:, New York: Harper, 10122:Burstein, Stanley M. 9160:, pp. xxiii, 1. 8186:, pp. 137, 139. 8104:, pp. xxii, 30. 7641:, pp. xxii, 29. 7477:, pp. xxii, 28. 7345:, pp. xxii, 27. 6848:, pp. xxii, 25. 6625:, pp. xxii, 24. 5973:, pp. 164, 216. 3808:, pp. 177–181). 3789:Greek age, now that 3718:, pp. 147–148, 3526:. She established a 3208:Royal Ontario Museum 3150:religious ceremonies 2529:, mid-1st century BC 2285:in Egypt granted to 1973:Ptolemy Philadelphus 1959:, perhaps as far as 1735:Lawrence Alma-Tadema 1543:Lucius Decidius Saxa 1215:Hellenistic-Egyptian 1113:(1866). Painting by 1110:Cleopatra and Caesar 1042:election as dictator 1015:Marcus Junius Brutus 984:Pompeian Third Style 770:crossing the Rubicon 735:, Italy (left); The 623:Hellenistic Egyptian 560:flooding of the Nile 494:, designated in his 51:Museo Pio-Clementino 11235:Montserrat, Dominic 11048:Nardo, Don (1994), 10880:, Enslow Pub Inc., 10220:The Age of Augustus 10038:Cleopatra and Egypt 9963:Tiepolo's Cleopatra 9801:, pp. 218–219. 9765:, pp. 217–218. 9753:, pp. 111–112. 9729:, pp. 108–109. 9705:, pp. 110–111. 9693:, pp. 216–217. 9606:, pp. 106–107. 9579:, pp. 103–104. 9567:, pp. 190–191. 9516:, pp. 104–105. 9366:, pp. 107–108. 9184:, pp. 304–307. 9148:, pp. 197–198. 9136:, pp. 150–151. 9100:, pp. 149–150. 9007:, pp. 148–149. 8980:, pp. 194–195. 8917:, pp. 147–148. 8893:, pp. 117–118. 8826:, pp. 187–188. 8814:, pp. 185–186. 8785:, pp. 184–185. 8773:, pp. 154–155. 8749:, pp. 270–271. 8713:, pp. 153–154. 8649:, pp. 144–145. 8625:, pp. 183–184. 8598:, pp. 143–144. 8574:, pp. 142–143. 8524:, pp. 141–142. 8444:, pp. 140–141. 8405:, pp. 178–179. 8312:, pp. 139–140. 8215:, pp. 137–138. 8203:, pp. 303–304. 8143:, pp. 136–137. 8131:, pp. 241–242. 7951:, pp. 302–303. 7849:, pp. 131–132. 7798:, pp. 130–131. 7767:, pp. 133–134. 7725:, pp. 129–130. 7710:, pp. 100–101. 7624:, pp. 301–302. 7564:, pp. 312–313. 7552:, pp. 141–142. 7489:, pp. 223–224. 7216:, pp. 94, 142. 6902:, pp. 155–156. 6533:, pp. xxi, 23. 6376:, pp. 214–215. 6364:, pp. xxi, 22. 6325:, pp. 213–214. 6301:, pp. 207–212. 6289:, pp. xxi, 21. 6259:, pp. 205–206. 6165:, pp. 72, 175. 6153:, pp. 201–202. 6126:, pp. 72, 126. 6114:, pp. 194–195. 6087:, pp. 181–182. 6063:, pp. 179–182. 6051:, pp. xxi, 20. 5961:, pp. 162–163. 5922:, pp. 161–162. 5806:, pp. 126–127. 5701:, pp. 120–121. 5568:, pp. 314–315. 5502:, pp. 118–119. 5449:, pp. 235–236. 5345:, pp. 112–113. 5251:, pp. 234–235. 5157:, pp. 184–186. 5046:, pp. xxi, 18. 5031:, pp. 259–260. 4936:, pp. xxi, 17. 4640:, pp. 199–200. 4260:, pp. 169–171. 4122:Stanley M. Burstein 4050:Cleopatra Selene II 3829:Ptolemy XII Auletes 3747:Alexander the Great 3539:Cleopatra's Needles 3162:scribal bureaucracy 3103:Mediterranean Basin 2986:High Priest of Ptah 2915:. He was, however, 2895:, inaugurating the 2867:Alexander the Great 2830:while sitting on a 2781:Cleopatra's suicide 2513:, Italy, depicting 2470:along the southern 2445:A hemiobol coin of 2352:In a speech to the 2318:documents to avoid 2291:former Roman consul 2264:Library of Pergamon 2127:Boscoreale Treasure 2111:Cleopatra Selene II 1779:Polemon I of Pontus 1684:Octavia the Younger 1559:Cleopatra Selene II 1511:queens of antiquity 934:siege of the palace 799:Battle of Pharsalus 480:Ptolemy XII Auletes 457:Right: A limestone 228:Ptolemy XII Auletes 224:death of her father 172:Cultural depictions 108:Siege of Alexandria 60:Part of a series on 27:Roman marble statue 11117:, Back Bay Books, 11090:Rowland, Ingrid D. 10973:Abrams Discoveries 10826:: 35–46, 345–348, 10690:Southern, Patricia 10666:Southern, Patricia 10448:Cleopatra and Rome 9913:The World of State 7612:, pp. 99–100. 5794:, pp. 66, 77. 5662:, pp. 64, 69. 5396:, pp. 18, 76. 5357:, pp. 62, 26. 4792:, pp. xx, 17. 4407:, pp. 53, 56. 4380:, pp. xx, 14. 4356:, pp. 80, 85. 4177:, p. 149 and 3759:Hellenistic Greeks 3757:stresses that the 3751:death of Cleopatra 3743:Hellenistic period 3694:death of Cleopatra 3650:Death of Cleopatra 3573:and that of later 3444:Latin inscriptions 3375: 3304:foreign currencies 3284:tightly controlled 3263:. By the reign of 3101:, and the eastern 3059:Hellenistic Greece 3012:Kingdom of Macedon 2928:governors of Egypt 2911:or worshiping the 2839: 2828:Egyptian crocodile 2755: 2691: 2614: 2575:Death of Cleopatra 2569:Downfall and death 2531: 2488:Amyntas of Galatia 2454: 2350: 2208: 2041: 1814: 1775:Amyntas of Galatia 1738: 1495: 1411:Battle of Philippi 1387:Second Triumvirate 1379: 1371:Second Triumvirate 1231:Capitoline Museums 1201:, Saint Petersburg 1118: 682:Theodotus of Chios 663:Caesar's Civil War 635: 631:Capitoline Museums 629:, 1st century BC, 498:that his daughter 363:Second Triumvirate 320:Battle of the Nile 292:pursued his rival 236:Hellenistic period 113:Battle of the Nile 55: 11290:Project Gutenberg 11250:978-0-520-24367-5 11143:978-0-7524-1494-2 11115:Cleopatra: A Life 11105:978-0-520-24367-5 11068:Pomeroy, Sarah B. 11059:978-1-56006-023-9 11001:978-1-55970-503-5 10982:978-0-8109-2805-3 10957:978-0-520-24367-5 10915:978-0-14-139014-7 10908:, Penguin Group, 10776:, Leiden: Brill, 10724:978-1-4351-4654-9 10617:978-0-19-536553-5 10571:978-0-520-24367-5 10531:978-1-44119-065-9 10421:Kennedy, David L. 10391:978-0-415-20145-2 10372:978-0-520-24367-5 10327:978-1-78274-761-1 10308:978-0-06-058558-7 10230:978-0-631-22957-5 10048:978-1-4051-1390-8 9669:, pp. 69–71. 9555:, pp. 88–89. 9543:, pp. 40–41. 9528:, pp. 39–41. 9504:, pp. 43–45. 9480:, pp. 14–15. 9468:, pp. 78–80. 9453:, pp. 37–38. 9402:, pp. 51–52. 9342:, pp. 43–62. 9315:, pp. 33–34. 9049:, pp. 31–32. 8350:, pp. 30–31. 7990:, pp. 29–30. 7752:, pp. 65–66. 7576:, pp. 28–29. 7538:Ferroukhi (2001a) 7501:, pp. 28–29. 7414:, pp. 27–28. 7399:, pp. 97–98. 7284:, pp. 95–96. 7272:, pp. 94–95. 7257:, pp. 26–27. 7204:, pp. 93–94. 7192:, pp. 92–93. 7153:, pp. 91–92. 7129:, pp. 90–91. 7067:, pp. 89–90. 7009:, pp. 86–87. 6953:, pp. 85–86. 6926:, pp. 84–85. 6836:, pp. 83–84. 6748:, pp. 82–83. 6733:, pp. 81–82. 6721:, pp. 80–81. 6704:, pp. 80–81. 6637:, pp. 79–80. 6557:, pp. 77–79. 6518:, pp. 76–77. 6462:, pp. 22–23. 6352:, pp. 74–75. 6242:, pp. 72–74. 5985:, pp. 83–85. 5910:, pp. 69–70. 5755:, pp. 19–20. 5740:, pp. 65–66. 5713:, pp. 64–65. 5597:, pp. 63–64. 5541:, pp. 67–68. 5437:, pp. 62–63. 5408:, pp. 18–19. 5314:, pp. 61–62. 5275:, pp. 57–58. 5263:, pp. 56–57. 5058:, pp. 98–99. 5019:, pp. 60–61. 4906:, pp. 59–60. 4867:, pp. 95–96. 4843:, pp. 58–59. 4819:, pp. 94–95. 4745:, pp. 92–93. 4721:, pp. 16–17. 4709:, pp. 56–57. 4667:, pp. 54–56. 4580:, pp. 91–92. 4422:, pp. 85–86. 4392:, pp. 84–85. 4332:, pp. 26–27. 4296:, pp. 96–97. 3876:Ptolemaic dynasty 3775:Hellenistic Egypt 3722:, p. 3, and 3700:, p. 31 and 3638:Ptolemais Hermiou 3606:dual inscriptions 3382:Ptolemaic coinage 3240:Ptolemais Hermiou 3214:Vatican Cleopatra 3204:bust of Cleopatra 3008:absolute monarchy 2981:Temple of Dendera 2971:Left: reliefs of 2859:Hellenistic Egypt 2772:ou thriambéusomai 2769: 2751:Benedetto Gennari 2421:his own mausoleum 2348:, dated ca. 30 BC 2308: 2201: 2164:war of propaganda 2060:marriage alliance 1930:Cornelia Africana 1873:Nabataean Kingdom 1742:Antonia the Elder 1707:Hasmonean dynasty 1691:Herod I the Great 1646:Antony's brother 1557:and a girl named 1440:to Tarsos in her 1203:Right image: the 1002:Roman citizenship 774:a Roman civil war 737:Tusculum portrait 615:vulture headdress 488:Ptolemaic Kingdom 395:Octavian's forces 272:building projects 216:Ptolemaic Kingdom 208: 207: 45:, Rome along the 41:, found near the 39:coinage portraits 35:'melon' hairstyle 11432: 11392: 11391: 11390: 11380: 11379: 11378: 11368: 11367: 11366: 11356: 11355: 11354: 11347: 11308:from the online 11254: 11226: 11207: 11188: 11171: 11161: 11147: 11128: 11109: 11085: 11063: 11052:, Lucent Books, 11044: 11024: 11005: 10986: 10961: 10940: 10919: 10891: 10872: 10845: 10835: 10814: 10787: 10766: 10747: 10728: 10709: 10685: 10661: 10621: 10602:Roller, Duane W. 10597: 10580:Roller, Duane W. 10575: 10554: 10535: 10514: 10493: 10484: 10462: 10438: 10416: 10395: 10376: 10355: 10331: 10312: 10288: 10261: 10234: 10210: 10186: 10162: 10141: 10117: 10098: 10094:978-07456-3371-8 10079:Bringmann, Klaus 10074: 10052: 10031: 10004: 9977: 9958:Anderson, Jaynie 9944: 9942: 9940: 9935:, British Museum 9925: 9923: 9921: 9906: 9904: 9902: 9887: 9885: 9883: 9869: 9867: 9865: 9829: 9823: 9817: 9811: 9802: 9796: 9790: 9784: 9778: 9772: 9766: 9760: 9754: 9748: 9742: 9736: 9730: 9724: 9718: 9712: 9706: 9700: 9694: 9688: 9682: 9676: 9670: 9664: 9658: 9652: 9646: 9640: 9634: 9628: 9619: 9616:Tyldesley (2008) 9613: 9607: 9601: 9592: 9586: 9580: 9574: 9568: 9562: 9556: 9550: 9544: 9538: 9529: 9523: 9517: 9511: 9505: 9499: 9493: 9490:Strudwick (2013) 9487: 9481: 9478:Tyldesley (2008) 9475: 9469: 9463: 9454: 9448: 9439: 9433: 9427: 9421: 9415: 9409: 9403: 9397: 9391: 9385: 9379: 9373: 9367: 9361: 9355: 9349: 9343: 9337: 9331: 9325: 9316: 9310: 9304: 9298: 9292: 9286: 9280: 9274: 9265: 9259: 9248: 9242: 9236: 9230: 9224: 9218: 9212: 9206: 9200: 9197:Tyldesley (2008) 9194: 9185: 9182:Bringmann (2007) 9179: 9173: 9167: 9161: 9155: 9149: 9143: 9137: 9131: 9125: 9119: 9113: 9107: 9101: 9095: 9089: 9086:Tyldesley (2008) 9083: 9074: 9068: 9062: 9056: 9050: 9044: 9035: 9029: 9023: 9017: 9008: 9002: 8993: 8987: 8981: 8975: 8966: 8960: 8954: 8951:Tyldesley (2008) 8948: 8942: 8936: 8930: 8924: 8918: 8912: 8906: 8900: 8894: 8888: 8882: 8876: 8863: 8857: 8851: 8845: 8839: 8833: 8827: 8824:Tyldesley (2008) 8821: 8815: 8809: 8803: 8797: 8786: 8780: 8774: 8768: 8762: 8756: 8750: 8744: 8738: 8732: 8726: 8720: 8714: 8708: 8702: 8696: 8685: 8679: 8662: 8656: 8650: 8644: 8638: 8632: 8626: 8623:Tyldesley (2008) 8620: 8614: 8608: 8599: 8593: 8587: 8581: 8575: 8569: 8563: 8557: 8546: 8540: 8525: 8519: 8510: 8507:Tyldesley (2008) 8504: 8493: 8487: 8466: 8460: 8445: 8439: 8433: 8430:Tyldesley (2008) 8427: 8418: 8412: 8406: 8400: 8394: 8388: 8382: 8376: 8363: 8357: 8351: 8345: 8336: 8333:Bringmann (2007) 8330: 8313: 8307: 8298: 8292: 8286: 8280: 8274: 8268: 8262: 8256: 8250: 8244: 8233: 8227: 8216: 8210: 8204: 8201:Bringmann (2007) 8198: 8187: 8181: 8175: 8169: 8156: 8150: 8144: 8138: 8132: 8126: 8120: 8114: 8105: 8099: 8090: 8084: 8075: 8069: 8063: 8057: 8051: 8045: 8039: 8033: 8018: 8012: 7991: 7985: 7979: 7976:Bringmann (2007) 7973: 7952: 7949:Bringmann (2007) 7946: 7940: 7937:Bringmann (2007) 7934: 7925: 7919: 7913: 7907: 7886: 7880: 7874: 7868: 7862: 7856: 7850: 7844: 7838: 7832: 7826: 7820: 7811: 7805: 7799: 7793: 7787: 7781: 7768: 7762: 7753: 7747: 7738: 7732: 7726: 7720: 7711: 7705: 7699: 7693: 7684: 7678: 7659: 7653: 7642: 7636: 7625: 7622:Bringmann (2007) 7619: 7613: 7607: 7601: 7595: 7589: 7583: 7577: 7571: 7565: 7559: 7553: 7547: 7541: 7535: 7529: 7523: 7517: 7514:Tyldesley (2008) 7511: 7502: 7496: 7490: 7484: 7478: 7472: 7466: 7460: 7451: 7445: 7430: 7424: 7415: 7409: 7400: 7394: 7385: 7379: 7373: 7367: 7361: 7355: 7346: 7340: 7334: 7328: 7317: 7314:Tyldesley (2008) 7311: 7302: 7296: 7285: 7279: 7273: 7267: 7258: 7252: 7246: 7240: 7229: 7223: 7217: 7211: 7205: 7199: 7193: 7187: 7181: 7175: 7166: 7160: 7154: 7148: 7142: 7136: 7130: 7124: 7118: 7112: 7106: 7100: 7083: 7077: 7068: 7062: 7056: 7050: 7041: 7035: 7029: 7023: 7010: 7004: 6995: 6992:Tyldesley (2008) 6989: 6983: 6977: 6966: 6960: 6954: 6948: 6942: 6936: 6927: 6921: 6915: 6909: 6903: 6897: 6888: 6882: 6876: 6870: 6864: 6858: 6849: 6843: 6837: 6831: 6825: 6822:Tyldesley (2006) 6819: 6813: 6807: 6796: 6790: 6784: 6778: 6772: 6769:Bringmann (2007) 6766: 6749: 6743: 6734: 6728: 6722: 6716: 6705: 6699: 6693: 6687: 6681: 6675: 6669: 6663: 6657: 6651: 6638: 6632: 6626: 6620: 6614: 6608: 6599: 6593: 6587: 6581: 6570: 6564: 6558: 6552: 6546: 6540: 6534: 6528: 6519: 6513: 6507: 6501: 6490: 6484: 6475: 6469: 6463: 6457: 6451: 6445: 6436: 6430: 6424: 6418: 6401: 6395: 6389: 6383: 6377: 6371: 6365: 6359: 6353: 6347: 6341: 6338:Strudwick (2013) 6335: 6326: 6320: 6314: 6308: 6302: 6296: 6290: 6284: 6275: 6269: 6260: 6254: 6243: 6237: 6226: 6220: 6214: 6211:Tyldesley (2008) 6208: 6202: 6196: 6190: 6184: 6178: 6172: 6166: 6160: 6154: 6148: 6142: 6136: 6127: 6121: 6115: 6109: 6103: 6097: 6088: 6082: 6076: 6070: 6064: 6058: 6052: 6046: 6037: 6031: 6025: 6022:Tyldesley (2008) 6019: 6013: 6010:Pina Polo (2013) 6007: 6001: 5998:Tyldesley (2008) 5995: 5986: 5980: 5974: 5968: 5962: 5956: 5950: 5944: 5935: 5929: 5923: 5917: 5911: 5905: 5899: 5893: 5887: 5881: 5875: 5869: 5863: 5857: 5848: 5842: 5831: 5825: 5819: 5813: 5807: 5801: 5795: 5789: 5783: 5777: 5771: 5768:Tyldesley (2008) 5765: 5756: 5750: 5741: 5735: 5726: 5720: 5714: 5708: 5702: 5696: 5690: 5684: 5675: 5669: 5663: 5657: 5651: 5645: 5639: 5633: 5627: 5621: 5610: 5604: 5598: 5592: 5586: 5580: 5569: 5563: 5554: 5548: 5542: 5536: 5530: 5524: 5515: 5509: 5503: 5497: 5491: 5485: 5479: 5473: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5444: 5438: 5432: 5426: 5423:Tyldesley (2006) 5420: 5409: 5403: 5397: 5391: 5385: 5379: 5370: 5367:Tyldesley (2008) 5364: 5358: 5352: 5346: 5340: 5334: 5328: 5315: 5309: 5303: 5297: 5291: 5285: 5276: 5270: 5264: 5258: 5252: 5246: 5240: 5234: 5223: 5217: 5206: 5200: 5185: 5179: 5170: 5164: 5158: 5155:Pina Polo (2013) 5152: 5146: 5140: 5134: 5128: 5122: 5119:Bringmann (2007) 5116: 5095: 5092:Tyldesley (2008) 5089: 5083: 5077: 5071: 5065: 5059: 5053: 5047: 5041: 5032: 5029:Bringmann (2007) 5026: 5020: 5014: 5005: 4999: 4993: 4987: 4981: 4975: 4966: 4960: 4954: 4948: 4937: 4931: 4922: 4919:Bringmann (2007) 4916: 4907: 4901: 4892: 4886: 4880: 4874: 4868: 4862: 4856: 4850: 4844: 4838: 4832: 4826: 4820: 4814: 4808: 4802: 4793: 4787: 4776: 4770: 4761: 4758:Tyldesley (2008) 4755: 4746: 4740: 4734: 4728: 4722: 4716: 4710: 4704: 4695: 4689: 4680: 4674: 4668: 4662: 4653: 4647: 4641: 4635: 4629: 4623: 4617: 4611: 4605: 4599: 4593: 4590:Tyldesley (2008) 4587: 4581: 4575: 4569: 4563: 4554: 4548: 4539: 4533: 4527: 4521: 4515: 4512:Tyldesley (2008) 4509: 4503: 4497: 4491: 4488:Tyldesley (2008) 4485: 4479: 4473: 4467: 4461: 4455: 4449: 4438: 4432: 4423: 4417: 4408: 4402: 4393: 4387: 4381: 4375: 4369: 4363: 4357: 4351: 4345: 4339: 4333: 4327: 4321: 4315: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4294:Strudwick (2013) 4291: 4285: 4282:Tyldesley (2008) 4279: 4273: 4267: 4261: 4255: 4249: 4243: 4225: 4220:, translated by 4172: 4166: 4147: 4141: 4119: 4113: 4103: 4097: 4091: 4085: 4070:Ferroukhi (2001b 4042:Ferroukhi (2001a 4039: 4033: 4032:, pp. 27–28 4011: 4005: 3962: 3956: 3942: 3936: 3926: 3920: 3901: 3895: 3880:Ptolemy Keraunos 3853: 3847: 3818: 3809: 3801: 3795: 3773:. In regards to 3767:Classical Greece 3736: 3727: 3683: 3614:Demotic Egyptian 3528:Caesareum temple 3466: 3457: 3406:Chalcis ad Belum 3398:island of Cyprus 3308:state monopolies 3255:by the reign of 3196: 3187: 3089:over control of 3037:Classical Greece 2965: 2956: 2875: 2873: 2775:), according to 2774: 2768:romanized: 2767: 2765: 2764:οὑ θριαμβεύσομαι 2729:Cornelius Gallus 2685:, a painting by 2669:perhaps in India 2608:, while her son 2539:Battle of Actium 2505:painting in the 2346:younger Octavian 2332:Battle of Actium 2326:Battle of Actium 2313: 2307:romanized: 2306: 2304: 2237:Sibylline Oracle 2206: 2200:romanized: 2199: 2197: 2103: 2094: 2067:. He dressed as 1934:Scipio Africanus 1856:along the upper 1771:Herod I of Judea 1719:Herodian kingdom 1613: 1604: 1584: 1573:), the sun, and 1572: 1555:Alexander Helios 1547:Quintus Labienus 1536:hunted wild game 1446:Egyptian goddess 1273:the calculations 1199:Hermitage Museum 1191:Egyptian goddess 1175: 1166: 1115:Jean-Léon Gérôme 1046:sibling marriage 976: 967: 887:wearing a royal 877:Berlin Cleopatra 864: 840: 725:Pompey the Great 723:A Roman bust of 717: 708: 659:Pompey the Great 433: 424: 252:absolute monarch 200: 193: 186: 156:Death and legacy 144:Battle of Actium 76: 57: 56: 11440: 11439: 11435: 11434: 11433: 11431: 11430: 11429: 11400: 11399: 11398: 11388: 11386: 11376: 11374: 11364: 11362: 11352: 11350: 11342: 11262: 11257: 11251: 11223: 11144: 11125: 11106: 11082: 11060: 11021: 11002: 10983: 10958: 10937: 10916: 10899: 10897:Further reading 10894: 10888: 10869: 10811: 10784: 10763: 10755:, Basic Books, 10744: 10725: 10706: 10682: 10636:(1–2): 98–100, 10618: 10594: 10572: 10551: 10532: 10511: 10459: 10435: 10413: 10392: 10373: 10352: 10328: 10320:, Amber Books, 10309: 10293:Fletcher, Joann 10285: 10258: 10231: 10207: 10167:Curtius, Ludwig 10159: 10138: 10114: 10095: 10071: 10049: 10028: 10001: 9974: 9950:Printed sources 9947: 9938: 9936: 9919: 9917: 9900: 9898: 9881: 9879: 9863: 9861: 9837: 9832: 9826:Fletcher (2008) 9824: 9820: 9812: 9805: 9799:Fletcher (2008) 9797: 9793: 9787:Fletcher (2008) 9785: 9781: 9773: 9769: 9763:Fletcher (2008) 9761: 9757: 9749: 9745: 9737: 9733: 9725: 9721: 9715:Fletcher (2008) 9713: 9709: 9701: 9697: 9691:Fletcher (2008) 9689: 9685: 9677: 9673: 9667:Chauveau (2000) 9665: 9661: 9655:Fletcher (2008) 9653: 9649: 9641: 9637: 9629: 9622: 9614: 9610: 9602: 9595: 9587: 9583: 9575: 9571: 9563: 9559: 9553:Chauveau (2000) 9551: 9547: 9541:Burstein (2004) 9539: 9532: 9526:Burstein (2004) 9524: 9520: 9512: 9508: 9500: 9496: 9488: 9484: 9476: 9472: 9466:Chauveau (2000) 9464: 9457: 9451:Burstein (2004) 9449: 9442: 9436:Burstein (2004) 9434: 9430: 9424:Burstein (2004) 9422: 9418: 9412:Burstein (2004) 9410: 9406: 9400:Burstein (2004) 9398: 9394: 9388:Burstein (2004) 9386: 9382: 9374: 9370: 9362: 9358: 9352:Chauveau (2000) 9350: 9346: 9340:Burstein (2004) 9338: 9334: 9328:Burstein (2004) 9326: 9319: 9313:Burstein (2004) 9311: 9307: 9299: 9295: 9291:, pp. 7–8. 9287: 9283: 9275: 9268: 9264:, pp. 6–7. 9260: 9251: 9243: 9239: 9231: 9227: 9221:Southern (2014) 9219: 9215: 9209:Burstein (2004) 9207: 9203: 9195: 9188: 9180: 9176: 9172:, pp. 5–6. 9168: 9164: 9158:Burstein (2004) 9156: 9152: 9144: 9140: 9132: 9128: 9120: 9116: 9110:Burstein (2004) 9108: 9104: 9096: 9092: 9084: 9077: 9071:Burstein (2004) 9069: 9065: 9057: 9053: 9047:Burstein (2004) 9045: 9038: 9030: 9026: 9020:Anderson (2003) 9018: 9011: 9003: 8996: 8988: 8984: 8976: 8969: 8963:Burstein (2004) 8961: 8957: 8949: 8945: 8937: 8933: 8927:Burstein (2004) 8925: 8921: 8913: 8909: 8901: 8897: 8889: 8885: 8877: 8866: 8858: 8854: 8846: 8842: 8834: 8830: 8822: 8818: 8810: 8806: 8798: 8789: 8781: 8777: 8771:Southern (2009) 8769: 8765: 8757: 8753: 8745: 8741: 8733: 8729: 8723:Southern (2009) 8721: 8717: 8711:Southern (2009) 8709: 8705: 8699:Southern (2009) 8697: 8688: 8680: 8665: 8657: 8653: 8645: 8641: 8635:Burstein (2004) 8633: 8629: 8621: 8617: 8609: 8602: 8594: 8590: 8582: 8578: 8570: 8566: 8558: 8549: 8541: 8528: 8520: 8513: 8505: 8496: 8490:Burstein (2004) 8488: 8469: 8461: 8448: 8440: 8436: 8428: 8421: 8415:Burstein (2004) 8413: 8409: 8401: 8397: 8391:Burstein (2004) 8389: 8385: 8377: 8366: 8358: 8354: 8348:Burstein (2004) 8346: 8339: 8331: 8316: 8308: 8301: 8293: 8289: 8281: 8277: 8269: 8265: 8257: 8253: 8245: 8236: 8228: 8219: 8211: 8207: 8199: 8190: 8182: 8178: 8170: 8159: 8151: 8147: 8139: 8135: 8127: 8123: 8115: 8108: 8102:Burstein (2004) 8100: 8093: 8085: 8078: 8070: 8066: 8058: 8054: 8046: 8042: 8036:Burstein (2004) 8034: 8021: 8013: 7994: 7988:Burstein (2004) 7986: 7982: 7974: 7955: 7947: 7943: 7935: 7928: 7920: 7916: 7908: 7889: 7881: 7877: 7869: 7865: 7857: 7853: 7845: 7841: 7833: 7829: 7821: 7814: 7806: 7802: 7794: 7790: 7784:Burstein (2004) 7782: 7771: 7763: 7756: 7750:Burstein (2004) 7748: 7741: 7733: 7729: 7721: 7714: 7706: 7702: 7694: 7687: 7681:Burstein (2004) 7679: 7662: 7654: 7645: 7639:Burstein (2004) 7637: 7628: 7620: 7616: 7608: 7604: 7596: 7592: 7584: 7580: 7572: 7568: 7560: 7556: 7548: 7544: 7536: 7532: 7524: 7520: 7512: 7505: 7499:Burstein (2004) 7497: 7493: 7485: 7481: 7475:Burstein (2004) 7473: 7469: 7463:Burstein (2004) 7461: 7454: 7446: 7433: 7425: 7418: 7412:Burstein (2004) 7410: 7403: 7395: 7388: 7380: 7376: 7368: 7364: 7358:Burstein (2004) 7356: 7349: 7343:Burstein (2004) 7341: 7337: 7329: 7320: 7312: 7305: 7297: 7288: 7280: 7276: 7268: 7261: 7255:Burstein (2004) 7253: 7249: 7241: 7232: 7224: 7220: 7212: 7208: 7200: 7196: 7188: 7184: 7176: 7169: 7163:Fletcher (2008) 7161: 7157: 7149: 7145: 7139:Burstein (2004) 7137: 7133: 7125: 7121: 7113: 7109: 7103:Burstein (2004) 7101: 7086: 7078: 7071: 7063: 7059: 7051: 7044: 7036: 7032: 7026:Burstein (2004) 7024: 7013: 7005: 6998: 6990: 6986: 6978: 6969: 6963:Burstein (2004) 6961: 6957: 6949: 6945: 6937: 6930: 6922: 6918: 6912:Burstein (2004) 6910: 6906: 6898: 6891: 6883: 6879: 6871: 6867: 6859: 6852: 6846:Burstein (2004) 6844: 6840: 6832: 6828: 6820: 6816: 6808: 6799: 6791: 6787: 6779: 6775: 6767: 6752: 6744: 6737: 6729: 6725: 6717: 6708: 6700: 6696: 6688: 6684: 6676: 6672: 6664: 6660: 6654:Burstein (2004) 6652: 6641: 6633: 6629: 6623:Burstein (2004) 6621: 6617: 6611:Burstein (2004) 6609: 6602: 6596:Burstein (2004) 6594: 6590: 6582: 6573: 6567:Fletcher (2008) 6565: 6561: 6553: 6549: 6541: 6537: 6531:Burstein (2004) 6529: 6522: 6514: 6510: 6504:Burstein (2004) 6502: 6493: 6485: 6478: 6472:Burstein (2004) 6470: 6466: 6460:Burstein (2004) 6458: 6454: 6448:Burstein (2004) 6446: 6439: 6433:Burstein (2004) 6431: 6427: 6419: 6404: 6396: 6392: 6384: 6380: 6374:Fletcher (2008) 6372: 6368: 6362:Burstein (2004) 6360: 6356: 6348: 6344: 6336: 6329: 6323:Fletcher (2008) 6321: 6317: 6309: 6305: 6299:Fletcher (2008) 6297: 6293: 6287:Burstein (2004) 6285: 6278: 6270: 6263: 6257:Fletcher (2008) 6255: 6246: 6238: 6229: 6221: 6217: 6209: 6205: 6197: 6193: 6187:Fletcher (2008) 6185: 6181: 6175:Fletcher (2008) 6173: 6169: 6161: 6157: 6151:Fletcher (2008) 6149: 6145: 6139:Burstein (2004) 6137: 6130: 6122: 6118: 6112:Fletcher (2008) 6110: 6106: 6098: 6091: 6085:Fletcher (2008) 6083: 6079: 6071: 6067: 6061:Fletcher (2008) 6059: 6055: 6049:Burstein (2004) 6047: 6040: 6032: 6028: 6020: 6016: 6008: 6004: 5996: 5989: 5981: 5977: 5971:Fletcher (2008) 5969: 5965: 5959:Fletcher (2008) 5957: 5953: 5945: 5938: 5930: 5926: 5920:Fletcher (2008) 5918: 5914: 5906: 5902: 5896:Anderson (2003) 5894: 5890: 5882: 5878: 5872:Fletcher (2008) 5870: 5866: 5860:Burstein (2004) 5858: 5851: 5843: 5834: 5828:Fletcher (2008) 5826: 5822: 5814: 5810: 5804:Fletcher (2008) 5802: 5798: 5790: 5786: 5780:Fletcher (2008) 5778: 5774: 5766: 5759: 5753:Burstein (2004) 5751: 5744: 5736: 5729: 5721: 5717: 5709: 5705: 5699:Fletcher (2008) 5697: 5693: 5687:Fletcher (2008) 5685: 5678: 5672:Burstein (2004) 5670: 5666: 5658: 5654: 5648:Fletcher (2008) 5646: 5642: 5636:Burstein (2004) 5634: 5630: 5622: 5613: 5607:Burstein (2004) 5605: 5601: 5593: 5589: 5583:Burstein (2004) 5581: 5572: 5564: 5557: 5551:Burstein (2004) 5549: 5545: 5537: 5533: 5527:Fletcher (2008) 5525: 5518: 5512:Burstein (2004) 5510: 5506: 5500:Fletcher (2008) 5498: 5494: 5486: 5482: 5474: 5465: 5459:Fletcher (2008) 5457: 5453: 5445: 5441: 5433: 5429: 5421: 5412: 5406:Burstein (2004) 5404: 5400: 5394:Burstein (2004) 5392: 5388: 5380: 5373: 5365: 5361: 5353: 5349: 5343:Fletcher (2008) 5341: 5337: 5329: 5318: 5310: 5306: 5298: 5294: 5286: 5279: 5271: 5267: 5259: 5255: 5247: 5243: 5237:Fletcher (2008) 5235: 5226: 5220:Burstein (2004) 5218: 5209: 5201: 5188: 5180: 5173: 5165: 5161: 5153: 5149: 5141: 5137: 5129: 5125: 5117: 5098: 5090: 5086: 5078: 5074: 5066: 5062: 5056:Fletcher (2008) 5054: 5050: 5044:Burstein (2004) 5042: 5035: 5027: 5023: 5015: 5008: 5002:Burstein (2004) 5000: 4996: 4988: 4984: 4978:Fletcher (2008) 4976: 4969: 4961: 4957: 4949: 4940: 4934:Burstein (2004) 4932: 4925: 4917: 4910: 4902: 4895: 4889:Fletcher (2008) 4887: 4883: 4875: 4871: 4865:Fletcher (2008) 4863: 4859: 4853:Burstein (2004) 4851: 4847: 4839: 4835: 4829:Fletcher (2008) 4827: 4823: 4817:Fletcher (2008) 4815: 4811: 4803: 4796: 4790:Burstein (2004) 4788: 4779: 4771: 4764: 4756: 4749: 4743:Fletcher (2008) 4741: 4737: 4731:Fletcher (2008) 4729: 4725: 4719:Burstein (2004) 4717: 4713: 4705: 4698: 4690: 4683: 4675: 4671: 4663: 4656: 4648: 4644: 4638:Fletcher (2008) 4636: 4632: 4626:Fletcher (2008) 4624: 4620: 4614:Burstein (2004) 4612: 4608: 4600: 4596: 4588: 4584: 4578:Fletcher (2008) 4576: 4572: 4566:Burstein (2004) 4564: 4557: 4549: 4542: 4534: 4530: 4524:Fletcher (2008) 4522: 4518: 4510: 4506: 4500:Burstein (2004) 4498: 4494: 4486: 4482: 4474: 4470: 4464:Burstein (2004) 4462: 4458: 4450: 4441: 4433: 4426: 4420:Fletcher (2008) 4418: 4411: 4403: 4396: 4390:Fletcher (2008) 4388: 4384: 4378:Burstein (2004) 4376: 4372: 4364: 4360: 4354:Fletcher (2008) 4352: 4348: 4342:Burstein (2004) 4340: 4336: 4328: 4324: 4316: 4312: 4304: 4300: 4292: 4288: 4280: 4276: 4268: 4264: 4256: 4252: 4244: 4237: 4233: 4228: 4216: 4191:Duane W. Roller 4173: 4169: 4148: 4144: 4134:Duane W. Roller 4120: 4116: 4104: 4100: 4092: 4088: 4040: 4036: 4012: 4008: 4002:Egyptian motifs 3963: 3959: 3943: 3939: 3927: 3923: 3902: 3898: 3854: 3850: 3836: 3819: 3812: 3802: 3798: 3783:Hellenistic Age 3737: 3730: 3684: 3677: 3673: 3668: 3646: 3520:Egyptian styles 3504: 3503: 3502: 3501: 3492: 3469: 3468: 3467: 3459: 3458: 3394:silver currency 3357:. 51–30 BC, 40 3343:from the royal 3341:releasing grain 3332:general strikes 3328:local officials 3228: 3227: 3226: 3225: 3211: 3199: 3198: 3197: 3189: 3188: 3134:native Egyptian 3087:Seleucid Empire 3079:Ptolemy I Soter 3016:northern Greece 3000: 2999: 2998: 2997: 2983: 2968: 2967: 2966: 2958: 2957: 2946: 2936: 2870: 2863:Hellenistic age 2861:and the entire 2851:annexed by Rome 2758:in a triumph" ( 2645:Timon of Athens 2633:Lucius Pinarius 2587: 2577: 2571: 2541:. On board her 2417:instead of Rome 2410:Temple of Vesta 2334: 2328: 2247:, preserved in 2133: 2132: 2131: 2130: 2106: 2105: 2104: 2096: 2095: 2075:above a silver 2049:Sextus Pompeius 2013: 2007: 1957:Euphrates River 1950:Forum of Caesar 1844:), a city that 1798:Ptolemaic Egypt 1732: 1648:Lucius Antonius 1635: 1634: 1633: 1632: 1621:Roman sculpture 1616: 1615: 1614: 1606: 1605: 1551:Parthian Empire 1492:Vatican Museums 1469: 1426:Quintus Dellius 1351: 1345: 1285:Forum of Caesar 1277:Julian Calendar 1237: 1236: 1235: 1234: 1206:Esquiline Venus 1202: 1178: 1177: 1176: 1168: 1167: 1033:of Alexandria. 994: 993: 992: 991: 979: 978: 977: 969: 968: 908: 907: 906: 905: 904: 875:(left) and the 865: 857: 856: 841: 830: 816: 790:in the eastern 758:Gnaeus Pompeius 751: 750: 749: 748: 747:, Italy (right) 720: 719: 718: 710: 709: 698: 592:wealth creation 520:Duane W. Roller 477: 476: 475: 474: 461:dedicated by a 456: 436: 435: 434: 426: 425: 414: 408: 298:Ptolemaic Egypt 254:, although the 222:began with the 204: 158: 153: 104: 99: 81: 43:Tomba di Nerone 25:A restructured 17: 12: 11: 5: 11438: 11428: 11427: 11422: 11417: 11412: 11397: 11396: 11384: 11372: 11370:Ancient Greece 11360: 11340: 11339: 11328: 11315: 11303: 11293: 11279: 11261: 11260:External links 11258: 11256: 11255: 11249: 11227: 11221: 11208: 11189: 11172: 11148: 11142: 11129: 11124:978-0316001946 11123: 11110: 11104: 11086: 11080: 11064: 11058: 11045: 11025: 11020:978-0198142782 11019: 11006: 11000: 10987: 10981: 10962: 10956: 10941: 10935: 10920: 10914: 10900: 10898: 10895: 10893: 10892: 10886: 10873: 10867: 10846: 10815: 10809: 10788: 10782: 10767: 10761: 10748: 10742: 10729: 10723: 10710: 10704: 10686: 10680: 10662: 10642:10.2307/297786 10622: 10616: 10598: 10592: 10576: 10570: 10555: 10549: 10536: 10530: 10515: 10509: 10494: 10485: 10467:Lippold, Georg 10463: 10457: 10439: 10433: 10417: 10411: 10396: 10390: 10377: 10371: 10356: 10350: 10336:Grant, Michael 10332: 10326: 10313: 10307: 10289: 10283: 10262: 10256: 10235: 10229: 10211: 10205: 10187: 10163: 10157: 10142: 10136: 10118: 10112: 10099: 10093: 10075: 10069: 10053: 10047: 10032: 10026: 10005: 9999: 9978: 9972: 9953: 9946: 9945: 9926: 9907: 9888: 9870: 9843: 9840:Online sources 9836: 9833: 9831: 9830: 9828:, p. 219. 9818: 9816:, p. 114. 9803: 9791: 9789:, p. 218. 9779: 9767: 9755: 9743: 9731: 9719: 9717:, p. 217. 9707: 9695: 9683: 9671: 9659: 9647: 9635: 9620: 9618:, p. 140. 9608: 9593: 9591:, p. 106. 9581: 9569: 9565:Preston (2009) 9557: 9545: 9530: 9518: 9506: 9494: 9492:, p. 392. 9482: 9470: 9455: 9440: 9428: 9416: 9404: 9392: 9380: 9378:, p. 108. 9368: 9356: 9344: 9332: 9317: 9305: 9293: 9281: 9266: 9249: 9237: 9235:, p. 151. 9225: 9223:, p. 185. 9213: 9201: 9199:, p. 203. 9186: 9174: 9162: 9150: 9138: 9126: 9124:, p. 150. 9114: 9102: 9090: 9088:, p. 198. 9075: 9063: 9061:, p. 149. 9051: 9036: 9034:, p. 148. 9024: 9009: 8994: 8992:, p. 120. 8982: 8967: 8955: 8953:, p. 191. 8943: 8941:, p. 194. 8931: 8919: 8907: 8903:Preston (2009) 8895: 8883: 8881:, p. 147. 8864: 8852: 8840: 8838:, p. 274. 8836:Preston (2009) 8828: 8816: 8804: 8802:, p. 146. 8787: 8775: 8763: 8761:, p. 115. 8751: 8747:Preston (2009) 8739: 8737:, p. 184. 8727: 8725:, p. 154. 8715: 8703: 8701:, p. 153. 8686: 8684:, p. 145. 8663: 8661:, p. 266. 8659:Preston (2009) 8651: 8639: 8627: 8615: 8613:, p. 144. 8600: 8588: 8586:, p. 264. 8584:Preston (2009) 8576: 8564: 8562:, p. 143. 8547: 8545:, p. 142. 8526: 8511: 8509:, p. 182. 8494: 8467: 8465:, p. 141. 8446: 8434: 8432:, p. 181. 8419: 8407: 8395: 8383: 8381:, p. 140. 8364: 8362:, p. 254. 8360:Preston (2009) 8352: 8337: 8335:, p. 304. 8314: 8299: 8287: 8285:, p. 166. 8275: 8263: 8261:, p. 175. 8251: 8249:, p. 139. 8234: 8232:, p. 138. 8217: 8205: 8188: 8176: 8174:, p. 137. 8157: 8155:, p. 103. 8145: 8133: 8129:Preston (2009) 8121: 8119:, p. 147. 8106: 8091: 8089:, p. 136. 8076: 8074:, p. 104. 8064: 8052: 8050:, p. 235. 8048:Preston (2009) 8040: 8019: 8017:, p. 135. 7992: 7980: 7978:, p. 303. 7953: 7941: 7939:, p. 302. 7926: 7924:, p. 229. 7922:Preston (2009) 7914: 7912:, p. 134. 7887: 7885:, p. 133. 7875: 7873:, p. 163. 7871:Preston (2009) 7863: 7861:, p. 132. 7851: 7839: 7827: 7825:, p. 131. 7812: 7808:Preston (2009) 7800: 7788: 7769: 7754: 7739: 7737:, p. 130. 7727: 7712: 7700: 7698:, p. 231. 7696:Preston (2009) 7685: 7660: 7658:, p. 100. 7643: 7626: 7614: 7602: 7600:, p. 224. 7598:Preston (2009) 7590: 7578: 7566: 7554: 7542: 7540:, p. 219. 7530: 7528:, p. 139. 7518: 7516:, p. 168. 7503: 7491: 7487:Preston (2009) 7479: 7467: 7452: 7431: 7416: 7401: 7386: 7374: 7362: 7347: 7335: 7318: 7316:, p. 163. 7303: 7286: 7274: 7259: 7247: 7230: 7218: 7206: 7194: 7182: 7167: 7155: 7143: 7131: 7119: 7117:, p. 204. 7115:Preston (2009) 7107: 7084: 7069: 7057: 7042: 7040:, p. 184. 7038:Preston (2009) 7030: 7011: 6996: 6994:, p. 158. 6984: 6967: 6955: 6943: 6928: 6916: 6904: 6900:Kleiner (2005) 6889: 6877: 6865: 6850: 6838: 6826: 6824:, p. 205. 6814: 6797: 6785: 6783:, p. 196. 6773: 6771:, p. 301. 6750: 6735: 6723: 6706: 6702:Kennedy (1996) 6694: 6690:Brosius (2006) 6682: 6670: 6658: 6639: 6627: 6615: 6600: 6588: 6571: 6569:, p. 205. 6559: 6547: 6535: 6520: 6508: 6491: 6476: 6464: 6452: 6437: 6425: 6402: 6400:, p. 143. 6390: 6378: 6366: 6354: 6342: 6327: 6315: 6313:, p. 123. 6311:Preston (2009) 6303: 6291: 6276: 6261: 6244: 6227: 6215: 6213:, p. 106. 6203: 6201:, p. 110. 6199:Preston (2009) 6191: 6189:, p. 203. 6179: 6167: 6155: 6143: 6128: 6116: 6104: 6089: 6077: 6065: 6053: 6038: 6026: 6024:, p. 104. 6014: 6002: 5987: 5975: 5963: 5951: 5936: 5932:Preston (2009) 5924: 5912: 5900: 5888: 5876: 5874:, p. 153. 5864: 5849: 5832: 5820: 5808: 5796: 5784: 5782:, p. 126. 5772: 5757: 5742: 5727: 5715: 5703: 5691: 5689:, p. 120. 5676: 5664: 5652: 5650:, p. 172. 5640: 5628: 5611: 5599: 5587: 5570: 5555: 5543: 5531: 5529:, p. 119. 5516: 5514:, p. xxi. 5504: 5492: 5490:, p. 236. 5480: 5463: 5461:, p. 118. 5451: 5439: 5427: 5425:, p. 202. 5410: 5398: 5386: 5371: 5359: 5347: 5335: 5333:, p. 235. 5316: 5304: 5292: 5288:Preston (2009) 5277: 5265: 5253: 5241: 5239:, p. 100. 5224: 5207: 5186: 5184:, p. 234. 5171: 5159: 5147: 5135: 5123: 5121:, p. 260. 5096: 5084: 5080:Preston (2009) 5072: 5060: 5048: 5033: 5021: 5006: 4994: 4982: 4967: 4955: 4938: 4923: 4921:, p. 259. 4908: 4893: 4881: 4869: 4857: 4845: 4833: 4821: 4809: 4794: 4777: 4762: 4760:, p. 237. 4747: 4735: 4723: 4711: 4696: 4681: 4669: 4654: 4652:, p. 217. 4650:Ashton (2001a) 4642: 4630: 4618: 4606: 4594: 4582: 4570: 4555: 4540: 4536:Preston (2009) 4528: 4526:, p. 114. 4516: 4504: 4492: 4480: 4476:Preston (2009) 4468: 4456: 4454:, p. 231. 4439: 4424: 4409: 4394: 4382: 4370: 4358: 4346: 4334: 4322: 4320:, p. 165. 4318:Ashton (2001b) 4310: 4298: 4286: 4274: 4270:Curtius (1933) 4262: 4258:Lippold (1936) 4250: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4226: 4167: 4142: 4140:, p. 134. 4114: 4098: 4086: 4082:Fletcher (2008 4034: 4014:Bringmann 2007 4006: 4000:surrounded by 3957: 3937: 3921: 3896: 3848: 3810: 3806:Pfeiffer (2015 3796: 3794:perpetuation." 3771:historiography 3728: 3702:Tyldesley 2006 3674: 3672: 3669: 3667: 3664: 3663: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3645: 3642: 3634:Temple of Edfu 3602:Deir el-Medina 3575:Roman emperors 3482:Temple of Edfu 3471: 3470: 3461: 3460: 3452: 3451: 3450: 3449: 3448: 3420:in Judea, and 3337:relief efforts 3306:, established 3300:exchange rates 3296:price controls 3201: 3200: 3191: 3190: 3182: 3181: 3180: 3179: 3178: 3114:tax exemptions 2970: 2969: 2960: 2959: 2951: 2950: 2949: 2948: 2947: 2940:Ptolemaic army 2935: 2932: 2886:constitutional 2855:Roman province 2813:venomous snake 2797:Egyptian cobra 2687:Louis Gauffier 2673:Quintus Didius 2606:act of suicide 2594:Roman painting 2573:Main article: 2570: 2567: 2551:Ambracian Gulf 2519:Venus Genetrix 2472:Ambracian Gulf 2435:fellow citizen 2425:Campus Martius 2402:sacred customs 2398:Vestal Virgins 2330:Main article: 2327: 2324: 2283:tax exemptions 2145:Queen of Kings 2108: 2107: 2098: 2097: 2089: 2088: 2087: 2086: 2085: 2009:Main article: 2006: 2003: 1942:Gaius Gracchus 1932:, daughter of 1866:Nabataean king 1838:Ptolemais Akko 1637:Events of the 1618: 1617: 1608: 1607: 1599: 1598: 1597: 1596: 1595: 1589:by conquering 1468: 1465: 1375:Marcus Lepidus 1344: 1341: 1308:sons of Pompey 1297:Roman religion 1241:Horti Caesaris 1180: 1179: 1170: 1169: 1161: 1160: 1159: 1158: 1157: 1063:pleasure barge 981: 980: 971: 970: 962: 961: 960: 959: 958: 866: 859: 858: 842: 835: 834: 833: 832: 831: 815: 812: 722: 721: 712: 711: 703: 702: 701: 700: 699: 697: 694: 596:Roman Republic 576:Aulus Gabinius 524:Joann Fletcher 447:with a triple 438: 437: 428: 427: 419: 418: 417: 416: 415: 407: 404: 256:Roman Republic 244:Roman province 206: 205: 203: 202: 195: 188: 180: 177: 176: 175: 174: 169: 164: 154: 152: 151: 146: 140: 139: 134: 128: 127: 122: 116: 115: 110: 100: 98: 97: 92: 87: 78: 77: 69: 68: 62: 61: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11437: 11426: 11423: 11421: 11418: 11416: 11413: 11411: 11408: 11407: 11405: 11395: 11385: 11383: 11373: 11371: 11361: 11359: 11358:Ancient Egypt 11349: 11348: 11345: 11337: 11333: 11329: 11326: 11325: 11320: 11316: 11313: 11312: 11307: 11304: 11301: 11297: 11296:Cleopatra VII 11294: 11291: 11287: 11283: 11280: 11277: 11273: 11272: 11267: 11264: 11263: 11252: 11246: 11242: 11241: 11236: 11232: 11228: 11224: 11222:9780415058063 11218: 11214: 11209: 11205: 11201: 11197: 11196: 11190: 11186: 11182: 11178: 11173: 11169: 11165: 11160: 11159: 11153: 11149: 11145: 11139: 11135: 11130: 11126: 11120: 11116: 11111: 11107: 11101: 11097: 11096: 11091: 11087: 11083: 11081:9780805239119 11077: 11073: 11069: 11065: 11061: 11055: 11051: 11046: 11042: 11038: 11034: 11030: 11029:Lindsay, Jack 11026: 11022: 11016: 11012: 11007: 11003: 10997: 10993: 10988: 10984: 10978: 10974: 10970: 10969: 10963: 10959: 10953: 10949: 10948: 10942: 10938: 10932: 10928: 10927: 10921: 10917: 10911: 10907: 10902: 10901: 10889: 10883: 10879: 10874: 10870: 10868:9780691088358 10864: 10860: 10856: 10852: 10847: 10843: 10839: 10834: 10829: 10825: 10821: 10816: 10812: 10810:9780691088358 10806: 10802: 10798: 10794: 10789: 10785: 10783:9789004135772 10779: 10775: 10774: 10768: 10764: 10762:9780465009404 10758: 10754: 10749: 10745: 10743:9780500051450 10739: 10735: 10730: 10726: 10720: 10716: 10711: 10707: 10705:9781848683242 10701: 10697: 10696: 10691: 10687: 10683: 10681:9780415628389 10677: 10673: 10672: 10667: 10663: 10659: 10655: 10651: 10647: 10643: 10639: 10635: 10631: 10627: 10623: 10619: 10613: 10609: 10608: 10603: 10599: 10595: 10593:9780415305969 10589: 10585: 10581: 10577: 10573: 10567: 10563: 10562: 10556: 10552: 10550:9780802717382 10546: 10542: 10537: 10533: 10527: 10523: 10522: 10516: 10512: 10510:9780892366330 10506: 10502: 10501: 10495: 10491: 10486: 10482: 10478: 10474: 10473: 10468: 10464: 10460: 10458:9780674019058 10454: 10450: 10449: 10444: 10440: 10436: 10434:9781887829182 10430: 10426: 10422: 10418: 10414: 10412:9780806137414 10408: 10404: 10403: 10397: 10393: 10387: 10383: 10378: 10374: 10368: 10364: 10363: 10357: 10353: 10351:9780297995029 10347: 10343: 10342: 10337: 10333: 10329: 10323: 10319: 10314: 10310: 10304: 10300: 10299: 10294: 10290: 10286: 10284:9780691088358 10280: 10276: 10272: 10268: 10263: 10259: 10257:9780691088358 10253: 10249: 10245: 10241: 10236: 10232: 10226: 10222: 10221: 10216: 10212: 10208: 10206:9780500051283 10202: 10198: 10197: 10192: 10191:Dodson, Aidan 10188: 10184: 10180: 10176: 10173:(in German), 10172: 10168: 10164: 10160: 10158:9780801485763 10154: 10150: 10149: 10143: 10139: 10137:9780313325274 10133: 10129: 10128: 10123: 10119: 10115: 10113:9780415320894 10109: 10105: 10100: 10096: 10090: 10086: 10085: 10080: 10076: 10072: 10070:9780521200929 10066: 10062: 10058: 10057:Bivar, A.D.H. 10054: 10050: 10044: 10040: 10039: 10033: 10029: 10027:9780691088358 10023: 10019: 10015: 10011: 10006: 10002: 10000:9780691088358 9996: 9992: 9988: 9984: 9979: 9975: 9973:9781876832445 9969: 9965: 9964: 9959: 9955: 9954: 9952: 9951: 9934: 9933: 9932:Portrait Head 9927: 9915: 9914: 9908: 9896: 9895: 9889: 9877: 9876: 9871: 9860: 9856: 9852: 9851: 9845: 9844: 9842: 9841: 9835:Cited in text 9827: 9822: 9815: 9814:Roller (2010) 9810: 9808: 9800: 9795: 9788: 9783: 9776: 9775:Roller (2010) 9771: 9764: 9759: 9752: 9751:Roller (2010) 9747: 9740: 9739:Roller (2010) 9735: 9728: 9727:Roller (2010) 9723: 9716: 9711: 9704: 9703:Roller (2010) 9699: 9692: 9687: 9680: 9679:Roller (2010) 9675: 9668: 9663: 9656: 9651: 9644: 9643:Roller (2010) 9639: 9632: 9631:Roller (2010) 9627: 9625: 9617: 9612: 9605: 9604:Roller (2010) 9600: 9598: 9590: 9589:Roller (2010) 9585: 9578: 9577:Roller (2010) 9573: 9566: 9561: 9554: 9549: 9542: 9537: 9535: 9527: 9522: 9515: 9514:Roller (2010) 9510: 9503: 9498: 9491: 9486: 9479: 9474: 9467: 9462: 9460: 9452: 9447: 9445: 9438:, p. 37. 9437: 9432: 9426:, p. 50. 9425: 9420: 9414:, p. 46. 9413: 9408: 9401: 9396: 9389: 9384: 9377: 9376:Roller (2010) 9372: 9365: 9364:Roller (2010) 9360: 9354:, p. 72. 9353: 9348: 9341: 9336: 9330:, p. 34. 9329: 9324: 9322: 9314: 9309: 9302: 9297: 9290: 9285: 9278: 9273: 9271: 9263: 9258: 9256: 9254: 9246: 9241: 9234: 9233:Roller (2010) 9229: 9222: 9217: 9211:, p. 66. 9210: 9205: 9198: 9193: 9191: 9183: 9178: 9171: 9166: 9159: 9154: 9147: 9142: 9135: 9134:Roller (2010) 9130: 9123: 9122:Roller (2010) 9118: 9111: 9106: 9099: 9098:Roller (2010) 9094: 9087: 9082: 9080: 9073:, p. 32. 9072: 9067: 9060: 9059:Roller (2010) 9055: 9048: 9043: 9041: 9033: 9032:Roller (2010) 9028: 9022:, p. 56. 9021: 9016: 9014: 9006: 9005:Roller (2010) 9001: 8999: 8991: 8986: 8979: 8974: 8972: 8965:, p. 65. 8964: 8959: 8952: 8947: 8940: 8935: 8928: 8923: 8916: 8915:Roller (2010) 8911: 8904: 8899: 8892: 8887: 8880: 8879:Roller (2010) 8875: 8873: 8871: 8869: 8862:, p. 61. 8861: 8860:Gurval (2011) 8856: 8849: 8848:Roller (2010) 8844: 8837: 8832: 8825: 8820: 8813: 8808: 8801: 8800:Roller (2010) 8796: 8794: 8792: 8784: 8779: 8772: 8767: 8760: 8755: 8748: 8743: 8736: 8731: 8724: 8719: 8712: 8707: 8700: 8695: 8693: 8691: 8683: 8682:Roller (2010) 8678: 8676: 8674: 8672: 8670: 8668: 8660: 8655: 8648: 8647:Roller (2010) 8643: 8636: 8631: 8624: 8619: 8612: 8611:Roller (2010) 8607: 8605: 8597: 8596:Roller (2010) 8592: 8585: 8580: 8573: 8572:Roller (2010) 8568: 8561: 8560:Roller (2010) 8556: 8554: 8552: 8544: 8543:Roller (2010) 8539: 8537: 8535: 8533: 8531: 8523: 8522:Roller (2010) 8518: 8516: 8508: 8503: 8501: 8499: 8492:, p. 31. 8491: 8486: 8484: 8482: 8480: 8478: 8476: 8474: 8472: 8464: 8463:Roller (2010) 8459: 8457: 8455: 8453: 8451: 8443: 8442:Roller (2010) 8438: 8431: 8426: 8424: 8416: 8411: 8404: 8403:Roller (2010) 8399: 8392: 8387: 8380: 8379:Roller (2010) 8375: 8373: 8371: 8369: 8361: 8356: 8349: 8344: 8342: 8334: 8329: 8327: 8325: 8323: 8321: 8319: 8311: 8310:Roller (2010) 8306: 8304: 8297:, p. 30. 8296: 8291: 8284: 8279: 8272: 8271:Walker (2008) 8267: 8260: 8259:Roller (2010) 8255: 8248: 8247:Roller (2010) 8243: 8241: 8239: 8231: 8230:Roller (2010) 8226: 8224: 8222: 8214: 8213:Roller (2010) 8209: 8202: 8197: 8195: 8193: 8185: 8184:Roller (2010) 8180: 8173: 8172:Roller (2010) 8168: 8166: 8164: 8162: 8154: 8153:Roller (2010) 8149: 8142: 8141:Roller (2010) 8137: 8130: 8125: 8118: 8113: 8111: 8103: 8098: 8096: 8088: 8087:Roller (2010) 8083: 8081: 8073: 8068: 8062:, p. 38. 8061: 8056: 8049: 8044: 8038:, p. 30. 8037: 8032: 8030: 8028: 8026: 8024: 8016: 8015:Roller (2010) 8011: 8009: 8007: 8005: 8003: 8001: 7999: 7997: 7989: 7984: 7977: 7972: 7970: 7968: 7966: 7964: 7962: 7960: 7958: 7950: 7945: 7938: 7933: 7931: 7923: 7918: 7911: 7910:Roller (2010) 7906: 7904: 7902: 7900: 7898: 7896: 7894: 7892: 7884: 7883:Roller (2010) 7879: 7872: 7867: 7860: 7859:Roller (2010) 7855: 7848: 7847:Roller (2010) 7843: 7837:, p. 39. 7836: 7831: 7824: 7823:Roller (2010) 7819: 7817: 7810:, p. 75. 7809: 7804: 7797: 7796:Roller (2010) 7792: 7786:, p. 33. 7785: 7780: 7778: 7776: 7774: 7766: 7765:Roller (2010) 7761: 7759: 7751: 7746: 7744: 7736: 7735:Roller (2010) 7731: 7724: 7723:Roller (2010) 7719: 7717: 7709: 7708:Roller (2010) 7704: 7697: 7692: 7690: 7683:, p. 29. 7682: 7677: 7675: 7673: 7671: 7669: 7667: 7665: 7657: 7656:Roller (2010) 7652: 7650: 7648: 7640: 7635: 7633: 7631: 7623: 7618: 7611: 7610:Roller (2010) 7606: 7599: 7594: 7588:, p. 33. 7587: 7582: 7575: 7570: 7563: 7562:Walker (2001) 7558: 7551: 7550:Roller (2003) 7546: 7539: 7534: 7527: 7526:Roller (2003) 7522: 7515: 7510: 7508: 7500: 7495: 7488: 7483: 7476: 7471: 7465:, p. 28. 7464: 7459: 7457: 7450:, p. 99. 7449: 7448:Roller (2010) 7444: 7442: 7440: 7438: 7436: 7429:, p. 98. 7428: 7427:Roller (2010) 7423: 7421: 7413: 7408: 7406: 7398: 7397:Roller (2010) 7393: 7391: 7384:, p. 57. 7383: 7382:Gurval (2011) 7378: 7371: 7366: 7360:, p. 27. 7359: 7354: 7352: 7344: 7339: 7333:, p. 97. 7332: 7331:Roller (2010) 7327: 7325: 7323: 7315: 7310: 7308: 7301:, p. 96. 7300: 7299:Roller (2010) 7295: 7293: 7291: 7283: 7282:Roller (2010) 7278: 7271: 7270:Roller (2010) 7266: 7264: 7256: 7251: 7245:, p. 95. 7244: 7243:Roller (2010) 7239: 7237: 7235: 7228:, p. 94. 7227: 7226:Roller (2010) 7222: 7215: 7214:Roller (2010) 7210: 7203: 7202:Roller (2010) 7198: 7191: 7190:Roller (2010) 7186: 7180:, p. 92. 7179: 7178:Roller (2010) 7174: 7172: 7164: 7159: 7152: 7151:Roller (2010) 7147: 7141:, p. 77. 7140: 7135: 7128: 7127:Roller (2010) 7123: 7116: 7111: 7104: 7099: 7097: 7095: 7093: 7091: 7089: 7082:, p. 90. 7081: 7080:Roller (2010) 7076: 7074: 7066: 7065:Roller (2010) 7061: 7055:, p. 89. 7054: 7053:Roller (2010) 7049: 7047: 7039: 7034: 7028:, p. 26. 7027: 7022: 7020: 7018: 7016: 7008: 7007:Roller (2010) 7003: 7001: 6993: 6988: 6982:, p. 86. 6981: 6980:Roller (2010) 6976: 6974: 6972: 6964: 6959: 6952: 6951:Roller (2010) 6947: 6941:, p. 85. 6940: 6939:Roller (2010) 6935: 6933: 6925: 6924:Roller (2010) 6920: 6914:, p. 73. 6913: 6908: 6901: 6896: 6894: 6886: 6881: 6875:, p. 20. 6874: 6873:Varner (2004) 6869: 6863:, p. 84. 6862: 6861:Roller (2010) 6857: 6855: 6847: 6842: 6835: 6834:Roller (2010) 6830: 6823: 6818: 6812:, p. 83. 6811: 6810:Roller (2010) 6806: 6804: 6802: 6795:, p. 89. 6794: 6789: 6782: 6777: 6770: 6765: 6763: 6761: 6759: 6757: 6755: 6747: 6746:Roller (2010) 6742: 6740: 6732: 6731:Roller (2010) 6727: 6720: 6719:Roller (2010) 6715: 6713: 6711: 6703: 6698: 6692:, p. 96. 6691: 6686: 6680:, p. 58. 6679: 6674: 6667: 6666:Roller (2010) 6662: 6656:, p. 25. 6655: 6650: 6648: 6646: 6644: 6636: 6635:Roller (2010) 6631: 6624: 6619: 6613:, p. 24. 6612: 6607: 6605: 6597: 6592: 6586:, p. 79. 6585: 6584:Roller (2010) 6580: 6578: 6576: 6568: 6563: 6556: 6555:Roller (2010) 6551: 6545:, p. 77. 6544: 6543:Roller (2010) 6539: 6532: 6527: 6525: 6517: 6516:Roller (2010) 6512: 6506:, p. 23. 6505: 6500: 6498: 6496: 6489:, p. 76. 6488: 6487:Roller (2010) 6483: 6481: 6473: 6468: 6461: 6456: 6450:, p. 22. 6449: 6444: 6442: 6434: 6429: 6423:, p. 75. 6422: 6421:Roller (2010) 6417: 6415: 6413: 6411: 6409: 6407: 6399: 6394: 6388:, p. 77. 6387: 6382: 6375: 6370: 6363: 6358: 6351: 6350:Roller (2010) 6346: 6340:, p. 99. 6339: 6334: 6332: 6324: 6319: 6312: 6307: 6300: 6295: 6288: 6283: 6281: 6274:, p. 74. 6273: 6272:Roller (2010) 6268: 6266: 6258: 6253: 6251: 6249: 6241: 6240:Roller (2010) 6236: 6234: 6232: 6224: 6223:Roller (2010) 6219: 6212: 6207: 6200: 6195: 6188: 6183: 6176: 6171: 6164: 6163:Roller (2010) 6159: 6152: 6147: 6141:, p. 21. 6140: 6135: 6133: 6125: 6124:Roller (2010) 6120: 6113: 6108: 6102:, p. 72. 6101: 6100:Roller (2010) 6096: 6094: 6086: 6081: 6074: 6073:Roller (2010) 6069: 6062: 6057: 6050: 6045: 6043: 6036:, p. 71. 6035: 6034:Roller (2010) 6030: 6023: 6018: 6011: 6006: 5999: 5994: 5992: 5984: 5983:Ashton (2008) 5979: 5972: 5967: 5960: 5955: 5949:, p. 70. 5948: 5947:Roller (2010) 5943: 5941: 5934:, p. 88. 5933: 5928: 5921: 5916: 5909: 5908:Roller (2010) 5904: 5898:, p. 39. 5897: 5892: 5886:, p. 69. 5885: 5884:Roller (2010) 5880: 5873: 5868: 5862:, p. 20. 5861: 5856: 5854: 5847:, p. 67. 5846: 5845:Roller (2010) 5841: 5839: 5837: 5829: 5824: 5818:, p. 66. 5817: 5816:Roller (2010) 5812: 5805: 5800: 5793: 5792:Roller (2010) 5788: 5781: 5776: 5770:, p. 99. 5769: 5764: 5762: 5754: 5749: 5747: 5739: 5738:Roller (2010) 5734: 5732: 5725:, p. 65. 5724: 5723:Roller (2010) 5719: 5712: 5711:Roller (2010) 5707: 5700: 5695: 5688: 5683: 5681: 5673: 5668: 5661: 5660:Roller (2010) 5656: 5649: 5644: 5637: 5632: 5626:, p. 64. 5625: 5624:Roller (2010) 5620: 5618: 5616: 5608: 5603: 5596: 5595:Roller (2010) 5591: 5585:, p. 19. 5584: 5579: 5577: 5575: 5567: 5562: 5560: 5553:, p. 76. 5552: 5547: 5540: 5535: 5528: 5523: 5521: 5513: 5508: 5501: 5496: 5489: 5484: 5478:, p. 63. 5477: 5476:Roller (2010) 5472: 5470: 5468: 5460: 5455: 5448: 5443: 5436: 5435:Roller (2010) 5431: 5424: 5419: 5417: 5415: 5407: 5402: 5395: 5390: 5384:, p. 62. 5383: 5382:Roller (2010) 5378: 5376: 5369:, p. 58. 5368: 5363: 5356: 5355:Roller (2010) 5351: 5344: 5339: 5332: 5327: 5325: 5323: 5321: 5313: 5312:Roller (2010) 5308: 5302:, p. 66. 5301: 5296: 5290:, p. 80. 5289: 5284: 5282: 5274: 5269: 5262: 5257: 5250: 5245: 5238: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5222:, p. 18. 5221: 5216: 5214: 5212: 5205:, p. 61. 5204: 5203:Roller (2010) 5199: 5197: 5195: 5193: 5191: 5183: 5178: 5176: 5168: 5167:Roller (2010) 5163: 5156: 5151: 5144: 5139: 5132: 5127: 5120: 5115: 5113: 5111: 5109: 5107: 5105: 5103: 5101: 5094:, p. 51. 5093: 5088: 5082:, p. 67. 5081: 5076: 5070:, p. 63. 5069: 5064: 5057: 5052: 5045: 5040: 5038: 5030: 5025: 5018: 5017:Roller (2010) 5013: 5011: 5003: 4998: 4991: 4986: 4980:, p. 98. 4979: 4974: 4972: 4964: 4959: 4953:, p. 60. 4952: 4951:Roller (2010) 4947: 4945: 4943: 4935: 4930: 4928: 4920: 4915: 4913: 4905: 4904:Roller (2010) 4900: 4898: 4891:, p. 96. 4890: 4885: 4879:, p. 59. 4878: 4877:Roller (2010) 4873: 4866: 4861: 4855:, p. 17. 4854: 4849: 4842: 4841:Roller (2010) 4837: 4831:, p. 95. 4830: 4825: 4818: 4813: 4807:, p. 58. 4806: 4805:Roller (2010) 4801: 4799: 4791: 4786: 4784: 4782: 4775:, p. 57. 4774: 4773:Roller (2010) 4769: 4767: 4759: 4754: 4752: 4744: 4739: 4732: 4727: 4720: 4715: 4708: 4707:Roller (2010) 4703: 4701: 4694:, p. 56. 4693: 4692:Roller (2010) 4688: 4686: 4679:, p. 50. 4678: 4673: 4666: 4665:Roller (2010) 4661: 4659: 4651: 4646: 4639: 4634: 4628:, p. 92. 4627: 4622: 4615: 4610: 4603: 4602:Roller (2010) 4598: 4592:, p. 40. 4591: 4586: 4579: 4574: 4568:, p. 16. 4567: 4562: 4560: 4553:, p. 53. 4552: 4551:Roller (2010) 4547: 4545: 4538:, p. 28. 4537: 4532: 4525: 4520: 4514:, p. 43. 4513: 4508: 4502:, p. xx. 4501: 4496: 4490:, p. 42. 4489: 4484: 4478:, p. 26. 4477: 4472: 4465: 4460: 4453: 4448: 4446: 4444: 4437:, p. 30. 4436: 4431: 4429: 4421: 4416: 4414: 4406: 4405:Roller (2010) 4401: 4399: 4391: 4386: 4379: 4374: 4368:, p. 27. 4367: 4366:Roller (2010) 4362: 4355: 4350: 4344:, p. 14. 4343: 4338: 4331: 4330:Roller (2010) 4326: 4319: 4314: 4308:, p. 26. 4307: 4302: 4295: 4290: 4283: 4278: 4271: 4266: 4259: 4254: 4247: 4242: 4240: 4235: 4223: 4219: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4205: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4171: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4146: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4126:Burstein 2004 4123: 4118: 4111: 4110:Burstein 2004 4107: 4102: 4095: 4090: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4054:Kleiner (2005 4051: 4047: 4043: 4038: 4031: 4030:Burstein 2004 4027: 4023: 4019: 4018:Octavia Minor 4015: 4010: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3970: 3966: 3965:Fletcher 2008 3961: 3954: 3950: 3949:Julius Caesar 3946: 3941: 3934: 3933:Burstein 2004 3930: 3925: 3918: 3914: 3913:Julius Caesar 3910: 3909:Burstein 2004 3906: 3900: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3844: 3843:Michael Grant 3840: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3825:solar eclipse 3822: 3821:Fletcher 2008 3817: 3815: 3807: 3800: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3779:Cleopatra VII 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3755:Michael Grant 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3735: 3733: 3726:, p. 56. 3725: 3724:Anderson 2003 3721: 3720:Fletcher 2008 3717: 3713: 3712: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3698:Burstein 2004 3695: 3691: 3687: 3682: 3680: 3675: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3651: 3648: 3647: 3641: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3610:Ancient Greek 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3584:(near modern 3583: 3578: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3551:Jews in Egypt 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3500: 3496: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3465: 3456: 3447: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3436: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3380: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3355:Cleopatra VII 3352: 3348: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3312:vegetable oil 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3276: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3223: 3222:Cleopatra VII 3219: 3215: 3209: 3205: 3195: 3186: 3177: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3154:Greek deities 3151: 3147: 3146:multicultural 3144:presence and 3143: 3142:largely-Greek 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3110:sole lawgiver 3106: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3031: 3027: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2964: 2955: 2945: 2941: 2931: 2929: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2893:Roman emperor 2890: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2847:Arius Didymus 2844: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2820: 2816: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2773: 2761: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2697: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2657: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2586: 2582: 2576: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2499: 2495: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2475: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2460: 2452: 2448: 2447:Cleopatra VII 2443: 2439: 2436: 2432: 2431: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2384: 2379: 2373: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2361: 2355: 2347: 2343: 2338: 2333: 2323: 2321: 2317: 2312: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2271: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2252: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2225: 2224:Helen of Troy 2221: 2217: 2214:who not only 2213: 2205: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2176: 2172: 2170: 2165: 2160: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2149:King of Kings 2146: 2142: 2138: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2102: 2093: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2073:golden throne 2070: 2066: 2065:Roman triumph 2061: 2056: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2017: 2012: 2002: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1953: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1926:sacrosanctity 1923: 1917: 1915: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1877:Gulf of Aqaba 1874: 1870: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1858:Orontes River 1855: 1851: 1850:the Seleucids 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1794:Cleopatra VII 1790: 1786: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1762: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1747: 1746:Antonia Minor 1744:in 39 BC and 1743: 1736: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1720: 1716: 1715:king of Judea 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1687: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1640: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1612: 1603: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1580: 1579:Ancient Greek 1576: 1568: 1567:Ancient Greek 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1539: 1537: 1533: 1532:drank alcohol 1529: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1493: 1490:, now at the 1489: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1464: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1451: 1450:Greek goddess 1447: 1443: 1439: 1434: 1432: 1427: 1423: 1418: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1340: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1328:Ides of March 1324: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1289:goddess Venus 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1253:client rulers 1251:), in effect 1250: 1246: 1242: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1207: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1187:Cleopatra VII 1184: 1174: 1165: 1156: 1154: 1149: 1145: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1116: 1112: 1111: 1106: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1061: 1060: 1055: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 989: 985: 975: 966: 957: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 929: 926: 920: 918: 914: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 873:Julius Caesar 870: 863: 854: 853:portrait bust 850: 847:, Egypt, the 846: 839: 829: 825: 821: 811: 808: 804: 800: 795: 793: 789: 784: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 746: 742: 741:Julius Caesar 738: 734: 730: 726: 716: 707: 693: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 670: 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 640: 632: 628: 627:Parian marble 624: 620: 616: 611: 607: 605: 604:Julius Caesar 601: 598:17.5 million 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 555: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 528:Michael Grant 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 500:Cleopatra VII 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 472: 468: 464: 460: 454: 450: 446: 442: 432: 423: 413: 403: 401: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 371:his invasions 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 343: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 314: 310: 306: 303: 299: 295: 291: 290:Julius Caesar 288: 284: 280: 275: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 201: 196: 194: 189: 187: 182: 181: 179: 178: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 159: 157: 150: 147: 145: 142: 141: 138: 135: 133: 130: 129: 126: 123: 121: 118: 117: 114: 111: 109: 106: 105: 103: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 82: 80: 79: 75: 71: 70: 67: 66:Cleopatra VII 64: 63: 59: 58: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 32: 28: 23: 19: 11382:Ancient Rome 11324:Live Science 11322: 11309: 11286:Jacob Abbott 11270: 11239: 11212: 11194: 11176: 11157: 11152:Syme, Ronald 11133: 11114: 11094: 11071: 11049: 11032: 11010: 10991: 10967: 10946: 10924: 10905: 10877: 10854: 10823: 10819: 10796: 10772: 10752: 10733: 10714: 10694: 10670: 10633: 10629: 10626:Skeat, T. C. 10606: 10583: 10560: 10540: 10520: 10499: 10489: 10471: 10447: 10424: 10401: 10381: 10361: 10340: 10317: 10297: 10270: 10243: 10219: 10195: 10174: 10170: 10147: 10126: 10103: 10083: 10060: 10037: 10013: 9986: 9962: 9949: 9948: 9937:, retrieved 9931: 9918:, retrieved 9912: 9899:, retrieved 9893: 9880:, retrieved 9874: 9862:, retrieved 9849: 9839: 9838: 9821: 9794: 9782: 9770: 9758: 9746: 9734: 9722: 9710: 9698: 9686: 9674: 9662: 9650: 9638: 9611: 9584: 9572: 9560: 9548: 9521: 9509: 9502:Worth (2006) 9497: 9485: 9473: 9431: 9419: 9407: 9395: 9383: 9371: 9359: 9347: 9335: 9308: 9303:, p. 7. 9301:Grant (1972) 9296: 9289:Grant (1972) 9284: 9279:, p. 8. 9277:Grant (1972) 9262:Grant (1972) 9247:, p. 8. 9245:Worth (2006) 9240: 9228: 9216: 9204: 9177: 9170:Grant (1972) 9165: 9153: 9146:Jones (2006) 9141: 9129: 9117: 9105: 9093: 9066: 9054: 9027: 8990:Worth (2006) 8985: 8978:Jones (2006) 8958: 8946: 8939:Jones (2006) 8934: 8922: 8910: 8905:, p. 1. 8898: 8891:Worth (2006) 8886: 8855: 8843: 8831: 8819: 8812:Jones (2006) 8807: 8783:Jones (2006) 8778: 8766: 8759:Worth (2006) 8754: 8742: 8735:Jones (2006) 8730: 8718: 8706: 8654: 8642: 8630: 8618: 8591: 8579: 8567: 8437: 8410: 8398: 8386: 8355: 8295:Gómez (2019) 8290: 8278: 8266: 8254: 8208: 8179: 8148: 8136: 8124: 8117:Jones (2006) 8072:Worth (2006) 8067: 8055: 8043: 7983: 7944: 7917: 7878: 7866: 7854: 7842: 7830: 7803: 7791: 7730: 7703: 7617: 7605: 7593: 7581: 7574:Gómez (2019) 7569: 7557: 7545: 7533: 7521: 7494: 7482: 7470: 7377: 7365: 7338: 7277: 7250: 7221: 7209: 7197: 7185: 7158: 7146: 7134: 7122: 7110: 7060: 7033: 6987: 6958: 6946: 6919: 6907: 6880: 6868: 6841: 6829: 6817: 6793:Worth (2006) 6788: 6781:Pucci (2011) 6776: 6726: 6697: 6685: 6678:Bivar (1983) 6673: 6661: 6630: 6618: 6591: 6562: 6550: 6538: 6511: 6467: 6455: 6428: 6398:Worth (2006) 6393: 6386:Worth (2006) 6381: 6369: 6357: 6345: 6318: 6306: 6294: 6218: 6206: 6194: 6182: 6170: 6158: 6146: 6119: 6107: 6080: 6068: 6056: 6029: 6017: 6005: 5978: 5966: 5954: 5927: 5915: 5903: 5891: 5879: 5867: 5823: 5811: 5799: 5787: 5775: 5718: 5706: 5694: 5667: 5655: 5643: 5631: 5602: 5590: 5546: 5539:Worth (2006) 5534: 5507: 5495: 5488:Hölbl (2001) 5483: 5454: 5447:Hölbl (2001) 5442: 5430: 5401: 5389: 5362: 5350: 5338: 5331:Hölbl (2001) 5307: 5300:Worth (2006) 5295: 5273:Jones (2006) 5268: 5261:Jones (2006) 5256: 5249:Hölbl (2001) 5244: 5182:Hölbl (2001) 5162: 5150: 5143:Grout (2017) 5138: 5126: 5087: 5075: 5068:Worth (2006) 5063: 5051: 5024: 4997: 4990:Jones (2006) 4985: 4963:Jones (2006) 4958: 4884: 4872: 4860: 4848: 4836: 4824: 4812: 4738: 4726: 4714: 4677:Worth (2006) 4672: 4645: 4633: 4621: 4609: 4597: 4585: 4573: 4531: 4519: 4507: 4495: 4483: 4471: 4459: 4452:Hölbl (2001) 4435:Grant (1972) 4385: 4373: 4361: 4349: 4337: 4325: 4313: 4306:Gómez (2019) 4301: 4289: 4277: 4265: 4253: 4202: 4170: 4145: 4132:provided by 4117: 4101: 4094:Walker (2001 4089: 4062:Roller (2003 4058:Varner (2004 4037: 4009: 3974:melon hairdo 3960: 3940: 3924: 3899: 3862:marriage of 3851: 3833:Roman Senate 3799: 3786: 3709: 3579: 3524:architecture 3505: 3433: 3376: 3361:, minted at 3280:their estate 3277: 3253:the military 3243: 3229: 3140:. Given the 3107: 3095:North Africa 3085:against the 3063:Roman Greece 3044: 3023: 3001: 2988:bearing the 2975:and her son 2901:Roman Empire 2840: 2836:Musée de Die 2826:, riding an 2804: 2800: 2756: 2746: 2722: 2708: 2694: 2692: 2682: 2658: 2640: 2631: 2615: 2559:purple sails 2546: 2532: 2521:and her son 2503:Second-style 2476: 2459:Adriatic Sea 2455: 2428: 2406:legal rights 2387: 2374: 2365:Gaius Sosius 2358: 2354:Roman Senate 2351: 2272: 2250: 2209: 2161: 2134: 2057: 2042: 1981: 1954: 1946:Ptolemy VIII 1918: 1842:Acre, Israel 1815: 1763: 1739: 1733:Painting by 1728: 1688: 1639:Perusine War 1636: 1574: 1562: 1540: 1508: 1496: 1441: 1438:Kydnos River 1435: 1419: 1380: 1325: 1301: 1275:for the new 1238: 1204: 1141: 1119: 1108: 1091:Eratosthenes 1074: 1057: 1050: 1035: 1031:eastern wall 995: 930: 921: 909: 897:Altes Museum 851:showing her 796: 752: 671: 636: 602:by the time 584:tax revenues 556: 552:Roman Senate 504:Ptolemy XIII 478: 347:client queen 344: 305:client state 279:Ptolemy XIII 276: 262:, extensive 211: 209: 101: 18: 11300:BBC History 11271:In Our Time 11231:Wyke, Maria 10215:Eck, Werner 10177:: 182–243, 4213:Roller 2010 4193:, relaying 4175:Roller 2010 4155:Cassius Dio 4138:Roller 2010 4106:Roller 2010 4026:Roller 2010 4022:Mark Antony 3982:Berenike II 3969:Herculaneum 3945:Roller 2010 3929:Roller 2010 3917:Roller 2010 3716:Roller 2010 3508:Greco-Roman 3490:Upper Egypt 3440:Roman coins 3400:, Antioch, 3216:, a marble 3212:Right: the 3166:Old Kingdom 3041:city-states 3006:of virtual 2899:era of the 2789:in her tomb 2760:Koinē Greek 2753:, 1674–1675 2649:misanthropy 2618:Paraitonion 2555:Peloponnese 2430:casus belli 2316:countersign 2299:Koinē Greek 2192:Koinē Greek 2113:, Queen of 2037:Mark Antony 1905:Roman Crete 1875:around the 1854:Koile-Syria 1810:Herculaneum 1619:An ancient 1528:played dice 1509:Of all the 1488:Mark Antony 1385:formed the 1365:(left) and 1363:Mark Antony 1304:Roman Spain 954:fresh water 950:water pipes 913:Cassius Dio 879:(right), a 690:regnal date 686:Ptolemy XIV 580:Berenice IV 455:, New York 367:Mark Antony 332:Ptolemy XIV 260:agriculture 232:her suicide 37:similar to 11404:Categories 11213:Cleopatras 11136:, Tempus, 10936:0801438675 10887:0766025594 4222:Jones 2006 4187:Ptolemy XV 4179:Skeat 1953 4159:Jones 2006 4080:nobleman. 3978:Arsinoe II 3868:Arsinoe II 3864:Ptolemy II 3860:incestuous 3839:Grant 1972 3791:the Romans 3753:in 30 BC. 3739:Grant 1972 3690:Skeat 1953 3666:References 3626:cartouches 3499:Hermonthis 3430:Arsinoe II 3408:in Syria, 3390:Ptolemy IX 3386:gold coins 3363:Alexandria 3288:River Nile 3271:soldiers. 3269:phalangite 3265:Ptolemy IV 3257:Ptolemy II 3232:Alexandria 3218:Roman bust 2990:cartouches 2925:equestrian 2897:Principate 2733:hippodrome 2480:Malichus I 2241:golden age 2115:Mauretania 1991:at Carrhae 1916:in 36 BC. 1909:Aegean Sea 1869:Malichus I 1846:Ptolemy II 1668:Ionian Sea 1664:Brundisium 1515:triumviral 1477:Roman bust 1442:Thalamegos 1431:the Levant 1389:in 43 BC. 1323:abhorred. 1316:Lupercalia 1217:statue of 1183:Arsinoe II 1083:Nemi ships 1075:Thalamegos 1071:promenades 1067:Ptolemy IV 1059:Thalamegos 1006:Nile River 946:reservoirs 881:Roman bust 869:Roman bust 855:, 51–31 BC 845:Alexandria 792:Nile Delta 783:Arsinoe IV 692:in 49 BC. 674:The Romans 637:In 50 BC, 532:Hermonthis 410:See also: 342:for Rome. 340:Alexandria 324:Arsinoe IV 90:Early life 47:Via Cassia 11415:Cleopatra 11306:Cleopatra 11282:Cleopatra 11266:Cleopatra 11204:316294139 11185:899077769 11154:(1962) . 11134:Cleopatra 11050:Cleopatra 11041:671705946 11033:Cleopatra 10906:Cleopatra 10692:(2009) , 10668:(2014) , 10658:162835002 10481:803204281 10341:Cleopatra 10183:633408511 10081:(2007) , 4231:Citations 4183:Caesarion 4046:this bust 4020:provided 3990:Alexander 3953:Caesarion 3874:into the 3837:However, 3590:offerings 3555:synagogue 3478:Caesarion 3422:Cyrenaica 3414:Phoenicia 3236:Naukratis 3206:from the 3174:Egyptians 3170:governors 3156:. Ethnic 3132:that her 3099:West Asia 3075:Ptolemaic 3067:Antigonid 3055:oligarchy 3051:democracy 3030:conquered 3004:the model 2977:Caesarion 2973:Cleopatra 2913:Apis bull 2747:Cleopatra 2641:Timoneion 2610:Caesarion 2523:Caesarion 2515:Cleopatra 2279:signature 2249:Horace's 2188:signature 2137:gymnasium 1969:Pelousion 1822:Phoenicia 1631:, Algeria 1453:Aphrodite 1295:with the 1227:Cleopatra 1223:Aphrodite 1193:in black 1153:Caesareum 1144:Serapeion 1130:Calpurnia 1087:geography 1054:Suetonius 1038:Pharsalus 1023:Caesarion 944:into the 893:Via Appia 885:Cleopatra 867:A bronze 788:Pelousion 754:Cleopatra 655:Potheinos 643:proconsul 564:Gabiniani 482:, ruling 441:cartouche 400:poisoning 336:Caesarion 309:Potheinos 283:civil war 248:Cleopatra 120:Accession 11292:edition. 11288:, 1852, 11070:(1984), 11031:(1972), 10842:40311128 10671:Augustus 10604:(2010), 10582:(2003), 10469:(1936), 10445:(2005), 10338:(1972), 10295:(2008), 10124:(2004), 9960:(2003), 9920:29 March 9901:29 March 9882:29 March 9864:29 March 4218:Plutarch 4204:Stromata 4199:Octavian 4151:Plutarch 4078:Numidian 3903:For the 3644:See also 3543:New York 3535:obelisks 3410:Tripolis 3402:Damascus 3371:diademed 3339:such as 3261:cleruchs 3122:scholars 3071:Seleucid 3025:Diadochi 2996:, London 2917:depicted 2882:Augustus 2785:Charmion 2717:immolate 2563:Tainaron 2547:Antonias 2543:flagship 2501:A Roman 2484:Nabataea 2360:imperium 2342:Augustus 2311:ginesthō 2303:γινέσθωι 2260:earrings 2233:graffiti 2231:, while 2229:sex life 2204:ginesthō 2196:γινέσθωι 2069:Dionysos 2029:diademed 2021:denarius 1997:(modern 1965:Damascus 1938:Tiberius 1840:(modern 1828:) minus 1802:red hair 1751:Tarentum 1699:tetrarch 1676:Hispania 1654:(modern 1629:Cherchel 1485:triumvir 1461:Dionysus 1407:Serapion 1377:in 43 BC 1367:Octavian 1332:Octavian 1148:marriage 1134:freedman 1126:Anatolia 1099:Ethiopia 942:seawater 917:Plutarch 807:embalmed 762:the wars 729:Augustus 678:Achillas 600:drachmas 568:Germanic 398:through 355:Octavian 328:dictator 268:conflict 149:Downfall 95:Children 85:Ancestry 11394:History 11344:Portals 11274:at the 10859:314–315 10801:312–313 9939:6 March 4163:hairpin 3994:redhead 3884:Macedon 3632:of the 3618:Amun-Ra 3532:granite 3480:at the 3435:denarii 3418:Askalon 3367:obverse 3359:drachms 3345:granary 3316:textile 3292:tariffs 3118:Musaeum 2979:at the 2878:Macedon 2832:phallus 2807:), and 2801:knestis 2623:temples 2598:Pompeii 2511:Pompeii 2423:at the 2320:forgery 2275:papyrus 2251:Satires 2180:papyrus 2045:Armenia 2025:obverse 1995:Berytus 1881:Red Sea 1879:on the 1862:Jericho 1826:Lebanon 1759:Antioch 1755:legions 1731:(1885). 1711:Phasael 1656:Perugia 1652:Perusia 1519:Cilicia 1479:of the 1383:Lepidus 1095:Pytheas 1019:Ephesus 988:Pompeii 956:wells. 849:obverse 588:talents 546:in the 534:, near 516:Dendera 486:of the 484:pharaoh 473:, Paris 467:pharaoh 391:Agrippa 383:Octavia 379:divorce 311:raised 242:into a 214:of the 11425:Reigns 11247: 11219: 11202: 11183: 11168:404094 11166: 11140: 11121: 11102: 11078: 11056: 11039: 11017: 10998: 10979: 10954: 10933: 10912: 10884: 10865: 10840: 10807: 10780: 10759: 10740: 10721: 10702: 10678: 10656: 10650:297786 10648: 10614: 10590: 10568: 10547: 10528: 10507: 10479: 10455: 10431: 10409: 10388: 10369: 10348: 10324: 10305: 10281: 10254: 10227: 10203: 10181: 10155: 10134: 10110: 10091: 10067: 10045: 10024: 9997: 9970: 3998:diadem 3986:blonde 3846:Egypt. 3763:Romans 3547:London 3518:, and 3392:) and 3379:debase 3244:poleis 3238:, and 3158:Greeks 3073:, and 3046:poleis 3043:(i.e. 3018:, the 2889:powers 2824:diadem 2809:Strabo 2805:belone 2737:embalm 2713:Rhodes 2709:ephebi 2701:Koptos 2696:ephebi 2689:, 1787 2653:Rhodes 2637:Pharos 2602:diadem 2468:Actium 2464:Patrai 2451:diadem 2295:Actium 2153:Median 2123:gilded 1999:Beirut 1897:Itanos 1893:Cyrene 1889:Jordan 1806:diadem 1678:, and 1672:Italia 1660:Sikyon 1643:Fulvia 1591:Persia 1583:Σελήνη 1575:Selene 1563:Helios 1523:Cyprus 1481:consul 1457:Osiris 1422:Athens 1359:aureus 1357:Roman 1320:diadem 1261:Cicero 1233:, Rome 1195:basalt 1189:as an 1079:Tarsos 889:diadem 826:, and 667:Greece 633:, Rome 572:Gallic 550:. 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Reign of Cleopatra

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