Source protection - Knowledge

998:"The recognition of protection of journalistic sources is fairly well established in Europe both at the regional and domestic levels. For the most part, the protections seem to be respected by authorities...and direct demands to sources seem more the exception than the common practice". Banisar noted: "...There are still significant problems. Many of the national laws are limited in scope, or in the types of journalists that they protect. The protections are being bypassed in many countries by the use of searches of newsrooms and through increasing use of surveillance. There has also been an increase in the use of criminal sanctions against journalists, especially under national security grounds for receiving information from sources." 1472: 944:(ASEAN) adopted a Human Rights Declaration in November 2012 with general provisions for freedom of expression and privacy (ASEAN 2012). Reservations have been voiced regarding the wording of provisions on human rights and fundamental freedoms in relation to political, economic and cultural systems and the Declaration's provisions on "balancing" rights with individual duties as well as an absence of reference that legitimate restrictions of rights must be provided by law and conform to strict tests of necessity and proportionality 491:. He proposed in a 2014 paper that interference with journalistic confidentiality by means of secret surveillance should be recognized at least as equally onerous as searches of a home or a workplace. "... it seems that in the digital era, it is necessary to redefine the scope of the protection of journalistic privilege and to include in that scope all the data acquired in the process of communication, preparation, processing or gathering of information that would enable the identification of an informant," Podkowik wrote. 232:

confidential sources relied upon by bloggers and citizen journalists largely unprotected, because these producers of journalism are not recognized as 'proper journalists'. Such definitions also exclude the growing group of academic writers and journalism students, lawyers, human rights workers and others, who produce journalism online, including investigative journalism. This has bearing on a controversy in 2015 in which

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won the case, her status as a real journalist was called into question. Even with the victory, the court did not specifically address if protections and privacy extended to student journalists, but because of the nature of her intent and the project she could not be coerced to releasing the footage. The case helped help further battles in student journalism and press freedoms at an educational level.

826:. This set of recommendations included the following point relevant to source protection in connection with journalism safety: "Encourage legislators to increase safe working conditions for journalists by creating legislation that fosters media freedoms, including guarantees of free access to information, protection of confidential sources, and decriminalizing journalistic activities." 1419:(IACHR) approved the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression as a guidance document for interpreting Article 13 of the Inter American Convention of Human Rights. Article 8 of the Declaration states: "Every social communicator has the right to keep his/her source of information, notes, personal and professional archives confidential." 1408:(OAS). Few journalists are ever required to testify on the identity of their sources. However direct demands for sources still occur regularly in many countries, requiring journalists to seek legal recourse in courts. There are also problems with searches of newsrooms and journalists' homes, surveillance and the use of national security laws". 401:, has outlined that States can gain access to the telephone and email content of an effectively unlimited number of users and maintain an overview of Internet activity associated with particular websites. "All of this is possible without any prior suspicion related to a specific individual or organization. The communications of literally every 3210: 102:, the question of whether or not sources can expect to have their identity protected has significant effects on the ability of media to operate and investigate cases. If a potential source can expect to face legal retaliation or other personal harm as a result of talking to a journalist, they may be less willing to talk to the media. 45:. It prohibits authorities, including the courts, from compelling a journalist to reveal the identity of an anonymous source for a story. The right is based on a recognition that without a strong guarantee of anonymity, many would be deterred from coming forward and sharing information of public interests with journalists. 1131:

January 2015: Council of Europe Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights, Report on Mass Surveillance/Resolution and recommendation addressed the implications for journalistic source protection in the context of freedom of expression and access to information. The Resolution included the following

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organisations to produce guidelines for prosecutors and police officers and training materials for judges on the right of journalists not to disclose their sources; develop guidelines for public authorities and private service providers concerning the protection of the confidentiality of journalists'

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June 2013: 'Report of the Special Rapporteur (Frank La Rue) on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression' to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/23/40) highlights the relationship between the rights to freedom of expression, and access to information and privacy that

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effect', where national security and anti-terrorism legislation effectively take precedence over legal and normative protections for confidential journalistic sources. The classification of information as being protected by national security or anti-terrorism legislation has the effect of increasing

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The problem has grown in the intervening years, as a parallel to digital development, and occurs where it is unchecked by measures designed to preserve fundamental rights to freedom of expression and privacy, as well as accountability and transparency. In practice, Campbell considers that this leads

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May 2014: Council of the European Union - "EU Human Rights Guidelines on Freedom of Expression: Online and Offline" included the following statement: "States should protect by law the right of journalists not to disclose their sources in order to ensure that journalists can report on matters in the

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that "rotection of journalistic sources is one of the basic conditions for press freedom ... Without such protection, sources may be deterred from assisting the press in informing the public on matters of public interest. As a result the vital public-watchdog role of the press may be undermined and

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April 2013 draft report published: "CleanGovBiz Integrity in Practice, Investigative Media" argued that forcing a journalist to reveal a source in such cases would be a short sighted approach in many cases: "...once a corruption case has been brought to light by a journalist, law enforcement has an

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In February 2014, the UN hosted an international expert seminar on the Right to Privacy in the Digital Age (Geneva) Frank La Rue (then UN Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression), called for a special United Nations mandate for protecting

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has put it, "Metadata is information about what communications you send and receive, who you talk to, where you are when you talk to them, the length of your conversations, what kind of device you were using and potentially other information, like the subject line of your emails". Metadata may also

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States are introducing mandatory data retention laws. Such laws require telecommunications and Internet Service Providers to preserve communications data for inspection and analysis, according to a report of the Special Rapporteur on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms

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adopted a resolution which outlined a broad definition of journalistic actors that acknowledged that: "...journalism is continuously evolving to include inputs from media institutions, private individuals and a range of organizations that seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds,

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for video she took of a violent encounter between police officers and a group of residents. The case, which was ultimately dismissed, involved attaining unedited footage of the encounter which part of was used in a documentary Linda Tracy made as for an undergraduate journalism class. Although she

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September 2007: Guidelines of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on protecting freedom of expression and information in times of crisis adopted. These guidelines (CoE 2007) recommended that Member States adopt Recommendation No. R (2000)7 (CoE 2000) into law and practice. In March

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Regardless of whether the right to source confidentiality is protected by law, the process of communicating between journalists and sources can jeopardize the privacy and safety of sources, as third parties can hack electronic communications or otherwise spy on interactions between journalists and

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November 2012: European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) Telegraaf Media Nederland Landelijke Media b.v. and others v. the Netherlands (Application no. 39315/06) The complaint in this case was brought by a Dutch newspaper and two of its journalists. The journalists had been under investigation after

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does not want to limit entitlement to source protection to recognized journalists, but to extend it to citizens as well. Egyptian Media Studies Professor Rasha Abdullah said that source protection needs to be accessible to a broad range of communications actors: "It should apply to anyone who has

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platforms, for example, can be compelled to produce electronic records (stored for increasingly lengthy periods under mandatory data retention laws) that identify journalists' sources, then legal protections that shield journalists from disclosing confidential sources may be undercut by backdoor

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Many legal definitions of 'journalist' have been evaluated as overly narrow, as they tend to emphasis official contractual ties to legacy media organizations, may demand a substantial publication record, and/or require significant income to be derived from the practice of journalism. This leaves

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highlights the role of national security, anti-terrorism and anti-extremism laws as instruments "...used in some cases to limit legitimate debate and to curtail dissenting views in the media, while also underwriting expanded surveillance, which may be seen to violate the right to privacy and to

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between third parties on the Internet. They give access to, host, transmit and index content, products and services originated by third parties on the Internet or provide Internet-based services to third parties.' Most definitions of Internet intermediaries explicitly exclude content producers.

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In the UNESCO publication Fostering Freedom Online: The Role of Internet Intermediaries (MacKinnon et al 2014), the authors cite the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's (OECD) definition of Internet intermediaries as entities that 'bring together or facilitate transactions

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Under Canadian law journalists cannot be compelled to identify or disclose information likely to identify a journalistic source, unless a court of competent jurisdiction finds there is no other reasonable way to obtain the information in question, and that the public interest of administrating

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Journalists are now adapting their work in an effort to shield their sources from exposure, sometimes even seeking to avoid electronic devices and communications. The cost of the digital era source protection threat is significant—in terms of digital security tools, training, reversion to more

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sources. Such sources may require anonymity to protect them from physical, economic or professional reprisals in response to their revelations. There is a strong tradition of legal source protection internationally, in recognition of the function that confidential sources play in facilitating

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passed in 1986 and protects bank transactions, telephone digits, and other information. The act also encompasses what organizations must provide to law enforcement with a subpoena, such as name, address, durations of services used, type of device used, and source of payment. This is known as

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May 2014 Stichting Ostade Blade v The Netherlands in the ECtHR (Application no. 8406/06). The Court rejected a Dutch magazine's application against a police raid under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights. This judgement demonstrates the narrow circumstances in which source

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Fuchs, Eubanks, and Giroux have warned that surveillance is a broader problem than the impingement of individual privacy. Andrejevic (2014) has argued that it represents a fundamental alteration to the power dynamics of society: "...Surveillance should be understood as referring to forms of

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on the protection of journalism and safety of journalists and other media actors adopted: "A favorable environment for public debate requires States to refrain from judicial intimidation by restricting the right of individuals to disclose information of public interest through arbitrary or

615:, women journalists need to be able to rely on secure non-physical means of communication with their sources. Women sources may face the same physical risks outlined above—especially if their journalistic contact is male and/or they experience cultural restrictions, or they are working in 1320:

drew attention to the extent of US government surveillance operations. Surveillance by network administrators may include being able to view how many times a journalist or source visits a website per day, the information they are reading or viewing, and online applications they utilize.

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environment. In the digital age, it is not the act of committing (or suspicion of committing) a crime that may result in a person being subject to surveillance, but the simple act of using certain modes of communication—such as mobile technology, email, social networks and the Internet.

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invalid, that communications metadata "taken as a whole may allow very precise conclusions to be drawn concerning the private lives of the persons whose data has been retained" (Digital Rights Ireland Ltd C-293/12 v Minister for Communications et al. Ireland, 8 April 2014, Directive

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disproportionate application of the law, in particular the criminal law provisions relating to defamation, national security or terrorism. The arbitrary use of laws creates a chilling effect on the exercise of the right to impart information and ideas, and leads to self-censorship."

931:(EAJC) judgement on Burundi Press Law (Burundian journalists' union v the Attorney General of the Republic of Burundi, Reference No.7 of 2013). In this judgement, the EAJC ruled Articles 19 & 20 of Burundi's 2013 Press Law violated democratic principles and should be repealed. 976:

the ability of the press to provide accurate and reliable information may be adversely affected." The Court concluded that absent "an overriding requirement in the public interest", an order to disclose sources would violate the guarantee of free expression in Article 10 of the

1015:(ECtHR) - Tillack v Belgium (20477/05) involved a leak investigation targeting an investigative journalist. The ECtHRs judgment concluded that the authorities acted disproportionately and breached the journalist's right to freedom of expression enshrined in Article 10 of the 648:

Journalists and sources using the Internet or mobile apps to communicate face greater risk of gendered harassment and threats of violence. These risks need to be understood and mitigated to avoid further chilling women's involvement in journalism—as practitioners or sources.

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and their sources. Calls for unlimited monitoring and use of modern surveillance technologies to access all citizens' data, directly challenge journalists' rights to protect their confidential sources, she said. A report by The Guardian in 2015, based on files leaked by

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incentive to discover the anonymous source(s). While the source might indeed be valuable for the case in question either by providing additional information or through being a witness in court forcing the journalist to reveal the source would often be short-sighted."

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July 2014 - Summary of the Human Rights Council panel discussion on the safety of journalists: Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights the meeting heard that national security and anti-terrorism laws should not be used to silence

586:(working on and offline) is desirable, and case law is catching up gradually on this issue of redefinition. On the other hand, it opens up debates about licensing and registering those who do journalism and who wish to be recognized for protection of their sources. 76:' or 'accountability' journalism. While professional journalistic practice entails multi-sourcing, verification and corroboration, confidential sources are a key component of this practice. Without confidential sources, many acts of investigative story-telling—from 3260: 1094:

2011: Council of Europe Human Rights Commission issues discussion paper on Protection of Journalists from Violence (CoE HRC 2011) noting that "the fight against terrorism does not allow the authorities to circumvent this right by going beyond what is permitted

865:, there exists a relatively strong recognition of the right of journalists to protect their sources, at national, sub-regional as well as continental levels. However, and by and large, this recognition has not yet resulted in a critical mass of legal provisions 416:, according to Emmerson's report: "Targeted surveillance...enables intelligence and law enforcement agencies to monitor the online activity of particular individuals, to penetrate databases and cloud facilities, and to capture the information stored on them". 377:

Mass surveillance can be defined as the broad, arbitrary monitoring of an entire or substantial fraction of a population. According to former United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Expression and Opinion,

895:"XV Protection of Sources and other journalistic material Media practitioners shall not be required to reveal confidential sources of information or to disclose other material held for journalistic purposes except in accordance with the following principles: 564:

the content, they may neglect the metadata, meaning they still leave behind a digital trail when they communicate with their sources. This data can easily identify a source, and safeguards against its illegitimate use are frequently limited, or non-existent.

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of Paul H., an agent accused of selling the file in question. Upon motions by the prosecution and the defence, the investigative judge in the case ordered the disclosure of the source for the news story, on the grounds that it was necessary to safeguard

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In Bulgaria, Poland, and Romania unauthorized access to information by government entities were identified in several cases. In those political regions, policies such as mandatory registration of pre-paid SIM mobile phone cards and government access to

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to retain data 'just in case' it is needed for government purposes. Mandatory third-party data retention—a recurring feature of surveillance regimes in many States, where Governments require telephone companies and internet service providers to store

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adopted Recommendation 1950 on the protection of journalists´ sources. (CoE 2011) recommending that the Committee of Ministers call on all their Member States to: legislate for source protection; review their national laws on surveillance,

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In Mexico, it is reported that the government there has spent $ 300 million during one year to surveil and gather information from the population with specific interest in journalists to get access to their texts, phone calls, and emails.

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about the circulation of state secrets, in the form of documents from the Netherlands' secret service (AIVD). The Court found that the journalists' rights under both Articles 8 and 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights had been

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information to expose, particularly in the age of digital media". For Arab Reporters for Investigative Journalism's (ARIJ) Rana Sabbagh, "There is a difference between reporting the news, writing an editorial, and being an activist".

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and journalistic privilege internationally. With rapid technological advancement, law enforcement and national security agencies have shifted from a process of detecting crimes already committed, to one of threat prevention in the

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and quoted from what they claimed was an official dossier on Mink Kok, a notorious criminal. They further alleged that the dossier in question had fallen into the hands of Kok himself. A subsequent police investigation led to the

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In an era where citizens and other social communicators have the capacity to publish directly to their own audiences, and those sharing information in the public interest are recognized as legitimate journalistic actors by the

611:. In some contexts, their physical mobility may be restricted due to overt threats to their safety, or as a result of cultural prohibitions on women's conduct in public, including meeting privately with male sources. For the 1001:

Since then, European organizations and law-making bodies have made significant attempts at a regional level to identify the risks posed to source protection in the changing digital environment, and to mitigate these risks.

224:(working on and offline). This opens up debates about classifying journalists, and even about licensing and registering those who do journalism—debates that are particularly potent where there is a history of controls over 701:

2012: Resolution adopted by the UN Human Rights Council (A/HRC/RES/20/8) on the promotion, protection and enjoyment of human rights on the Internet that recognize the need to uphold people's rights equally regardless of

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Russell L 2014, "Shielding the Media: In an Age of Bloggers, Tweeters, and Leakers, Will Congress Succeed in Defining the Term "Journalist" and in Passing a Long-Sought Federal Shield Act?" Oregon Law Review, 93, pp.

1136:, had entrusted a large amount of top secret data establishing the existence of mass surveillance and large-scale intrusion practices hitherto unknown to the general public and even to most political decision-makers." 119:

poses challenges to traditional legal protections for journalists' sources. While protective laws and/or a reporter's commitment shielded the identity of sources in the analogue past, in the age of digital reporting,

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Scholars, journalism organizations and press freedom advocacy groups have put a lot of effort in defining journalism in a way that it would allow the best possible protection of themselves and their sources. Many

657:"There is widespread recognition in international agreements, case law and declarations that protection of journalists' sources a crucial aspect of freedom of expression that should be protected by all nations" 1354:

had sought the order in a bid to have charges against him stayed, arguing that officials from an anti-corruption police unit had leaked information about the case to the press. The case was remitted back to the

90:(ICIJ)—may never have surfaced. Even reporting that involves gathering opinions in the streets, or a background briefing often relies on trust that a journalist respects confidentiality where this is requested. 1140:

public interest without their sources fearing retribution. All governments must allow journalists to work in a free and enabling environment in safety and security, without the fear of censorship or restraint."

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Compounding the impacts of surveillance on source protection and confidential source-dependent journalism globally is the interception, capture and long term storage of data by third party intermediaries. If

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conference highlights the significance of the challenges posed by Internet communications to the maintenance of freedom of expression and privacy rights essential to the practice of investigative journalism.

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According to Polish law academic Jan Podkowik (2014), surveillance undertaken without a journalist's consent should be considered as an act of interference with the protection granted by Article 10 of the

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Expanding requirements for third party intermediaries to mandatory retain citizens' data for increasingly lengthy periods of time further exposes journalistic communications with confidential sources

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UN Human Rights Committee, General Comment no. 34 recognizes protection of all forms of expression and the means of their dissemination, including electronic and Internet-based modes of expression.

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statement: "The Parliamentary Assembly is deeply concerned about mass surveillance practices disclosed since June 2013 by journalists to whom a former United States national security insider, Mr.

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while Countering Terrorism. In practice, this means that data on individuals' telecommunication and Internet transactions are collected and stored even when no suspicion of crime has been raised.

3236:"Commissioner for Human Rights - Protection of journalists from violence. Issue Discussion Paper commissioned and published by Thomas Hammarberg, Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights" 719:

passed a Resolution on 'Internet-related issues: including access to information and knowledge, freedom of expression, privacy and ethical dimensions of the information society' (UNESCO 2013).

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Jan Podkowik, Secret Surveillance, National Security and Journalistic Privilege: In Search of a Balance Between Conflicting Values in the Age Age of New Telecommunications Technologies, 2014

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2010: Report on the protection of journalists' sources from the Council of Europe (CoE) Parliamentary Assembly highlighted the need to limit exceptions to legal source protection provisions.

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Moving the framework to a protection of 'acts of journalism' rather than limiting it to the work of professional journalists is a conceptual shift, according to Stearns in a 2013 report.

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adopted the Chapultepec Declaration. Principle 3 states: "No journalist may be forced to reveal his or her sources of information." Building on the Chapultepec Declaration, in 2000 the

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Debates about digital media actors' entitlement to access source protection laws where they exist, while being more prominent in Western contexts, are intensifying around the world.

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need to be able to rely on secure digital communications to ensure that they are not at increased risk in conflict zones, or when working on dangerous stories, such as those about

2594:"Refworld - Summary of the Human Rights Council panel discussion on the safety of journalists : Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights" 2237: 641:. The ability to covertly intercept and analyze journalistic communications with sources increases the physical risk to both women journalists and their sources in such contexts. 217:

have argued in favor of legal protections being defined in connection with 'acts of journalism', rather than through the definition of the professional functions of a journalist.

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In the Netherlands, a 2006 case ruled that in cases of minimal national security interest do not supersede source confidentiality. Bart Mos and Joost de Haas, of the Dutch daily

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communications and other defensive measures are therefore of great importance to ensure that their movements are not tracked and the identity of the source remains confidential.

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gives every person the right to receive information and express and disseminate opinions. The 2002 Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, released by the

793: 517: 1963: 1210:, which states in Principle 8 that "every social communicator has the right to keep his/her source of information, notes, personal and professional archives confidential." 248: 337:". According to the COE report, following the 2001 terrorist attacks, many European countries adopted new laws or expanded the use of old laws to monitor communications. 53:

and their sources have expressed concern over government covertly accessing their private communications. To mitigate these risks, journalists and sources often rely on

1624:"'Secret surveillance, national security and journalistic privilege—in search of the balance between conflicting values in the age of new telecommunication technologies" 2360:"Resolution on Internet related issues: including access to information and knowledge, freedom of expression, privacy and ethical dimensions of the information society" 924:

was circulated. An information officer may refuse a request if the information: "(c) Consists of confidential communication between a journalist and her or his source".

796:(OHCHR) Report on Encryption, Anonymity and the Human Rights Framework by UN Special on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression, 3698: 3693: 1045:

were right to protect their sources by rejecting a United Kingdom High Court order for them to turn over leaked documents connected to a takeover bid involving a

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A 2008 Council of Europe report detailed what it described as a "worrying trend in the use of both authorized and unauthorized electronic surveillance to monitor

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2000, the Council of Europe's Committee of Ministers had adopted that Recommendation on the "right of journalists not to disclose their sources of information".

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is to know to whom source protection laws should be applied. On the one hand, broadening the legal definition of 'journalist' to ensure adequate protection for

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Glowacka, Dorota; Siemaszko, Konrad; Smtek, Joanna; Warso, Zuzanna (2018-06-01). "Protecting journalistic sources against contemporary means of surveillance".

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about their customers' communications and location for subsequent law enforcement and intelligence agency access—appears neither necessary nor proportionate".

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Marquis-Boire, Morgan; Marczak, Bill; Guarnieri, Claudio; Scott-Railton, John (April 30, 2013). "For their eyes only: the commercialization of digital spying"

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Representative on Freedom of the Media (RFOM) regularly issues statements and comments regarding breaches and threats to legal source protection frameworks.

800:(Kaye 2015) emphasizes the essential roles played by encryption and anonymity as defenses create a zone of privacy to protect opinion from outside scrutiny. 462:

but they are authorized under the broad powers of national laws or undertaken illegally, in an attempt to identify the sources of journalistic information.

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The identity of the source is necessary for the investigation or prosecution of a serious crime, or the defense of a person accused of a criminal offense;

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by governments and private parties to track their activities and identify their sources". According to the report, most such incidents are not related to

3570: 3335: 2644:"Keystones to foster inclusive Knowledge Societies Access to information and knowledge, Freedom of Expression, Privacy, and Ethics on a Global Internet" 1266:, but the publicity surrounding the case helped introduce the concept of reporter's privilege into public discussion. As a result of the case, Branzburg 991:'s Committee of Ministers issued a Recommendation to its member states on how to implement the protection of sources in their domestic legislation. The 3211:"Recommendation No. R (2000) 7 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the right of journalists not to disclose their sources of information" 3106: 1756: 921: 885: 850: 397:

A report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms while Countering Terrorism,

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passed a unanimous motion that "strongly rejects any attempts to define a journalist in any way other than as someone who commits acts of journalism."

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July 2015: UNESCO study "Keystones for the Internet" calls for enhanced protection of the confidentiality of sources of journalism in the digital age.

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Recommendation No. R (2000)7 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the right of journalists not to disclose their sources of information

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district court considered that the national security interest served by the order was minor and should not prevail over the protection of sources.

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February 2008: European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) Guja v. Moldova (14277/04) This judgement found in favour of Jacob Guja who had served as a

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Advocates of long-term metadata retention insist that there are no significant privacy or freedom of expression threats. Even when journalists

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April 2013 - Model Law on Access to Information in Africa by the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information at the

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labor-intensive analogue practices, and legal advice. Such tactics may be insufficient if legal protections are weak, anonymity is forbidden,

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April 2014: European Union Court of Justice judgement (Ireland Data Retention Directive). The Court observed, in its judgment declaring the

2518: 1939: 1504: 1056:. The ECtHR declared illegal the seizure by the Dutch police of a journalist's CD of photographs, which identified confidential sources. 822:

June 2011 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)—Representative on Freedom of the Media: Vilnius Recommendations on

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2013: announced its withdrawal from the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights.

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confidentiality, reporters are not afforded a similar legal shield. Communications between reporters and sources have been used by the

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has specifically referenced the implications of governments invoking national security and anti-terrorism measures that interfere with

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Some of the data collected under these policies is known as metadata. Metadata is data that defines and describes other data. For the

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media lawyer Charles Tobin is also in favor of a broad definition of journalism as a response to the rise of citizen journalists and

1416: 440: 3185:"Case Law, Strasbourg: Stichting Ostade Blade v Netherlands, The limits of the concept of "journalistic source" – Hugh Tomlinson QC" 149:

is disallowed, and sources themselves are unaware of the risks. The impact of these combined factors on the production and scope of

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Banisar, David (8 November 2007). "Silencing Sources: An International Survey of Protections and Threats to Journalists' Sources".

1662:. Council of Europe, Media and Information Society Division Directorate General of Human Rights and Legal Affairs Council of Europe 786:

July 2014: 'The right to privacy in the digital age: Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights'

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Kuttab, D (2015) Qualitative interview conducted by Alexandra Waldhorn for UNESCO Internet Study: Privacy and Journalists' Sources

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Relaxing legal limitations on approving and conducting surveillance including allowing for warrantless interception in some cases;

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monitoring deeply embedded in structural conditions of asymmetrical power relations that underwrite domination and exploitation."

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Pre-publication exposure of journalistic investigations which may trigger cover-ups, intimidation, or destruction of information,

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Kleberg, C. F. (2015), The Death of Source Protection? Protecting Journalists’ Source in a Post-Snowden Age, London: LSE Polis.

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technologies to protect the confidentiality of their communications. However, even these methods are not completely effective.

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Noorlander, P 2015 Qualitative interview conducted by Emma Goodman for UNESCO Internet Study: Privacy and Journalists' Sources

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for H. The two journalists were subsequently detained for refusing to comply with the disclosure order, but were released on

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December 2014: UN General Assembly Resolution on The safety of journalists and the issue of impunity freedoms (A/RES/69/185)

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2013: Resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly (A/RES/68/163) on the Safety of Journalists and Issue of Impunity (2013)

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working in the context of reporting conflict and organized crime are particularly vulnerable to physical attacks, including

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Tobin, C, 2015 Qualitative interview conducted by Julie Posetti for UNESCO Internet Study: Privacy and Journalists' Sources

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Sabbagh, R 2015 Qualitative interview conducted by Farrah Wael for UNESCO Internet Study: Privacy and Journalists' Sources

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of journalists and their sources undercuts legal source protection frameworks by intercepting journalistic communications,

1016: 977: 706: 488: 278: 3285: 3235: 2099: 1732: 1590:"Leak Prosecutions and the First Amendment: New Developments and a Closer Look at the Feasibility of Protecting Leakers" 2309: 2136:"The right to privacy in the digital age Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights" 1374:

More schools of journalism are also beginning to include data and source protection and privacy into their curriculum.

889: 3733: 2941: 2916: 3135:"European Court of Human Rights : Telegraaf Media Nederland Landelijke Media B.V. and Others v. the Netherlands" 124:, mandatory data retention, and disclosure by third party intermediaries, this traditional shield can be penetrated. 3704: 3310: 2541:"Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression" 2008:

Giroux, H, 2015, Totalitarian Paranoia in the Post-Orwellian Surveillance State, Cultural Studies, 29:2, pp.108-140.

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that allow for access to records and oblige assistance. There are also problems in many countries with searches of

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that allow for access to records and oblige assistance. There are also problems in many countries with searches of

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Abramowicz, David. 2008. “Calculating the Public Interest in Protecting Journalists' Confidential Sources.”

3711: 1405: 1237: 723: 668: 240: 3003: 1657:"Speaking of terror: A survey of the effects of counter-terrorism legislation on freedom of the media in Europe" 3719: 1694: 1454: 1229: 1012: 968: 684: 545: 190:

that increasingly broadens definitions of 'classified information' and limits exceptions for journalistic acts,

1656: 1300:“required disclosure” policies. It later included provisions to prohibit access to stored electronic devices. 3754: 3749: 2671: 2211: 1233: 928: 3660: 3634: 3422: 390:

cables, through which the majority of digital communication information flows, and applying word, voice and

3546: 1889: 305:

and with broadly defined state secrets acts which criminalize journalists who publish leaked information".

214: 3448: 767:

spotlighted the right to privacy in protecting individuals who reveal human rights implicated information.

1346:

overturned an order that would have required a journalist to disclose the source of her reporting on the

561: 459: 146: 3159: 3056: 2568: 1033:

ltd and others v. The United Kingdom (821/03). The Court ruled that the Financial Times, The Guardian,

948: 797: 660: 549: 298: 187: 2775: 1151: 1052:

September 2010: European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), Grand Chamber Appeal—Sanoma Uitgevers B.V. v

501: 387: 220:

Some countries are broadening the legal definition of 'journalist' to ensure adequate protection for

3081: 2749:"OECD 2013, 'CleanGovBiz Integrity in Practice, Investigative Media,' Secretary General of the OECD" 325:

is often used as a talisman to justify stifling dissenting voices in the way that calling someone a

1390: 1386: 1317: 1312:

further impacted the relationship between journalism, sources, and privacy. Snowden's actions as a

1069: 476: 150: 3710:, providing an overview of International and European domestic law on protection of sources - the 3030: 2890: 1978: 544:

standard, metadata is defined as data that defines and describes other data and processes. As the

524:

in the Digital Age concludes that there is a pattern of "...increasing reliance of Governments on

3532: 2187:"ISO/IEC 11179-1:2004 - Information technology -- Metadata registries (MDR) -- Part 1: Framework" 1394: 1343: 1219: 753: 38: 1471: 1422:

There are developments with regards to the status of the above regional instruments since 2007:

98:

Due to the centrality of communication between journalists and sources to the daily business of

2415: 1245: 1241: 956: 902:

The information or similar information leading to the same result cannot be obtained elsewhere;

687:(ECtHR) has found in several cases that it is an essential component of freedom of expression. 406: 368: 2748: 1874: 3688:

Silencing Sources: An International Survey of Protections and Threats to Journalists’ Sources

3527:

Silkie Carlo and Arjen Kamphuis. 2014. “Information Security for Investigative Journalists.”

2160: 1433:

expressed interest in signing the Declaration of Chapultepec, he later suspended the signing.

1368: 1279: 823: 730: 595: 420: 413: 345: 252: 233: 194: 3594: 3495: 2787: 2643: 2618: 2387: 2027: 1784: 1484: 1112: 379: 358: 225: 137: 3514:

http://www.lse.ac.uk/media@lse/documents/Death-of-Source-Protection-Carl-Fridh-Kleberg.pdf

2696: 1890:"'Under Cover of Security, Governments Jail Journalists' Committee to Protect Journalists" 1430: 1026:

to a newspaper regarding cases of alleged political interference with the justice process.

947:

In 2007, Banisar noted that: "A major recent concern in the region is the adoption of new

8: 3764: 3134: 3015: 2490: 1351: 1347: 630: 465:

These laws expand surveillance in a number of ways, according to the CoE study, such as:

128: 116: 73: 3608: 1270:

a Kentucky reporter, was forced to testify about his sources and story to a grand jury.

427:(also known as FinSpy) backdoors, in a total of 25 countries, including 14 countries in 292: 41:, is a right accorded to journalists under the laws of many countries, as well as under 3661:"OAS - Organization of American States: Democracy for peace, security, and development" 3635:"OAS - Organization of American States: Democracy for peace, security, and development" 3388: 2812: 2298: 1258: 583: 391: 310: 221: 3571:"Supreme Court ruling bolsters journalists' authority to protect confidential sources" 1785:"The Safety of journalists and the danger of impunity: report by the Director-General" 726:(UNGA) adopted a resolution on the Right to Privacy in the Digital Age. (A/C.3/68/167) 3460: 3392: 3380: 2256: 1870: 1601: 1183: 1104: 1005: 988: 683:(OSCE) have specifically recognized journalists' right to protect their sources. The 676: 624: 620: 505: 383: 318: 183: 121: 77: 42: 2891:"UN experts raise concerns over 'landmark' Southeast Asian human rights declaration" 1914: 1244:

as an avenue to information about specific individuals or groups related to pending

830: 3759: 3372: 2813:"Model Law for African States on Access to Information / Legal Instruments / ACHPR" 1589: 1117: 623:

victims may be physically unable to leave their homes, and therefore be reliant on

521: 244:

online as well as offline, in the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression".

163:

Revelation of sources' identities with legal or extra-legal repercussions on them,

3490:

McGregor, Susan. 2014. “DIGITAL SECURITY AND SOURCE PROTECTION FOR JOURNALISTS.”

2967:"GOODWIN v. THE UNITED KINGDOM - 17488/90 [1996] ECHR 16 (27 March 1996)" 2966: 2838:"Burundian Journalists' Union v. Attorney General - Global Freedom of Expression" 1449: 1356: 1038: 1030: 906: 169: 68: 64: 1168:. In an article in January 2006, the two journalists alleged the existence of a 729:

2014: Resolution adopted by the UN Human Rights Council (A/HRC/RES/27/5) on the

297:

In 2007, Banisar noted that: "A major recent concern ... is the adoption of new

2593: 1733:"Shield laws and journalist's privilege: The basics every reporter should know" 1309: 1133: 1108: 604: 600: 575: 525: 354: 350: 82: 3406:'Dutch court releases 2 reporters jailed for refusing to reveal their sources' 2990: 809: 419:

In 2013, the Monk School of Global Affairs' Citizen Lab research group at the

63:

Journalists rely on source protection to gather and reveal information in the

3743: 3464: 3384: 3239: 1605: 1313: 1225: 1111:, and access to telecommunications records; co-operate with journalists' and 1023: 672: 579: 436: 270: 127:

Technological developments and a change in operational methods of police and

494: 482:

Increased demand for identification of users of telecommunications services.

369:

The role of mass and targeted surveillance in undercutting legal protections

3727: 2286:"World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report" 1476: 1164: 1061: 509: 398: 361:

assessment had listed "investigative journalists" alongside terrorists and

341: 263: 3547:"Consolidated federal laws of canada, Journalistic Sources Protection Act" 3031:"CEDH, AFFAIRE TILLACK c. BELGIQUE, 27 novembre 2007, 20477/05 - Doctrine" 2186: 3690:. Global survey of source protection laws by Privacy International, 2007. 3376: 2672:"OHCHR - Report on encryption, anonymity, and the human rights framework" 1412: 1178: 1053: 764: 554: 3336:"EU Human Rights Guidelines on Freedom of Expression Online and Offline" 1339:

justice in the case outweighs the public interest of source protection.

3723: 3589:

Berret, Charles. 2016. “How SecureDrop Helps CPJ Protect Journalists.”

3426: 2491:"General comment No. 34 Article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression" 1578:

108(8):1949–90. Retrieved March 1, 2019 (www.jstor.org/stable/40041814)

1382: 1378: 1187: 1077:

protection laws can be legitimately over-ridden in the public interest.

642: 634: 608: 455: 448: 353:, highlighted the potential controversy in this area. It stated that a 330: 99: 54: 50: 2440: 3057:"CEDH, AFFAIRE GUJA c. MOLDOVA, 12 février 2008, 14277/04 - Doctrine" 2334: 2310:"OHCHR - Session21 Resolutions, decisions and President's statements" 1695:"Excellence in Journalism 2013 - Society of Professional Journalists" 1436: 1426: 1195: 1169: 1034: 424: 326: 322: 293:

The 'trumping effect' of national security/anti-terrorism legislation

3687: 1698: 1262:

the court ruled that reporter's privilege was not guaranteed by the

959:

acts which criminalize journalists who publish leaked information".

857:

which includes a right to protection of sources under Principle XV.

739: 3423:"Inter-American Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression" 3261:"Recommendation 1950 (2011) The protection of journalists' sources" 2701: 1283: 952: 530: 402: 334: 302: 256: 3701:

by Privacy International 2009. Creative Commons Non-Commercial Use

3694:

ECtHR case law factsheet on the protection of journalistic sources

2465: 1206:

In the Americas, protection of sources has been recognized in the

1006:

European Court of Human Rights and European Union Court of Justice

912:

And disclosure has been ordered by a court, after a full hearing."

780:

World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development report

469:

Extending the range of crimes that interception is authorised for;

1940:"Europe's Journalists Caught in Widening National Security Net -" 1208:

Inter-American Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression

1046: 1042: 831:

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

156:

Where source protection is compromised, the impacts can include:

132: 57: 2723: 3481:. Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: National Communication Association. 1191: 862: 716: 664: 444: 432: 362: 3533:

https://files.gendo.ch/Books/InfoSec_for_Journalists_V1.21.pdf

3479:

Free Speech Yearbook: The Under Privileged Journalism Students

2788:"Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa" 2161:"Freedom of Expression, Privacy and Anonymity on the Internet" 2066: 763:

In July 2013, the then UN High Commissioner for Human Rights,

2619:"World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development" 1290: 638: 405:

user are potentially open for inspection by intelligence and

2991:"European Convention on Human Rights and its Five Protocols" 2776:

Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa

1411:

In 1997, the Hemisphere Conference on Free Speech staged in

1116:

sources in the context of the interception or disclosure of

855:

Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa

251:(IPDC) welcomed the UNESCO Director-General's Report on the 3362: 3055:

l'homme, Cour européenne des droits de (12 February 2008).

3029:

l'homme, Cour européenne des droits de (27 November 2007).

810:

Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

428: 274: 249:

International Program for the Development of Communications

1404:

Banisar wrote: "There are important declarations from the

909:

in disclosure outweighs the harm to freedom of expression;

340:

Gillian Phillips, Director of Editorial Legal Services of

3595:

https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D84178B2

3496:

https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D89P3D4M

616: 495:

The role of third party intermediaries and data retention

1486:

Protecting Journalism Sources in the Digital Age

709:

resolution A/HRC/RES/21/12 on the safety of journalists.

1029:

December 2009: European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)

568: 182:

Source protection laws are at risk of being trumped by

3082:"Financial Times Ltd & Ors v United Kingdom - 5RB" 1975:"Global Media Journal - Australian Edition - 5:1 2011" 752:

2012: Carthage Declaration—participants at the UNESCO

3699:

Model Brief on the Protection of Journalists' Sources

386:

and online communications "...by placing taps on the

88:

International Consortium of Investigative Journalists

2697:"OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media - OSCE" 1377:

Technologies used to protect source privacy include

993:

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

747:

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

681:

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

619:. Additionally, female confidential sources who are 3734:

Infosec for Investigative Journalists, version 2016

3311:"PACE - Resolution 2045 (2015) - Mass surveillance" 2212:"Success Story: Breaking News About Data Retention" 475:Authorizing the use of invasive techniques such as 247:In 2014, the Intergovernmental Council of UNESCO's 80:to the major 2014 investigative journalism project 3365:Northern Lights: Film & Media Studies Yearbook 3107:"CASE OF SANOMA UITGEVERS B.V. v. THE NETHERLANDS" 2724:"Vilnius Recommendations on Safety of Journalists" 1399: 1154:make hacking tools and surveillance a lot easier. 236:objected to having been a subject of surveillance 740:Reports, recommendations, statements and comments 3741: 1561:Protecting Journalism Sources in the Digital Age 1144: 995:has also called on states to respect the right. 794:Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 518:Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 382:, States can achieve almost complete control of 3492:Tow Center for Digital Journalism A Tow/Knight. 922:African Commission on Human and People's Rights 886:African Commission on Human and People's Rights 851:African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights 3591:Tow Center for Digital Journalism A Tow/Knight 3016:"Vienna Follow-up Meeting CONCLUDING DOCUMENT" 804: 589: 542:International Organization for Standardization 357:Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) 153:based on confidential sources is significant. 2569:"OHCHR - Right to Privacy in the Digital Age" 2061: 2059: 2057: 1475: This article incorporates text from a 652: 3545:Branch, Legislative Services (2019-11-15). 3054: 3028: 1887: 479:and remote keystroke monitoring to be used; 423:discovered command and control servers for 314:the reluctance of sources to come forward. 131:are redefining the legal classification of 3446: 2054: 2017:Mark Andrejevic, The Big Data Divide, 2014 1820:"Egypt's Media in the Midst of Revolution" 1621: 1291:Electronics Communications and Privacy Act 1201: 1081: 839: 715:In November 2013, the 37th session of the 412:There is also concern about the extent of 1689: 1687: 1654: 1587: 1417:Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 172:by journalists and citizens more broadly. 3286:"Document not found - Council of Europe" 2538: 1864: 1862: 1860: 1858: 1479:work. Licensed under CC BY SA 3.0 IGO ( 1359:for further consideration of new facts. 1100:Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly 690: 3707:Sanoma Uitgevers B.V. v the Netherlands 1868: 1717: 1715: 1617: 1615: 1557: 935: 447:. This software is exclusively sold to 14: 3742: 3730:News and Media Limited, December 2009. 3544: 3160:"EUR-Lex - 62012CJ0293 - EN - EUR-Lex" 2842:Globalfreedomofexpression.columbia.edu 2261:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2130: 2128: 1684: 1502: 942:Association of Southeast Asian Nations 508:, telecommunication technologies, and 110: 3523: 3521: 3508: 3506: 3504: 1855: 1650: 1648: 1646: 1644: 1297:Electronic Communications Privacy Act 1251: 1120:and traffic data of computer network. 3447:Koningisor, Christina (2018-03-01). 1712: 1612: 1553: 1551: 1549: 1547: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1539: 1537: 1535: 1498: 1496: 1273: 916:Noteworthy developments since 2007: 569:Changes in entitlement to protection 262:The Arabic Media Internet Network's 3736:by Silkie Carlo and Arjen Kamphuis. 3658: 3632: 3529:Centre for Investigative Journalism 3449:"The De Facto Reporter's Privilege" 2125: 1817: 1282:student, Linda Tracy, was issued a 1017:European Convention on Human Rights 978:European Convention on Human Rights 663:such as the United Nations (UN) or 489:European Convention on Human Rights 279:Society of Professional Journalists 166:Sources of information running dry, 24: 3606: 3518: 3501: 3484: 2416:"United Nations Official Document" 1641: 1568: 1503:Liptak, Adam (February 11, 2012). 1194:after three days, on November 30. 890:member states of the African Union 875: 25: 3776: 3681: 3531:1(21). Pp 1-97. Retrieved ( 1532: 1493: 1303: 783:jeopardize freedom of expression" 3716:Committee to Protect Journalists 1489:, 193, Julie Posetti, UNESCO. 1470: 1460:Shield laws in the United States 1213: 309:to what can be identified as a ' 33:, sometimes also referred to as 3712:Open Society Justice Initiative 3652: 3626: 3600: 3583: 3563: 3538: 3471: 3440: 3415: 3399: 3356: 3328: 3303: 3278: 3253: 3228: 3203: 3177: 3152: 3127: 3099: 3074: 3048: 3022: 3008: 2997: 2983: 2959: 2934: 2909: 2883: 2855: 2830: 2805: 2780: 2769: 2741: 2716: 2689: 2664: 2636: 2611: 2586: 2561: 2532: 2526:Afdb.org\accessdate=28 May 2018 2511: 2483: 2458: 2433: 2408: 2380: 2352: 2327: 2302: 2292: 2278: 2269: 2230: 2204: 2179: 2153: 2115: 2103: 2093: 2084: 2045: 2020: 2011: 2002: 1992: 1967: 1957: 1932: 1907: 1881: 1846: 1837: 1811: 1802: 1777: 1749: 1725: 1588:Kitrosser, Heidi (2015-03-15). 1406:Organisation of American States 1400:Latin America and the Caribbean 882:African Charter of Human Rights 724:United Nations General Assembly 669:Organisation of American States 441:Latin America and the Caribbean 241:United Nations General Assembly 193:The widespread use of mass and 3720:Media Legal Defence Initiative 3609:"Tor at the Heart: GlobaLeaks" 1674: 1581: 1522: 1455:Senior administration official 1157: 1013:European Court of Human Rights 969:European Court of Human Rights 695: 685:European Court of Human Rights 546:Electronic Frontier Foundation 451:and law enforcement agencies. 13: 1: 3593:. pp. 03-77 Retrieved ( 3477:Dee, Juliet Lushbough. 2010. 2863:"Asean Human Rights Document" 2388:"Volume 1 : Resolutions" 1594:William & Mary Law Review 1465: 1362: 1145:Bulgaria, Poland, and Romania 929:East African Court of Justice 207: 176: 3410:International Herald Tribune 1481:license statement/permission 760:underpins source protection. 93: 7: 1443: 1429:2013: (The then) President 971:stated in the 1996 case of 805:Inter-regional institutions 661:International Organizations 590:Safety of women journalists 346:protections for journalists 10: 3781: 2519:"The Carthage Declaration" 1737:Columbia Journalism Review 1576:Columbia Journalism Review 1505:"A High-Tech War on Leaks" 1350:, former cabinet minister 1217: 892:on protection of sources: 888:, provided guidelines for 593: 409:in the States concerned". 188:anti-terrorism legislation 105: 1757:"UNGA 2013: A/RES/68/163" 1333: 1324: 973:Goodwin v. United Kingdom 962: 955:and with broadly defined 844: 745:July 2011: Office of the 717:UNESCO General Conference 653:International regulations 287: 1387:Off-the-Record Messaging 1318:National Security Agency 1242:law enforcement agencies 1123:2014 Declaration of the 1070:Data Retention Directive 407:law enforcement agencies 151:investigative journalism 3705:Amicus Curiae brief in 3551:laws-lois.justice.gc.ca 1558:Posetti, Julie (2017). 1344:Supreme Court of Canada 1246:criminal investigations 1202:North and South America 1082:Council of Europe (COE) 840:Status around the world 754:World Press Freedom Day 365:in a threat hierarchy. 3494:pp. 03–88. Retrieved ( 1944:Journalism.cmpf.eui.eu 1564:. UNESCO. p. 195. 1391:Tails operating system 1125:Committee of Ministers 1060:publishing stories in 873: 625:digital communications 516:A 2014 United Nations 321:(CoE) report stated: " 239:In December 2013, the 37:or in the U.S. as the 35:source confidentiality 3659:OAS (1 August 2009). 3633:OAS (1 August 2009). 1824:Carnegieendowment.org 1369:end-to-end encryption 1280:University of Montana 1174:Dutch secret services 859: 824:Safety of Journalists 771:the right to privacy. 731:Safety of Journalists 722:In December 2013 the 691:United Nations Actors 596:Safety of Journalists 526:private sector actors 421:University of Toronto 414:targeted surveillance 333:were used during the 277:. In 2013, the USA's 253:Safety of Journalists 234:Amnesty International 195:targeted surveillance 129:intelligence services 18:Protection of sources 3755:Freedom of the press 3750:Sources (journalism) 3453:The Yale Law Journal 3412:, November 30, 2006 3377:10.1386/nl.16.1.97_1 2441:"A/HRC/RES/27/5 - F" 1888:Campbell, M (2013). 1629:. University of Oslo 1308:Former CIA employee 1256:In the 1971 case of 1220:Reporter's privilege 936:Asia and the Pacific 707:Human Rights Council 578:, the question, for 513:access to the data. 460:countering terrorism 359:information security 39:reporter's privilege 1622:Podkowik J (2014). 1483:). Text taken from 1348:Sponsorship scandal 949:anti-terrorism laws 870:(Banisar, 2007: 53) 613:World Trends Report 299:anti terrorism laws 117:digital environment 111:Digital environment 3139:merlin.obs.coe.int 2897:. 16 November 2012 2651:Unesdoc.unesco.org 2466:"A/RES/69/185 - E" 2395:Unesdoc.unesco.org 2335:"A/RES/68/163 - E" 2141:. OHCHR (UN). 2014 1655:Banisar D (2008). 1367:Newsrooms rely on 1259:Branzburg v. Hayes 1252:Branzburg v. Hayes 601:Female journalists 425:FinFisher software 392:speech recognition 384:telecommunications 255:and the Danger of 86:undertaken by the 3164:eur-lex.europa.eu 2792:hrlibrary.umn.edu 2218:. 6 December 2012 1431:Otto Pérez Molina 1274:Tracy v. Missoula 1184:national security 989:Council of Europe 880:Article 9 of the 677:Council of Europe 631:Women journalists 584:citizen reporters 319:Council of Europe 222:citizen reporters 184:national security 122:mass surveillance 43:international law 31:Source protection 16:(Redirected from 3772: 3676: 3675: 3673: 3671: 3656: 3650: 3649: 3647: 3645: 3630: 3624: 3623: 3621: 3619: 3604: 3598: 3587: 3581: 3580: 3578: 3577: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3558: 3557: 3542: 3536: 3525: 3516: 3510: 3499: 3488: 3482: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3444: 3438: 3437: 3435: 3434: 3425:. 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Archived from 2234: 2228: 2227: 2225: 2223: 2208: 2202: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2183: 2177: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2167:. 19 August 2012 2157: 2151: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2140: 2132: 2123: 2119: 2113: 2107: 2101: 2097: 2091: 2088: 2082: 2081: 2079: 2077: 2063: 2052: 2049: 2043: 2042: 2040: 2038: 2024: 2018: 2015: 2009: 2006: 2000: 1996: 1990: 1989: 1987: 1986: 1977:. Archived from 1971: 1965: 1961: 1955: 1954: 1952: 1950: 1936: 1930: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1911: 1905: 1904: 1902: 1900: 1885: 1879: 1878: 1866: 1853: 1850: 1844: 1841: 1835: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1818:Abdulla, Rasha. 1815: 1809: 1806: 1800: 1799: 1797: 1795: 1789: 1781: 1775: 1774: 1772: 1770: 1761: 1753: 1747: 1746: 1744: 1743: 1729: 1723: 1719: 1710: 1709: 1707: 1706: 1697:. 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UNESCO. 2014 1776: 1748: 1724: 1711: 1683: 1673: 1640: 1611: 1580: 1567: 1531: 1521: 1509:New York Times 1491: 1467: 1464: 1463: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1440: 1434: 1401: 1398: 1364: 1361: 1352:Marc-Yvan Côté 1335: 1332: 1326: 1323: 1310:Edward Snowden 1305: 1304:Edward Snowden 1302: 1292: 1289: 1275: 1272: 1253: 1250: 1230:doctor-patient 1218:Main article: 1215: 1212: 1203: 1200: 1159: 1156: 1146: 1143: 1142: 1141: 1137: 1134:Edward Snowden 1129: 1121: 1109:data retention 1105:anti-terrorism 1096: 1092: 1089: 1083: 1080: 1079: 1078: 1074: 1066: 1057: 1050: 1027: 1020: 1007: 1004: 964: 961: 937: 934: 933: 932: 925: 914: 913: 910: 903: 900: 877: 874: 867: 853:has adopted a 846: 843: 841: 838: 832: 829: 828: 827: 820: 811: 808: 806: 803: 802: 801: 790: 787: 784: 776: 772: 768: 761: 757: 750: 741: 738: 737: 736: 733: 727: 720: 713: 710: 703: 697: 694: 692: 689: 654: 651: 621:domestic abuse 617:conflict zones 605:sexual assault 591: 588: 576:United Nations 570: 567: 506:search 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