Racial inequality in the United States

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the typical Black household had $ 5,677 in wealth, the typical Hispanic had $ 6,325, and the typical white household had $ 113,149. Furthermore, 35% of African American and 31% of Hispanic households had zero or negative net worth in 2009 compared to 15% of white households. While in 2005 median Asian household wealth was greater than white households at $ 168,103, by 2009 that changed when their net worth fell 54% to $ 78,066, partially due to the arrival of new Asian immigrants since 2004; not including newly arrived immigrants, Asian net wealth only dropped 31%. According to the Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances, of the 14 million Black households, only 5% have more than $ 350,000 in net worth while nearly 30% of white families have more than this amount. Less than 1% of Black families have over a million in net assets. while nearly 10% of white households, totaling over 8 million families have more than 1.3 million in net worth. According to the Federal Reserve of Cleveland the wealth gap between white and Black Americans has remained roughly the same since 1962, when the average white family had seven times the wealth of the average Black family.

2385:($ 5,000 or more) compared to one-third of white Americans. In addition, the 1989 Survey of Consumer Finances (SCF) reported that the mean and median values of those money transfers were significantly higher for white American households: the mean was $ 148,578 households compared to $ 85,598 for African American households and the median was $ 58,839 to $ 42,478. The large differences in wealth in the parent-generations were a dominant factor in prediction the differences between African American and white American prospective inheritances. Avery and Rendall used 1989 SCF data to discover that the mean value in 2002 of white Americans' inheritances was 5.46 times that of African Americans', compared to 3.65 that of current wealth. White Americans received a mean of $ 28,177 that accounted for 20.7% of their mean wealth while African Americans received a mean of $ 5,165 that accounted for 13.9% of their mean current wealth. Non-inherited wealth was more equally distributed than inherited wealth. 2634: 2460:

prefer that clients have at least $ 100,000 in investable assets and more than 50% have a minimum asset requirement of $ 500,000 or above. Because of this, financial planning is possibly beyond the reach of those with low income, which comprises a large portion of African-Americans and Hispanics. Fear of discrimination is another possible factor. Minorities may be distrustful of banks and lack of trust was commonly reported as why minorities, people with low education, and the poor chose not to have banking accounts. Evidence suggests that women of color are disproportionately likely to plan on using informal borrowing as their sole strategy for coping with an emergency expense, potentially due to lack of access to formal banking services.

2612:, researchers investigated the relationship between Hispanic origin and eviction in Milwaukee. These researchers saw a strong correlation between Hispanic tenants' risk of eviction and neighborhood racial composition. In Milwaukee neighborhoods that were two-thirds white, approximately 80% of landlords were white. In these same neighborhoods, the average eviction rate was 25%, yet the eviction rate for Hispanics was upwards of 35%. The study also found that Hispanic renters were significantly more likely to be evicted by white landlords than non-white landlords. According to Greenberg et al, these findings suggest that discrimination contributes to racial disparities in Milwaukee eviction rates. 2753:

process: the ability to make bail and the ability to access high-quality legal counsel. Due to the fact that both of these important factors cost money, it is unlikely that poor Black Americans are able to afford them and benefit from them. Sentencing is another crucial part of the process that determines how long individuals will remain incarcerated. Several sociological studies have found that poor offenders receive longer sentences for violent crimes and crimes involving drug use, unemployed offenders are more likely to be incarcerated than their employed counterparts, and then even with similar crimes and criminal records minorities were imprisoned more often than whites.

2718:(compared to 12.6% of the U.S. population that is Black). Additionally, Black males were imprisoned at a rate 6.5 times higher than that of their White male counterparts. According to a 2012 study by the U.S. Census Bureau, "over half the inmates incarcerated in our nation's jails is either Black or Hispanic." According to a report by the National Council of La Raza, research obstacles undermine the census of Latinos in prison, and "Latinos in the criminal justice system are seriously undercounted. The true extent of the overrepresentation of Latinos in the system probably is significantly greater than researchers have been able to document. 2452:

education increases one's chances of having a checking account by 2.8%. This difference in education level may explain the large proportion of "unbanked" Hispanics. The 2002 National Longitudinal Survey found that while only 3% of white Americans and 4% of African Americans had only an elementary education, close to 20% of Hispanics did and 43% of Hispanics had less than a high school education Ibarra and Rodriguez believe that another factor that influences the Hispanic use of banking accounts is credit. Latinos are also more likely than white Americans or African Americans to have no or a thin credit history: 22% of Latinos have no

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11 per 1,000 births which is higher than the US average of 5.7. There exists gaps in life expectancy between races with Black and Native Americans having the lowest life expectancies. The gap between Black and white Americans on average is four years; however, there is great variation between states and even on smaller levels. For example in Wisconsin this gap is six years, and in Washington, D.C., this gap is more than ten years. African American women have the highest rate of obesity or being overweight in the US and non-Hispanic Blacks are 1.3 times more likely to be obese than non-Hispanic Whites.

2361:, it exempted agricultural and domestic workers, which disproportionately affected African Americans and Hispanics. Consequently, the savings of retired or disabled African Americans was spent during old age instead of handed down and households had to support poor elderly family members. The Homeowner's Loan Corporation that helped homeowners during the Great Depression gave African American neighborhoods the lowest rating, ensuring that they defaulted at greater rates than White Americans. The 2559:. Housing policy in the United States has influenced housing segregation trends throughout history. Key legislation include the National Housing Act of 1934, the GI Bill, and the Fair Housing Act. Factors such as socioeconomic status, spatial assimilation, and immigration contribute to perpetuating housing segregation. The effects of housing segregation include relocation, unequal living standards, and poverty. However, there have been initiatives to combat housing segregation, such as the 2196: 2803:

mayhem, or torture, as well as less physical means of violence including general harassment, verbal abuse, and intimidation. it has been argued that the origins of racial inequality by way of police brutality in America date to colonial times when slavery was legal and widespread. Due to fear of slave revolts, White Americans began to organize groups of vigilantes who would use force to keep slaves from rebelling against their owners or escaping.

2916:, the large number of people seeking safety in designated shelters were disproportionately Black. In addition, the mortality rate for Blacks was 1.7 to 4 times higher than that of whites for all people ≥ 18." After Hurricane Katrina, many African Americans felt abandoned by the United States Government. 66% of African Americans "said that 'the government's response to would have been faster if most of the victims had been white. 50: 2827:

holding either a gun or non-threatening objects such as cellphones. The study found that armed Black men were shot more frequently than armed White men and were also shot more quickly. The police would also sometimes mistakenly shoot the unarmed Black targets, while neglecting to shoot the armed White targets. Militarized police units are more often deployed in Black neighborhoods even after adjusting for crime rates.

2389:(meaning two people could gain inheritances to contribute to the household) Keister discovered that large family size has a negative effect on wealth accumulation. These negative effects are worse for the poor and African Americans and Hispanics are more likely to be poor and have large families. More children also decrease the amount of gifts parents can give and the inheritance they leave behind for the children. 2727:

opportunities. On the community level, the disproportionate incarceration of people from poorer communities depletes the economic resources of said community and curates cycles of poverty that becomes increasingly harder to get rid of. These communities also face increased criminal justice involvement in their communities, making criminal justice contact a norm in the lives of an immense number of Black Americans.

2819:, a 32-year-old Black male who was pulled over for a broken taillight. After being told by officer Yanez, to take out his license and insurance, Castile told the officer he had a firearm and that he was reaching into his pocket to get his wallet. Seconds later he was shot and killed by Yanez, who claimed he believed Castile was pulling his gun out. Yanez was charged with manslaughter and acquitted at trial. 2227:

than there is for white Americans; correspondingly, African Americans rise to the top quartile from the bottom quartile at half the rate of white Americans. Bowles and Gintis conclude from this information that successful African Americans do not transfer the factors for their success as effectively as white Americans do. Other factors to consider in the recent widening of the minority wealth gap are the

2788:"Racial residential segregation is a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health". Racial segregation can result in decreased opportunities for minority groups in income, education, etc. While there are laws against racial segregation, study conducted by D. R. Williams and C. Collins focuses primarily on the impacts of racial segregation, which leads to differences between races. 2646:

populations in which suburbs consist of majority white populations and inner-cities consist of majority minority populations. According to Barnhouse-Walters (2001), the concentration of poor minority populations in inner-cities and the concentration of affluent white populations in the suburbs, "is the main mechanism by which racial inequality in educational resources is reproduced."

2604:, Desmond reported that approximately one in five black women will experience eviction, compared to one in fifteen white women. Eviction rates are also linked to the racial concentration of neighborhoods. The RVA Eviction Lab, in Richmond, Virginia, estimates that as the proportion of a neighborhood's black population increases by 10%, eviction rates would increase by 1.2%. 2430:

investment risk at the expense of higher yielding assets. These preferences may be due to low financial literacy leading to a lack of demand for investment services. According to Lusardi, even though the stock market increased in value in the 1990s, only 6-7% of African Americans and Hispanics held stocks, so they did not benefit as much from the value increase.

2920:" For a disproportionate share of the impoverished in New Orleans, many had, and continue to have, a difficult time preparing for storms. Factors such as, "cultural ignorance, ethnic insensitivity, racial isolation and racial bias in housing, information dissemination, and relief assistance" all greatly contribute to the disparities in disaster preparedness. 2207:

because it can be used as a tool to secure a desired quality of life or class status and enables individuals who possess it to pass their class status to their children. Family inheritance, which is passed down from generation to generation, helps with wealth accumulation. Wealth can also serve as a safety net against fluctuations in income and poverty.

2163:, writes, "Political rights have been circumscribed by race, class and gender since the founding of the United States, when the right to vote was restricted to White men of property. Throughout the history of the United States race has been used by Whites for legitimizing and creating difference and social, economic and political exclusion." 2159:

educational opportunities, unemployment rates, and incarceration rates. Current racial inequalities in the U.S. have their roots in over 300 years of cultural, economic, physical, legal, and political discrimination based on race. Leland T. Saito, Associate Professor of Sociology and American Studies & Ethnicity at the

2350:. This lowered the support African Americans had to open businesses and acquire wealth. In addition, after the bank failed, taking the assets of many African Americans with it, many African Americans did not trust banks. There was also the threat of lynching to any African American who achieved success. 2945:

populations have substantially lower scores than the white American population on average. Racial discrimination also results in impacts on the credit scores and economic security of communities of color—that ultimately, "entrenches and reinforces inequality by dictating a consumer's access to future

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Significant racial discrepancies have been reported in the United States involving police brutality. Police brutality in the United States is defined as "the unwarranted or excessive and often illegal use of force against civilians by U.S. police officers." It can come in the form of murder, assault,

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Those racially disparate employment consequences can arise from other forms of carceral contact, too, and they can have spillover effects on local communities. At the county level, for example, jail rather than prison incarceration has been found to significantly diminish local labor markets in areas

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In 2008, the prison population under federal and state correctional jurisdiction was over 1,610,446 prisoners. Of these prisoners, 20% were Hispanic (compared to 16.3% of the U.S. population that is Hispanic), 34% were White (compared to 63.7% of the U.S. population that is White), and 38% were Black

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Black tenants face significantly higher filing and eviction rates than their white counterparts. Looking at neighborhood racial composition in Milwaukee, sociologist Matthew Desmond found that majority-black neighborhoods had an average annual eviction rate of 7.4%, compared to 1.4% in majority-white

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The U.S. Census Bureau defines chronic poverty as living in poverty for 36 or more consecutive months. From the period between 2004 and 2006 the chronic poverty rate was 1.4% for non-Hispanic whites, 4.5% for Hispanics, and 8.4% for Blacks. Hispanics and Blacks experience much higher rates of chronic

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Though African Americans who attend college get a similar boost in income to white peers, they tend not to have a similar increase in wealth, largely because they spend more money helping poor family members, including older relatives who in white families are instead more likely to help younger kin.

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Krivo and Kaufman found that information supporting the fact that increases in income does not affect wealth as much for minorities as it does for white Americans. For example, a $ 10,000 increase in income for white Americans increases their home equity $ 17,770 while the same increase only increase

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Angel's research into inheritance showed that older Mexican American parents may give less financial assistance to their children than non-Hispanic White Americans because of their relatively high fertility rate so children have to compete for the available money. There are studies that indicate that

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because newly freed African American farmers did not own land or supplies and had to depend on the White Americans who rented the land and supplies out to them. At the same time, southern Blacks were trapped in debt and denied banking services while White citizens were given low-interest loans to set

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It is politically incorrect to assume that racial inequality is caused by differences in skills or preferences. The lack of open discussion leads to ethnic groups being treated equally. This means that diverse groups receive the same offers which have different advantages for different groups, which

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may be related to economic circumstances and poverty because the economic disadvantages of African Americans can be effective in harming efforts to accumulate wealth. However, there is a five times greater chance of downward mobility from the top quartile to the bottom quartile for African Americans

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in the United States. The wealth gap between Caucasian and African-American families studied nearly tripled, from $ 85,000 in 1984 to $ 236,500 in 2009. The study concluded that factors contributing to the inequality included years of home ownership (27%), household income (20%), education (5%), and

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found that for officer-involved shootings there were no racial disparities "in either the raw data or when contextual factors are taken into account". According to data from the Chicago Police Department police used more force against Black people than any other race despite the fact that they were

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This theory argues that the reason minority disadvantage exists is because the majority group is able to benefit from it. For example, in terms of the labor force, each job not taken by a Black person could be job that gets occupied by a white person. This theory is based on the view that the white

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Black Americans face consistently worse health outcomes than white, Asian, and Hispanic Americans. Black women are 2½ times more likely to die of maternal causes than white women and this rate increases to 3 times when compared to Hispanic Americans. The infant mortality rate for Black Americans is

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Lusardi's research revealed that education increases one's chances of having a banking account. A full high school education increases the chance of having a checking account by 15% compared to only an elementary education; having a parent with a high school education rather than only an elementary

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were the main cause of the wealth change from 2005 to 2009. Hispanics were hit the hardest by the housing market meltdown possibly because a disproportionate share of Hispanics live in California, Florida, Nevada, and Arizona, which are among the states with the steepest declines in housing values.

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between Caucasian and African American families substantially increased from $ 85,000 in 1984 to $ 236,500 in 2009. Many causes relate to racial inequality such as: Years of home ownership, household income, unemployment, education, lack of upward mobility, and inheritance. In 1863, two years prior

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The injustices of a criminal justice system disproportionately impact Black people; maintaining these racial disparities has a high cost for individuals, families, and communities. On an individual level, a criminal conviction may equate to loss of access to employment, housing, and public service

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industry maintaining Whiteness to act as a barrier to prevent those of color from equal financial development. This disparity has been debated, but never disputed due to its "very real" implications it has on African Americans. Data has shown that "among racial and ethnic groups, African Americans

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There is a large gap between the wealth of minority households and white households within the United States. The Pew Research Center's analysis of 2009 government data says the median wealth of white households is 20 times that of Black households and 18 times that of Hispanic households. In 2009

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of unarmed Blacks and that even when using crime as a benchmark "there is strong and statistically reliable evidence of anti-Black racial disparities in the killing of unarmed Americans by police". A 2019 study by Cesario et al. published in Social Psychological and Personality Science found that

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During the civil rights era, the existence of the racial disparities surrounding police brutality became more discussed. During peaceful protests for civil rights, some police would use tactics such as police dogs or fire hoses to control the protesters. In 1991, video footage was released of cab

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In 2016, the unemployment rate was 3.8% for Asians, 4.6% for non-Hispanic whites, 6.1% for Hispanics, and 9.0% for Blacks, all over the age of 16. In terms of unemployment, it can be seen that there are two-tiers: relatively low unemployment for Asians and whites, relatively high unemployment for

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In the United States, funding for public education relies greatly on local property taxes. Local property tax revenues may vary between different neighborhoods and school districts. This variance of property tax revenues amongst neighborhoods and school districts leads to inequality in education.

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The U.S. Census Bureau defines episodic poverty as living in poverty for less than 36 consecutive months. From the period between 2004 and 2006 the episodic poverty rate was 22.6% for non-Hispanic whites, 44.5% for Blacks, and 45.8% for Hispanics. Blacks and Hispanics experience rates of episodic

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Not taking other variables into account, Chong, Phillips, and Phillips survey of zip codes found that minority neighborhoods don't have the same access to financial planning services as white neighborhoods. There is also client segregation by investable assets. More than 80% of financial advisors

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rates. One-fourth of African Americans and Hispanics approach retirement with less than $ 1,000 net worth (without considering pensions and Social Security). Lower financial literacy is correlated with poor savings and adjustment behavior. Education is a strong predictor for wealth. One-fourth of

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When a disaster strikes—be it a hurricane, tornado, or fire—some people are inherently more prepared than others. "While all members of populations are affected by disasters, research findings show that racial and ethnic minorities are less likely to evacuate and more affected by disasters" than

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A potential cause of such disproportionately high incarceration rates for Black Americans is that Black Americans are disproportionately poor. Conviction is a crucial part of the process that leads to either guilt or innocence. There are two important factors that play a role in this part of the

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doubled from 1880 to 1940. Southern urban areas were the most segregated. Segregation was highly correlated with lynchings of African-Americans. Segregation adversely affected both black and white homeownership rates, as well as caused higher crime rates. Areas with housing segregation had worse

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Conley states that differences between African American and white American wealth begin because people with higher asset levels can take advantage of riskier investment instruments with higher rates of returns. Unstable income flows may lead to "cashing in" of assets or accumulation of debt over

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The U.S. Census Bureau defines length of poverty spell as the number of months spent in poverty. The median length of poverty spells was 4 months for non-Hispanic whites, 5.9 months for Blacks, and 6.2 months for Hispanics. The length of time spent in poverty varies by race. Non-Hispanic whites

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Avery and Rendall found that family attributes favored white Americans when it came to factor influencing the amount of inheritances. African Americans were 7.3% less likely to have live parents, 24.5% more likely to have three or more siblings, and 30.6% less likely to be married or cohabiting

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can be defined as "the total value of things families own minus their debts." In contrast, income can be defined as, "earnings from work, interest and dividends, pensions, and transfer payments." Wealth is an important factor in determining the quality of both individual and family life chances

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than White Americans and are more likely to be unarmed during those fatal instances. A study done by Joshua Correll at the University of Chicago shows what is called "The police officers dilemma", by setting up a video game in which police are given scenarios involving both Black and White men

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This theory argues that the effects of racial segregation pushed Blacks and Hispanics into the central city during a time period in which jobs and opportunities moved to the suburbs. This led to geographic separation between minorities and job opportunities which was compounded by struggles to

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Returning to the concept of residential segregation, it is known that affluence and poverty have become both highly segregated and concentrated in relation to race and location. Residential segregation and poverty concentration is most markedly seen in the comparison between urban and suburban

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Chong, Phillips and Phillips state that African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians invest less heavily in stocks than white Americans. Hispanics and in some ways African Americans accumulate wealth slower than white Americans because of preference for near-term saving, favoring liquidity and low

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In social science, racial inequality is typically defined as "imbalances in the distribution of power, economic resources, and opportunities." Racial inequalities have manifested in American society in ways ranging from racial disparities in wealth, poverty rates, bankruptcy, housing patterns,

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This theory argues that the unemployment disparity can be attributed to lower rates of academic success among minority groups (especially Black Americans) leading to a lack of skills necessary for entering the modern work force. The author remains unclear why Black Americans have low academic

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across racial groups. In 2009, the poverty rate across the nation was 9.9%. This data illustrates that Hispanics and Blacks experience disproportionately high percentages of poverty in comparison to non-Hispanics whites and Asians. In discussing poverty, it is important to distinguish between

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Bowman states that "in the United States, the most significant aspect of multigenerational wealth distribution comes in the forms of gifts and inheritances." However, the multigenerational absence of wealth and asset attainment for African Americans makes it almost impossible for them to make

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Racial profiling is defined as "any police-initiated action that relies on the race, ethnicity, or national origin, rather than the behavior of an individual or information that leads the police to a particular individual who has been identified as being, or having been, engaged in criminal

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elderly Hispanic parents of all backgrounds live with their adult children due to poverty and would choose to do otherwise, even if they had the resources to do so. African American and Latino families are less likely to financially aid adult children than non-Hispanic white families.

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are immense. Over 40 percent who are released will return to prison within the next few years. Those with criminal records who do not return to prison face significant struggles to find quality employment and income outcomes compared to those who do not have criminal records.

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is that racial profiling occurs at higher rates for Blacks and Hispanics. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva states that racial profiling can perhaps explain the over representation of Blacks and Hispanics in U.S. prisons. According to Michael L. Birzer, professor of criminal justice at

2876:. Instead, color-blind racism flourishes on the idea that race is no longer an issue in the country and that there are non-racial explanations for the state of inequality. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva writes that there are four frames of color-blind racism that support that view: 2642:

This inequality manifests in the form of available school financial resources which provide educational opportunities, facilities, and programs to students. For every student enrolled, the average nonwhite school district receives $ 2,226 less than a white school district.

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population has the most to gain from the discrimination of minority groups. In areas where there are large minority groups, this view predicts high levels of discrimination to occur for the reason that white populations stand to gain the most in those situations.

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The racial wealth gap is visible in terms of dollar for dollar wage and wealth comparisons. For example, middle-class Blacks earn seventy cents for every dollar earned by similar middle-class whites. Race can be seen as the "strongest predictor" of one's wealth.

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2010 study found that African American in Illinois zip codes had scores of less than 620 at a rate of 54.2%. In zip codes that were majority Latino, 31.4% of individuals had a credit score of less than 620, and only 47.3% had credit scores greater than

2448:. Minorities are more likely than white Americans to not have a banking account. 3.5% of Asians, 3.3% of white Americans, 21.7% of African Americans and 19.3% of Hispanics and 15.6% of remaining racial/ethnic categories do not have banking accounts. 2895:

Minimization of racism attempts to minimize the factor of race as a major influence in affecting the life chances of minorities. It writes off instances and situations that could be perceived as discrimination to be hypersensitivity to the topic of

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Naturalization explains racial inequality as a cause of natural occurrences. It claims that segregation is not the result of racial dynamics. Instead, it is the result of the naturally-occurring phenomena of individuals choosing likeness as their

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after adjusting for crime, there was "no systematic evidence of anti-Black disparities in fatal shootings, fatal shootings of unarmed citizens, or fatal shootings involving misidentification of harmless objects. A study by Harvard economist

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Cultural racism explains racial inequality through culture. Under this frame, racial inequalities are described as the result of stereotypical behavior of minorities. Stereotypical behavior includes qualities such as laziness and teenage

1014: 3009:. FICO has defended the system stating that income, property, education, and employment are not evenly distributed across society and it is irrational to think an objective measure would not exhibit these discrepancies. Tamara Nopper, 6445: 2771:

and director of its School of Community Affairs, "racial minorities, particularly African Americans, have had a long and troubled history of disparate treatment by United States Criminal Justice Authorities." A report by the

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up farms in the Midwest and Western United States. White homesteaders were able to go West and obtain unclaimed land through government grants, while the land grants and rights of African Americans were rarely enforced.

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The types of practices that take place under color blind racism are "subtle, institutional, and apparently nonracial." Those practices are not racially overt in nature such as racism under slavery, segregation, and

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significant contributions of wealth to the next generation. Data shows that financial inheritances could account for 10 to 20 percent of the difference between African American and White American household wealth.

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2012 study examined the credit scores for about 200,000 consumers finding the median FICO score in majority minority zip codes was in the 34th percentile, while it was in the 52nd percentile for low minority zip

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time, even if the time-averaged streams of income and savings are the same. African Americans may be less likely to invest in the stock market because they have a smaller parental head-start and safety net.

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to provide shelter and supplies to freed slaves. It was supported by the Republican Congress over the veto of Andrew Johnson, but was soon de-funded and abandoned by a Democrat-controlled Congress in 1872.

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neighborhoods. In this study, Desmond also emphasizes the dual disadvantage black women face in housing—black women face the highest eviction rates of any demographic group. In an interview with

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Farley, John E. (1987). "Disproportionate Black and Hispanic Unemployment in U.S. Metropolitan Areas: The Roles of Racial Inequality, Segregation and Discrimination in Male Joblessness".

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2006 studied US counties with high Black, Indigenous, and people of color populations determining that those countries had lower average credit scores than predominantly white counties.

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College attendance, analyzed by race and schools' overall admission rates. Shown by comparative areas of upper four pie charts, elite schools make up a small fraction of all enrollment.

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Brent Kabler, Missouri Department of Insurance, Insurance-Based Credit Scores: Impact on Black Indigenous and people of color and Low Income Populations in Missouri (Jan. 2004)

6009:"A Typology of Civilians Shot and Killed by US Police: a Latent Class Analysis of Firearm Legal Intervention Homicide in the 2014–2015 National Violent Death Reporting System" 2582:(and whites are more likely to support those regulations). Strict land use regulations are an important driver of housing segregation along racial lines in the United States. 2381:

Using the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) of 1992 Avery and Rendall estimated that only around one-tenth of African Americans reported receiving inheritances or substantial

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Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Report to the Congress on Credit Scoring and Its Effects on the Availability and Affordability of Credit 80-81 (Aug. 2007)

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2004 study found high Black, Indigenous, and people of color zip codes to have significantly worse scores than non-Black, Indigenous, and people of color zip codes.

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Fothergill, Alice; Maestas, Enrique G. M.; Darlington, JoAnne DeRouen (June 1999). "Race, Ethnicity and Disasters in the United States: A Review of the Literature".

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Fair, Isaac & Co., The Effectiveness of Scoring on Low-toModerate Income and High-Black Indigenous and people of color Area Populations 22, Fig. 9 (Aug. 1997)

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African Americans and Hispanics that have less than a high school education have no wealth, but even with increased education, large differences in wealth remain.

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helped to foster wealth accumulation for African Americans. However, it failed in 1874, partially because of suspicious high-risk loans to White banks and the

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Walker, Renee; Keane, Christopher; Burke, Jessica (2010). "Disparities and Access to Healthy Food in the United States: A Review of Food Deserts Literature".

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Barnhouse Walters, Pamela (2001). "Educational Access and the State: Historical Continuities and Discontinuities in Racial Inequality in American Education".

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Sarah Duda & Geoff Smith, Woodstock Institute, Bridging the Gap: Credit Scores and Economic Opportunity in Illinois Communities of Color 8 (Sept. 2010),

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found that African Americans and Hispanics strongly overrepresented in the lowest scoring categories regarding auto insurance company's use of credit scores.

6259:"Racial Disparities in Police Use of Deadly Force Against Unarmed Individuals Persist After Appropriately Benchmarking Shooting Data on Violent Crime Rates" 2307:, a Southern Democrat who also opposed political rights for African Americans and protections against white violence in the South. Slavery continued in the 2240:

From 2005 to 2009 Hispanic homeowners' home equity declined by Half, from $ 99,983 to $ 49,145, with the homeownership rate decreasing by 4% to 47%. A 2015

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2004 research study found fewer than 40% of consumers who lived in high-Black Indigenous and people of color neighborhoods had credit scores of over 701.

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2004 study found the median credit score for whites in 2001 was 738, but the median credit score for African Americans was 676 and for Hispanics was 670.

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Chong, James; Phillips, Lynn; Phillips, Michael (2011). "The Impact of Neighborhood Ethnic Composition on Availability of Financial Planning Services".

3204: 3779: 2244: 7915: 6754: 4206: 2712: 1894: 1255: 6919: 5920: 7422: 7249: 2026: 684: 2884:. This frame is based in liberal ideas such as equal opportunity, individualism, and choice. It uses these ideas as a basis to explain inequality. 7546: 6007:

Wertz, Joseph; Azrael, Deborah; Berrigan, John; Barber, Catherine; Nelson, Eliot; Hemenway, David; Salhi, Carmel; Miller, Matthew (1 June 2020).

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Lusardi states that African Americans and Hispanics are more likely to face means-tested programs that discourage asset possession due to higher

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Ibarra, Beatriz; Rodriguez, Erik (2006). "Closing The Wealth Gap: Eliminating Structural Barriers To Building Assets in the Latino Community".

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Leland T. Saito (1998). "Race and Politics: Asian Americans, Latinos, and Whites in a Los Angeles Suburb". p. 154. University of Illinois Press

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Krivo, Lauren J.; Kaufman, Robert L. (2004). "Housing and Wealth Inequality: Racial-Ethnic Differences in Home Equity in the United States".

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Robert B. Avery, Paul S. Calem, & Glenn B. Canner, Credit Report Accuracy and Access to Credit, Federal Reserve Bulletin (Summer 2004)

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The outcomes for Black Americans because of this bias are higher interest rates on home loans and auto loans; longer loan terms; increased

2567: 2108: 1260: 2763: 7823: 7374: 7242: 7086:

Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, Analysis of Differences Between Consumer- and Creditor-Purchased Credit Scores, at 18, Sept. 2012,

3103: 3086: 2628: 2622: 2366: 1230: 826: 347: 2672:

commute to jobs in the suburbs due to lack of means of transportation. This ultimately led to high unemployment rates among minorities.

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being hit over 50 times by multiple police with their batons. The police were later acquitted for their actions which resulted in the

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Gross, Samuel R.; Possley, Maurice; Otterbourg, Ken; Stephens, Clara; Weinstock Paredes, Jessica; O'Brien, Barbara (September 2022).

3801:

Burton, Dawn (October 2018). "The US Racial Wealth Gap and the Implications for Financial Inclusion and Wealth Management Policies".

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or other minority groups equal access to housing through the process of misinformation, denial of realty and financing services, and

3017:

has stated that to solve the true issue of racism is not just to regulate it, as politics focus on, but to eliminate it in favor of

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2004 study found that African American and Hispanic consumers constituted over 60% of the consumers having the worst credit scores.

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Credit score systems are well known to contain racial bias and have been shown to increase racial disparities as studies show that

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Stearns, Linda Brewster; Logan, John R. (1986). "The Racial Structuring of the Housing Market and Segregation in Suburban Areas".

7808: 7331: 3108: 2288: 2180:

familial financial support and/or inheritance (5%). In an analysis of the American Opportunity Accounts Act, a bill to introduce

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scores-impacts-consumers-automobile-insurance-report-congress-federaltrade/p044804facta_report_credit-based_insurance_scores.pdf

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health outcomes for both whites and Blacks. Residential segregation accounts for a substantial share of the Black-white gap in

2223: 2067: 1995: 689: 439: 267: 252: 247: 77: 6824: 5259: 3399: 7894: 7634: 7629: 7503: 5807: 5633: 5543: 4653: 3580: 3553: 3310: 3185: 2797: 2272: 2147: 576: 507: 232: 7119:

Donncha Marron (2007), "'Lending by numbers': credit scoring and the constitution of risk within American consumer credit",

7639: 7624: 7523: 7455: 6555: 3514: 3113: 2482: 2478: 2402: 2019: 1036: 322: 136: 7795: 7687: 7508: 7407: 7326: 7301: 7286: 7105: 7074: 6667: 5690: 2708: 1696: 1352: 1265: 1156: 816: 634: 257: 242: 6597: 6310:"A Multi-Level Bayesian Analysis of Racial Bias in Police Shootings at the County-Level in the United States, 2011–2014" 2188:

reported that by 2019 white families had more than seven times the wealth of the average Black family, according to the

7920: 7321: 7265: 7174: 2606:

Hispanic renters also face higher filing and eviction rates than their white counterparts. In a study published in the

2308: 1250: 716: 7087: 5854: 2815:. Allegations of police brutality continue to plague American police. An alleged example of police brutality includes 2175:

Institute on Assets and Social Policy which followed the same sets of families for 25 years found that there are vast

7884: 7725: 7697: 7609: 7561: 7465: 7440: 7402: 7351: 7346: 6105:"Mapping fatal police violence across U.S. metropolitan areas: Overall rates and racial/ethnic inequities, 2013-2017" 5861: 5277: 4697: 3925: 3729: 2773: 2453: 2252: 2232: 2160: 890: 721: 188: 166: 7049: 6915:

Freddie Mac, Automated Underwriting: Making Mortgage Lending Simpler and Fairer for America's Families (Sept. 1996)

2369:(VA) shut out African Americans by giving loans to suburbs instead of central cities after they were first founded. 2176: 7879: 7682: 7594: 7450: 7154: 7062: 7048:

Federal Trade Commission, CreditBased Insurance Scores: Impacts on Consumers of Automobile Insurance 3 (July 2007)

7009: 2071:

to emancipation, Black people owned 0.5 percent of the national wealth, while in 2019 it is just over 1.5 percent.

1649: 1478: 1372: 821: 711: 4256: 3876:

Bowman, Scott W. (2011). "Multigenerational Interactions in Black Middle Class Wealth and Asset Decision Making".

7753: 7712: 7657: 6897: 5894: 3946:

Avery, Robert B.; Rendall, Michael S. (2002). "Lifetime Inheritances of Three Generations of Whites and Blacks".

3784: 3480: 2986: 2881: 2089: 2012: 1225: 728: 477: 272: 5945: 4997:

Logan, Trevon D.; Parman, John M. (1 May 2017). "Segregation and Homeownership in the Early Twentieth Century".

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has also been shown to discriminate along racial lines, disproportionately harming black and Latino populations.

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Keister, Lisa A. (2002). "Race, Family Structure, and Wealth: The Effect of Childhood Family on Adult Assets".

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Teresa, Benjamin F. "The geography of eviction in Richmond: beyond poverty." RVA Eviction Lab. Retrieved from

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4157:"Informal Borrowers and Financial Exclusion: The Invisible Unbanked at the Intersections of Race and Gender" 2868:

racism. Color-blind racism refers to "contemporary racial inequality as the outcome of nonracial dynamics."

7735: 7730: 7316: 7273: 7146: 7007:. Building Assets, Building Credit: A Symposium on Improving Financial Services in Low-Income Communities. 6489: 5526:

Douglass S. Massey (2004). "The New Geography of Inequality in Urban America". In Henry, C. Michael (ed.).

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were three times as likely to have FICO scores below 620 as whites and that Hispanics were twice as likely.

2816: 2501: 2276: 2074: 1183: 1131: 67: 7581: 7432: 6999: 6916: 3118: 2279:, depriving them of all property, and in some cases family. In order to prevent rebellion or escape, the 2189: 1837: 1681: 1086: 679: 617: 7024: 3302:

Racism without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States

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1997 study found Black, Indigenous, and people of color neighborhood consumers had lower credit scores.

7745: 7649: 7533: 2343: 2100:. African Americans are less likely to receive inheritance and more likely to aid poor family members. 2082: 1946: 701: 367: 82: 6816: 5316: 4774:

Eisenhaur, Elizabeth (10 December 2001). "In Poor Health: Supermarket Redlining and Urban Nutrition".

7566: 7036:

Matt Fellowes, Brookings Inst., Credit Scores, Reports, and Getting Ahead in America 9-10 (May 2006)

6892: 6890: 6839: 6837: 6548: 5176: 5088: 3066: 2259: 1277: 1091: 985: 870: 524: 492: 146: 72: 7176:

Credit Scoring and Insurance: Costing Consumers Billions and Perpetuating the Economic Racial Divide

7112: 5675: 4435: 4231: 4071: 7556: 6585: 5434: 2979: 2768: 2412:

the home equities for Asians by $ 9,500, Hispanics by $ 15,150, and African Americans by $ 15,900.

2300: 2228: 1543: 1431: 1272: 1041: 970: 798: 753: 607: 487: 467: 397: 327: 203: 6899:

Past Imperfect: How Credit Scores and Other Analytics "Bake In" and Perpetuate Past Discrimination

6887: 6834: 6375:

Cesario, Joseph; Taylor, Carley; Burkel, Nicole; Tress, Trevor; Johnson, David J. (17 July 2019).

6065: 2444:

The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation in 2009 found that 7.7% of United States households are

3143: 3071: 3061: 1842: 1822: 1676: 1666: 1624: 1240: 1081: 935: 905: 900: 843: 778: 763: 696: 669: 654: 33: 5985: 880: 7702: 4193: 4066: 3177: 2865: 2812: 2296: 1941: 1914: 1904: 1362: 1342: 1205: 1076: 965: 915: 885: 865: 793: 773: 748: 743: 738: 649: 612: 585: 556: 551: 131: 121: 6960: 6200:"Militarization fails to enhance police safety or reduce crime but may harm police reputation" 5654: 5535: 4043: 2860:, that in the since the Civil Rights Era, the United States has now switched to a new form of 7336: 6498: 5662: 4644: 4631: 3859:"The Fight Over Andrew Johnson's Impeachment Was a Fight for the Future of the United States" 3046: 3041: 2131:, with racial inequality between White affluent suburbs and poor minorities in inner-cities. 1909: 1869: 1802: 1691: 1639: 1558: 1307: 1071: 975: 950: 945: 930: 925: 920: 860: 808: 768: 674: 644: 534: 141: 6642:"New Data Shows Police Use More Force Against Black Citizens Even Though Whites Resist More" 6484: 5408:

https://evictioninnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Richmond-GeographiesofEviction.pdf

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From Inherent Racial Bias to Incorrect Data—The Problems With Current Credit Scoring Models

6620: 6321: 6116: 4381: 3081: 2331: 2319: 2051:. These can also be seen as a result of historic oppression, inequality of inheritance, or 1780: 1292: 1166: 875: 833: 783: 758: 566: 529: 262: 116: 2663:

Several theories have been offered to explain the large racial gap in unemployment rates:

8: 7677: 7281: 6544: 6480: 6173: 4207:"The U.S. finally has better maternal mortality data. Can it now help save more mothers?" 3682:"Financial Education and the Saving Behavior of African American and Hispanic Households" 3491: 3481:"The Roots of the Widening Racial Wealth Gap: Explaining the Black-White Economic Divide" 3230: 3138: 2560: 2172: 1956: 1817: 1436: 1332: 1312: 1101: 1009: 960: 940: 910: 803: 590: 392: 6325: 6120: 5175:

Andrews, Rodney; Casey, Marcus; Hardy, Bradley L.; Logan, Trevon D. (1 September 2017).

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experience the shortest length of poverty spells when compared to Blacks and Hispanics.

7541: 7513: 7218: 7193: 7136: 6731: 6706: 6577: 6526: 6462: 6454: 6413: 6376: 6352: 6309: 6234: 6199: 6147: 6104: 6041: 6008: 5739: 5577: 5358: 5283: 5152: 5135: 5069: 4834: 4826: 4791: 4756: 4574: 4539: 4531: 4412: 4370: 4346: 4311: 4176: 4092: 3998: 3963: 3893: 3818: 3346: 3170: 2857: 2335: 2241: 1721: 1716: 1706: 1654: 1644: 1619: 1553: 1511: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1317: 602: 7075:

http://www.woodstockinst.org/sites/default/files/attachments/bridgingthegapcreditscore

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Police Use of Force: Important Issues Facing the Police and the Communities They Serve

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2007 report found significant racial disparities in 300,000 credit files matched with

7234: 7223: 7194:"Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health" 7140: 6805: 6797: 6736: 6675: 6581: 6569: 6530: 6518: 6510: 6437: 6418: 6400: 6357: 6339: 6290: 6285: 6239: 6221: 6152: 6134: 6085: 6046: 6028: 5839: 5803: 5650: 5629: 5591: 5539: 5528: 5287: 5273: 5240: 5196: 5157: 5116: 5108: 5061: 5053: 5014: 4979: 4938: 4795: 4748: 4693: 4686: 4649: 4543: 4417: 4399: 4351: 4333: 4180: 4084: 4039: 3967: 3921: 3897: 3822: 3725: 3576: 3549: 3306: 3181: 3098: 3006: 2954: 2913: 2777: 2185: 2044: 2040: 1988: 1899: 1827: 1812: 1595: 1538: 1337: 1245: 1136: 1056: 895: 171: 6377:"Officer characteristics and racial disparities in fatal officer-involved shootings" 5743: 5362: 5104: 5073: 4838: 4096: 4002: 3410: 2066:

There are vast differences in wealth across racial groups in the United States. The

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SpearIt (2 April 2015). "How Mass Incarceration Underdevelops Latino Communities".

5573: 5350: 5265: 5230: 5188: 5147: 5100: 5045: 5006: 4969: 4928: 4818: 4783: 4760: 4740: 4566: 4523: 4470: 4407: 4389: 4341: 4323: 4168: 4076: 4029: 4018:"The Political Economy of Education, Financial Literacy, and the Racial Wealth Gap" 3990: 3955: 3885: 3810: 3758: 3649: 3619:"Wealth Gaps Rise to Record Highs Between Whites, Blacks, Hispanics: Twenty-to-One" 3338: 3253: 3092: 3002: 2938: 2552: 2358: 2295:

from white owners to the people formerly forced to work it was attempted under the

1951: 1936: 1864: 1785: 1755: 1570: 1406: 1106: 664: 659: 497: 387: 7088:

http://files.consumerfinance.gov/f/201209_Analysis_Differences_Consumer_Credit.pdf

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Stuck in Place: Urban Neighborhoods and the End of Progress Toward Racial Equality

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were seven times more likely to be falsely convicted compared to White Americans.

2077:, African Americans were treated as property. After the American Civil War, Black 7050:

https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/credit-based-insurance5

6948: 6923: 6853: 6668:"Minneapolis Police Use Force Against Black People at 7 Times the Rate of Whites" 6334: 6129: 6064:

Nix, Justin; Campbell, Bradley A.; Byers, Edward H.; Alpert, Geoffrey P. (2017).

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While free African Americans owned around $ 50 million by 1860, farm tenancy and

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on the long-term consequences of discriminatory lending practices found that the

1966: 1874: 1770: 1711: 1563: 1548: 1528: 1493: 1200: 1111: 1046: 838: 788: 561: 412: 6592: 5341:

Desmond, Matthew (July 2012). "Eviction and the Reproduction of Urban Poverty".

5177:"Location matters: Historical racial segregation and intergenerational mobility" 3443:

Combating Poverty and Inequality: Structural Change, Social Policy, and Politics

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http://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/rptcongress/creditscore/creditscore.pdf

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Urban Housing Segregation of Minorities in Western Europe and the United States

4394: 3763: 3746: 3476: 3367: 2304: 2060: 1961: 1919: 1889: 1879: 1797: 1790: 1775: 1765: 1585: 1521: 1463: 1458: 1443: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1096: 1031: 539: 512: 357: 41: 7132: 6961:

Report to the 79th Legislature--Use of Credit Information by Insurers in Texas

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records with African American scores being half that of white, non-Hispanics.

2873: 2835: 2347: 2081:

became trapped in debt. African Americans were rarely able to homestead. The

2078: 1973: 1580: 1516: 1501: 1357: 1322: 1302: 1173: 1116: 1051: 434: 337: 7209: 6793: 6433: 6395: 6216: 6081: 4822: 3654: 3205:"Why the racial wealth gap persists, more than 150 years after emancipation" 2848:

is Black but they are subjected to nearly 60% of total police use of force.

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Criminal records lead to employment and income struggles. Inability to make

7227: 6844: 6809: 6740: 6611: 6441: 6422: 6361: 6243: 6156: 6050: 5219:"The Geography of Inequality: How Land Use Regulation Produces Segregation" 5120: 5065: 4752: 4639: 4421: 4355: 4312:"Contributors to Wisconsin's persistent black-white gap in life expectancy" 4257:"Infant Mortality | Maternal and Infant Health | Reproductive Health | CDC" 4088: 3780:

Impact of the US Housing Crisis on the Racial Wealth Gap Across Generations

2840: 2572: 2195: 2128: 1807: 1686: 1506: 1473: 1453: 1377: 1367: 1347: 1327: 955: 853: 848: 571: 546: 402: 342: 307: 277: 6451:. If this is an intentional citation to a retracted paper, please replace 5759:"The Racialized Consequences of Jail Incarceration on Local Labor Markets" 5269: 5033: 5010: 4080: 4034: 4017: 3721:

Being Black, Living in the Red: Race, Wealth, and Social Policy in America

3254:"Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States:2009" 2844:

less likely to resist arrest than Whites. Around 20% of the population of

7498: 7460: 4570: 3022: 3018: 2845: 2808: 2382: 2292: 2280: 2097: 1701: 1661: 1629: 1488: 1448: 1282: 1195: 1146: 1121: 1021: 706: 424: 407: 362: 282: 5498: 4974: 4957: 4371:"Contributors to the black-white life expectancy gap in Washington D.C." 4232:"Infant Mortality and African Americans – The Office of Minority Health" 7864: 7785: 7780: 6722: 6257:

Ross, Cody T.; Winterhalder, Bruce; McElreath, Richard (18 June 2020).

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Segregation by Design: Local Politics and Inequality in American Cities

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Housing Discrimination and Residential Segregation as Causes of Poverty

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http://www.housingfinance.org/uploads/Publicationsmanager/9706_Aut.pdf

5136:"Racial residential segregation and black low birth weight, 1970–2010" 2255:

will likely widen the Black-white wealth gap for the next generation.

2092:

disproportionately affected African Americans. Savings were spent for

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https://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/bulletin/2004/summer04_credit.pdf

5435:"Discrimination in Eviction: Empirical Evidence and Legal Challenges" 3123: 3010: 2056: 1884: 1832: 1533: 1126: 227: 6755:"Remembering Katrina: Wide racial divide over government's response" 6485:"An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force" 5826:

Risse, Mathias; Richard Zechauser (April 2004). "Racial Profiling".

3342: 2551:

Housing segregation in the United States is the practice of denying

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in comparison to 4% of white Americans and 3% of African Americans.

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Cutler, David; Glaeser, Edward (1997). "Are Ghettos Good or Bad?".

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disproportionately high incarceration rates of Blacks and Hispanics

2445: 1849: 1671: 1590: 1235: 1161: 1066: 1026: 382: 377: 372: 297: 292: 237: 6825:"Credit scores in America perpetuate racial injustice. Here's how" 6549:

An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force

3545:

Black Wealth, White Wealth: a New Perspective on Racial Inequality

2949:

Numerous studies have found racial disparities in credit scoring:

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Credit scores are supposed to be race-neutral. That's impossible.

6707:"Disparity in disaster preparedness between racial/ethnic groups" 5301: 2931:

Criticism of credit scoring systems in the United States § Racism

2514:

poverty that are nearly double the rates of non-Hispanic whites.

2139: 302: 198: 178: 151: 126: 49: 5476:"For Most College Students, Affirmative Action Was Never Enough" 5419: 5331: 4645:

American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass

2372: 6554:(Report). NBER Working Papers (Revised January 2018 ed.). 5034:"Segregation, Racial Structure, and Neighborhood Violent Crime" 5032:

Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D.; Kuhl, Danielle C. (2009).

4436:"Obesity and African Americans – The Office of Minority Health" 3252:

DeNavas-Wait, Carmen; Bernadette D. Proctor; Jessica C. Smith.

2861: 2203: 2199:

Median household income along ethnic lines in the United States

2112: 2052: 1287: 287: 183: 161: 156: 106: 5852: 4369:

Roberts, Max; Reither, Eric N.; Lim, Sojung (27 August 2020).

4310:

Roberts, Max T.; Reither, Eric N.; Lim, Sojung (5 July 2019).

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Deena, Greenberg; Gershenson, Carl; Desmond, Matthew (2016).

3640:

Aliprantis, Dionissi; Carroll, Daniel R. (28 February 2019).

2579: 1297: 111: 6849:"Credit Scores Could Soon Get Even Creepier and More Biased" 5946:"Philando Castile shooting: Dashcam video shows rapid event" 4615:

Where We Live Now: Immigration and Race in the United States

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Kochhar, Rakesh; Fry, Richard; Taylor, Paul (26 July 2011).

2822:

Black Americans are 2–3 times more likely to be killed in a

6779: 5921:"The Long, Painful History of Police Brutality in the U.S." 5488:

Data as of 2021. Data source: U.S. Department of Education.

5308: 4499:

Huttman, Elizabeth D.; Blauw, Wim; Saltman, Juliet (1991).

3368:"Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey" 2135: 1931: 1760: 7001:

Hitting the Wall: Credit As an Impediment to Homeownership

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Niemesh, Gregory T.; Shester, Katharine L. (1 July 2020).

4688:

Race, ethnicity, and minority housing in the United States

3920:. Baltimore Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press. 3642:"What Is Behind the Persistence of the Racial Wealth Gap?" 3445:. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development 3362: 3360: 2593:

Eviction in the United States § Black and Hispanic renters

6256: 6066:"A Bird's Eye View of Civilians Killed by Police in 2015" 6006: 5800:

Rethinking the Color Line: Readings in Race and Ethnicity

5622:"Racial Profiling: The Intersection of Race and Policing" 5584: 4956:

Cook, Lisa D.; Logan, Trevon D.; Parman, John M. (2018).

4464: 4462: 4460: 4458: 4456: 3245: 2880:

Abstract liberalism uses ideas associated with political

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Schwartz, Gabriel L.; Jahn, Jaquelyn L. (24 June 2020).

3724:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. 2440:

Criticism of credit scoring systems in the United States

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How Algorithms Can Bring Down Minorities' Credit Scores

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Danzinger, Shelton H. (2001). Robert H. Haveman (ed.).

3541: 3357: 3231:"A Tale of Two Debtors: Bankruptcy Disparities by Race" 2666: 2322:

was created as part of the War Department by President

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Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University

6586: 6063: 5825: 5432: 5174: 4453: 3575:. New York: Russel Sage Foundation. pp. 359–391. 2739:

with relatively high proportions of Black residents.

2313:

Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

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Logan, Trevon D.; Parman, John M. (1 February 2018).

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4471:"Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: 2004-2006 Poverty" 3398:

Sabol, William J.; Heather C. West; Matthew Cooper.

2721: 6937:

http://market360online.com/sqlimages/1261/36693.pdf

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The University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–23. 4368: 4309: 3639: 3328: 2713:Race in the United States criminal justice system 2578:White communities are more likely to have strict 1895:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States 7907: 7152: 7038:https://www.ciaonet.org/attachments/2800/uploads 5467: 4866: 4730: 4673:. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. 3616: 2702: 2575:. Segregation reduced upward economic mobility. 2235:. The Pew Research Center found that plummeting 7191: 6204:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5628:. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press. pp. 83–84. 5442:Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 5089:"Segregation and mortality over time and space" 4955: 4897:Tighe, J. Rosie; Mueller, Elizabeth J. (2013). 4513: 4135: 3479:; Tatjana Meschede; Sam Osoro (February 2013). 3294: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3192:the hidden cost of being african american isbn. 2609:Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review 2273:1808 abolition of the transatlantic slave trade 1539:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting) 7118: 6949:https://insurance.mo.gov/reports/credscore.pdf 5133: 4917:"The National Rise in Residential Segregation" 4626: 4624: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3606: 3604: 3602: 3515:"Can Baby Bonds Shrink the Racial Wealth Gap?" 2523:poverty when compared to non-Hispanic whites. 2275:, Africans would be captured and brought into 2222:Conley believes that the cause of Black-White 2111:shut out African Americans by giving loans to 1015:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups 7250: 5983: 5688: 5534:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 4808: 4648:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993, 3857:Annette Gordon-Reed (January–February 2018). 3542:Oliver, Melvin L.; Thomas M. Shapiro (2006). 3298: 2856:It is hypothesized by some scholars, such as 2373:Inheritance and parental financial assistance 2123:caused unequal living standards and poverty. 2020: 6843: 6263:Social Psychological and Personality Science 6102: 5986:"Race and Reasonableness in Police Killings" 5592:"USA QuickFacts from the U.S. Census Bureau" 4901:. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 289–291. 4896: 4556: 4287:"The Racial Life Expectancy Gap in the U.S." 4056: 3945: 3744: 3409:. U.S. Department of Justice. Archived from 3275: 3129:Reparations for slavery in the United States 2433: 6368: 5566:American Journal of Economics and Sociology 5473: 5086: 4996: 4914: 4621: 4503:. Durham and London: Duke University Press. 3599: 3471: 3469: 3436:"Tackling Ethnic and Regional Inequalities" 3324: 3322: 3104:Racial achievement gap in the United States 3087:Native Americans and reservation inequality 2762:activity." Another potential cause for the 2629:Racial achievement gap in the United States 2623:Educational inequality in the United States 2047:and advantages and disparities that affect 1231:List of people killed for being transgender 7257: 7243: 7172: 6665: 6473: 6465:|...|intentional=yes}} 5257: 5216: 4958:"Racial Segregation and Southern Lynching" 4915:Logan, Trevon D.; Parman, John M. (2017). 4119:Journal of Financial Service Professionals 3675: 3673: 3671: 3669: 3667: 3665: 2684: 2526: 2177:differences in wealth across racial groups 2027: 2013: 7217: 6730: 6563: 6412: 6394: 6351: 6333: 6284: 6274: 6233: 6215: 6146: 6128: 6040: 5802:. Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp. 192–203. 5797: 5793: 5791: 5789: 5770: 5615: 5613: 5559: 5557: 5555: 5521: 5519: 5234: 5151: 4973: 4932: 4773: 4411: 4393: 4345: 4327: 4070: 4033: 3762: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3653: 3568: 3172:The Hidden Cost of Being African American 3163: 3161: 3159: 2907:Environmental racism in the United States 2658: 7916:Economic inequality in the United States 5691:"Racial Inequality in the United States" 4112: 4110: 4108: 4106: 4015: 3941: 3939: 3937: 3909: 3907: 3745:Bowles, Samuel; Gintis, Herbert (2002). 3466: 3319: 2732:consequences of having a criminal record 2632: 2547:Housing segregation in the United States 2463: 2263:had the highest poverty rate at 27.4%”. 2194: 318:Social determinants of health in poverty 18:Race and inequality in the United States 6537: 6197: 5918: 5895:"Police brutality in the United States" 5648: 5340: 4881: 4612: 3980: 3679: 3662: 3512: 3393: 3391: 3389: 3228: 3167: 3109:Racial segregation in the United States 14: 7908: 7819:Family responsibilities discrimination 6822: 6704: 6700: 6698: 6696: 6639: 5786: 5756: 5619: 5610: 5563: 5552: 5516: 5378:"America's Insidious Eviction Problem" 5212: 5210: 4910: 4908: 4851: 4683: 4668: 4664: 4662: 4608: 4606: 4590: 4588: 4280: 4278: 4129: 3875: 3869: 3800: 3738: 3717: 3702: 3562: 3407:Bureau of Justice Statistics: Bulletin 3156: 3134:Sociology of race and ethnic relations 3057:Gender inequality in the United States 2912:their Caucasian counterparts. "During 2730:After being released from prison, the 2540: 2505:episodic poverty and chronic poverty. 2415: 7238: 6543: 6479: 6168: 6166: 5889: 5887: 5714: 5708: 5375: 4711: 4709: 4103: 4050: 3934: 3913: 3904: 3777:Sarah Burd-Sharps and Rebecca Rasch. 3689:Report for the US Department of Labor 3548:. New York: Routledge. pp. 2–7. 3494:Institute on Assets and Social Policy 3428: 2851: 2834:concluded that there was evidence of 2798:Police brutality in the United States 2783: 2693: 2649: 6556:National Bureau of Economic Research 6307: 6198:Mummolo, Jonathan (20 August 2018). 5388:from the original on 12 October 2018 5319:from the original on 21 October 2022 5140:Regional Science and Urban Economics 4871:. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. 4715: 4632:The Continuing Causes of Segregation 4594: 4468: 4154: 4148: 3386: 3114:Racial wage gap in the United States 3021:that serve the community instead of 2900: 2667:Segregation and job decentralization 2483:Social determinants of mental health 2479:Race and health in the United States 2403:Racial wage gap in the United States 2277:the United States as enslaved people 2166: 1037:Capital punishment for homosexuality 323:Social determinants of mental health 6693: 5207: 4905: 4890: 4875: 4659: 4603: 4585: 4550: 4507: 4284: 4275: 4016:Hamilton, Darrick (February 2017). 3917:Inheritance in Contemporary America 3374:. United States Department of Labor 2791: 2756: 2742: 2709:Race and crime in the United States 2508: 2150:lead to differences between races. 1157:Genital modification and mutilation 24: 7266:Social issues in the United States 6178:American Psychological Association 6163: 5884: 5624:. In Palmiotto, Michael J. (ed.). 5578:10.1111/j.1536-7150.1987.tb01949.x 5530:Race, Poverty, and Domestic Policy 5376:White, Gillian B. (1 April 2016). 5153:10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2020.103542 4860: 4854:Race, Poverty, and Domestic Policy 4845: 4811:The Quarterly Journal of Economics 4802: 4767: 4706: 4677: 4492: 4138:Harvard Journal of Hispanic Policy 2517: 2085:failed, losing many Black assets. 25: 7937: 7926:Social class in the United States 7192:Williams, DR; Collins, C (2001). 7104:, 16 October 2020, archived from 6823:Ludwig, Sarah (13 October 2015), 6308:Ross, Cody T. (5 November 2015). 5943: 5862:National Registry of Exonerations 5724:The American Journal of Sociology 5486:from the original on 3 July 2023. 5455:from the original on 30 June 2024 5223:American Political Science Review 4745:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013 4617:. University of California Press. 4161:Review of Black Political Economy 3878:Journal of Family Economic Issues 2774:National Registry of Exonerations 2722:Consequences of a criminal record 2396: 2303:. This was reversed by President 2289:teaching a slave to read or write 2161:University of Southern California 7829:Institutionalized discrimination 7166: 7153:Tamara K. Nopper (August 2020), 7092: 7080: 7067: 7055: 7042: 7030: 7017: 6984: 6953: 6941: 6929: 6909: 6871: 6860: 6773: 6747: 6659: 6633: 5840:10.1111/j.1088-4963.2004.00009.x 4669:Briggs, Xavier de Souza (2005). 3751:Journal of Economic Perspectives 3513:Szapiro, Aron (6 October 2020). 3263:. U.S. Census Bureau. p. 15 3229:Van Loo, Rory (1 January 2009). 3176:. New York: Oxford UP. pp. 3005:, and an increase in the use of 3003:debt collection default lawsuits 2929:This section is an excerpt from 2923: 2591:This section is an excerpt from 2236: 1650:Diversity, equity, and inclusion 1479:Law for Protection of the Nation 1373:White genocide conspiracy theory 48: 6301: 6250: 6191: 6174:"Policing in black & white" 6096: 6070:Criminology & Public Policy 6057: 6000: 5977: 5963: 5937: 5912: 5875: 5846: 5717:"The Mark of a Criminal Record" 5695:U.S. Department of the Treasury 5682: 5642: 5491: 5400: 5251: 5168: 5127: 5105:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.07.006 5080: 5025: 4990: 4949: 4921:The Journal of Economic History 4724: 4428: 4362: 4303: 4249: 4224: 4199: 4187: 4009: 3974: 3850: 3829: 3794: 3785:Social Science Research Council 3771: 3747:"The Inheritance of Inequality" 3633: 3506: 3457: 3299:Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2003). 2500:There are large differences in 1484:MSM blood donation restrictions 1226:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory 7182:, National Consumer Law Center 5798:Gallagher, Charles A. (2009). 3372:Bureau of Labor and Statistics 3222: 3197: 2699:further increases inequality. 2675: 2472: 2420: 2153: 2105:Federal Housing Administration 1497:(as religious or racial quota) 13: 1: 6969:Texas Department of Insurance 5828:Philosophy and Public Affairs 5343:American Journal of Sociology 5193:10.1016/j.econlet.2017.06.018 5093:Social Science & Medicine 5038:American Journal of Sociology 4899:The Affordable Housing Reader 4720:. Ashgate Publishing Company. 4599:. Cambridge University Press. 3948:American Journal of Sociology 3914:Angel, Jacqueline L. (2008). 3149: 2703:Crime rates and incarceration 2487:Social determinants of health 2357:was first created during the 2233:financial crisis of 2007–2008 1927:Second-generation gender bias 1635:Constitutional colorblindness 313:Social determinants of health 6490:Journal of Political Economy 6335:10.1371/journal.pone.0141854 6130:10.1371/journal.pone.0229686 5990:Boston University Law Review 5757:Thomas, Christopher (2022). 5258:Trounstine, Jessica (2018). 5217:Trounstine, Jessica (2020). 4671:The Geography of Opportunity 4516:Journal of Political Economy 3077:Japanese American internment 2747: 2616: 2215: 7: 7423:Water supply and sanitation 6922:September 14, 2016, at the 6640:Arthur, Rob (30 May 2019). 5814:... and the Poor Get Prison 5715:Pager, Devah (March 2003). 5620:Birzer, Michael L. (2016). 4716:Boal, Frederick W. (2000). 4684:Momeni, Jamshid A. (1986). 3680:Lusardi, Annamaria (2005). 3168:Shapiro, Thomas M. (2004). 3119:Racism in the United States 3035: 2585: 2334:replaced slavery after the 2190:Survey of Consumer Finances 1838:Medical model of disability 1682:Hate speech laws by country 10: 7942: 6972:(Report). 30 December 2004 6705:Bethel, Jeffrey W (2013). 6625:: CS1 maint: postscript ( 6025:10.1007/s11524-020-00430-0 5772:10.21428/cb6ab371.128a98c0 4478:Household Economic Studies 4395:10.1038/s41598-020-70046-6 3837:"State of Working America" 3764:10.1257/089533002760278686 3261:Current Population Reports 2928: 2904: 2830:A 2020 study by Cody Ross 2795: 2706: 2626: 2620: 2590: 2544: 2535: 2495: 2476: 2437: 2400: 2311:until ratification of the 2266: 2096:instead of handed down as 1947:Social model of disability 368:Discrimination against men 7921:Race in the United States 7842: 7794: 7766:Films about social issues 7744: 7711: 7648: 7580: 7532: 7484: 7431: 7393: 7365: 7272: 7133:10.1080/03085140601089846 6286:21.11116/0000-0006-9525-8 5236:10.1017/S0003055419000844 4934:10.1017/S0022050717000079 4882:Sharkey, Patrick (2013). 4595:Lamb, Charles M. (2005). 4329:10.1186/s12889-019-7145-y 4194:The Wealth Gap In America 3995:10.1525/sop.2004.47.2.161 3983:Sociological Perspectives 3890:10.1007/s10834-010-9204-5 3815:10.1017/S0047279418000065 3488:Research and Policy Brief 3067:Indian Appropriations Act 2434:Use of financial services 2363:Federal Housing Authority 2260:private wealth management 1278:Opposition to immigration 162:Race / Ethnicity 7834:Religious discrimination 7173:Chi Chi Wu (June 2007), 7077:s_sept2010_smithduda.pdf 6276:10.1177/1948550620916071 4999:American Economic Review 4852:Massey, Douglas (2004). 4173:10.1177/0034644620938620 3803:Journal of Social Policy 2980:Federal Trade Commission 2836:bias in police shootings 2769:Wichita State University 2367:Veteran's Administration 2342:After the Civil War the 2301:William Tecumseh Sherman 2299:policy of Union General 2229:subprime mortgage crisis 2127:greatly relies on local 2109:Veteran's Administration 1273:Occupational segregation 1042:Compulsory sterilization 7380:Higher education bubble 6794:10.1111/1467-7717.00111 6434:10.1073/pnas.2014148117 6396:10.1073/pnas.1903856116 6217:10.1073/pnas.1805161115 6082:10.1111/1745-9133.12269 6013:Journal of Urban Health 5899:Encyclopedia Britannica 4823:10.1162/003355397555361 4788:10.1023/A:1015772503007 3718:Conley, Dalton (2010). 3655:10.26509/frbc-ec-201903 3144:The Whiteness of Wealth 3072:Inequality in Hollywood 3062:Immigration Act of 1924 2685:Job skill differentials 2568:residential segregation 2527:Length of poverty spell 2083:Freedman's Savings Bank 1823:Internalized oppression 1677:Fighting Discrimination 1667:Fat acceptance movement 1625:Anti-discrimination law 1251:Native American mascots 7824:Housing discrimination 7630:Racial achievement gap 7375:Educational inequality 5670:Cite journal requires 5499:"EdBuild | 23 Billion" 4962:Social Science History 4613:Iceland, John (2009). 4440:minorityhealth.hhs.gov 4236:minorityhealth.hhs.gov 4155:Long, Melanie (2020). 3331:Sociology of Education 2813:1992 Los Angeles riots 2659:Potential explanations 2655:Hispanics and Blacks. 2638: 2297:forty acres and a mule 2293:Redistribution of land 2283:in some states banned 2200: 2039:In the United States, 1942:Social identity threat 1915:Reverse discrimination 1905:Racial color blindness 1363:Violence against women 1343:Sex-selective abortion 7210:10.1093/phr/116.5.404 6545:Fryer, Roland Gerhard 6499:University of Chicago 6481:Fryer, Roland Gerhard 6457:|...}} 6428:(Retracted, see 5270:10.1017/9781108555722 5011:10.1257/aer.p20171081 4869:Understanding Poverty 4718:Ethnicity and Housing 4196:(KERA Think! Podcast) 4081:10.1353/dem.2004.0023 4035:10.20955/r.2017.59-76 3621:. Pew Research Center 3572:Understanding Poverty 3047:Chinese Exclusion Act 3042:Civil rights movement 3027:A related concept of 2636: 2464:Aid to family members 2198: 2059:, especially against 1910:Religious intolerance 1870:Political correctness 1692:Intersex human rights 1640:Cultural assimilation 1308:Religious persecution 1072:Disability hate crime 849:Jewish / Antisemitism 7814:Caste discrimination 7615:Mass racial violence 7605:Interminority racism 7600:Environmental racism 5919:Nodjimbadem, Katie. 5598:. U.S. Census Bureau 4480:. U.S. Census Bureau 3863:Smithsonian Magazine 3809:(4, 2018): 683–700. 3082:Mexican Repatriation 2580:land use regulations 2383:inter vivo transfers 2247:commissioned by the 1293:Political repression 273:Anti-left handedness 263:Anti-intellectualism 7678:Prison overcrowding 7668:Illegal immigration 7357:Widening income gap 7282:Abusive supervision 7162:, Data For Progress 7121:Economy and Society 6759:Pew Research Center 6389:(32): 15877–15882. 6326:2015PLoSO..1041854R 6121:2020PLoSO..1529686S 4975:10.1017/ssh.2018.21 4692:. Greenwood Press. 4469:Anderson, Robin J. 4386:2020NatSR..1013416R 4285:Carlson, Rosemary. 4263:. 10 September 2020 3646:Economic Commentary 3492:Brandeis University 3400:"Prisoners in 2008" 3209:The Washington Post 3139:Tulsa race massacre 2541:Housing segregation 2416:Financial decisions 2285:education of slaves 2173:Brandeis University 2121:Housing segregation 1818:Historical eugenics 1333:Segregation academy 1313:Religious terrorism 1102:Enemy of the people 1010:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric 508:Jehovah's Witnesses 393:Perpetual foreigner 7809:Age discrimination 7514:Child prostitution 7332:Standard of living 7108:on 18 October 2020 6994:; Calem, Paul S.; 6992:Bostic, Raphael W. 6883:, 26 February 2021 6723:10.4161/dish.27085 6672:The New York Times 5480:The New York Times 5413:2022-10-24 at the 5309:"The Eviction Lab" 5264:. Cambridge Core. 4571:10.1093/sf/65.1.28 4374:Scientific Reports 3019:public-owned banks 2978:2007 study by the 2858:Michelle Alexander 2852:Color-blind racism 2784:Racial segregation 2694:Other explanations 2650:Unemployment rates 2639: 2353:In addition, when 2336:American Civil War 2315:in December 1865. 2242:Measure of America 2201: 2144:Racial segregation 1722:Social integration 1717:Self-determination 1707:Racial integration 1655:Diversity training 1645:Cultural pluralism 1620:Affirmative action 1512:Racial segregation 1422:Crime of apartheid 1318:Religious violence 813:Indigenous people 189:Sexual orientation 7903: 7902: 7771:Freedom of speech 7663:Human trafficking 7595:African Americans 7587:racial inequality 7519:Child trafficking 7446:Domestic violence 7413:Natural disasters 7297:Farmers' suicides 7198:Public Health Rep 6998:(February 2004). 6996:Wachter, Susan M. 6210:(37): 9181–9186. 5881:Williams, Collins 5809:978-0-07-340427-1 5635:978-1-4987-3214-7 5545:978-0-300-12984-7 5181:Economics Letters 4654:978-0-6740-1821-1 4316:BMC Public Health 3582:978-0-674-00876-2 3555:978-0-415-95167-8 3312:978-0-7425-1633-5 3235:Albany Law Review 3187:978-0-19-518138-8 3099:Operation Wetback 3029:insurance scoring 3007:predatory lenders 2955:African-Americans 2953:1996 study found 2914:Hurricane Katrina 2901:Natural disasters 2778:African Americans 2563:housing program. 2320:Freedmen's Bureau 2224:wealth inequality 2167:Racial wealth gap 2045:social inequality 2041:racial inequality 2037: 2036: 1900:Racism by country 1828:Intersectionality 1813:Heteronormativity 1596:Voter suppression 1338:Sexual harassment 1137:Forced conversion 1057:Cultural genocide 712:African Americans 518:post–Cold War era 503:Eastern Orthodoxy 258:Anti-drug addicts 253:Anti-homelessness 172:Scientific racism 16:(Redirected from 7933: 7895:Police brutality 7870:Political apathy 7635:Racial profiling 7620:Native Americans 7259: 7252: 7245: 7236: 7235: 7231: 7221: 7184: 7183: 7181: 7170: 7164: 7163: 7161: 7150: 7144: 7143: 7116: 7110: 7109: 7096: 7090: 7084: 7078: 7071: 7065: 7059: 7053: 7046: 7040: 7034: 7028: 7021: 7015: 7014: 7006: 6988: 6982: 6981: 6979: 6977: 6965: 6957: 6951: 6945: 6939: 6933: 6927: 6913: 6907: 6906: 6904: 6894: 6885: 6884: 6875: 6869: 6864: 6858: 6857: 6847:(13 June 2019), 6841: 6832: 6831: 6820: 6814: 6813: 6777: 6771: 6770: 6768: 6766: 6761:. 27 August 2015 6751: 6745: 6744: 6734: 6702: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6686: 6663: 6657: 6656: 6654: 6652: 6637: 6631: 6630: 6624: 6616: 6608: 6600: 6594: 6588: 6567: 6553: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6477: 6471: 6470: 6468: 6466: 6458: 6447:Retraction Watch 6426: 6416: 6398: 6372: 6366: 6365: 6355: 6337: 6320:(11): e0141854. 6305: 6299: 6298: 6288: 6278: 6254: 6248: 6247: 6237: 6219: 6195: 6189: 6188: 6186: 6184: 6170: 6161: 6160: 6150: 6132: 6100: 6094: 6093: 6061: 6055: 6054: 6044: 6004: 5998: 5997: 5981: 5975: 5974: 5967: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5956: 5941: 5935: 5934: 5932: 5930: 5916: 5910: 5909: 5907: 5905: 5891: 5882: 5879: 5873: 5872: 5870: 5868: 5859: 5850: 5844: 5843: 5823: 5817: 5816: 5795: 5784: 5783: 5781: 5779: 5774: 5763:Race and Justice 5754: 5748: 5747: 5721: 5712: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5701: 5686: 5680: 5679: 5673: 5668: 5666: 5658: 5646: 5640: 5639: 5617: 5608: 5607: 5605: 5603: 5588: 5582: 5581: 5561: 5550: 5549: 5533: 5523: 5514: 5513: 5511: 5509: 5495: 5489: 5487: 5471: 5465: 5464: 5462: 5460: 5454: 5439: 5430: 5417: 5404: 5398: 5397: 5395: 5393: 5373: 5367: 5366: 5338: 5329: 5328: 5326: 5324: 5305: 5299: 5298: 5296: 5294: 5255: 5249: 5248: 5238: 5214: 5205: 5204: 5172: 5166: 5165: 5155: 5131: 5125: 5124: 5084: 5078: 5077: 5044:(6): 1765–1802. 5029: 5023: 5022: 4994: 4988: 4987: 4977: 4953: 4947: 4946: 4936: 4912: 4903: 4902: 4894: 4888: 4887: 4879: 4873: 4872: 4864: 4858: 4857: 4849: 4843: 4842: 4806: 4800: 4799: 4771: 4765: 4764: 4733:Health and Place 4728: 4722: 4721: 4713: 4704: 4703: 4691: 4681: 4675: 4674: 4666: 4657: 4628: 4619: 4618: 4610: 4601: 4600: 4592: 4583: 4582: 4554: 4548: 4547: 4511: 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3258: 3249: 3243: 3242: 3226: 3220: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3201: 3195: 3194: 3175: 3165: 3093:The New Jim Crow 2946:opportunities". 2939:African American 2919: 2817:Philando Castile 2792:Police brutality 2757:Racial profiling 2743:Potential causes 2553:African American 2509:Episodic poverty 2359:Great Depression 2253:financial crisis 2148:racial profiling 2125:Public education 2088:Exclusions from 2029: 2022: 2015: 1952:Social privilege 1937:Social exclusion 1865:Police brutality 1786:Multiculturalism 1756:Amatonormativity 1571:Social exclusion 1407:Age of candidacy 1201:Homeless dumping 1107:Ethnic cleansing 52: 29: 28: 21: 7941: 7940: 7936: 7935: 7934: 7932: 7931: 7930: 7906: 7905: 7904: 7899: 7838: 7790: 7740: 7707: 7673:Organized crime 7644: 7640:Racial wage gap 7625:Race and health 7585: 7576: 7557:Menstrual taboo 7528: 7524:Street children 7480: 7456:Family planning 7451:Extended family 7427: 7389: 7361: 7268: 7263: 7188: 7187: 7179: 7171: 7167: 7159: 7151: 7147: 7117: 7113: 7098: 7097: 7093: 7085: 7081: 7072: 7068: 7060: 7056: 7047: 7043: 7035: 7031: 7022: 7018: 7004: 6989: 6985: 6975: 6973: 6963: 6959: 6958: 6954: 6946: 6942: 6934: 6930: 6924:Wayback Machine 6914: 6910: 6902: 6896: 6895: 6888: 6877: 6876: 6872: 6865: 6861: 6842: 6835: 6821: 6817: 6778: 6774: 6764: 6762: 6753: 6752: 6748: 6711:Disaster Health 6703: 6694: 6684: 6682: 6664: 6660: 6650: 6648: 6638: 6634: 6618: 6617: 6606: 6551: 6542: 6538: 6478: 6474: 6460: 6452: 6450: 6427: 6373: 6369: 6306: 6302: 6255: 6251: 6196: 6192: 6182: 6180: 6172: 6171: 6164: 6115:(6): e0229686. 6101: 6097: 6062: 6058: 6005: 6001: 5982: 5978: 5969: 5968: 5964: 5954: 5952: 5942: 5938: 5928: 5926: 5917: 5913: 5903: 5901: 5893: 5892: 5885: 5880: 5876: 5866: 5864: 5857: 5851: 5847: 5824: 5820: 5810: 5796: 5787: 5777: 5775: 5755: 5751: 5719: 5713: 5709: 5699: 5697: 5687: 5683: 5671: 5669: 5660: 5659: 5647: 5643: 5636: 5618: 5611: 5601: 5599: 5590: 5589: 5585: 5562: 5553: 5546: 5524: 5517: 5507: 5505: 5497: 5496: 5492: 5472: 5468: 5458: 5456: 5452: 5437: 5431: 5420: 5415:Wayback Machine 5405: 5401: 5391: 5389: 5374: 5370: 5339: 5332: 5322: 5320: 5307: 5306: 5302: 5292: 5290: 5280: 5256: 5252: 5215: 5208: 5173: 5169: 5132: 5128: 5085: 5081: 5030: 5026: 4995: 4991: 4954: 4950: 4913: 4906: 4895: 4891: 4880: 4876: 4865: 4861: 4850: 4846: 4807: 4803: 4772: 4768: 4729: 4725: 4714: 4707: 4700: 4682: 4678: 4667: 4660: 4636:Massey, Douglas 4629: 4622: 4611: 4604: 4593: 4586: 4555: 4551: 4512: 4508: 4497: 4493: 4483: 4481: 4473: 4467: 4454: 4444: 4442: 4434: 4433: 4429: 4367: 4363: 4308: 4304: 4294: 4292: 4283: 4276: 4266: 4264: 4255: 4254: 4250: 4240: 4238: 4230: 4229: 4225: 4215: 4213: 4205: 4204: 4200: 4192: 4188: 4153: 4149: 4134: 4130: 4115: 4104: 4072:10.1.1.453.8980 4055: 4051: 4014: 4010: 3979: 3975: 3944: 3935: 3928: 3912: 3905: 3874: 3870: 3855: 3851: 3841: 3839: 3835: 3834: 3830: 3799: 3795: 3776: 3772: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3716: 3703: 3693: 3691: 3684: 3678: 3663: 3638: 3634: 3624: 3622: 3615: 3600: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3567: 3563: 3556: 3540: 3533: 3523: 3521: 3519:Morningstar.com 3511: 3507: 3497: 3495: 3483: 3474: 3467: 3462: 3458: 3448: 3446: 3438: 3434: 3433: 3429: 3419: 3417: 3416:on 16 July 2011 3413: 3402: 3396: 3387: 3377: 3375: 3366: 3365: 3358: 3343:10.2307/2673252 3327: 3320: 3313: 3297: 3276: 3266: 3264: 3256: 3250: 3246: 3227: 3223: 3213: 3211: 3203: 3202: 3198: 3188: 3166: 3157: 3152: 3038: 3033: 3032: 2987:Social Security 2934: 2926: 2917: 2909: 2903: 2854: 2824:police shooting 2800: 2794: 2786: 2759: 2750: 2745: 2724: 2715: 2707:Main articles: 2705: 2696: 2687: 2678: 2669: 2661: 2652: 2631: 2625: 2619: 2614: 2613: 2596: 2588: 2557:racial steering 2549: 2543: 2538: 2529: 2520: 2518:Chronic poverty 2511: 2498: 2489: 2477:Main articles: 2475: 2466: 2442: 2436: 2423: 2418: 2405: 2399: 2375: 2355:Social Security 2344:Freedman's Bank 2324:Abraham Lincoln 2269: 2171:A study by the 2169: 2156: 2090:Social Security 2061:minority groups 2049:different races 2033: 2004: 2003: 2002: 2001: 2000: 1875:Polyculturalism 1771:Civil liberties 1743: 1735: 1734: 1733: 1732: 1731: 1712:Reappropriation 1612: 1611:Countermeasures 1604: 1603: 1602: 1601: 1600: 1529:Racial steering 1495:Numerus clausus 1399: 1391: 1390: 1389: 1388: 1387: 1112:Ethnic conflict 1047:Corrective rape 1002: 994: 993: 992: 991: 990: 637: 626: 625: 624: 623: 622: 577:minority Muslim 470: 460: 459: 458: 457: 456: 348:HIV/AIDS stigma 220: 212: 211: 210: 209: 208: 157:Mental disorder 99: 91: 90: 89: 88: 87: 60: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7939: 7929: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7901: 7900: 7898: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7846: 7844: 7840: 7839: 7837: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7800: 7798: 7796:Discrimination 7792: 7791: 7789: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7762: 7761: 7750: 7748: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7717: 7715: 7709: 7708: 7706: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7688:Race and crime 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7654: 7652: 7646: 7645: 7643: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7597: 7591: 7589: 7578: 7577: 7575: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7547:Women's health 7544: 7538: 7536: 7530: 7529: 7527: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7509:Child marriage 7506: 7501: 7496: 7490: 7488: 7482: 7481: 7479: 7478: 7473: 7471:Nuclear family 7468: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7443: 7437: 7435: 7429: 7428: 7426: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7408:Climate change 7405: 7399: 7397: 7391: 7390: 7388: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7371: 7369: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7337:Street vendors 7334: 7329: 7327:Slum Clearance 7324: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7292:Cost of living 7289: 7287:Communications 7284: 7278: 7276: 7270: 7269: 7262: 7261: 7254: 7247: 7239: 7233: 7232: 7186: 7185: 7165: 7145: 7127:(1): 103–133, 7111: 7091: 7079: 7066: 7054: 7041: 7029: 7016: 6983: 6952: 6940: 6928: 6908: 6886: 6870: 6859: 6833: 6815: 6788:(2): 156–173. 6772: 6746: 6717:(2): 110–116. 6692: 6658: 6646:Slate Magazine 6632: 6565:10.3386/w22399 6536: 6507:10.1086/701423 6472: 6367: 6300: 6269:(3): 323–332. 6249: 6190: 6162: 6095: 6076:(1): 309–340. 6056: 6019:(3): 317–328. 5999: 5976: 5962: 5936: 5911: 5883: 5874: 5845: 5834:(2): 131–170. 5818: 5808: 5785: 5749: 5736:10.1086/374403 5730:(5): 325–363. 5707: 5681: 5672:|journal= 5641: 5634: 5609: 5583: 5572:(2): 129–150. 5551: 5544: 5515: 5490: 5466: 5418: 5399: 5368: 5355:10.1086/666082 5330: 5300: 5278: 5250: 5229:(2): 443–455. 5206: 5167: 5126: 5079: 5050:10.1086/597285 5024: 5005:(5): 410–414. 4989: 4968:(4): 635–675. 4948: 4927:(1): 127–170. 4904: 4889: 4874: 4859: 4844: 4817:(3): 827–872. 4801: 4782:(2): 125–133. 4766: 4739:(5): 876–884. 4723: 4705: 4698: 4676: 4658: 4620: 4602: 4584: 4549: 4528:10.1086/260060 4522:(3): 590–606. 4506: 4491: 4452: 4427: 4361: 4302: 4274: 4248: 4223: 4198: 4186: 4167:(4): 363–403. 4147: 4128: 4102: 4065:(3): 585–605. 4049: 4008: 3989:(2): 161–187. 3973: 3960:10.1086/344840 3933: 3926: 3903: 3868: 3849: 3828: 3793: 3770: 3737: 3730: 3701: 3661: 3632: 3598: 3581: 3561: 3554: 3531: 3505: 3477:Thomas Shapiro 3465: 3456: 3427: 3385: 3356: 3318: 3311: 3274: 3244: 3221: 3196: 3186: 3154: 3153: 3151: 3148: 3147: 3146: 3141: 3136: 3131: 3126: 3121: 3116: 3111: 3106: 3101: 3096: 3089: 3084: 3079: 3074: 3069: 3064: 3059: 3054: 3049: 3044: 3037: 3034: 2999: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2983: 2976: 2973: 2970: 2967: 2964: 2961: 2958: 2935: 2927: 2925: 2922: 2905:Main article: 2902: 2899: 2898: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2853: 2850: 2796:Main article: 2793: 2790: 2785: 2782: 2758: 2755: 2749: 2746: 2744: 2741: 2723: 2720: 2704: 2701: 2695: 2692: 2686: 2683: 2677: 2674: 2668: 2665: 2660: 2657: 2651: 2648: 2621:Main article: 2618: 2615: 2597: 2589: 2587: 2584: 2545:Main article: 2542: 2539: 2537: 2534: 2528: 2525: 2519: 2516: 2510: 2507: 2497: 2494: 2474: 2471: 2465: 2462: 2435: 2432: 2422: 2419: 2417: 2414: 2398: 2397:Income effects 2395: 2374: 2371: 2305:Andrew Johnson 2268: 2265: 2168: 2165: 2155: 2152: 2129:property taxes 2117:central cities 2043:refers to the 2035: 2034: 2032: 2031: 2024: 2017: 2009: 2006: 2005: 1999: 1998: 1993: 1992: 1991: 1981: 1976: 1971: 1970: 1969: 1964: 1959: 1949: 1944: 1939: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1923: 1922: 1920:Reverse racism 1912: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1890:Prisoner abuse 1887: 1882: 1880:Power distance 1877: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1847: 1846: 1845: 1835: 1830: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1800: 1798:Ethnic penalty 1795: 1794: 1793: 1791:Neurodiversity 1788: 1778: 1776:Dehumanization 1773: 1768: 1766:Cisnormativity 1763: 1758: 1753: 1747: 1746: 1745: 1744: 1742:Related topics 1741: 1740: 1737: 1736: 1730: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1704: 1699: 1694: 1689: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1658: 1657: 1647: 1642: 1637: 1632: 1627: 1622: 1616: 1615: 1614: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1606: 1605: 1599: 1598: 1593: 1588: 1586:State religion 1583: 1578: 1573: 1568: 1567: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1541: 1536: 1531: 1526: 1525: 1524: 1522:Nuremberg Laws 1519: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1464:Ghetto benches 1461: 1459:Gerrymandering 1456: 1451: 1446: 1444:Gender pay gap 1441: 1440: 1439: 1434: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1403: 1402: 1401: 1400: 1397: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1386: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1365: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1269: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1221:Lavender scare 1218: 1216:Kill Haole Day 1213: 1211:Indian rolling 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1176: 1171: 1170: 1169: 1159: 1154: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1097:Eliminationism 1094: 1089: 1084: 1079: 1074: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1032:Cancel culture 1029: 1024: 1019: 1018: 1017: 1006: 1005: 1004: 1003: 1001:Manifestations 1000: 999: 996: 995: 989: 988: 983: 978: 973: 968: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 938: 933: 928: 923: 918: 913: 908: 903: 898: 893: 891:Middle Eastern 888: 883: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 857: 856: 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44: 42:Discrimination 38: 37: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7938: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7913: 7911: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7847: 7845: 7841: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7801: 7799: 7797: 7793: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7760: 7757: 7756: 7755: 7752: 7751: 7749: 7747: 7743: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7718: 7716: 7714: 7710: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7655: 7653: 7651: 7647: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7603: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7593: 7592: 7590: 7588: 7583: 7579: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7535: 7531: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7491: 7489: 7487: 7483: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7436: 7434: 7430: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7400: 7398: 7396: 7392: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7372: 7370: 7368: 7364: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7279: 7277: 7275: 7271: 7267: 7260: 7255: 7253: 7248: 7246: 7241: 7240: 7237: 7229: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7211: 7207: 7204:(5): 404–16. 7203: 7199: 7195: 7190: 7189: 7178: 7177: 7169: 7158: 7157: 7149: 7142: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7115: 7107: 7103: 7102: 7095: 7089: 7083: 7076: 7070: 7064: 7058: 7051: 7045: 7039: 7033: 7026: 7020: 7012: 7011: 7003: 7002: 6997: 6993: 6987: 6971: 6970: 6962: 6956: 6950: 6944: 6938: 6932: 6925: 6921: 6918: 6912: 6901: 6900: 6893: 6891: 6882: 6881: 6874: 6868: 6863: 6856: 6855: 6850: 6846: 6840: 6838: 6830: 6826: 6819: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6783: 6776: 6760: 6756: 6750: 6742: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6701: 6699: 6697: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6669: 6662: 6647: 6643: 6636: 6628: 6622: 6614: 6613: 6605: 6601: 6595: 6589: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6557: 6550: 6547:(July 2016). 6546: 6540: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6501:: 1210–1261. 6500: 6496: 6492: 6491: 6486: 6483:(June 2019). 6482: 6476: 6464: 6456: 6449: 6448: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6424: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6383: 6378: 6371: 6363: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6304: 6296: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6253: 6245: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6194: 6179: 6175: 6169: 6167: 6158: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6099: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6060: 6052: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6003: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5980: 5972: 5966: 5951: 5947: 5940: 5925: 5922: 5915: 5900: 5896: 5890: 5888: 5878: 5863: 5856: 5849: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5822: 5815: 5811: 5805: 5801: 5794: 5792: 5790: 5773: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5753: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5718: 5711: 5696: 5692: 5685: 5677: 5664: 5656: 5652: 5645: 5637: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5616: 5614: 5597: 5593: 5587: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5560: 5558: 5556: 5547: 5541: 5537: 5532: 5531: 5522: 5520: 5504: 5500: 5494: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5470: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5436: 5429: 5427: 5425: 5423: 5416: 5412: 5409: 5403: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5372: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5349:(1): 88–133. 5348: 5344: 5337: 5335: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5304: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5279:9781108555722 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5262: 5254: 5246: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5213: 5211: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5171: 5163: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5130: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5083: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5028: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4993: 4985: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4952: 4944: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4911: 4909: 4900: 4893: 4885: 4878: 4870: 4863: 4855: 4848: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4805: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4770: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4727: 4719: 4712: 4710: 4701: 4699:9780313248481 4695: 4690: 4689: 4680: 4672: 4665: 4663: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4646: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4627: 4625: 4616: 4609: 4607: 4598: 4591: 4589: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4559:Social Forces 4553: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4510: 4502: 4495: 4479: 4472: 4465: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4441: 4437: 4431: 4423: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4372: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4330: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4306: 4291: 4288: 4281: 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3373: 3369: 3363: 3361: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3323: 3314: 3308: 3304: 3303: 3295: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3262: 3255: 3248: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3225: 3210: 3206: 3200: 3193: 3189: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3173: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3155: 3145: 3142: 3140: 3137: 3135: 3132: 3130: 3127: 3125: 3122: 3120: 3117: 3115: 3112: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3100: 3097: 3095: 3094: 3090: 3088: 3085: 3083: 3080: 3078: 3075: 3073: 3070: 3068: 3065: 3063: 3060: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3052:Glass ceiling 3050: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3040: 3039: 3030: 3026: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 2995: 2991: 2988: 2984: 2981: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2959: 2956: 2952: 2951: 2950: 2947: 2944: 2941:and American 2940: 2932: 2924:Credit scores 2921: 2915: 2908: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2883: 2879: 2878: 2877: 2875: 2874:Jim Crow laws 2869: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2849: 2847: 2842: 2837: 2833: 2828: 2825: 2820: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2804: 2799: 2789: 2781: 2779: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2754: 2740: 2736: 2733: 2728: 2719: 2714: 2710: 2700: 2691: 2682: 2673: 2664: 2656: 2647: 2643: 2635: 2630: 2624: 2611: 2610: 2605: 2603: 2594: 2583: 2581: 2576: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2548: 2533: 2524: 2515: 2506: 2503: 2502:poverty rates 2493: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2470: 2461: 2457: 2455: 2449: 2447: 2441: 2431: 2427: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2384: 2379: 2370: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2351: 2349: 2348:Panic of 1873 2345: 2340: 2337: 2333: 2332:sharecropping 2328: 2325: 2321: 2316: 2314: 2310: 2309:border states 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2287:, especially 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2264: 2261: 2256: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2243: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2217: 2212: 2208: 2205: 2197: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2178: 2174: 2164: 2162: 2151: 2149: 2145: 2142:are factors. 2141: 2137: 2132: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2101: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2086: 2084: 2080: 2079:sharecroppers 2076: 2075:Under slavery 2072: 2069: 2064: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2030: 2025: 2023: 2018: 2016: 2011: 2010: 2008: 2007: 1997: 1994: 1990: 1987: 1986: 1985: 1982: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1974:Social stigma 1972: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1958: 1955: 1954: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1921: 1918: 1917: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1844: 1841: 1840: 1839: 1836: 1834: 1831: 1829: 1826: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1792: 1789: 1787: 1784: 1783: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1748: 1739: 1738: 1728: 1725: 1723: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1656: 1653: 1652: 1651: 1648: 1646: 1643: 1641: 1638: 1636: 1633: 1631: 1628: 1626: 1623: 1621: 1618: 1617: 1608: 1607: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1581:State atheism 1579: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1546: 1545: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1523: 1520: 1518: 1517:Jim Crow laws 1515: 1514: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1502:One-drop rule 1500: 1498: 1496: 1492: 1490: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1438: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1417:Blood quantum 1415: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1395: 1394: 1384: 1381: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1358:Victimisation 1356: 1354: 1353:Trans bashing 1351: 1349: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1323:Religious war 1321: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1304: 1303:Racialization 1301: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1253: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1185: 1182: 1181: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1174:Glass ceiling 1172: 1168: 1165: 1164: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1133: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1117:Ethnic hatred 1115: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1093: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1065: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1052:Counter-jihad 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1028: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1016: 1013: 1012: 1011: 1008: 1007: 998: 997: 987: 984: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 962: 959: 957: 954: 952: 949: 947: 944: 942: 939: 937: 934: 932: 929: 927: 924: 922: 919: 917: 914: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 882: 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 862: 859: 855: 852: 851: 850: 847: 845: 842: 840: 837: 835: 832: 828: 827:United States 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 814: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 737: 735: 732: 730: 727: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 710: 709: 708: 705: 703: 700: 698: 695: 691: 690:United States 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 677: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 642: 636: 630: 629: 619: 616: 614: 611: 609: 606: 604: 603:Protestantism 601: 599: 596: 592: 589: 588: 587: 584: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 554: 553: 550: 549: 548: 545: 541: 538: 536: 533: 532: 531: 528: 526: 523: 519: 516: 514: 513:LDS or Mormon 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 495: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 475: 469: 464: 463: 453: 450: 448: 445: 441: 438: 436: 435:Transmisogyny 433: 431: 428: 427: 426: 423: 419: 416: 414: 411: 410: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 338:Gerontophobia 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 268:Anti-intersex 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 243:Anti-albinism 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 225: 216: 215: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 173: 170: 168: 165: 164: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 104: 95: 94: 84: 81: 79: 76: 74: 71: 69: 68:Institutional 66: 65: 56: 55: 51: 47: 46: 43: 40: 39: 35: 31: 30: 27: 19: 7885:Human rights 7843:Other issues 7726:Malnutrition 7610:Islamophobia 7586: 7562:Prostitution 7542:Acid attacks 7466:Martial rape 7441:Cohabitation 7403:Conservation 7352:Unemployment 7347:Urbanization 7307:Land reforms 7201: 7197: 7175: 7168: 7155: 7148: 7124: 7120: 7114: 7106:the original 7100: 7094: 7082: 7069: 7057: 7044: 7032: 7019: 7008: 7000: 6986: 6974:. Retrieved 6967: 6955: 6943: 6931: 6911: 6898: 6879: 6873: 6862: 6852: 6845:Rose Eveleth 6829:The Guardian 6828: 6818: 6785: 6781: 6775: 6763:. Retrieved 6758: 6749: 6714: 6710: 6683:. Retrieved 6671: 6661: 6649:. Retrieved 6645: 6635: 6612:J Polit Econ 6610: 6539: 6494: 6488: 6475: 6461:{{ 6453:{{ 6446: 6444:, 6386: 6380: 6370: 6317: 6313: 6303: 6266: 6262: 6252: 6207: 6203: 6193: 6181:. Retrieved 6177: 6112: 6108: 6098: 6073: 6069: 6059: 6016: 6012: 6002: 5993: 5989: 5979: 5965: 5953:. Retrieved 5949: 5944:Croft, Jay. 5939: 5927:. Retrieved 5923: 5914: 5902:. Retrieved 5898: 5877: 5865:. Retrieved 5848: 5831: 5827: 5821: 5813: 5799: 5776:. Retrieved 5762: 5752: 5727: 5723: 5710: 5698:. Retrieved 5694: 5684: 5663:cite journal 5644: 5625: 5600:. Retrieved 5595: 5586: 5569: 5565: 5529: 5506:. Retrieved 5502: 5493: 5479: 5469: 5457:. Retrieved 5445: 5441: 5402: 5390:. Retrieved 5382:The Atlantic 5381: 5371: 5346: 5342: 5321:. Retrieved 5313:Eviction Lab 5312: 5303: 5291:. Retrieved 5260: 5253: 5226: 5222: 5184: 5180: 5170: 5143: 5139: 5129: 5096: 5092: 5082: 5041: 5037: 5027: 5002: 4998: 4992: 4965: 4961: 4951: 4924: 4920: 4898: 4892: 4883: 4877: 4868: 4862: 4853: 4847: 4814: 4810: 4804: 4779: 4775: 4769: 4736: 4732: 4726: 4717: 4687: 4679: 4670: 4643: 4640:Nancy Denton 4614: 4596: 4565:(1): 28–42. 4562: 4558: 4552: 4519: 4515: 4509: 4500: 4494: 4482:. Retrieved 4477: 4443:. Retrieved 4439: 4430: 4380:(1): 13416. 4377: 4373: 4364: 4319: 4315: 4305: 4293:. Retrieved 4289: 4265:. Retrieved 4260: 4251: 4239:. Retrieved 4235: 4226: 4214:. Retrieved 4210: 4201: 4189: 4164: 4160: 4150: 4141: 4137: 4131: 4122: 4118: 4062: 4058: 4052: 4028:(1): 59–76. 4025: 4021: 4011: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3951: 3947: 3916: 3884:(1): 15–26. 3881: 3877: 3871: 3862: 3852: 3840:. Retrieved 3831: 3806: 3802: 3796: 3778: 3773: 3754: 3750: 3740: 3720: 3692:. Retrieved 3688: 3645: 3635: 3623:. Retrieved 3593: 3586:. Retrieved 3571: 3564: 3544: 3522:. Retrieved 3518: 3508: 3496:. 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Retrieved 3208: 3199: 3191: 3171: 3091: 3023:shareholders 3000: 2948: 2936: 2910: 2870: 2855: 2841:Roland Fryer 2831: 2829: 2821: 2805: 2801: 2787: 2760: 2751: 2737: 2729: 2725: 2716: 2697: 2688: 2679: 2670: 2662: 2653: 2644: 2640: 2607: 2602:The Atlantic 2601: 2598: 2577: 2573:birth weight 2565: 2550: 2530: 2521: 2512: 2499: 2490: 2467: 2458: 2454:credit score 2450: 2443: 2428: 2424: 2410: 2406: 2391: 2387: 2380: 2376: 2352: 2341: 2329: 2317: 2270: 2257: 2237:house values 2221: 2213: 2209: 2202: 2170: 2157: 2138:and quality 2133: 2102: 2087: 2073: 2065: 2038: 1808:Gender-blind 1687:Human rights 1507:Racial quota 1494: 1474:Jewish quota 1454:Gerontocracy 1449:Gender roles 1427:Disabilities 1412:Blood purity 1378:Wife selling 1368:White flight 1348:Slut-shaming 1328:Scapegoating 1246:Murder music 911:Palestinians 854:Anti-Zionism 722:South Africa 707:Black people 685:South Africa 493:Christianity 483:Baháʼí Faith 403:Sectarianism 343:Heterosexism 308:Ephebiphobia 278:Anti-Masonry 137:Hair texture 26: 7890:Prohibition 7698:Vigilantism 7683:Prison rape 7504:Child labor 7499:Child abuse 7461:Infertility 7395:Environment 7322:Remittances 6621:cite report 5924:Smithsonian 5602:4 September 5596:2010 Census 5503:edbuild.org 5448:: 115–158. 4290:The Balance 4261:www.cdc.gov 4125:(6): 71–83. 3757:(3): 3–30. 3011:sociologist 2888:preference. 2866:color-blind 2846:Minneapolis 2809:Rodney King 2776:found that 2676:White gains 2473:Health care 2421:Investments 2281:slave codes 2271:Before the 2186:Morningstar 2154:Definitions 2115:instead of 2098:inheritance 1702:Nonviolence 1697:LGBT rights 1662:Empowerment 1630:Anti-racism 1544:Segregation 1489:No kid zone 1283:Persecution 1196:Hate speech 1147:Gay bashing 1122:Ethnic joke 1077:Dog whistle 1022:Blood libel 702:Azerbaijani 598:Neopaganism 591:Persecution 552:Persecution 535:Persecution 498:Catholicism 425:Transphobia 408:Supremacism 363:Lesbophobia 283:Aporophobia 248:Anti-autism 83:Taste-based 78:Statistical 7910:Categories 7865:Plutocracy 7786:Truthiness 7781:Post-truth 7754:Censorship 7703:Cybercrime 7658:Corruption 6976:29 January 6905:, May 2016 6615:June 2019. 6523:8118094562 5860:(Report). 5323:21 October 5146:: 103542. 4776:GeoJournal 4484:25 October 4322:(1): 891. 4059:Demography 3588:11 October 3449:18 October 3420:18 October 3267:18 October 3150:References 2892:pregnancy. 2882:liberalism 2627:See also: 2438:See also: 2401:See also: 2365:(FHA) and 2182:Baby Bonds 2094:retirement 2068:wealth gap 1984:Stereotype 1979:Speciesism 1860:Oppression 1855:Oikophobia 1751:Allophilia 1727:Toleration 1576:Sodomy law 1469:Internment 1383:Witch-hunt 1261:Blackhawks 1191:Hate group 1179:Hate crime 1152:Gendercide 1142:Freak show 1132:Excellence 1092:Employment 1062:Defamation 986:Vietnamese 981:Venezuelan 871:Lithuanian 525:Falun Gong 452:Xenophobia 447:Vegaphobia 430:Non-binary 388:Pedophobia 353:Homophobia 167:Skin color 127:Disability 98:Attributes 73:Structural 7875:Sexuality 7855:Extremism 7776:Fake news 7693:Terrorism 7418:Pollution 7367:Education 7342:Transport 7141:154718544 6802:0361-3666 6782:Disasters 6685:6 January 6680:0362-4331 6651:6 January 6582:158634577 6574:956328193 6531:158634577 6515:0022-3808 6463:retracted 6455:retracted 6405:0027-8424 6344:1932-6203 6295:1948-5506 6226:0027-8424 6139:1932-6203 6090:1745-9133 6033:1468-2869 5508:6 January 5288:158682691 5245:0003-0554 5201:0165-1765 5187:: 67–72. 5162:0166-0462 5113:0277-9536 5099:: 77–86. 5058:0002-9602 5019:0002-8282 4984:0145-5532 4943:0022-0507 4796:151164815 4544:154671929 4445:6 January 4404:2045-2322 4338:1471-2458 4295:6 January 4267:6 January 4241:6 January 4216:6 January 4181:225552367 4067:CiteSeerX 3968:143703880 3898:153405668 3823:148962929 3337:: 35–49. 3124:Redlining 2864:known as 2690:success. 2617:Education 2561:Section 8 2057:prejudice 1957:Christian 1885:Prejudice 1833:Masculism 1781:Diversity 1559:religious 1534:Redlining 1127:Ethnocide 1087:Education 971:Ukrainian 906:Pakistani 896:Mongolian 817:Australia 799:Hungarian 754:Colombian 734:Bulgarian 608:Rastafari 557:Ahmadiyya 468:Religious 440:Trans men 398:Pregnancy 333:Gayphobia 328:Fatphobia 233:Acephobia 228:Arophobia 204:Viewpoint 7860:Gambling 7850:Colorism 7759:Internet 7721:HIV/AIDS 7552:Feminism 7494:Abortion 7486:Children 7476:Polygamy 7385:Literacy 7312:Pensions 7228:12042604 6920:Archived 6810:10379098 6741:28228993 6604:Archived 6442:32651282 6423:31332014 6362:26540108 6314:PLOS ONE 6244:30126997 6183:22 April 6157:32579553 6109:PLOS ONE 6051:32212060 5955:16 April 5929:16 April 5904:12 April 5867:29 March 5765:: 1–23. 5744:11568703 5700:10 April 5484:Archived 5459:30 March 5450:Archived 5411:Archived 5392:16 April 5386:Archived 5363:44826562 5317:Archived 5121:28734598 5074:18170457 5066:19852253 4839:28330583 4753:20462784 4422:32855432 4356:31277617 4211:NBC News 4144:: 25–38. 4097:20464127 4089:15461016 4003:11945433 3787:and the 3694:26 March 3625:15 April 3524:4 August 3498:16 March 3036:See 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