Programming language

397: 567: 3924:, p.215: " the model for computer languages differs from that for programming languages in only two respects. In a computer language, there are only finitely many names—or registers—which can assume only finitely many values—or states—and these states are not further distinguished in terms of any other attributes. This may sound like a truism but its implications are far-reaching. For example, it would imply that any model for programming languages, by fixing certain of its parameters or features, should be reducible in a natural way to a model for computer languages." 2931:—enabling more concise programs—additionally help the programmer write code. The earliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer, but over time support for abstraction has increased, allowing programmers express ideas that are more remote from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the complexity of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer. Most programming languages come with a 3199:

to be understood. However, figuratively speaking, computers "do exactly what they are told to do", and cannot "understand" what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program. On the other hand, ideas about an algorithm can be communicated to humans without the precision required for execution by using

8320: 65: 8082: 7559: 2255: 3531: 798: 8252: 7569: 2374: 783: 8054: 8303: 8286: 8337: 7579: 8269: 3113:, which translates each line of software into machine code just before it executes. Although it can make debugging easier, the downside of interpretation is that it runs 10 to 100 times slower than a compiled executable. Hybrid interpretation methods provide some of the benefits of compilation and some of the benefits of interpretation via partial compilation. One form this takes is 227:

expressing computer programs are generically designated computer languages. For instance, markup languages are sometimes referred to as computer languages to emphasize that they are not meant to be used for programming. One way of classifying computer languages is by the computations they are capable of expressing, as described by the

2498:) of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. There are many ways of defining execution semantics. Natural language is often used to specify the execution semantics of languages commonly used in practice. A significant amount of academic research goes into 5928:

number of contributors, and (c) three language ecosystems grouped around XML, Shell/Make, and HTML/CSS. Conclusions: Multi-language programming seems to be common in open-source projects and is a factor that must be dealt with in tooling and when assessing the development and maintenance of such software systems.

3125:

Although most of the most commonly used programming languages have fully open specifications and implementations, many programming languages exist only as proprietary programming languages with the implementation available only from a single vendor, which may claim that such a proprietary language is

5927:

Results: We found (a) a mean number of 5 languages per project with a clearly dominant main general-purpose language and 5 often-used DSL types, (b) a significant influence of the size, number of commits, and the main language on the number of languages as well as no significant influence of age and

3956:

Programs and languages can be defined as purely formal mathematical objects. However, more people are interested in programs than in other mathematical objects such as groups, precisely because it is possible to use the program—the sequence of symbols—to control the execution of a computer. While we

3198:

Programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent

2843:

There is a tradeoff between increased ability to handle exceptions and reduced performance. For example, even though array index errors are common C does not check them for performance reasons. Although programmers can write code to catch user-defined exceptions, this can clutter a program. Standard

957:

Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some

767:

Every programming language includes fundamental elements for describing data and the operations or transformations applied to them, such as adding two numbers or selecting an item from a collection. These elements are governed by syntactic and semantic rules that define their structure and meaning,

2313:

Static semantics defines restrictions on the structure of valid texts that are hard or impossible to express in standard syntactic formalisms. For compiled languages, static semantics essentially include those semantic rules that can be checked at compile time. Examples include checking that every

226:

is sometimes used interchangeably with programming language. However, the usage of both terms varies among authors, including the exact scope of each. One usage describes programming languages as a subset of computer languages. Similarly, languages used in computing that have a different goal than

2893:

Many programming languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, and combined with other languages. Many have eventually fallen into disuse. The birth of programming languages in the 1950s was stimulated by the desire to make a universal programming language suitable for all

2902:

Desirable qualities of programming languages include readability, writability, and reliability. These features can reduce the cost of training programmers in a language, the amount of time needed to write and maintain programs in the language, the cost of compiling the code, and increase runtime

2743:, all expressions have their types determined before a program executes, typically at compile-time. Most widely used, statically typed programming languages require the types of variables to be specified explicitly. In some languages, types are implicit; one form of this is when the compiler can 3267:

Determining which is the most widely used programming language is difficult since the definition of usage varies by context. One language may occupy the greater number of programmer hours, a different one has more lines of code, and a third may consume the most CPU time. Some languages are very

2762:

With dynamic typing, the type is not attached to the variable but only the value encoded in it. A single variable can be reused for a value of a different type. Although this provides more flexibility to the programmer, it is at the cost of lower reliability and less ability for the programming

2781:

In computing, multiple instructions can be executed simultaneously. Many programming languages support instruction-level and subprogram-level concurrency. By the twenty-first century, additional processing power on computers was increasingly coming from the use of additional processors, which

540:), also descends from ALGOL and achieved commercial success. C, another ALGOL descendant, has sustained popularity into the twenty-first century. C allows access to lower-level machine operations more than other contemporary languages. Its power and efficiency, generated in part with flexible 259:

languages are just as much programming languages as are the languages intended for execution. He also argues that textual and even graphical input formats that affect the behavior of a computer are programming languages, despite the fact they are commonly not Turing-complete, and remarks that

2663:

are a data type whose elements, in many languages, must consist of a single type of fixed length. Other languages define arrays as references to data stored elsewhere and support elements of varying types. Depending on the programming language, sequences of multiple characters, called

379:

away the details of the hardware, instead being designed to express algorithms that could be understood more easily by humans. For example, arithmetic expressions could now be written in symbolic notation and later translated into machine code that the hardware could execute. In 1957,

2954:

Programming language design often involves tradeoffs. For example, features to improve reliability typically come at the cost of performance. Increased expressivity due to a large number of operators makes writing code easier but comes at the cost of readability.

4753:

Fayed, M.S., Al-Qurishi, M., Alamri, A. and Al-Daraiseh, A.A., 2017, March. PWCT: visual language for IoT and cloud computing applications and systems. In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Internet of things, Data and Cloud Computing (pp.

4781:

Baluprithviraj, K.N., Bharathi, K.R., Chendhuran, S. and Lokeshwaran, P., 2021, March. Artificial intelligence based smart door with face mask detection. In 2021 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Smart Systems (ICAIS) (pp. 543-548).

3492:

Functional programming languages work by successively applying functions to the given parameters. Although appreciated by many researchers for their simplicity and elegance, problems with efficiency have prevented them from being widely

4743:

Sáez-López, J.M., Román-González, M. and Vázquez-Cano, E., 2016. Visual programming languages integrated across the curriculum in elementary school: A two year case study using “Scratch” in five schools. Computers & Education, 97,

2894:

machines and uses, avoiding the need to write code for different computers. By the early 1960s, the idea of a universal language was rejected due to the differing requirements of the variety of purposes for which code was written.

2907:

Although early programming languages often prioritized efficiency over readability, the latter has grown in importance since the 1970s. Having multiple operations to achieve the same result can be detrimental to readability, as is

1094:. Some languages, including Perl and Lisp, contain constructs that allow execution during the parsing phase. Languages that have constructs that allow the programmer to alter the behavior of the parser make syntax analysis an 2844:

libraries in some languages, such as C, use their return values to indicate an exception. Some languages and their compilers have the option of turning on and off error handling capability, either temporarily or permanently.

2794:

do not support the concurrent use of multiple processors. Other programming languages do support managing data shared between different threads by controlling the order of execution of key instructions via the use of

625:, based on C++ and designed for increased portability across systems and security, enjoyed large-scale success because these features are essential for many Internet applications. Another development was that of 2836:

Resumption: resuming the program near where the exception occurred. This can trigger a repeat of the exception, unless the exception handler is able to modify values to prevent the exception from reoccurring.

816:. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, some programming languages are 2502:, which allows execution semantics to be specified in a formal manner. Results from this field of research have seen limited application to programming language design and implementation outside academia. 243:

and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, yet are often called programming languages. However, some authors restrict the term "programming language" to Turing complete languages.

2590:

occurs when languages allow implicit casting—for example, to enable operations between variables of different types without the programmer making an explicit type conversion. The more cases in which this

6067: 2275: 3519:

are not programming languages, some have extensions that support limited programming. Additionally, there are special-purpose languages that are not easily compared to other programming languages.

3006:

An explicit definition of the syntax, static semantics, and execution semantics of the language. While syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in

823:

The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either

2672:. Strings may be of fixed or variable length, which enables greater flexibility at the cost of increased storage space and more complexity. Other data types that may be supported include 6106:

Bieman, J.M.; Murdock, V., Finding code on the World Wide Web: a preliminary investigation, Proceedings First IEEE International Workshop on Source Code Analysis and Manipulation, 2001

268:

In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer; consequently, programming languages are usually defined and studied this way. Programming languages differ from

2555:, allows any operation to be performed on any data, generally sequences of bits of various lengths. In practice, while few languages are fully typed, most offer a degree of typing. 1618: 427:, meaning that no input could be added while the program was running. The languages developed at this time therefore are designed for minimal interaction. After the invention of the 2045: 1560: 1473: 2322:

are distinct. Many important restrictions of this type, like checking that identifiers are used in the appropriate context (e.g. not adding an integer to a function name), or that

1685: 1346: 3916:

R. Narasimhan, Programming Languages and Computers: A Unified Metatheory, pp. 189—247 in Franz Alt, Morris Rubinoff (eds.) Advances in computers, Volume 8, Academic Press, 1994,

2004: 1644: 1320: 3206:

A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data. A

1746: 3308:

Combining and averaging information from various internet sites, stackify.com reported the ten most popular programming languages (in descending order by overall popularity):

2551:, a language is fully typed if the specification of every operation defines types of data to which the operation is applicable. In contrast, an untyped language, such as most 1827: 3195:

Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computing field. Individual software projects commonly use five programming languages or more.

1592: 1432: 1380: 1260: 2157: 2105: 1711: 1962: 1499: 2131: 1406: 2840:

Some programming languages support dedicating a block of code to run regardless of whether an exception occurs before the code is reached; this is called finalization.

2071: 1294: 295:, are not usually considered programming languages. Programming languages may, however, share the syntax with markup languages if a computational semantics is defined. 3214:

present in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. These concepts are represented as a collection of the simplest elements available (called

1231: 1182: 1156: 367:

were cheaper. Therefore, cumbersome languages that were time-consuming to use, but were closer to the hardware for higher efficiency were favored. The introduction of

1936: 1884: 1525: 2961:

has been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate.

1850: 1777: 512:—are directly or indirectly descended from ALGOL 60. Among its innovations adopted by later programming languages included greater portability and the first use of 7615: 6518: 3545: 423:—general purpose computers—were developed, although they could only be operated by professionals and the cost was extreme. The data and instructions were input by 1910: 340:

The first programmable computers were invented at the end of the 1940s, and with them, the first programming languages. The earliest computers were programmed in

6277: 1800: 1205: 5990: 3423:. As it is common for one language to have several dialects, it can become quite difficult for an inexperienced programmer to find the right documentation. The 3301:

estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language – which may underestimate languages not often found in public searches

3247:. In this case the "commands" are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language can run its commands through an interpreter (such as a 272:

in that natural languages are only used for interaction between people, while programming languages also allow humans to communicate instructions to machines.

6059: 5905:. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering – EASE '15. New York, NY, US: ACM. pp. 4:1–4:10. 5669: 6329: 2282: 431:, computers in the 1970s became dramatically cheaper. New computers also allowed more user interaction, which was supported by newer programming languages. 6366: 6293: 3957:

highly recommend the study of the theory of programming, this text will generally limit itself to the study of programs as they are executed on a computer.

2541: 6089: 6431: 3619: 2878:

that performs instructions on data is separate, and data must be piped back and forth to the CPU. The central elements in these languages are variables,

3041:

specifications). The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or formal language.

360:—2GLs) were invented, diverging from the machine language to make programs easier to understand for humans, although they did not increase portability. 5775: 2629:) and integers depending on the size and precision required by the programmer. Storing an integer in a type that is too small to represent it leads to 4725:

Bezanson, J., Karpinski, S., Shah, V.B. and Edelman, A., 2012. Julia: A fast dynamic language for technical computing. arXiv preprint arXiv:1209.5145.

3758: 554:

language, communicating with a computer using formal logic notation. With logic programming, the programmer specifies a desired result and allows the

3815: 602:

that added support for concurrency to logic programming constructs, but these languages were outperformed by other concurrency-supporting languages.

3716: 3399:, standards may be considered insufficient, inadequate, or illegitimate by implementors, so often they will deviate from the standard, making a new 3224:

is the process by which programmers combine these primitives to compose new programs, or adapt existing ones to new uses or a changing environment.

5967: 5610: 5584: 3594: 7786: 6509: 6036: 6536: 2853: 668:

During the 2000s, there was a slowdown in the development of new programming languages that achieved widespread popularity. One innovation was

5901:

Mayer, Philip; Bauer, Alexander (2015). "An empirical analysis of the utilization of multiple programming languages in open source projects".

5805: 6513: 6005: 3102:. Once the program is compiled, it will run more quickly than with other implementation methods. Some compilers are able to provide further 676:

whose components are connected by a network. Services are similar to objects in object-oriented programming, but run on a separate process.

8362: 7608: 4800:

Bertolini, L., 2018. Hands-On Game Development without Coding: Create 2D and 3D games with Visual Scripting in Unity. Packt Publishing Ltd.

6244: 5941: 4077: 3117:, in which the software is compiled ahead of time into an intermediate language, and then into machine code immediately before execution. 2751:

is the potential for errors to go undetected. Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with functional languages such as

2478:

Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. For example, the semantics may define the

8118: 3846: 3496:

Logic languages are designed so that the software, rather than the programmer, decides what order in which the instructions are executed.

3134:

for a single product; some proprietary languages are used only internally within a vendor, while others are available to external users.

1083:

during compilation. However, the program would still be syntactically correct since type declarations provide only semantic information.

8070: 6602: 6337: 4844: 3769: 6120: 2923:

Writability is the ease of use for writing code to solve the desired problem. Along with the same features essential for readability,

962:. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it. 6262: 4814: 3504: 3440: 3015: 2499: 824: 587: 6228: 3614: 2446: 704:—competed for the performance-critical software for which C had historically been used. Most of the new programming languages uses 3288:

in embedded applications and operating systems. Other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.

8218: 8075: 7601: 4876: 3391:

is a (relatively small) variation or extension of the language that does not change its intrinsic nature. With languages such as

2418: 3873: 7708: 7698: 7312: 7284: 4890: 4059: 2626: 2622: 357: 3971: 3291:

Various methods of measuring language popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured, have been proposed:

2782:

requires programmers to design software that makes use of multiple processors simultaneously to achieve improved performance.

8223: 8065: 7756: 7713: 7703: 7693: 7337: 6493: 6357: 5920: 5682: 5644: 5196: 4824: 4242: 4185: 4120: 4036: 4000: 3901: 2395: 974: 599: 458: 372: 341: 17: 4401: 2425: 969:

as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false:

192:—have been developed for a wide variety of uses. Many aspects of programming language design involve tradeoffs—for example, 8213: 7670: 7188: 5755: 2707:

whose values can be mapped onto the set of positive integers. Since the mid-1980s, most programming languages also support

2268: 1106:

blocks, which may contain general computations, C macros are merely string replacements and do not require code execution.

828: 348:(simple instructions that could be directly executed by the processor). This code was very difficult to debug and was not 8275: 8240: 7806: 7779: 7342: 6621: 6282: 3690: 3644: 3550: 3077: 2988: 2928: 2575: 324: 132: 2965:

took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs.

327:. This principle is sometimes formulated as a recommendation to the programmer to make proper use of such abstractions. 6854: 5632: 4734:

Ayouni, M. and Ayouni, M., 2020. Data Types in Ring. Beginning Ring Programming: From Novice to Professional, pp.51-98.

4151: 2978: 2363: 578:

transformed the roles for which programming languages were used. New languages introduced in the 1980s included C++, a

2432: 8157: 8142: 7811: 7494: 7322: 6859: 6570: 5982: 4914: 4212: 3921: 3794: 2916:, limiting the number of constructs that a programmer has to learn. A syntax structure that is easily understood and 2465: 5505: 2403: 484:(ALGOrithmic Language) was released in 1958 and 1960, it became the standard in computing literature for describing 251:

and computer languages as the subset thereof that runs on physical computers, which have finite hardware resources.

42: 7816: 7685: 7582: 6683: 5661: 3579: 740: 474: 128: 4963: 3375:. TIOBE provide a list of top 100 programming languages according to popularity and update this list every month. 204:

that studies the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages.

8111: 7665: 6970: 6424: 5181:. ACM SIGACT-SIGPLAN symposium on Principles of programming languages. Austin, Texas: ACM Press. pp. 88–98. 3676: 2414: 368: 2318:

is declared before it is used (in languages that require such declarations) or that the labels on the arms of a

8367: 8085: 8017: 7890: 7772: 7745: 7660: 7261: 7223: 6887: 6595: 6093: 4772:

Fernando, A. and Warusawithana, L., 2020. Beginning Ballerina Programming: From Novice to Professional. Apress.

3609: 3372: 3325: 3211: 3150: 2924: 2689: 2528:

is a set of allowable values and operations that can be performed on these values. Each programming language's

2399: 2347: 813: 777: 728: 681: 677: 595: 555: 541: 537: 509: 312: 174: 108: 89: 77: 6397:"When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960" 3807: 212:

There are a variety of criteria that may be considered when defining what constitutes a programming language.

8152: 8060: 8038: 7992: 7965: 7940: 7900: 7675: 7403: 7380: 7110: 7100: 3624: 3584: 3416: 3392: 3356: 3321: 3173: 3023: 2879: 2787: 1597: 805: 790: 701: 633: 493: 5767: 2566:) represent values differently, unexpected results will occur if one type is used when another is expected. 2017: 1530: 1445: 992:

fragment is syntactically correct, but performs operations that are not semantically defined (the operation

8032: 7935: 7905: 7484: 7072: 6980: 6892: 6668: 6653: 3754: 3466: 3396: 2958: 2887: 2487: 2351: 2258: 1657: 1325: 724: 717: 693: 669: 583: 396: 112: 3743:

Robert A. Edmunds, The Prentice-Hall standard glossary of computer terminology, Prentice-Hall, 1985, p. 91

8007: 8002: 7945: 7925: 7572: 7307: 6812: 5868: 3722: 3656: 3599: 3564: 3536: 3408: 3368: 3309: 3091: 3067:). The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation. 2791: 2343: 1975: 1623: 851: 817: 713: 685: 645: 622: 525: 505: 434: 323:. The practical necessity that a programming language supports adequate abstractions is expressed by the 197: 189: 124: 5602: 5581: 4127:

XSLT, though highly specialized to the transformation of XML, is a Turing-complete programming language.

2326:

calls have the appropriate number and type of arguments, can be enforced by defining them as rules in a

1299: 684:

cross-pollinated ideas between imperative and functional programming. After 2010, several new languages—

8104: 7950: 7846: 7829: 7734: 7544: 7193: 6477: 6388: 3281: 3240: 1716: 697: 591: 497: 2950:(multiple variable names accessing the same region of memory) all can improve a program's reliability. 8147: 7960: 7915: 7562: 7489: 7464: 7327: 6975: 6588: 6032: 5903:

Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering

3142: 3098:, which translates the source code via an intermediate-level language into machine code, known as an 2800: 2756: 2681: 1805: 689: 466: 450: 408: 38: 8326: 8258: 2912:, so that the same operator can have multiple meanings. Another feature important to readability is 1571: 1411: 1359: 1236: 7997: 7880: 7413: 7246: 6839: 6708: 5797: 4234: 4177: 4112: 3574: 3569: 3474: 3415:

syntax and Lisp-like semantics are considered Lisp dialects, although they vary wildly as do, say,

3404: 3364: 3337: 3313: 3285: 3160:

Many proprietary languages are widely used, in spite of their proprietary nature; examples include

3127: 3114: 3045: 3011: 2867: 2533: 2384: 2136: 2084: 1690: 1090:. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are 989: 920:

is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign;

489: 166: 73: 8309: 8292: 3304:

counts of language references (i.e., to the name of the language) found using a web search engine.

2621:

that are not integers). Most programming languages support multiple sizes of floats (often called

2439: 1941: 8197: 7474: 7408: 7299: 7115: 6782: 6435: 6374: 6009: 3482: 3244: 3154: 3110: 3106:

to reduce memory or computation usage when the executable runs, but increasing compilation time.

3086:

that can be executed by the hardware. The machine code then can be executed with the help of the

3056: 2796: 2388: 2205: 1478: 462: 454: 376: 349: 140: 2767:

to which any type of value can be assigned, in an exception to their usual static typing rules.

2110: 1385: 8187: 7866: 7539: 7370: 7251: 7018: 7008: 7003: 5945: 4073: 3671: 3604: 3589: 3489:, are sometimes considered a separate category but meet the definition of imperative languages. 3465:

Imperative languages are designed to implement an algorithm in a specified order; they include

3450: 3446: 3428: 3388: 3252: 2175: 2050: 1273: 804:

is often used to aid programmers in recognizing elements of source code. The language above is

566: 446: 438: 181: 6250: 4763:

Kodosky, J., 2020. LabVIEW. Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages, 4(HOPL), pp.1-54.

4028: 1210: 1161: 1135: 1086:

The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the

7509: 7479: 7469: 7365: 7279: 7155: 7095: 7062: 7052: 6942: 6907: 6897: 6834: 6703: 6678: 6673: 6638: 6324: 3228: 2859: 2716: 2646: 1915: 1863: 1504: 1266: 1079:

on the first line were omitted, the program would trigger an error on the undefined variable

228: 158: 136: 85: 6334: 5829:"Optimizing large real-world data analysis with parquet files in R: A step-by-step tutorial" 4841: 4226: 4169: 4100: 3838: 3766: 1832: 1759: 388:

high-level programming language, Fortran has remained in use into the twenty-first century.

8192: 7653: 7624: 7269: 7241: 7213: 7208: 7037: 7013: 6965: 6950: 6932: 6922: 6917: 6879: 6824: 6741: 6687: 6116: 3878:, "Charity is a categorical programming language...", "All Charity computations terminate." 3686: 3634: 3555: 3220: 3153:

programming language, which has open implementations of most parts of the system, also has

2947: 2863: 2783: 2776: 2335: 1352: 1091: 847: 843: 649: 517: 513: 488:. Although its commercial success was limited, most popular imperative languages—including 256: 165:—which implement operations in a specified order) developed to perform well on the popular 162: 3137:

Some programming languages exist on the border between proprietary and open; for example,

303:, which is mostly used for structuring documents, also contains a Turing complete subset. 260:

ignorance of programming language concepts is the reason for many flaws in input formats.

8: 7871: 7534: 7459: 7375: 7360: 7125: 6912: 6869: 6864: 6761: 6751: 6723: 4227: 4170: 4101: 3888: 3478: 3236: 2938:

Reliability means that a program performs as specified in a wide range of circumstances.

2708: 2604: 2479: 2243: 1889: 1856: 1128: 1095: 801: 756: 673: 629: 232: 1782: 1187: 161:

has strongly influenced the design of programming languages, with the most common type (

7499: 7398: 7274: 7231: 7140: 7082: 7067: 7057: 6849: 6648: 6419: 6269: 6240: 5872: 3681: 3273: 3256: 3215: 3184: 3138: 3131: 2962: 2943: 2816: 2712: 2693: 2677: 2665: 2339: 2238: 1117: 959: 835: 657: 353: 193: 4873: 4791:

Sewell, B., 2015. Blueprints visual scripting for unreal engine. Packt Publishing Ltd.

4021: 3002:

A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following:

2821:

Many programming languages include exception handlers, a section of code triggered by

2296: 739:. Also, some of these languages mix between textual and visual programming usage like 247:

Another usage regards programming languages as theoretical constructs for programming

8372: 8167: 8128: 7851: 7648: 7643: 7519: 7449: 7428: 7390: 7198: 7165: 7145: 6844: 6756: 6630: 6566: 6489: 6408: 6353: 5961: 5916: 5850: 5640: 5192: 4910: 4856: 4820: 4238: 4208: 4192:

TeX is not only an excellent typesetting engine but also a real programming language.

4181: 4116: 4032: 3996: 3933:

John C. Reynolds, "Some thoughts on teaching programming and programming languages",

3917: 3897: 3869: 3790: 3651: 3629: 3454: 3333: 2909: 2704: 2700: 2660: 2642: 2609:

Early programming languages often supported only built-in, numeric types such as the

2552: 2180: 1087: 743:. Also, this trend lead to developing projects that help in developing new VPLs like 575: 551: 222: 185: 170: 4887: 4055: 3839:"Information Technology – Database Language SQL (Proposed revised text of DIS 9075)" 8182: 7352: 7236: 7203: 6998: 6927: 6816: 6802: 6797: 6746: 6733: 6658: 6611: 6469: 6380: 5906: 5840: 5182: 3968: 3560: 3516: 3508: 3500: 3232: 3169: 3087: 3007: 2996: 2932: 2830: 2720: 2673: 2630: 2537: 2200: 2077: 1098:, and generally blur the distinction between parsing and execution. In contrast to 1076: 966: 839: 618: 533: 345: 276: 269: 252: 248: 201: 101: 3284:

in aerospace, transportation, military, real-time, and embedded applications; and

3203:, which interleaves natural language with code written in a programming language. 927:

is a letter followed by zero or more of any characters (excluding whitespace); and

299:, for example, is a Turing complete language entirely using XML syntax. Moreover, 8162: 7593: 7423: 7317: 7289: 7183: 7135: 7120: 7105: 6960: 6955: 6902: 6792: 6766: 6718: 6663: 6341: 6289: 5827:

Abdelaziz, Abdullah I.; Hanson, Kent A.; Gaber, Charles E.; Lee, Todd A. (2023).

5588: 4894: 4880: 4860: 4848: 4393: 4108: 3975: 3773: 3762: 3639: 3511:—is supported by most popular imperative languages and some functional languages. 3458: 2871: 2804: 2748: 2638: 2634: 2185: 981: 544:

operations, comes at the cost of making it more difficult to write correct code.

364: 352:

between different computer systems. In order to improve the ease of programming,

292: 116: 4139:

Oetiker, Tobias; Partl, Hubert; Hyna, Irene; Schlegl, Elisabeth (20 June 2016).

3082:

An implementation of a programming language is the conversion of a program into

8177: 7529: 7433: 7332: 7178: 7150: 6463: 6445: 6307: 6257: 6236: 4810: 2744: 2728: 2724: 2669: 2614: 2563: 2319: 2195: 1438: 610: 470: 428: 316: 4683: 2354:, a form of data flow analysis, as part of their respective static semantics. 8356: 8096: 7970: 7418: 6713: 6525: 6412: 6301: 6273: 2983:

The specification of a programming language is an artifact that the language

2939: 2917: 2913: 2858:

One of the most important influences on programming language design has been

2822: 2740: 2592: 2567: 2210: 752: 5911: 4140: 3126:

their intellectual property. Proprietary programming languages are commonly

2633:. The most common way of representing negative numbers with signed types is 831:). Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax. 8022: 7861: 7638: 7514: 7173: 6371:

Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation

5854: 5624: 3412: 3180: 3172:. Some languages may make the transition from closed to open; for example, 3103: 3083: 2583: 2571: 2483: 2010: 1005: 942:

The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar:

320: 5187: 4167: 2870:, the most common computer architecture. In von Neumann architecture, the 2723:

can include increased reliability, reduced complexity, less potential for

834:

The programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of

7504: 7130: 7042: 6060:"SSL/Computer Weekly IT salary survey: finance boom drives IT job growth" 3352: 3019: 2992: 2966: 2618: 2587: 2548: 2529: 2519: 2515: 2331: 2190: 1650: 709: 705: 626: 424: 120: 69: 7764: 6396: 64: 7930: 7524: 7454: 7047: 6787: 6643: 6455: 5628: 4959: 4884: 3661: 3329: 3248: 3207: 3200: 3099: 2984: 2764: 2579: 2323: 2315: 2228: 1099: 786: 637: 420: 152: 3666: 977:." is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted meaning. 8027: 7029: 6990: 6142: 5845: 5828: 3146: 2883: 2525: 2511: 2482:

by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which

1968: 797: 648:—designed to quickly produce small programs that coordinate existing 614: 485: 442: 404: 236: 5388: 5376: 4695: 4647: 4623: 4575: 4551: 4500: 4464: 4345: 4263: 3530: 2373: 2342:

may also be part of static semantics. Programming languages such as

782: 7090: 6580: 4376: 4374: 4372: 4323: 4321: 4319: 4282: 4280: 4278: 3486: 3351:

As of June 2024, the top five programming languages as measured by

3295:

counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language

3165: 3095: 3030: 1752: 820:, using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program. 613:

in the 1990s, new programming languages were introduced to support

606: 579: 529: 385: 180:

Thousands of programming languages—often classified as imperative,

148: 144: 81: 8343: 5659: 5623: 4168:

Syropoulos, Apostolos; Antonis Tsolomitis; Nick Sofroniou (2003).

3445:

Programming languages are often placed into four main categories:

2763:

language to check for errors. Some languages allow variables of a

235:, and all Turing complete languages can implement the same set of 7920: 7910: 5660:

Kelsey, Richard; William Clinger; Jonathan Rees (February 1998).

3935: 3420: 3400: 3277: 3038: 2752: 2610: 2559: 744: 732: 412: 401: 381: 5340: 4707: 4671: 4611: 4587: 4563: 4539: 4512: 4488: 4428: 4369: 4357: 4316: 4292: 4275: 4251: 3752:

Pascal Lando, Anne Lapujade, Gilles Kassel, and Frédéric Fürst,

2866:, the most commonly used type, were designed to perform well on 7987: 7955: 7839: 3345: 3179:

Open source programming languages are particularly helpful for

3161: 3060: 2692:

store memory addresses, typically referencing locations on the

748: 547: 521: 384:(FORmula TRANslation) was invented. Often considered the first 363:

Initially, hardware resources were scarce and expensive, while

240: 5876: 5504:

Busbee, Kenneth Leroy; Braunschweig, Dave (15 December 2018).

4978: 4863:, that the parsing of Perl programs is in general undecidable. 3887:

In mathematical terms, this means the programming language is

3499:

Object-oriented programming—whose characteristic features are

2684:

in which data is mapped to names in an ordered structure, and

2301:

refers to the meaning of languages, as opposed to their form (

598:. The Japanese government invested heavily into the so-called 215: 8234: 7895: 7885: 7856: 7834: 3867: 3424: 3360: 3317: 3272:

is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large

3269: 3034: 2711:, in which the representation of the data and operations are 2685: 2654: 2327: 501: 481: 300: 288: 169:. While early programming languages were closely tied to the 6173: 6171: 6117:"Most Popular and Influential Programming Languages of 2018" 3298:

the number of books sold that teach or describe the language

3109:

Another implementation method is to run the program with an

2731:

to be changed without the client needing to alter its code.

656:, they have also been used for building web pages hosted on 147:. An interpreter directly executes the source code, while a 7977: 5277: 3470: 3268:

popular for particular kinds of applications. For example,

3064: 2927:—interfaces that enable hiding details from the client—and 2829:

Termination: shutting down and handing over control to the

2650: 736: 653: 296: 284: 5547: 5265: 5217: 5205: 5134: 5110: 5086: 5074: 5062: 5002: 4990: 4452: 8012: 7982: 6207: 6168: 5939: 5736: 5700: 5688: 5564: 5562: 5535: 5472: 5448: 5412: 5306: 5304: 3978: 3836: 3341: 3176:

was originally Ericsson's internal programming language.

2875: 641: 280: 6519:

Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming

5510:

Programming Fundamentals – A Modular Structured Approach

5436: 4659: 4635: 4529: 4527: 4476: 4416: 4333: 3546:

Comparison of programming languages (basic instructions)

3378: 2999:

in that language, and if so what its behavior shall be.

2668:, may be supported as arrays of characters or their own 723:

Some of the new programming languages are classified as

275:

The domain of the language is also worth consideration.

6395:

Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014).

6229:

History of programming languages § Further reading

5826: 5424: 5328: 5316: 4138: 2920:

that are immediately obvious also supports readability.

2688:—similar to records but without names for data fields. 2582:

can always be detected unless variables are explicitly

177:

to hide implementation details for greater simplicity.

6195: 6183: 6156: 5869:"HOPL: an interactive Roster of Programming Languages" 5768:"Guide to Programming Languages | ComputerScience.org" 5724: 5712: 5559: 5523: 5460: 5364: 5352: 5301: 5289: 5253: 5241: 5229: 5158: 5146: 5122: 5098: 5050: 5038: 5026: 5014: 4932: 4920: 4599: 4043:...it's a markup language, not a programming language. 812:

A programming language's surface form is known as its

231:. The majority of practical programming languages are 196:

simplifies error handling, but at a performance cost.

107:

Programming languages are described in terms of their

6502:

Franklyn Turbak and David Gifford with Mark Sheldon:

6394: 6330:

Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation

5582:

On the foolishness of "natural language programming."

5400: 5394: 5382: 4524: 4440: 4304: 2595:is allowed, the fewer type errors can be detected. 2139: 2113: 2087: 2053: 2020: 1978: 1944: 1918: 1892: 1866: 1835: 1808: 1785: 1762: 1719: 1693: 1660: 1626: 1600: 1574: 1533: 1507: 1481: 1448: 1414: 1388: 1362: 1328: 1302: 1276: 1239: 1213: 1190: 1164: 1138: 996:

has no meaning for a value having a complex type and

4132: 3526: 3403:. In other cases, a dialect is created for use in a 934:

is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more

465:

applications. In 1978, another functional language,

59:

Language for communicating instructions to a machine

5942:"Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs" 3620:

Programming languages used in most popular websites

582:of C that can compile C programs but also supports 570:

A small selection of programming language textbooks

375:—3GLs)—revolutionized programming. These languages 7623: 6092:. Radar.oreilly.com. 2 August 2006. Archived from 5503: 4020: 3645:Ruby (programming language) § Metaprogramming 3141:asserts proprietary rights to some aspects of the 2151: 2125: 2099: 2065: 2039: 1998: 1956: 1930: 1904: 1878: 1844: 1821: 1794: 1771: 1740: 1705: 1679: 1638: 1612: 1586: 1554: 1519: 1493: 1467: 1426: 1400: 1374: 1340: 1314: 1288: 1254: 1225: 1199: 1176: 1150: 135:of a programming language is required in order to 6347: 6246:Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs 5666:Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme 4713: 4701: 4689: 4677: 4653: 4629: 4617: 4593: 4581: 4569: 4557: 4545: 4518: 4506: 4494: 4470: 4434: 4380: 4363: 4351: 4327: 4298: 4286: 4269: 4257: 8354: 6563:Comparative Programming Languages, Third Edition 6440:Programming Languages: Design and Implementation 4394:"How Lisp Became God's Own Programming Language" 3595:Category:Extensible syntax programming languages 3235:without human interaction, or a user might type 850:structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on 6350:Programming Languages: Principles and Paradigms 3868:The Charity Development Group (December 1996). 3755:Towards a General Ontology of Computer Programs 2532:defines which data types exist, the type of an 980:"John is a married bachelor." is grammatically 594:and other new languages introduced support for 119:. Languages usually provide features such as a 8126: 6460:Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs 6348:Gabbrielli, Maurizio; Martini, Simone (2023). 6235: 6090:"Counting programming languages by book sales" 6057: 4809: 2854:Programming language design and implementation 8112: 7780: 7609: 6620:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 6596: 6003: 2874:stores both data and instructions, while the 2574:(runtime type checking is more costly). With 2276: 5966:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4205:The structure of typed programming languages 3981:, 1999, "XML is not a programming language." 3280:in scientific and engineering applications; 3090:. The most common form of interpretation in 2847: 2734: 984:but expresses a meaning that cannot be true. 6530:Programming Language Concepts and Paradigms 4855:. Papers 2 and 3 prove, using respectively 4831:Section 2.2: Pushdown Automata, pp.101–114. 4141:"The Not So Short Introduction to LATEX 2ε" 4018: 3940:, Volume 43, Issue 11, November 2008, p.109 3787:Introduction To Computers And C Programming 3710: 3708: 3706: 3262: 2598: 2402:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 216:Computer languages vs programming languages 23: 8119: 8105: 8053: 7787: 7773: 7616: 7602: 6603: 6589: 5980: 5900: 2825:that can deal with them in two main ways: 2641:is also used. Other common types include 2283: 2269: 24: 7794: 6541:Programming Language Syntax and Semantics 6249:(2nd ed.). MIT Press. Archived from 5910: 5844: 5186: 4953: 4951: 4949: 4947: 4816:Introduction to the Theory of Computation 3891: 3441:Categorical list of programming languages 3183:applications, enhancing the capacity for 2991:can use to agree upon whether a piece of 2833:. This option is considered the simplest. 2500:formal semantics of programming languages 2466:Learn how and when to remove this message 708:while a few numbers of new languages use 80:that explain the program to humans. When 6504:Design Concepts in Programming Languages 6030: 5685:– Programming Language Rexx, X3-274.1996 4957: 3993:HTML & XHTML: the complete reference 3843:ISO/IEC 9075:1992, Database Language SQL 3703: 3615:List of programming language researchers 3120: 2799:, controlling access to shared data via 2747:types based on context. The downside of 796: 781: 759:added support for visual scripting too. 565: 395: 63: 32:This is an accepted version of this page 8219:Category:Lists of programming languages 6483: 6213: 6201: 6189: 6177: 6162: 5742: 5730: 5718: 5706: 5694: 5637:The Definition of Standard ML (Revised) 5568: 5553: 5541: 5529: 5478: 5466: 5454: 5442: 5430: 5418: 5406: 5370: 5358: 5346: 5334: 5322: 5310: 5295: 5283: 5271: 5259: 5247: 5235: 5223: 5211: 5176: 5164: 5152: 5140: 5128: 5116: 5104: 5092: 5080: 5068: 5056: 5044: 5032: 5020: 5008: 4996: 4984: 4938: 4926: 4665: 4641: 4605: 4533: 4482: 4458: 4446: 4422: 4339: 4310: 3949: 3057:written in the language being specified 2969:was similarly dismissive of the idea. 1613:{\displaystyle A\not \Leftrightarrow B} 574:During the 1980s, the invention of the 461:. For the next decades, Lisp dominated 358:second-generation programming languages 14: 8355: 7313:Knowledge representation and reasoning 6560: 5600: 4944: 4224: 3990: 3896:. Oxford University Press. p. 1. 2040:{\displaystyle A{\underline {\lor }}B} 1555:{\displaystyle {\overline {A\cdot B}}} 1468:{\displaystyle A{\overline {\land }}B} 882:This grammar specifies the following: 441:language. Unlike Fortran, it supports 373:third-generation programming languages 342:first-generation programming languages 311:Programming languages usually contain 8224:List of programming languages by type 8100: 7768: 7597: 7338:Philosophy of artificial intelligence 6584: 6319:Fundamentals of Programming Languages 5993:from the original on 2 December 2017. 5613:from the original on 17 January 1999. 4098: 3718:Introduction to Programming Languages 3411:world, most languages that use basic 3379:Dialects, flavors and implementations 3255:), without compiling, it is called a 2810: 1680:{\displaystyle A{\overline {\lor }}B} 1341:{\displaystyle A\leftrightharpoons B} 975:Colorless green ideas sleep furiously 437:, implemented in 1958, was the first 335: 173:, over time they have developed more 8241: 8214:Category:Lists of computer languages 6664:Energy consumption (Green computing) 6610: 6555:Programming Language Design Concepts 6263:Advanced Programming Language Design 6070:from the original on 26 October 2011 6039:from the original on 19 October 2013 5833:Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 5756:Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc. 4960:"Introduction To Computer Languages" 4909:, Edition 2, Morgan Kaufmann, 2006, 4080:from the original on 3 February 2011 3714: 2400:adding citations to reliable sources 2367: 2357: 1000:is not defined because the value of 878:'(' expression* ')' 263: 100:is a system of notation for writing 8363:Programming language classification 7343:Distributed artificial intelligence 6622:ACM Computing Classification System 6312:Programming Languages, a Grand Tour 6283:Essentials of Programming Languages 6123:from the original on 30 August 2018 6004:Georgina Swan (21 September 2009). 5395:Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014 5383:Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014 4966:from the original on 15 August 2012 4157:from the original on 14 March 2017. 4019:Dykes, Lucinda; Tittel, Ed (2005). 4007:HTML is not a programming language. 3952:Understanding Programming Languages 3894:Principles of Programming Languages 3818:from the original on 16 August 2022 3691:List of software engineering topics 3551:Comparison of programming languages 3078:Programming language implementation 3029:A description of the behavior of a 2645:—which is either true or false—and 2308: 1999:{\displaystyle A\ {\text{XNOR}}\ B} 1639:{\displaystyle A\nleftrightarrow B} 663: 56: 6855:Integrated development environment 6222: 6119:. stackify.com. 18 December 2017. 5981:Vicki, Brown; Morin, Rich (1999). 4404:from the original on 10 April 2024 3876:from the original on 18 July 2006. 3434: 2979:Programming language specification 2364:Semantics of programming languages 1763: 1315:{\displaystyle A\Leftrightarrow B} 1246: 1243: 1217: 550:, designed in 1972, was the first 391: 57: 8384: 7323:Automated planning and scheduling 6860:Software configuration management 6486:Concepts of Programming Languages 6450:Handbook of Programming Languages 6385:Concepts in Programming Languages 5672:from the original on 6 July 2006. 5494:, Addison-Wesley, 1982, pp. 93–94 4062:from the original on 11 May 2011. 3881: 3861: 3849:from the original on 21 June 2006 3830: 3800: 3227:Programs for a computer might be 3071: 2570:will flag this error, usually at 2558:Because different types (such as 1741:{\displaystyle {\overline {A+B}}} 958:cases, such programs may exhibit 561: 8335: 8318: 8301: 8284: 8267: 8250: 8081: 8080: 8052: 7577: 7567: 7558: 7557: 6135: 6109: 6100: 6082: 6051: 6024: 5997: 5974: 5933: 5894: 5861: 5820: 5808:from the original on 14 May 2018 5790: 5778:from the original on 13 May 2018 5760: 5748: 5676: 5653: 5617: 5594: 5574: 5497: 5484: 4074:"XSLT is a Programming Language" 4056:"What kind of language is XSLT?" 3580:Educational programming language 3529: 2972: 2372: 2254: 2253: 652:. Due to their integration with 524:, the first language to support 369:high-level programming languages 115:(meaning), usually defined by a 7568: 6971:Computational complexity theory 6548:Programming Language Processors 6488:(10 ed.). Addison-Wesley. 6474:Programming Language Pragmatics 6425:Types and Programming Languages 6008:. Computerworld. Archived from 5940:Abelson, Sussman, and Sussman. 5889:This site lists 8512 languages. 5601:Perlis, Alan (September 1982). 5170: 4907:Programming language pragmatics 4899: 4866: 4834: 4803: 4794: 4785: 4775: 4766: 4757: 4747: 4737: 4728: 4719: 4386: 4229:Types and Programming Languages 4218: 4197: 4161: 4103:Programming Language Pragmatics 4092: 4066: 4048: 4027:(4th ed.). Wiley. p. 4012: 3984: 3962: 3943: 3927: 3837:Digital Equipment Corporation. 3789:, New Age International, 2007, 3677:Scientific programming language 3387:of a programming language or a 3157:(CLR) as a closed environment. 2886:, which is more efficient than 1822:{\displaystyle {\overline {A}}} 605:Due to the rapid growth of the 407:—the first hardware to support 306: 7625:Types of programming languages 6762:Network performance evaluation 6442:(4th ed.), Prentice Hall 2000. 5662:"Section 7.2 Formal semantics" 5607:SIGPLAN Notices Vol. 17, No. 9 4172:Digital typography using LaTeX 3910: 3779: 3746: 3737: 3610:Lists of programming languages 2770: 2727:, and allowing the underlying 2678:associative (unordered) arrays 2653:, sufficient to represent all 2505: 2143: 2091: 1697: 1587:{\displaystyle A\not \equiv B} 1485: 1427:{\displaystyle A\rightarrow B} 1418: 1375:{\displaystyle A\Rightarrow B} 1366: 1332: 1306: 1255:{\displaystyle A\&\&B} 778:Syntax (programming languages) 415:was designed for this machine. 315:for defining and manipulating 207: 13: 1: 7725: 7126:Multimedia information system 7111:Geographic information system 7101:Enterprise information system 6697:Computer systems organization 6557:. John Wiley & Sons 2004. 4714:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4702:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4692:, pp. 474–475, 477, 542. 4690:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4678:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4654:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4630:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4618:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4594:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4582:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4570:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4558:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4546:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4519:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4507:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4495:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4471:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4435:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4381:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4364:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4352:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4328:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4299:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4287:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4270:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 4258:Gabbrielli & Martini 2023 3697: 3625:Language-oriented programming 3585:Esoteric programming language 2152:{\displaystyle A\leftarrow B} 2100:{\displaystyle A\Leftarrow B} 1706:{\displaystyle A\downarrow B} 558:to decide how to achieve it. 7757:Programming paradigms navbox 7485:Computational social science 7073:Theoretical computer science 6893:Software development process 6669:Electronic design automation 6654:Very Large Scale Integration 4859:and direct reduction to the 3892:MacLennan, Bruce J. (1987). 3481:, which are partly or fully 3467:visual programming languages 3033:for the language (e.g., the 2959:Natural-language programming 2897: 2696:where other data is stored. 2352:definite assignment analysis 1957:{\displaystyle A\parallel B} 1814: 1733: 1669: 1547: 1457: 1109: 725:visual programming languages 670:service-oriented programming 7: 7308:Natural language processing 7096:Information storage systems 6484:Sebesta, Robert W. (2012). 6033:"7 Myths of COBOL Debunked" 4176:. Springer-Verlag. p. 3995:. McGraw-Hill. p. 25. 3950:Ben Ari, Mordechai (1996). 3657:Programming language theory 3600:Invariant-based programming 3565:Outline of computer science 3537:Computer programming portal 3522: 2935:of commonly used functions. 2302: 1494:{\displaystyle A\uparrow B} 866:number | symbol number 762: 526:object-oriented programming 198:Programming language theory 88:, it will give the output " 10: 8389: 7224:Human–computer interaction 7194:Intrusion detection system 7106:Social information systems 7091:Database management system 6561:Wilson, Leslie B. (2001). 6478:Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 6452:(4 vols.). Macmillan 1998. 6389:Cambridge University Press 6352:(2nd ed.). Springer. 6226: 5490:Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.: 5179:Polymorphic type inference 4058:. IBM.com. 20 April 2005. 3438: 3075: 2976: 2851: 2814: 2774: 2617:(to support operations on 2613:(signed and unsigned) and 2602: 2544:function in the language. 2509: 2361: 2126:{\displaystyle A\subset B} 1401:{\displaystyle A\supset B} 775: 600:fifth-generation languages 330: 72:for a computer program in 8206: 8135: 8048: 7825: 7802: 7684: 7631: 7553: 7490:Computational engineering 7465:Computational mathematics 7442: 7389: 7351: 7298: 7260: 7222: 7164: 7081: 7027: 6989: 6941: 6878: 6811: 6775: 6732: 6696: 6629: 6618: 5603:"Epigrams on Programming" 4225:Pierce, Benjamin (2002). 3475:graphical user interfaces 3407:, often a subset. In the 3143:Java programming language 3128:domain-specific languages 2848:Design and implementation 2735:Static and dynamic typing 2715:, who can only access an 2066:{\displaystyle A\oplus B} 1289:{\displaystyle A\equiv B} 771: 751:. Many game engines like 451:dynamic memory management 449:, and it also introduced 409:floating-point arithmetic 8158:Knowledge representation 8143:Architecture description 7500:Computational healthcare 7495:Differentiable computing 7414:Graphics processing unit 6840:Domain-specific language 6709:Computational complexity 5349:, pp. 631, 635–636. 5177:Leivant, Daniel (1983). 3974:6 September 2009 at the 3575:Domain-specific modeling 3570:Domain-specific language 3405:domain-specific language 3263:Measuring language usage 3115:just-in-time compilation 2868:von Neumann architecture 2599:Commonly supported types 1226:{\displaystyle A\&B} 1177:{\displaystyle A\cdot B} 1151:{\displaystyle A\land B} 1010: 856: 829:reference implementation 167:von Neumann architecture 39:latest accepted revision 7475:Computational chemistry 7409:Photograph manipulation 7300:Artificial intelligence 7116:Decision support system 6436:Marvin Victor Zelkowitz 6375:Oxford University Press 6298:Programming Linguistics 6031:Ed Airey (3 May 2012). 5912:10.1145/2745802.2745805 5587:20 January 2008 at the 4987:, pp. 15, 408–409. 4842:Perl and Undecidability 4099:Scott, Michael (2006). 3991:Powell, Thomas (2003). 3954:. John Wiley and Sons. 3870:"The CHARITY Home Page" 3155:Common Language Runtime 2206:Functional completeness 1931:{\displaystyle A\mid B} 1879:{\displaystyle A\lor B} 1520:{\displaystyle A\mid B} 862:atom | list atom 793:with inset tokenization 463:artificial intelligence 447:conditional expressions 419:Around 1960, the first 7540:Educational technology 7371:Reinforcement learning 7121:Process control system 7019:Computational geometry 7009:Algorithmic efficiency 7004:Analysis of algorithms 6659:Systems on Chip (SoCs) 6401:Technology and Culture 6266:, Addison Wesley 1995. 5635:; D. MacQueen (1997). 5492:The Mythical Man-Month 4893:17 August 2000 at the 4847:17 August 2009 at the 4076:. Msdn.microsoft.com. 3715:Aaby, Anthony (2004). 3672:Reflective programming 3605:List of BASIC dialects 3590:Extensible programming 3389:data exchange language 3253:command-line interface 3190: 2486:conditionally execute 2415:"Programming language" 2176:Propositional calculus 2153: 2127: 2101: 2067: 2041: 2000: 1958: 1932: 1906: 1880: 1846: 1845:{\displaystyle \sim A} 1823: 1796: 1773: 1772:{\displaystyle \neg A} 1742: 1707: 1681: 1640: 1614: 1588: 1556: 1521: 1495: 1469: 1428: 1402: 1376: 1342: 1316: 1290: 1256: 1227: 1201: 1178: 1152: 809: 794: 672:, designed to exploit 571: 439:functional programming 416: 93: 8368:Programming languages 7796:Programming languages 7746:Programming languages 7510:Electronic publishing 7480:Computational biology 7470:Computational physics 7366:Unsupervised learning 7280:Distributed computing 7156:Information retrieval 7063:Mathematical analysis 7053:Mathematical software 6943:Theory of computation 6908:Software construction 6898:Requirements analysis 6776:Software organization 6704:Computer architecture 6674:Hardware acceleration 6639:Printed circuit board 6550:. Prentice Hall 1993. 6543:. Prentice Hall 1991. 6532:. Prentice Hall 1990. 6522:, The MIT Press 2004. 6506:, The MIT Press 2009. 6428:, The MIT Press 2002. 6340:30 April 2021 at the 6325:Shriram Krishnamurthi 6286:, The MIT Press 2001. 6278:Christopher T. Haynes 5983:"Scripting Languages" 5188:10.1145/567067.567077 4879:6 August 2013 at the 4874:Lecture Notes: Macros 4233:. MIT Press. p. 3808:"Turing Completeness" 3772:27 April 2010 at the 3667:Rebol § Dialects 3439:Further information: 3121:Proprietary languages 2910:overloading operators 2890:on these machines. 2860:computer architecture 2784:Interpreted languages 2586:to a different type. 2234:Programming languages 2154: 2128: 2102: 2068: 2042: 2001: 1959: 1933: 1907: 1881: 1847: 1824: 1797: 1774: 1743: 1708: 1682: 1641: 1615: 1589: 1557: 1522: 1496: 1470: 1429: 1403: 1377: 1343: 1317: 1291: 1257: 1228: 1202: 1179: 1153: 1092:context-free grammars 800: 785: 569: 399: 325:abstraction principle 229:theory of computation 159:Computer architecture 127:, and mechanisms for 76:. The gray lines are 67: 18:Programming languages 8237:Programming language 8173:Programming language 8153:Hardware description 7270:Concurrent computing 7242:Ubiquitous computing 7214:Application security 7209:Information security 7038:Discrete mathematics 7014:Randomized algorithm 6966:Computability theory 6951:Model of computation 6923:Software maintenance 6918:Software engineering 6880:Software development 6830:Programming language 6825:Programming paradigm 6742:Network architecture 6058:Nicholas Enticknap. 5580:Dijkstra, Edsger W. 5506:"Standard Libraries" 5286:, pp. 630, 634. 3687:Software engineering 3635:Literate programming 3556:Computer programming 2864:Imperative languages 2777:Concurrent computing 2713:hidden from the user 2396:improve this section 2137: 2111: 2085: 2051: 2018: 1976: 1942: 1916: 1890: 1864: 1833: 1806: 1783: 1760: 1717: 1691: 1658: 1624: 1598: 1572: 1531: 1505: 1479: 1446: 1412: 1386: 1360: 1326: 1300: 1274: 1237: 1211: 1188: 1162: 1136: 400:Two people using an 257:formal specification 163:imperative languages 139:programs, namely an 98:programming language 7545:Document management 7535:Operations research 7460:Enterprise software 7376:Multi-task learning 7361:Supervised learning 7083:Information systems 6913:Software deployment 6870:Software repository 6724:Real-time computing 6241:Sussman, Gerald Jay 5948:on 26 February 2009 5879:on 20 February 2011 5772:ComputerScience.org 5274:, pp. 585–586. 5226:, pp. 284–285. 5214:, pp. 212–213. 5143:, pp. 244–245. 5119:, pp. 289–290. 5095:, pp. 276–277. 5083:, pp. 272–273. 5071:, pp. 281–282. 5011:, pp. 246–247. 4999:, pp. 303–304. 4905:Michael Lee Scott, 4704:, pp. 542–543. 4656:, pp. 538–539. 4632:, pp. 536–537. 4584:, pp. 534–535. 4560:, pp. 532–533. 4509:, pp. 526–527. 4473:, pp. 524–525. 4461:, pp. 701–703. 4354:, pp. 523–524. 4272:, pp. 520–521. 4207:, MIT Press, 1994, 3761:7 July 2015 at the 3479:Scripting languages 3241:interactive session 3132:scripting languages 2709:abstract data types 2680:accessed via keys, 2649:—traditionally one 2605:Primitive data type 2496:execution semantics 2244:Philosophy of logic 1905:{\displaystyle A+B} 1118:Logical connectives 1100:Lisp's macro system 1096:undecidable problem 836:regular expressions 827:or hard-coded in a 802:Syntax highlighting 674:distributed systems 630:scripting languages 319:or controlling the 200:is the subfield of 29:Page version status 7328:Search methodology 7275:Parallel computing 7232:Interaction design 7141:Computing platform 7068:Numerical analysis 7058:Information theory 6850:Software framework 6813:Software notations 6752:Network components 6649:Integrated circuit 6565:. Addison-Wesley. 6535:David A. Watt and 6420:Benjamin C. Pierce 6367:Bruce J. MacLennan 6335:online publication 6294:Suresh Jagannathan 6270:Daniel P. Friedman 6012:on 19 October 2013 5873:Murdoch University 5556:, pp. 18, 23. 4872:Marty Hall, 1995, 4819:. PWS Publishing. 4203:David A. Schmidt, 4150:. pp. 1–157. 3725:on 8 November 2012 3682:Scripting language 3257:scripting language 3187:and code sharing. 3139:Oracle Corporation 2963:Edsger W. Dijkstra 2944:exception handling 2817:Exception handling 2811:Exception handling 2719:. The benefits of 2553:assembly languages 2542:type compatibility 2484:control structures 2340:data flow analysis 2239:Mathematical logic 2149: 2123: 2097: 2063: 2037: 2032: 1996: 1954: 1928: 1902: 1876: 1842: 1819: 1795:{\displaystyle -A} 1792: 1769: 1738: 1703: 1677: 1636: 1610: 1584: 1552: 1517: 1491: 1465: 1424: 1398: 1372: 1338: 1312: 1286: 1252: 1223: 1200:{\displaystyle AB} 1197: 1174: 1148: 960:undefined behavior 810: 795: 572: 459:garbage collection 417: 354:assembly languages 336:Early developments 194:exception handling 94: 35: 8232: 8231: 8129:computer language 8094: 8093: 8076:Non-English-based 7735:Computer language 7722: 7721: 7591: 7590: 7520:Electronic voting 7450:Quantum Computing 7443:Applied computing 7429:Image compression 7199:Hardware security 7189:Security services 7146:Digital marketing 6933:Open-source model 6845:Modeling language 6757:Network scheduler 6495:978-0-13-139531-2 6432:Terrence W. Pratt 6359:978-3-031-34144-1 6216:, pp. 22–23. 6180:, pp. 21–22. 6035:. developer.com. 5922:978-1-4503-3350-4 5745:, pp. 29–30. 5709:, pp. 25–27. 5697:, pp. 23–24. 5646:978-0-262-63181-5 5609:. pp. 7–13. 5544:, pp. 8, 16. 5481:, pp. 14–15. 5457:, pp. 12–13. 5421:, pp. 16–17. 5198:978-0-89791-090-3 4840:Jeffrey Kegler, " 4826:978-0-534-94728-6 4668:, pp. 97–99. 4644:, pp. 91–92. 4485:, pp. 56–57. 4425:, pp. 47–48. 4398:twobithistory.org 4342:, pp. 42–44. 4244:978-0-262-16209-8 4187:978-0-387-95217-8 4122:978-0-12-633951-2 4038:978-0-7645-8845-7 4002:978-0-07-222942-4 3903:978-0-19-511306-8 3652:Modeling language 3630:Logic programming 3010:(e.g., as in the 2946:, and restricted 2807:between threads. 2701:user-defined type 2492:dynamic semantics 2476: 2475: 2468: 2450: 2358:Dynamic semantics 2334:. Other forms of 2293: 2292: 2162: 2161: 2025: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1817: 1736: 1672: 1550: 1460: 1088:Chomsky hierarchy 627:dynamically typed 576:personal computer 552:logic programming 321:flow of execution 270:natural languages 264:Domain and target 249:abstract machines 223:computer language 102:computer programs 47:15 September 2024 26: 16:(Redirected from 8380: 8348: 8340: 8339: 8338: 8331: 8330:from Wikiversity 8323: 8322: 8321: 8314: 8306: 8305: 8304: 8297: 8289: 8288: 8287: 8280: 8272: 8271: 8270: 8263: 8255: 8254: 8253: 8243: 8121: 8114: 8107: 8098: 8097: 8084: 8083: 8056: 8055: 7789: 7782: 7775: 7766: 7765: 7761: 7755: 7750: 7744: 7739: 7733: 7618: 7611: 7604: 7595: 7594: 7581: 7580: 7571: 7570: 7561: 7560: 7381:Cross-validation 7353:Machine learning 7237:Social computing 7204:Network security 6999:Algorithm design 6928:Programming team 6888:Control variable 6865:Software library 6803:Software quality 6798:Operating system 6747:Network protocol 6612:Computer science 6605: 6598: 6591: 6582: 6581: 6576: 6499: 6470:Michael L. Scott 6416: 6381:John C. Mitchell 6363: 6317:Ellis Horowitz: 6314:(3rd ed.), 1987. 6254: 6253:on 9 March 2018. 6217: 6211: 6205: 6199: 6193: 6187: 6181: 6175: 6166: 6160: 6154: 6153: 6151: 6149: 6139: 6133: 6132: 6130: 6128: 6113: 6107: 6104: 6098: 6097: 6086: 6080: 6079: 6077: 6075: 6055: 6049: 6048: 6046: 6044: 6028: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6017: 6006:"COBOL turns 50" 6001: 5995: 5994: 5978: 5972: 5971: 5965: 5957: 5955: 5953: 5944:. Archived from 5937: 5931: 5930: 5914: 5898: 5892: 5891: 5886: 5884: 5875:. Archived from 5865: 5859: 5858: 5848: 5846:10.1002/pds.5728 5824: 5818: 5817: 5815: 5813: 5794: 5788: 5787: 5785: 5783: 5764: 5758: 5752: 5746: 5740: 5734: 5728: 5722: 5716: 5710: 5704: 5698: 5692: 5686: 5680: 5674: 5673: 5657: 5651: 5650: 5621: 5615: 5614: 5598: 5592: 5578: 5572: 5566: 5557: 5551: 5545: 5539: 5533: 5527: 5521: 5520: 5518: 5516: 5501: 5495: 5488: 5482: 5476: 5470: 5464: 5458: 5452: 5446: 5445:, pp. 9–10. 5440: 5434: 5428: 5422: 5416: 5410: 5404: 5398: 5392: 5386: 5380: 5374: 5368: 5362: 5356: 5350: 5344: 5338: 5332: 5326: 5320: 5314: 5308: 5299: 5293: 5287: 5281: 5275: 5269: 5263: 5257: 5251: 5245: 5239: 5233: 5227: 5221: 5215: 5209: 5203: 5202: 5190: 5174: 5168: 5162: 5156: 5150: 5144: 5138: 5132: 5126: 5120: 5114: 5108: 5102: 5096: 5090: 5084: 5078: 5072: 5066: 5060: 5054: 5048: 5042: 5036: 5030: 5024: 5018: 5012: 5006: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4982: 4976: 4975: 4973: 4971: 4955: 4942: 4936: 4930: 4924: 4918: 4903: 4897: 4870: 4864: 4838: 4832: 4830: 4807: 4801: 4798: 4792: 4789: 4783: 4779: 4773: 4770: 4764: 4761: 4755: 4751: 4745: 4741: 4735: 4732: 4726: 4723: 4717: 4711: 4705: 4699: 4693: 4687: 4681: 4675: 4669: 4663: 4657: 4651: 4645: 4639: 4633: 4627: 4621: 4615: 4609: 4603: 4597: 4591: 4585: 4579: 4573: 4567: 4561: 4555: 4549: 4543: 4537: 4531: 4522: 4516: 4510: 4504: 4498: 4492: 4486: 4480: 4474: 4468: 4462: 4456: 4450: 4444: 4438: 4432: 4426: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4411: 4409: 4390: 4384: 4378: 4367: 4361: 4355: 4349: 4343: 4337: 4331: 4325: 4314: 4308: 4302: 4296: 4290: 4284: 4273: 4267: 4261: 4255: 4249: 4248: 4232: 4222: 4216: 4201: 4195: 4194: 4175: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4156: 4145: 4136: 4130: 4129: 4106: 4096: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4070: 4064: 4063: 4052: 4046: 4045: 4026: 4016: 4010: 4009: 3988: 3982: 3969:XML in 10 points 3966: 3960: 3959: 3947: 3941: 3931: 3925: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3885: 3879: 3877: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3856: 3854: 3834: 3828: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3804: 3798: 3783: 3777: 3750: 3744: 3741: 3735: 3734: 3732: 3730: 3721:. Archived from 3712: 3561:Computer science 3539: 3534: 3533: 3517:markup languages 3509:dynamic dispatch 3501:data abstraction 3170:Wolfram Language 3088:operating system 3026:specifications). 3016:formal semantics 3008:natural language 2933:standard library 2831:operating system 2721:data abstraction 2631:integer overflow 2538:type equivalence 2471: 2464: 2460: 2457: 2451: 2449: 2408: 2376: 2368: 2309:Static semantics 2285: 2278: 2271: 2257: 2256: 2201:Boolean function 2167:Related concepts 2158: 2156: 2155: 2150: 2132: 2130: 2129: 2124: 2106: 2104: 2103: 2098: 2072: 2070: 2069: 2064: 2046: 2044: 2043: 2038: 2033: 2005: 2003: 2002: 1997: 1990: 1989: 1986: 1982: 1963: 1961: 1960: 1955: 1937: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1911: 1909: 1908: 1903: 1885: 1883: 1882: 1877: 1851: 1849: 1848: 1843: 1828: 1826: 1825: 1820: 1818: 1810: 1801: 1799: 1798: 1793: 1778: 1776: 1775: 1770: 1747: 1745: 1744: 1739: 1737: 1732: 1721: 1712: 1710: 1709: 1704: 1686: 1684: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1665: 1645: 1643: 1642: 1637: 1619: 1617: 1616: 1611: 1593: 1591: 1590: 1585: 1561: 1559: 1558: 1553: 1551: 1546: 1535: 1526: 1524: 1523: 1518: 1500: 1498: 1497: 1492: 1474: 1472: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1453: 1433: 1431: 1430: 1425: 1407: 1405: 1404: 1399: 1381: 1379: 1378: 1373: 1347: 1345: 1344: 1339: 1321: 1319: 1318: 1313: 1295: 1293: 1292: 1287: 1261: 1259: 1258: 1253: 1232: 1230: 1229: 1224: 1206: 1204: 1203: 1198: 1183: 1181: 1180: 1175: 1157: 1155: 1154: 1149: 1125: 1124: 1114: 1113: 1105: 1082: 1077:type declaration 1071: 1068: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1044: 1041: 1038: 1035: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1003: 999: 995: 967:natural language 953: 949: 945: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 844:Backus–Naur form 664:2000s to present 534:dynamic dispatch 473:and polymorphic 346:machine language 277:Markup languages 255:emphasizes that 253:John C. Reynolds 202:computer science 21: 8388: 8387: 8383: 8382: 8381: 8379: 8378: 8377: 8353: 8352: 8351: 8341: 8336: 8334: 8324: 8319: 8317: 8307: 8302: 8300: 8290: 8285: 8283: 8273: 8268: 8266: 8262:from Wiktionary 8256: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8242:sister projects 8239:at Knowledge's 8233: 8228: 8202: 8131: 8125: 8095: 8090: 8044: 7821: 7798: 7793: 7759: 7753: 7748: 7742: 7737: 7731: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7680: 7671:Very high-level 7627: 7622: 7592: 7587: 7578: 7549: 7530:Word processing 7438: 7424:Virtual reality 7385: 7347: 7318:Computer vision 7294: 7290:Multiprocessing 7256: 7218: 7184:Security hacker 7160: 7136:Digital library 7077: 7028:Mathematics of 7023: 6985: 6961:Automata theory 6956:Formal language 6937: 6903:Software design 6874: 6807: 6793:Virtual machine 6771: 6767:Network service 6728: 6719:Embedded system 6692: 6625: 6614: 6609: 6579: 6573: 6553:David A. Watt. 6546:David A. Watt. 6496: 6360: 6342:Wayback Machine 6290:David Gelernter 6237:Abelson, Harold 6231: 6225: 6223:Further reading 6220: 6212: 6208: 6200: 6196: 6188: 6184: 6176: 6169: 6161: 6157: 6147: 6145: 6141: 6140: 6136: 6126: 6124: 6115: 6114: 6110: 6105: 6101: 6096:on 17 May 2008. 6088: 6087: 6083: 6073: 6071: 6064:Computer Weekly 6056: 6052: 6042: 6040: 6029: 6025: 6015: 6013: 6002: 5998: 5979: 5975: 5959: 5958: 5951: 5949: 5938: 5934: 5923: 5899: 5895: 5882: 5880: 5867: 5866: 5862: 5825: 5821: 5811: 5809: 5804:. 10 May 2011. 5796: 5795: 5791: 5781: 5779: 5766: 5765: 5761: 5753: 5749: 5741: 5737: 5729: 5725: 5717: 5713: 5705: 5701: 5693: 5689: 5681: 5677: 5658: 5654: 5647: 5622: 5618: 5599: 5595: 5589:Wayback Machine 5579: 5575: 5567: 5560: 5552: 5548: 5540: 5536: 5528: 5524: 5514: 5512: 5502: 5498: 5489: 5485: 5477: 5473: 5465: 5461: 5453: 5449: 5441: 5437: 5433:, pp. 8–9. 5429: 5425: 5417: 5413: 5405: 5401: 5393: 5389: 5381: 5377: 5369: 5365: 5357: 5353: 5345: 5341: 5333: 5329: 5321: 5317: 5309: 5302: 5294: 5290: 5282: 5278: 5270: 5266: 5258: 5254: 5246: 5242: 5234: 5230: 5222: 5218: 5210: 5206: 5199: 5175: 5171: 5163: 5159: 5151: 5147: 5139: 5135: 5127: 5123: 5115: 5111: 5103: 5099: 5091: 5087: 5079: 5075: 5067: 5063: 5055: 5051: 5043: 5039: 5031: 5027: 5019: 5015: 5007: 5003: 4995: 4991: 4983: 4979: 4969: 4967: 4956: 4945: 4937: 4933: 4925: 4921: 4904: 4900: 4895:Wayback Machine 4881:Wayback Machine 4871: 4867: 4861:halting problem 4853:The Perl Review 4849:Wayback Machine 4839: 4835: 4827: 4808: 4804: 4799: 4795: 4790: 4786: 4780: 4776: 4771: 4767: 4762: 4758: 4752: 4748: 4742: 4738: 4733: 4729: 4724: 4720: 4712: 4708: 4700: 4696: 4688: 4684: 4676: 4672: 4664: 4660: 4652: 4648: 4640: 4636: 4628: 4624: 4616: 4612: 4604: 4600: 4592: 4588: 4580: 4576: 4568: 4564: 4556: 4552: 4544: 4540: 4532: 4525: 4517: 4513: 4505: 4501: 4493: 4489: 4481: 4477: 4469: 4465: 4457: 4453: 4445: 4441: 4433: 4429: 4421: 4417: 4407: 4405: 4392: 4391: 4387: 4379: 4370: 4362: 4358: 4350: 4346: 4338: 4334: 4326: 4317: 4309: 4305: 4297: 4293: 4285: 4276: 4268: 4264: 4256: 4252: 4245: 4223: 4219: 4202: 4198: 4188: 4166: 4162: 4154: 4148:tobi.oetiker.ch 4143: 4137: 4133: 4123: 4109:Morgan Kaufmann 4097: 4093: 4083: 4081: 4072: 4071: 4067: 4054: 4053: 4049: 4039: 4023:XML For Dummies 4017: 4013: 4003: 3989: 3985: 3976:Wayback Machine 3967: 3963: 3948: 3944: 3932: 3928: 3915: 3911: 3904: 3889:Turing-complete 3886: 3882: 3866: 3862: 3852: 3850: 3835: 3831: 3821: 3819: 3806: 3805: 3801: 3784: 3780: 3774:Wayback Machine 3763:Wayback Machine 3751: 3747: 3742: 3738: 3728: 3726: 3713: 3704: 3700: 3695: 3640:Metaprogramming 3535: 3528: 3525: 3473:for generating 3459:object oriented 3443: 3437: 3435:Classifications 3381: 3265: 3193: 3123: 3092:production code 3080: 3074: 2981: 2975: 2900: 2856: 2850: 2819: 2813: 2805:message passing 2779: 2773: 2749:implicit typing 2737: 2639:ones complement 2635:twos complement 2607: 2601: 2522: 2510:Main articles: 2508: 2494:(also known as 2472: 2461: 2455: 2452: 2409: 2407: 2393: 2377: 2366: 2360: 2336:static analyses 2311: 2289: 2248: 2215: 2186:Boolean algebra 2181:Predicate logic 2138: 2135: 2134: 2112: 2109: 2108: 2086: 2083: 2082: 2052: 2049: 2048: 2024: 2019: 2016: 2015: 1985: 1977: 1974: 1973: 1943: 1940: 1939: 1917: 1914: 1913: 1891: 1888: 1887: 1865: 1862: 1861: 1834: 1831: 1830: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1803: 1784: 1781: 1780: 1761: 1758: 1757: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1714: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1664: 1659: 1656: 1655: 1625: 1622: 1621: 1599: 1596: 1595: 1573: 1570: 1569: 1536: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1528: 1506: 1503: 1502: 1480: 1477: 1476: 1452: 1447: 1444: 1443: 1413: 1410: 1409: 1387: 1384: 1383: 1361: 1358: 1357: 1327: 1324: 1323: 1301: 1298: 1297: 1275: 1272: 1271: 1238: 1235: 1234: 1212: 1209: 1208: 1189: 1186: 1185: 1163: 1160: 1159: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1112: 1103: 1080: 1073: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1063: 1060: 1057: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1042: 1039: 1036: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1018: 1015: 1012: 1001: 997: 993: 951: 947: 943: 880: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 859: 842:structure) and 780: 774: 765: 666: 564: 394: 392:1960s and 1970s 365:human resources 338: 333: 317:data structures 309: 293:structured data 291:, which define 266: 241:ANSI/ISO SQL-92 233:Turing complete 218: 210: 190:object-oriented 117:formal language 60: 55: 54: 53: 52: 51: 50: 34: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8386: 8376: 8375: 8370: 8365: 8350: 8349: 8332: 8315: 8313:from Wikibooks 8298: 8296:from Wikiquote 8281: 8264: 8235: 8230: 8229: 8227: 8226: 8221: 8216: 8210: 8208: 8204: 8203: 8201: 8200: 8198:Transformation 8195: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8150: 8145: 8139: 8137: 8133: 8132: 8124: 8123: 8116: 8109: 8101: 8092: 8091: 8089: 8088: 8078: 8073: 8068: 8063: 8049: 8046: 8045: 8043: 8042: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7974: 7973: 7963: 7958: 7953: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7883: 7878: 7877: 7876: 7875: 7874: 7869: 7854: 7849: 7844: 7843: 7842: 7832: 7826: 7823: 7822: 7820: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7803: 7800: 7799: 7792: 7791: 7784: 7777: 7769: 7763: 7762: 7751: 7740: 7727: 7724: 7720: 7719: 7717: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7690: 7688: 7682: 7681: 7679: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7657: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7635: 7633: 7629: 7628: 7621: 7620: 7613: 7606: 7598: 7589: 7588: 7586: 7585: 7575: 7565: 7554: 7551: 7550: 7548: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7467: 7462: 7457: 7452: 7446: 7444: 7440: 7439: 7437: 7436: 7434:Solid modeling 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7395: 7393: 7387: 7386: 7384: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7357: 7355: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7333:Control method 7330: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7304: 7302: 7296: 7295: 7293: 7292: 7287: 7285:Multithreading 7282: 7277: 7272: 7266: 7264: 7258: 7257: 7255: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7228: 7226: 7220: 7219: 7217: 7216: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7179:Formal methods 7176: 7170: 7168: 7162: 7161: 7159: 7158: 7153: 7151:World Wide Web 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7098: 7093: 7087: 7085: 7079: 7078: 7076: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7040: 7034: 7032: 7025: 7024: 7022: 7021: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6995: 6993: 6987: 6986: 6984: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6947: 6945: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6884: 6882: 6876: 6875: 6873: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6821: 6819: 6809: 6808: 6806: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6779: 6777: 6773: 6772: 6770: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6738: 6736: 6730: 6729: 6727: 6726: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6700: 6698: 6694: 6693: 6691: 6690: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6635: 6633: 6627: 6626: 6619: 6616: 6615: 6608: 6607: 6600: 6593: 6585: 6578: 6577: 6571: 6558: 6551: 6544: 6533: 6523: 6507: 6500: 6494: 6481: 6467: 6464:Addison-Wesley 6453: 6446:Peter H. Salus 6443: 6429: 6417: 6392: 6378: 6364: 6358: 6345: 6322: 6315: 6308:Ellis Horowitz 6305: 6287: 6267: 6258:Raphael Finkel 6255: 6232: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6218: 6206: 6194: 6182: 6167: 6155: 6134: 6108: 6099: 6081: 6050: 6023: 5996: 5973: 5932: 5921: 5893: 5860: 5819: 5789: 5759: 5747: 5735: 5723: 5711: 5699: 5687: 5675: 5652: 5645: 5616: 5593: 5573: 5558: 5546: 5534: 5522: 5496: 5483: 5471: 5459: 5447: 5435: 5423: 5411: 5399: 5387: 5375: 5363: 5351: 5339: 5337:, p. 632. 5327: 5325:, p. 261. 5315: 5313:, p. 631. 5300: 5298:, p. 635. 5288: 5276: 5264: 5262:, p. 585. 5252: 5250:, p. 579. 5240: 5238:, p. 576. 5228: 5216: 5204: 5197: 5169: 5167:, p. 211. 5157: 5155:, p. 477. 5145: 5133: 5131:, p. 255. 5121: 5109: 5107:, p. 280. 5097: 5085: 5073: 5061: 5059:, p. 254. 5049: 5047:, p. 250. 5037: 5035:, p. 260. 5025: 5023:, p. 249. 5013: 5001: 4989: 4977: 4958:Andrew Cooke. 4943: 4941:, p. 245. 4931: 4929:, p. 244. 4919: 4898: 4865: 4857:Rice's theorem 4833: 4825: 4811:Michael Sipser 4802: 4793: 4784: 4774: 4765: 4756: 4746: 4736: 4727: 4718: 4716:, p. 544. 4706: 4694: 4682: 4680:, p. 542. 4670: 4658: 4646: 4634: 4622: 4620:, p. 536. 4610: 4608:, p. 736. 4598: 4596:, p. 535. 4586: 4574: 4572:, p. 534. 4562: 4550: 4548:, p. 530. 4538: 4523: 4521:, p. 531. 4511: 4499: 4497:, p. 525. 4487: 4475: 4463: 4451: 4439: 4437:, p. 526. 4427: 4415: 4385: 4383:, p. 528. 4368: 4366:, p. 527. 4356: 4344: 4332: 4330:, p. 524. 4315: 4303: 4301:, p. 522. 4291: 4289:, p. 521. 4274: 4262: 4260:, p. 519. 4250: 4243: 4217: 4196: 4186: 4160: 4144:(Version 5.06) 4131: 4121: 4091: 4065: 4047: 4037: 4011: 4001: 3983: 3961: 3942: 3926: 3909: 3902: 3880: 3860: 3829: 3812:www.cs.odu.edu 3799: 3778: 3745: 3736: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3693: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3648: 3647: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3622: 3617: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3540: 3524: 3521: 3513: 3512: 3497: 3494: 3490: 3436: 3433: 3380: 3377: 3306: 3305: 3302: 3299: 3296: 3264: 3261: 3192: 3189: 3122: 3119: 3076:Main article: 3073: 3072:Implementation 3070: 3069: 3068: 3053:implementation 3042: 3027: 2977:Main article: 2974: 2971: 2952: 2951: 2936: 2921: 2903:performance. 2899: 2896: 2852:Main article: 2849: 2846: 2838: 2837: 2834: 2823:runtime errors 2815:Main article: 2812: 2809: 2803:, or enabling 2772: 2769: 2736: 2733: 2729:data structure 2725:name collision 2670:primitive type 2615:floating point 2600: 2597: 2507: 2504: 2474: 2473: 2380: 2378: 2371: 2362:Main article: 2359: 2356: 2320:case statement 2310: 2307: 2291: 2290: 2288: 2287: 2280: 2273: 2265: 2262: 2261: 2250: 2249: 2247: 2246: 2241: 2236: 2231: 2225: 2222: 2221: 2217: 2216: 2214: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2198: 2196:Truth function 2193: 2188: 2183: 2178: 2172: 2169: 2168: 2164: 2163: 2160: 2159: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2080: 2074: 2073: 2062: 2059: 2056: 2036: 2031: 2028: 2023: 2013: 2007: 2006: 1995: 1981: 1971: 1965: 1964: 1953: 1950: 1947: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1901: 1898: 1895: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1859: 1853: 1852: 1841: 1838: 1816: 1813: 1791: 1788: 1768: 1765: 1755: 1749: 1748: 1735: 1731: 1728: 1725: 1702: 1699: 1696: 1676: 1671: 1668: 1663: 1653: 1647: 1646: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1567: 1563: 1562: 1549: 1545: 1542: 1539: 1516: 1513: 1510: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1464: 1459: 1456: 1451: 1441: 1435: 1434: 1423: 1420: 1417: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1355: 1349: 1348: 1337: 1334: 1331: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1269: 1263: 1262: 1251: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1222: 1219: 1216: 1196: 1193: 1173: 1170: 1167: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1131: 1121: 1120: 1111: 1108: 1011: 988:The following 986: 985: 978: 952:(a b c232 (1)) 940: 939: 928: 921: 914: 899: 874:.* list 870:?+ symbol 857: 776:Main article: 773: 770: 768:respectively. 764: 761: 710:dynamic typing 665: 662: 611:World Wide Web 563: 562:1980s to 2000s 560: 471:inferred types 457:and automatic 429:microprocessor 393: 390: 337: 334: 332: 329: 308: 305: 265: 262: 217: 214: 209: 206: 133:implementation 129:error handling 58: 36: 30: 27: 25: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8385: 8374: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8364: 8361: 8360: 8358: 8347:from Wikidata 8346: 8345: 8333: 8329: 8328: 8316: 8312: 8311: 8299: 8295: 8294: 8282: 8278: 8277: 8265: 8261: 8260: 8248: 8247: 8244: 8238: 8225: 8222: 8220: 8217: 8215: 8212: 8211: 8209: 8205: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8188:Specification 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8148:Data exchange 8146: 8144: 8141: 8140: 8138: 8134: 8130: 8122: 8117: 8115: 8110: 8108: 8103: 8102: 8099: 8087: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8051: 8050: 8047: 8041: 8040: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7972: 7971:Object Pascal 7969: 7968: 7967: 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7929: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7864: 7863: 7860: 7859: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7841: 7838: 7837: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7827: 7824: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7804: 7801: 7797: 7790: 7785: 7783: 7778: 7776: 7771: 7770: 7767: 7758: 7752: 7747: 7741: 7736: 7730: 7729: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7691: 7689: 7687: 7683: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7658: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7636: 7634: 7630: 7626: 7619: 7614: 7612: 7607: 7605: 7600: 7599: 7596: 7584: 7576: 7574: 7566: 7564: 7556: 7555: 7552: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7447: 7445: 7441: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7419:Mixed reality 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7396: 7394: 7392: 7388: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7358: 7356: 7354: 7350: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7305: 7303: 7301: 7297: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7267: 7265: 7263: 7259: 7253: 7252:Accessibility 7250: 7248: 7247:Visualization 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7229: 7227: 7225: 7221: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7171: 7169: 7167: 7163: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7088: 7086: 7084: 7080: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7035: 7033: 7031: 7026: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6996: 6994: 6992: 6988: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6948: 6946: 6944: 6940: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6885: 6883: 6881: 6877: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6822: 6820: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6780: 6778: 6774: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6739: 6737: 6735: 6731: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6714:Dependability 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6701: 6699: 6695: 6689: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6636: 6634: 6632: 6628: 6623: 6617: 6613: 6606: 6601: 6599: 6594: 6592: 6587: 6586: 6583: 6574: 6572:0-201-71012-9 6568: 6564: 6559: 6556: 6552: 6549: 6545: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6531: 6527: 6526:David A. Watt 6524: 6521: 6520: 6515: 6511: 6510:Peter Van Roy 6508: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6491: 6487: 6482: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6468: 6465: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6451: 6447: 6444: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6430: 6427: 6426: 6421: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6393: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6379: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6365: 6361: 6355: 6351: 6346: 6343: 6339: 6336: 6332: 6331: 6326: 6323: 6320: 6316: 6313: 6309: 6306: 6303: 6302:The MIT Press 6299: 6295: 6291: 6288: 6285: 6284: 6279: 6275: 6274:Mitchell Wand 6271: 6268: 6265: 6264: 6259: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6247: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6233: 6230: 6215: 6210: 6204:, p. 22. 6203: 6198: 6192:, p. 12. 6191: 6186: 6179: 6174: 6172: 6165:, p. 21. 6164: 6159: 6144: 6143:"TIOBE Index" 6138: 6122: 6118: 6112: 6103: 6095: 6091: 6085: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6054: 6038: 6034: 6027: 6011: 6007: 6000: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5977: 5969: 5963: 5947: 5943: 5936: 5929: 5924: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5904: 5897: 5890: 5878: 5874: 5871:. Australia: 5870: 5864: 5856: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5823: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5793: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5763: 5757: 5751: 5744: 5739: 5733:, p. 28. 5732: 5727: 5721:, p. 27. 5720: 5715: 5708: 5703: 5696: 5691: 5684: 5679: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5656: 5648: 5642: 5639:. MIT Press. 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5620: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5597: 5590: 5586: 5583: 5577: 5571:, p. 23. 5570: 5565: 5563: 5555: 5550: 5543: 5538: 5532:, p. 15. 5531: 5526: 5511: 5507: 5500: 5493: 5487: 5480: 5475: 5469:, p. 13. 5468: 5463: 5456: 5451: 5444: 5439: 5432: 5427: 5420: 5415: 5408: 5403: 5397:, p. 60. 5396: 5391: 5385:, p. 55. 5384: 5379: 5373:, p. 19. 5372: 5367: 5361:, p. 18. 5360: 5355: 5348: 5343: 5336: 5331: 5324: 5319: 5312: 5307: 5305: 5297: 5292: 5285: 5280: 5273: 5268: 5261: 5256: 5249: 5244: 5237: 5232: 5225: 5220: 5213: 5208: 5200: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5180: 5173: 5166: 5161: 5154: 5149: 5142: 5137: 5130: 5125: 5118: 5113: 5106: 5101: 5094: 5089: 5082: 5077: 5070: 5065: 5058: 5053: 5046: 5041: 5034: 5029: 5022: 5017: 5010: 5005: 4998: 4993: 4986: 4981: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4952: 4950: 4948: 4940: 4935: 4928: 4923: 4916: 4915:0-12-633951-1 4912: 4908: 4902: 4896: 4892: 4889: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4875: 4869: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4843: 4837: 4828: 4822: 4818: 4817: 4812: 4806: 4797: 4788: 4778: 4769: 4760: 4750: 4740: 4731: 4722: 4715: 4710: 4703: 4698: 4691: 4686: 4679: 4674: 4667: 4662: 4655: 4650: 4643: 4638: 4631: 4626: 4619: 4614: 4607: 4602: 4595: 4590: 4583: 4578: 4571: 4566: 4559: 4554: 4547: 4542: 4536:, p. 79. 4535: 4530: 4528: 4520: 4515: 4508: 4503: 4496: 4491: 4484: 4479: 4472: 4467: 4460: 4455: 4449:, p. 50. 4448: 4443: 4436: 4431: 4424: 4419: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4389: 4382: 4377: 4375: 4373: 4365: 4360: 4353: 4348: 4341: 4336: 4329: 4324: 4322: 4320: 4313:, p. 42. 4312: 4307: 4300: 4295: 4288: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4271: 4266: 4259: 4254: 4246: 4240: 4236: 4231: 4230: 4221: 4214: 4213:0-262-19349-3 4210: 4206: 4200: 4193: 4189: 4183: 4179: 4174: 4173: 4164: 4153: 4149: 4142: 4135: 4128: 4124: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4105: 4104: 4095: 4079: 4075: 4069: 4061: 4057: 4051: 4044: 4040: 4034: 4030: 4025: 4024: 4015: 4008: 4004: 3998: 3994: 3987: 3980: 3977: 3973: 3970: 3965: 3958: 3953: 3946: 3939: 3937: 3930: 3923: 3922:0-12-012108-5 3919: 3913: 3905: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3884: 3875: 3871: 3864: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3833: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3803: 3796: 3795:81-224-1379-X 3792: 3788: 3785:S.K. Bajpai, 3782: 3776:, pp. 163–170 3775: 3771: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3757: 3756: 3749: 3740: 3724: 3720: 3719: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3702: 3692: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3646: 3643: 3642: 3641: 3638: 3636: 3633: 3631: 3628: 3626: 3623: 3621: 3618: 3616: 3613: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3543: 3538: 3532: 3527: 3520: 3518: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3463: 3462: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3442: 3432: 3430: 3429:many dialects 3427:language has 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3376: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3303: 3300: 3297: 3294: 3293: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3260: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3233:batch process 3230: 3225: 3223: 3222: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3204: 3202: 3196: 3188: 3186: 3182: 3177: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3133: 3129: 3118: 3116: 3112: 3107: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3079: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3052: 3048: 3043: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3025: 3021: 3018:(e.g., as in 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3004: 3003: 3000: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2980: 2973:Specification 2970: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2940:Type checking 2937: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2919: 2918:special words 2915: 2914:orthogonality 2911: 2906: 2905: 2904: 2895: 2891: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2855: 2845: 2841: 2835: 2832: 2828: 2827: 2826: 2824: 2818: 2808: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2778: 2768: 2766: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2741:static typing 2732: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2699:The simplest 2697: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2657:characters. 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2606: 2596: 2594: 2593:type coercion 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2576:strong typing 2573: 2569: 2568:Type checking 2565: 2561: 2556: 2554: 2550: 2547:According to 2545: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2503: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2470: 2467: 2459: 2448: 2445: 2441: 2438: 2434: 2431: 2427: 2424: 2420: 2417: – 2416: 2412: 2411:Find sources: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2391: 2390: 2386: 2381:This section 2379: 2375: 2370: 2369: 2365: 2355: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2306: 2304: 2300: 2299: 2286: 2281: 2279: 2274: 2272: 2267: 2266: 2264: 2263: 2260: 2252: 2251: 2245: 2242: 2240: 2237: 2235: 2232: 2230: 2229:Digital logic 2227: 2226: 2224: 2223: 2219: 2218: 2212: 2211:Scope (logic) 2209: 2207: 2204: 2202: 2199: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2173: 2171: 2170: 2166: 2165: 2146: 2140: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2094: 2088: 2081: 2079: 2076: 2075: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2034: 2029: 2026: 2021: 2014: 2012: 2009: 2008: 1993: 1979: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1966: 1951: 1948: 1945: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1899: 1896: 1893: 1873: 1870: 1867: 1860: 1858: 1855: 1854: 1839: 1836: 1811: 1789: 1786: 1766: 1756: 1754: 1751: 1750: 1729: 1726: 1723: 1700: 1694: 1674: 1666: 1661: 1654: 1652: 1649: 1648: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1568: 1566:nonequivalent 1565: 1564: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1514: 1511: 1508: 1488: 1482: 1462: 1454: 1449: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1421: 1415: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1369: 1363: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1335: 1329: 1309: 1303: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1264: 1249: 1240: 1220: 1214: 1194: 1191: 1171: 1168: 1165: 1145: 1142: 1139: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1116: 1115: 1107: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1084: 1078: 1009: 1007: 994:*p >> 4 991: 983: 979: 976: 972: 971: 970: 968: 963: 961: 955: 937: 933: 929: 926: 922: 919: 915: 912: 908: 904: 900: 897: 893: 890:is either an 889: 885: 884: 883: 855: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 832: 830: 826: 821: 819: 815: 807: 803: 799: 792: 788: 784: 779: 769: 760: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 721: 719: 715: 711: 707: 706:static typing 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 661: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 631: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 603: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 568: 559: 557: 553: 549: 545: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 478: 476: 472: 469:, introduced 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 430: 426: 422: 414: 410: 406: 403: 398: 389: 387: 383: 378: 374: 370: 366: 361: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 328: 326: 322: 318: 314: 304: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 273: 271: 261: 258: 254: 250: 245: 242: 238: 234: 230: 225: 224: 213: 205: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 178: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 105: 103: 99: 91: 90:Hello, world! 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 66: 62: 48: 44: 40: 33: 28: 19: 8342: 8325: 8308: 8291: 8279:from Commons 8274: 8257: 8236: 8172: 8071:Generational 8061:Alphabetical 8057: 8037: 7862:Visual Basic 7795: 7760:}} 7754:{{ 7749:}} 7743:{{ 7738:}} 7732:{{ 7515:Cyberwarfare 7174:Cryptography 6829: 6562: 6554: 6547: 6540: 6537:Muffy Thomas 6529: 6517: 6503: 6485: 6473: 6459: 6449: 6439: 6423: 6407:(1): 40–75. 6404: 6400: 6384: 6370: 6349: 6328: 6318: 6311: 6297: 6281: 6261: 6251:the original 6245: 6214:Sebesta 2012 6209: 6202:Sebesta 2012 6197: 6190:Sebesta 2012 6185: 6178:Sebesta 2012 6163:Sebesta 2012 6158: 6146:. Retrieved 6137: 6125:. Retrieved 6111: 6102: 6094:the original 6084: 6072:. Retrieved 6063: 6053: 6041:. Retrieved 6026: 6014:. Retrieved 6010:the original 5999: 5986: 5976: 5950:. Retrieved 5946:the original 5935: 5926: 5902: 5896: 5888: 5881:. Retrieved 5877:the original 5863: 5839:(3): e5728. 5836: 5832: 5822: 5810:. Retrieved 5801: 5798:"The basics" 5792: 5780:. Retrieved 5771: 5762: 5750: 5743:Sebesta 2012 5738: 5731:Sebesta 2012 5726: 5719:Sebesta 2012 5714: 5707:Sebesta 2012 5702: 5695:Sebesta 2012 5690: 5678: 5665: 5655: 5636: 5619: 5606: 5596: 5576: 5569:Sebesta 2012 5554:Sebesta 2012 5549: 5542:Sebesta 2012 5537: 5530:Sebesta 2012 5525: 5513:. Retrieved 5509: 5499: 5491: 5486: 5479:Sebesta 2012 5474: 5467:Sebesta 2012 5462: 5455:Sebesta 2012 5450: 5443:Sebesta 2012 5438: 5431:Sebesta 2012 5426: 5419:Sebesta 2012 5414: 5409:, p. 8. 5407:Sebesta 2012 5402: 5390: 5378: 5371:Sebesta 2012 5366: 5359:Sebesta 2012 5354: 5347:Sebesta 2012 5342: 5335:Sebesta 2012 5330: 5323:Sebesta 2012 5318: 5311:Sebesta 2012 5296:Sebesta 2012 5291: 5284:Sebesta 2012 5279: 5272:Sebesta 2012 5267: 5260:Sebesta 2012 5255: 5248:Sebesta 2012 5243: 5236:Sebesta 2012 5231: 5224:Sebesta 2012 5219: 5212:Sebesta 2012 5207: 5178: 5172: 5165:Sebesta 2012 5160: 5153:Sebesta 2012 5148: 5141:Sebesta 2012 5136: 5129:Sebesta 2012 5124: 5117:Sebesta 2012 5112: 5105:Sebesta 2012 5100: 5093:Sebesta 2012 5088: 5081:Sebesta 2012 5076: 5069:Sebesta 2012 5064: 5057:Sebesta 2012 5052: 5045:Sebesta 2012 5040: 5033:Sebesta 2012 5028: 5021:Sebesta 2012 5016: 5009:Sebesta 2012 5004: 4997:Sebesta 2012 4992: 4985:Sebesta 2012 4980: 4968:. Retrieved 4939:Sebesta 2012 4934: 4927:Sebesta 2012 4922: 4906: 4901: 4868: 4852: 4836: 4815: 4805: 4796: 4787: 4777: 4768: 4759: 4749: 4739: 4730: 4721: 4709: 4697: 4685: 4673: 4666:Sebesta 2012 4661: 4649: 4642:Sebesta 2012 4637: 4625: 4613: 4606:Sebesta 2012 4601: 4589: 4577: 4565: 4553: 4541: 4534:Sebesta 2012 4514: 4502: 4490: 4483:Sebesta 2012 4478: 4466: 4459:Sebesta 2012 4454: 4447:Sebesta 2012 4442: 4430: 4423:Sebesta 2012 4418: 4406:. Retrieved 4397: 4388: 4359: 4347: 4340:Sebesta 2012 4335: 4311:Sebesta 2012 4306: 4294: 4265: 4253: 4228: 4220: 4204: 4199: 4191: 4171: 4163: 4147: 4134: 4126: 4102: 4094: 4082:. Retrieved 4068: 4050: 4042: 4022: 4014: 4006: 3992: 3986: 3964: 3955: 3951: 3945: 3934: 3929: 3912: 3893: 3883: 3863: 3851:. Retrieved 3842: 3832: 3820:. Retrieved 3811: 3802: 3786: 3781: 3753: 3748: 3739: 3729:29 September 3727:. Retrieved 3723:the original 3717: 3514: 3485:rather than 3444: 3413:S-expression 3384: 3382: 3350: 3307: 3290: 3266: 3226: 3219: 3212:abstractions 3205: 3197: 3194: 3181:open science 3178: 3159: 3136: 3130:or internal 3124: 3108: 3104:optimization 3084:machine code 3081: 3055:, sometimes 3050: 3046: 3001: 2989:implementors 2982: 2957: 2953: 2929:expressivity 2901: 2892: 2857: 2842: 2839: 2820: 2780: 2761: 2738: 2705:ordinal type 2698: 2659: 2619:real numbers 2608: 2572:compile time 2557: 2546: 2523: 2495: 2491: 2477: 2462: 2453: 2443: 2436: 2429: 2422: 2410: 2394:Please help 2382: 2312: 2297: 2294: 2233: 2220:Applications 1085: 1074: 1006:null pointer 987: 964: 956: 941: 935: 931: 924: 917: 910: 906: 905:is either a 902: 895: 891: 887: 881: 833: 822: 811: 766: 722: 667: 650:applications 604: 573: 546: 514:context-free 479: 433: 418: 362: 339: 313:abstractions 310: 307:Abstractions 274: 267: 246: 221: 219: 211: 179: 157: 151:produces an 106: 97: 95: 61: 46: 37:This is the 31: 8259:Definitions 8066:Categorical 7654:Interpreted 7525:Video games 7505:Digital art 7262:Concurrency 7131:Data mining 7043:Probability 6783:Interpreter 6514:Seif Haridi 6462:, 2nd ed., 4744:pp.129-141. 3767:ICSOFT 2007 3505:inheritance 3483:interpreted 3353:TIOBE index 3245:interpreter 3221:Programming 3185:replication 3111:interpreter 3020:Standard ML 2995:is a valid 2993:source code 2967:Alan Perlis 2925:abstraction 2771:Concurrency 2637:, although 2588:Weak typing 2580:type errors 2549:type theory 2530:type system 2520:Type safety 2516:Type system 2506:Type system 2332:type system 2191:Truth table 1102:and Perl's 982:well-formed 936:expressions 858:expression 848:grammatical 791:Python code 596:concurrency 588:inheritance 556:interpreter 538:inheritance 528:(including 425:punch cards 208:Definitions 175:abstraction 141:interpreter 121:type system 111:(form) and 70:source code 8357:Categories 8293:Quotations 8193:Stylesheet 7931:JavaScript 7807:Comparison 7686:Generation 7666:High-level 7583:Glossaries 7455:E-commerce 7048:Statistics 6991:Algorithms 6788:Middleware 6644:Peripheral 6456:Ravi Sethi 6227:See also: 6043:19 October 6016:19 October 5625:Milner, R. 5515:27 January 4917:, p. 18–19 4885:PostScript 4111:. p. 4084:3 December 3698:References 3662:Pseudocode 3451:functional 3447:imperative 3330:JavaScript 3274:mainframes 3249:Unix shell 3216:primitives 3208:programmer 3201:pseudocode 3100:executable 3031:translator 3012:C language 2880:assignment 2797:semaphores 2775:See also: 2765:union type 2603:See also: 2536:, and how 2534:expression 2488:statements 2456:April 2024 2426:newspapers 2324:subroutine 2316:identifier 1267:equivalent 990:C language 938:inside it. 888:expression 787:Parse tree 638:JavaScript 619:networking 486:algorithms 475:parameters 421:mainframes 411:—in 1957. 377:abstracted 237:algorithms 182:functional 153:executable 8327:Resources 8310:Textbooks 8127:Types of 8028:Smalltalk 7661:Low-level 7404:Rendering 7399:Animation 7030:computing 6981:Semantics 6679:Processor 6413:0040-165X 6127:29 August 5633:R. Harper 3822:5 October 3515:Although 3251:or other 3210:uses the 3147:Microsoft 3065:ANSI REXX 3047:reference 2898:Tradeoffs 2888:recursion 2884:iteration 2717:interface 2647:character 2526:data type 2512:Data type 2383:does not 2330:called a 2298:semantics 2295:The term 2144:← 2118:⊂ 2092:⇐ 2058:⊕ 2030:_ 2027:∨ 1949:∥ 1923:∣ 1871:∨ 1837:∼ 1815:¯ 1787:− 1764:¬ 1734:¯ 1698:↓ 1670:¯ 1667:∨ 1631:↮ 1548:¯ 1541:⋅ 1512:∣ 1486:↑ 1458:¯ 1455:∧ 1419:→ 1393:⊃ 1367:⇒ 1333:⇋ 1307:⇔ 1281:≡ 1247:& 1244:& 1218:& 1169:⋅ 1143:∧ 1110:Semantics 818:graphical 741:Ballerina 615:Web pages 520:grammar. 443:recursion 405:mainframe 220:The term 155:program. 125:variables 113:semantics 8373:Notation 8207:See also 8168:Modeling 8086:Category 7852:Assembly 7812:Timeline 7726:See also 7676:Esoteric 7649:Compiled 7644:Assembly 7563:Category 7391:Graphics 7166:Security 6835:Compiler 6734:Networks 6631:Hardware 6338:Archived 6243:(1996). 6121:Archived 6068:Archived 6037:Archived 5991:Archived 5962:cite web 5855:37984998 5806:Archived 5776:Archived 5670:Archived 5629:M. Tofte 5611:Archived 5585:Archived 4964:Archived 4891:Archived 4877:Archived 4845:Archived 4813:(1996). 4408:10 April 4402:Archived 4152:Archived 4078:Archived 4060:Archived 3972:Archived 3874:Archived 3847:Archived 3816:Archived 3797:, p. 346 3770:Archived 3759:Archived 3523:See also 3493:adopted. 3487:compiled 3469:such as 3237:commands 3229:executed 3166:VBScript 3096:compiler 3094:is by a 3014:), or a 2987:and the 2948:aliasing 2786:such as 2690:Pointers 2560:integers 2480:strategy 2259:Category 2078:converse 1605:⇎ 1579:≢ 1052:>> 998:p->im 763:Elements 609:and the 607:Internet 580:superset 530:subtypes 386:compiled 350:portable 344:(1GLs), 171:hardware 149:compiler 145:compiler 82:compiled 78:comments 43:reviewed 8183:Shading 8039:more... 8018:Scratch 7921:Haskell 7911:Fortran 7867:classic 7817:History 7639:Machine 7573:Outline 6321:, 1989. 6310:(ed.): 6148:24 June 6074:14 June 5987:MacTech 5952:3 March 5802:ibm.com 5591:EWD667. 4970:13 July 4888:version 4215:, p. 32 3938:Notices 3936:SIGPLAN 3853:29 June 3421:Clojure 3401:dialect 3385:dialect 3334:VB .NET 3278:Fortran 3059:(e.g., 3039:Fortran 2997:program 2801:monitor 2753:Haskell 2682:records 2666:strings 2643:Boolean 2611:integer 2440:scholar 2404:removed 2389:sources 1353:implies 1075:If the 1031:complex 1013:complex 1004:is the 840:lexical 745:Blockly 733:LabVIEW 729:Scratch 658:servers 584:classes 542:pointer 413:Fortran 402:IBM 704 382:Fortran 331:History 137:execute 8163:Markup 8058:Lists: 7993:Python 7988:Prolog 7966:Pascal 7956:MATLAB 7941:Kotlin 7901:Erlang 7840:Simula 7709:Fourth 7699:Second 6569: 6492: 6411: 6356: 5919: 5883:1 June 5853: 5812:13 May 5782:13 May 5643: 5195: 4913: 4823: 4241: 4211: 4184: 4119: 4035: 3999: 3920: 3900: 3793: 3507:, and 3457:, and 3417:Racket 3393:Scheme 3357:Python 3346:MATLAB 3344:, and 3322:Python 3243:of an 3239:in an 3174:Erlang 3168:, and 3162:MATLAB 3145:, and 3061:Prolog 3024:Scheme 2882:, and 2872:memory 2788:Python 2703:is an 2686:tuples 2661:Arrays 2627:double 2564:floats 2518:, and 2490:. The 2442: 2435: 2428: 2421: 2413: 2303:syntax 1991: 1983: 965:Using 925:symbol 918:number 911:symbol 907:number 825:formal 814:syntax 806:Python 772:Syntax 753:Unreal 749:Google 702:Carbon 644:, and 634:Python 548:Prolog 536:, and 522:Simula 508:, and 494:Pascal 480:After 109:syntax 8276:Media 8178:Query 8136:Types 8033:Swift 8023:Shell 7936:Julia 7906:Forth 7896:COBOL 7857:BASIC 7835:ALGOL 7714:Fifth 7704:Third 7694:First 7632:Level 6976:Logic 6817:tools 6480:2005. 6466:1996. 6391:2002. 6377:1999. 6304:1990. 5754:See: 4782:IEEE. 4754:1-5). 4155:(PDF) 3455:logic 3425:BASIC 3397:Forth 3270:COBOL 3231:in a 3051:model 2985:users 2745:infer 2674:lists 2655:ASCII 2623:float 2447:JSTOR 2433:books 2350:have 2338:like 2328:logic 1104:BEGIN 1064:-> 1034:abs_p 944:12345 909:or a 894:or a 846:(for 838:(for 757:Unity 727:like 718:Julia 712:like 694:Swift 482:ALGOL 453:on a 301:LaTeX 289:troff 287:, or 279:like 188:, or 186:logic 143:or a 131:. An 8344:Data 8008:Rust 8003:Ruby 7978:Perl 7946:Lisp 7926:Java 7872:.NET 6815:and 6688:Form 6684:Size 6567:ISBN 6512:and 6490:ISBN 6434:and 6409:ISSN 6354:ISBN 6150:2024 6129:2018 6076:2013 6045:2013 6018:2013 5968:link 5954:2009 5917:ISBN 5885:2009 5851:PMID 5814:2018 5784:2018 5683:ANSI 5641:ISBN 5517:2024 5193:ISBN 4972:2012 4911:ISBN 4821:ISBN 4410:2024 4239:ISBN 4209:ISBN 4182:ISBN 4117:ISBN 4086:2010 4033:ISBN 3997:ISBN 3918:ISBN 3898:ISBN 3855:2006 3824:2022 3791:ISBN 3731:2012 3689:and 3563:and 3471:.NET 3419:and 3409:Lisp 3395:and 3371:and 3369:Java 3355:are 3310:Java 3037:and 3022:and 2792:Ruby 2790:and 2755:and 2694:heap 2651:byte 2625:and 2584:cast 2562:and 2540:and 2419:news 2387:any 2385:cite 2346:and 2344:Java 1987:XNOR 1969:XNOR 1439:NAND 1040:sqrt 1025:NULL 950:and 932:list 903:atom 896:list 892:atom 852:Lisp 755:and 737:PWCT 735:and 716:and 714:Ring 700:and 686:Rust 680:and 654:HTML 646:Ruby 623:Java 617:and 586:and 506:Java 455:heap 445:and 435:Lisp 356:(or 297:XSLT 285:HTML 84:and 68:The 8013:SQL 7983:PHP 7951:Lua 7886:C++ 7847:APL 7830:Ada 5907:doi 5841:doi 5183:doi 4851:", 4235:339 4178:213 4113:802 3979:W3C 3361:C++ 3342:PHP 3318:C++ 3282:Ada 3218:). 3191:Use 3149:'s 3063:or 3049:or 3035:C++ 2876:CPU 2759:. 2739:In 2398:by 2305:). 2011:XOR 1753:NOT 1651:NOR 1129:AND 1008:): 901:an 886:an 876:::= 872:::= 868:::= 864:::= 860:::= 789:of 747:by 698:Zig 642:PHP 592:Ada 518:BNF 502:C++ 498:Ada 281:XML 86:run 45:on 8359:: 7961:ML 7916:Go 7891:C# 6686:/ 6539:. 6528:. 6516:. 6476:, 6472:: 6458:: 6448:. 6438:: 6422:: 6405:55 6403:. 6399:. 6387:, 6383:: 6373:, 6369:: 6333:, 6327:: 6300:, 6296:: 6292:, 6280:: 6276:, 6272:, 6260:: 6239:; 6170:^ 6066:. 6062:. 5989:. 5985:. 5964:}} 5960:{{ 5925:. 5915:. 5887:. 5849:. 5837:33 5835:. 5831:. 5800:. 5774:. 5770:. 5668:. 5664:. 5631:; 5627:; 5605:. 5561:^ 5508:. 5303:^ 5191:. 4962:. 4946:^ 4883:, 4526:^ 4400:. 4396:. 4371:^ 4318:^ 4277:^ 4237:. 4190:. 4180:. 4146:. 4125:. 4115:. 4107:. 4041:. 4031:. 4029:20 4005:. 3872:. 3845:. 3841:. 3814:. 3810:. 3765:, 3705:^ 3503:, 3477:. 3461:. 3453:, 3449:, 3431:. 3383:A 3373:C# 3367:, 3363:, 3359:, 3348:. 3340:, 3336:, 3332:, 3328:, 3326:C# 3324:, 3320:, 3316:, 3312:, 3276:; 3259:. 3164:, 3151:C# 3044:A 2942:, 2862:. 2757:ML 2676:, 2578:, 2524:A 2514:, 2348:C# 2133:, 2107:, 2047:, 1938:, 1912:, 1886:, 1857:OR 1829:, 1802:, 1779:, 1713:, 1687:, 1620:, 1594:, 1527:, 1501:, 1475:, 1408:, 1382:, 1322:, 1296:, 1233:, 1207:, 1184:, 1158:, 1070:); 1067:im 954:. 948:() 946:, 930:a 923:a 916:a 854:: 731:, 720:. 696:, 692:, 690:Go 688:, 682:F# 678:C# 660:. 640:, 636:, 621:. 590:. 532:, 516:, 510:C# 504:, 500:, 496:, 492:, 477:. 467:ML 283:, 239:. 184:, 123:, 104:. 96:A 92:". 41:, 8245:: 8120:e 8113:t 8106:v 7998:R 7881:C 7788:e 7781:t 7774:v 7617:e 7610:t 7603:v 6624:. 6604:e 6597:t 6590:v 6575:. 6498:. 6415:. 6362:. 6344:. 6152:. 6131:. 6078:. 6047:. 6020:. 5970:) 5956:. 5909:: 5857:. 5843:: 5816:. 5786:. 5649:. 5519:. 5201:. 5185:: 4974:. 4829:. 4412:. 4247:. 4088:. 3906:. 3857:. 3826:. 3733:. 3365:C 3338:R 3314:C 3286:C 2469:) 2463:( 2458:) 2454:( 2444:· 2437:· 2430:· 2423:· 2406:. 2392:. 2284:e 2277:t 2270:v 2147:B 2141:A 2121:B 2115:A 2095:B 2089:A 2061:B 2055:A 2035:B 2022:A 1994:B 1980:A 1952:B 1946:A 1926:B 1920:A 1900:B 1897:+ 1894:A 1874:B 1868:A 1840:A 1812:A 1790:A 1767:A 1730:B 1727:+ 1724:A 1701:B 1695:A 1675:B 1662:A 1634:B 1628:A 1608:B 1602:A 1582:B 1576:A 1544:B 1538:A 1515:B 1509:A 1489:B 1483:A 1463:B 1450:A 1422:B 1416:A 1396:B 1390:A 1370:B 1364:A 1336:B 1330:A 1310:B 1304:A 1284:B 1278:A 1250:B 1241:A 1221:B 1215:A 1195:B 1192:A 1172:B 1166:A 1146:B 1140:A 1081:p 1061:p 1058:+ 1055:4 1049:p 1046:* 1043:( 1037:= 1028:; 1022:= 1019:p 1016:* 1002:p 973:" 913:; 898:; 808:. 632:— 490:C 371:( 74:C 49:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.