1941:
1999:
and the second coil, B, through an inductor, so that the current in coil B is delayed with respect to current in A. At unity power factor, the current in A is in phase with the circuit current, and coil A provides maximum torque, driving the instrument pointer toward the 1.0 mark on the scale. At zero power factor, the current in coil B is in phase with circuit current, and coil B provides torque to drive the pointer towards 0. At intermediate values of power factor, the torques provided by the two coils add and the pointer takes up intermediate positions.
2003:
application. A second stationary field coil, perpendicular to the voltage coils, carries a current proportional to current in one phase of the circuit. The moving system of the instrument consists of two vanes that are magnetized by the current coil. In operation, the moving vanes take up a physical angle equivalent to the electrical angle between the voltage source and the current source. This type of instrument can be made to register for currents in both directions, giving a four-quadrant display of power factor or phase angle.
1933:
849:
1949:
the load. Line current in the circuit would also be 1.4 times the current required at 1.0 power factor, so the losses in the circuit would be doubled (since they are proportional to the square of the current). Alternatively, all components of the system such as generators, conductors, transformers, and switchgear would be increased in size (and cost) to carry the extra current. When the power factor is close to unity, for the same kVA rating of the transformer more load current can be supplied.
3250:
878:
1387:
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63:(RMS) current and voltage. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power may be greater than the real power, so more current flows in the circuit than would be required to transfer real power alone. A power factor magnitude of less than one indicates the voltage and current are not in phase, reducing the average
106:
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capacitors can be locally connected. These capacitors help to generate reactive power to meet the demand of the inductive loads. This will keep that reactive power from having to flow from the utility generator to the load. In the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power, and capacitors are said to supply it, even though reactive power is just energy moving back and forth on each AC cycle.
825:
reactive power with the current waveform lagging the voltage. Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cables generate reactive power with the current phase leading the voltage. Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of the AC cycle, which is stored in the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this energy back to the source during the rest of the cycle.
1073:
626:
957:. Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like a variable capacitor. Unlike with capacitors, the amount of reactive power furnished is proportional to voltage, not the square of voltage; this improves voltage stability on large networks. Synchronous condensers are often used in connection with
1689:
simplification is often a good approximation for stiff voltage sources (not being affected by changes in load downstream in the distribution network). Total harmonic distortion of typical generators from current distortion in the network is on the order of 1–2%, which can have larger scale implications but can be ignored in common practice.
1382:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\mbox{distortion power factor}}&={\frac {I_{1}}{I_{rms}}}\\&={\frac {I_{1}}{\sqrt {I_{1}^{2}+I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }}}\\&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+{\frac {I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }{I_{1}^{2}}}}}}\\&={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1+THD_{i}^{2}}}}\\\end{aligned}}}
1854:
375:
149:, consisting of combinations of resistors, inductors, and capacitors, current flow has a sinusoidal response to the sinusoidal line voltage. A linear load does not change the shape of the input waveform but may change the relative timing (phase) between voltage and current, due to its inductance or capacitance.
387:
2623:
The power factor is the measure of reactive power. It is the ratio of active power to the total of active and reactive power. It is about 0.65 with an ordinary PSU, but PSUs with active PFC have a power factor of 0.97–0.99. hardware reviewers sometimes make no difference between the power factor and
1948:
Power factors below 1.0 require a utility to generate more than the minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts). This increases generation and transmission costs. For example, if the load power factor were as low as 0.7, the apparent power would be 1.4 times the real power used by
1919:
Dynamic power factor correction (DPFC), sometimes referred to as real-time power factor correction, is used for electrical stabilization in cases of rapid load changes (e.g. at large manufacturing sites). DPFC is useful when standard power factor correction would cause over or under correction. DPFC
1892:
is inserted between the bridge rectifier and the main input capacitors. The boost converter attempts to maintain a constant voltage at its output while drawing a current that is always in phase with and at the same frequency as the line voltage. Another switched-mode converter inside the power supply
869:
The reactive elements in power factor correction devices can create voltage fluctuations and harmonic noise when switched on or off. They will supply or sink reactive power regardless of whether there is a corresponding load operating nearby, increasing the system's no-load losses. In the worst case,
1807:
Negative-sequence harmonics (5th, 11th, 17th, etc.) combine 120 degrees out of phase, similarly to the fundamental harmonic but in a reversed sequence. In generators and motors, these currents produce magnetic fields which oppose the rotation of the shaft and sometimes result in damaging mechanical
917:. These contactors are controlled by a regulator that measures power factor in an electrical network. Depending on the load and power factor of the network, the power factor controller will switch the necessary blocks of capacitors in steps to make sure the power factor stays above a selected value.
865:
Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by supplying or absorbing reactive power, adding capacitors or inductors that act to cancel the inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively. In the case of offsetting the inductive effect of motor loads,
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The power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power. As power is transferred along a transmission line, it does not consist purely of real power that can do work once transferred to the load, but rather consists of a combination of real and reactive power, called apparent power.
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Digital instruments exist that directly measure the time lag between voltage and current waveforms. Low-cost instruments of this type measure the peak of the waveforms. More sophisticated versions measure the peak of the fundamental harmonic only, thus giving a more accurate reading for phase angle
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of the electrodynamic type, carrying two perpendicular coils on the moving part of the instrument. The field of the instrument is energized by the circuit current flow. The two moving coils, A and B, are connected in parallel with the circuit load. One coil, A, will be connected through a resistor
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consume both real power and reactive power. The vector sum of real and reactive power is the complex power, and its magnitude is the apparent power. The presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric load has a power factor of less than 1.
828:
For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 1 = 1 kVA). At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred to get the same real power. To get 1 kW of real power at 0.2
824:
If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the power factor will be 1, and the electrical energy flows in a single direction across the network in each cycle. Inductive loads such as induction motors (any type of wound coil) consume
380:
One can relate the various components of AC power by using the power triangle in vector space. Real power extends horizontally in the real axis and reactive power extends in the direction of the imaginary axis. Complex power (and its magnitude, apparent power) represents a combination of both real
70:
In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The larger currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the
2002:
Another electromechanical instrument is the polarized-vane type. In this instrument a stationary field coil produces a rotating magnetic field, just like a polyphase motor. The field coils are connected either directly to polyphase voltage sources or to a phase-shifting reactor if a single-phase
2010:
Power
Quality Analyzers, often referred to as Power Analyzers, make a digital recording of the voltage and current waveform (typically either one phase or three phase) and accurately calculate true power (watts), apparent power (VA) power factor, AC voltage, AC current, DC voltage, DC current,
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values (distortion power factor can also be used to describe individual order harmonics, using the corresponding current in place of total current). This definition with respect to total harmonic distortion assumes that the voltage stays undistorted (sinusoidal, without harmonics). This
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A high power factor is generally desirable in a power delivery system to reduce losses and improve voltage regulation at the load. Compensating elements near an electrical load will reduce the apparent power demand on the supply system. Power factor correction may be applied by an
1952:
Utilities typically charge additional costs to commercial customers who have a power factor below some limit, which is typically 0.9 to 0.95. Engineers are often interested in the power factor of a load as one of the factors that affect the efficiency of power transmission.
2221:. Note 1, section 3.1.1.1, when defining the quantities for power factor, asserts that real power only flows to the load and can never be negative. As of 2013, one of the authors acknowledged that this note was incorrect, and is being revised for the next edition. See
2011:
frequency, IEC61000-3-2/3-12 Harmonic measurement, IEC61000-3-3/3-11 flicker measurement, individual phase voltages in delta applications where there is no neutral line, total harmonic distortion, phase and amplitude of individual voltage or current harmonics, etc.
1986:
The power factor in a single-phase circuit (or balanced three-phase circuit) can be measured with the wattmeter-ammeter-voltmeter method, where the power in watts is divided by the product of measured voltage and current. The power factor of a balanced
1910:
Due to their very wide input voltage range, many power supplies with active PFC can automatically adjust to operate on AC power from about 100 V (Japan) to 240 V (Europe). That feature is particularly welcome in power supplies for laptops.
171:, energy storage in the loads results in a phase difference between the current and voltage waveforms. During each cycle of the AC voltage, extra energy, in addition to any energy consumed in the load, is temporarily stored in the load in
93:, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction of the power factor may be at a central
829:
power factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 0.2 = 5 kVA). This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load and is subject to losses in the production and transmission processes.
621:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S&=P+jQ\\|S|&={\sqrt {P^{2}+Q^{2}}}\\{\text{pf}}&=\cos {\theta }={\frac {P}{|S|}}=\cos {\left(\arctan {\left({\frac {Q}{P}}\right)}\right)}\\Q&=P\,\tan(\arccos({\text{pf}}))\end{aligned}}}
117:) = 0). The blue line shows the instantaneous power entering the load: all of the energy received during the first (or third) quarter cycle is returned to the grid during the second (or fourth) quarter cycle, resulting in an
2624:
the efficiency factor. Although both these terms describe the effectiveness of a power supply, it is a gross mistake to confuse them. There is a very small effect from passive PFC – the power factor grows only from 0.65 to 0.7–0.75.
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utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the network. Individual electrical customers who are charged by their utility for low power factor may install correction equipment to increase their power factor to reduce costs.
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are increasingly used. These systems are able to compensate sudden changes of power factor much more rapidly than contactor-switched capacitor banks and, being solid-state, require less maintenance than synchronous condensers.
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produces the desired output voltage from the DC bus. This approach requires additional semiconductor switches and control electronics but permits cheaper and smaller passive components. It is frequently used in practice.
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A disadvantage of passive PFC is that it requires larger inductors or capacitors than an equivalent power active PFC circuit. Also, in practice, passive PFC is often less effective at improving the power factor.
1803:
in the magnetic core of the transformer. Eddy current losses generally increase as the square of the frequency, lowering the transformer's efficiency, dissipating additional heat, and reducing its service life.
808:
between -1 and 1. When the power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, referred to as the
58:
flowing in the circuit. Real power is the average of the instantaneous product of voltage and current and represents the capacity of the electricity for performing work. Apparent power is the product of
1906:
with passive PFC can achieve power factor of about 0.7–0.75, SMPSs with active PFC, up to 0.99 power factor, while a SMPS without any power factor correction have a power factor of only about 0.55–0.65.
2063:
To distinguish between linear and nonlinear loads, we may say that linear time-invariant loads are characterized so that an application of a sinusoidal voltage results in a sinusoidal flow of current.
1799:. This could overload the neutral wire in some cases and create error in kilowatt-hour metering systems and billing revenue. The presence of current harmonics in a transformer also result in larger
840:
A negative power factor (0 to −1) can result from returning active power to the source, such as in the case of a building fitted with solar panels when surplus power is fed back into the supply.
1078:
392:
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A circuit with a low power factor will use a greater amount of current to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor thus causing increased losses due to
2715:
The disadvantages of passive PFC techniques are that they typically yield a power factor of only 0.60 to 0.70 Dual-stage active PFC technology a power factor typically greater than 0.98
2516:
The interaction between the positive and negative sequence magnetic fields and currents produces torsional oscillations of the motor shaft. These oscillations result in shaft vibrations.
2424:
1017:
In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is
381:
and reactive power, and therefore can be calculated by using the vector sum of these two components. We can conclude that the mathematical relationship between these components is:
2894:
799:
2702:
1420:
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137:) ≈ 0.71). The blue line (instantaneous power) shows that a portion of the energy received by the load is returned to the grid during the part of the cycle labeled
631:
As the angle θ increases with fixed total apparent power, current and voltage are further out of phase with each other. Real power decreases, and reactive power increases.
2412:...and voltage-time relationship deviates from the pure sine function. The distortion at the point of generation is very small (about 1% to 2%), but nonetheless it exists.
741:
1655:
997:. Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency.
1682:
1622:
1048:, variable speed drives and other devices. Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent harmonic currents from entering the supplying system.
71:
costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers with a low power factor.
345:
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Small customers, such as households, are not usually charged for reactive power and so power factor metering equipment for such customers will not be installed.
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Higher-powered products are also likely to use active PFC, since it would be the most cost effective way to bring products into compliance with the EN standard.
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increases the power factor of a load, improving efficiency for the distribution system to which it is attached. Linear loads with a low power factor (such as
1784:
1588:{\displaystyle THD_{i}={\frac {\sqrt {\displaystyle \sum _{h=2}^{\infty }I_{h}^{2}}}{I_{1}}}={\frac {\sqrt {I_{2}^{2}+I_{3}^{2}+I_{4}^{2}+\cdots }}{I_{1}}}}
1968:, PCs with internal power supplies will require the use of active power factor correction to meet the ENERGY STAR 5.0 Program Requirements for Computers.
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Normally, the power factor value of electronic device without power factor correction is approximately 0.5. Passive PFC 70~80% Active PFC 90~99.9%
2977:
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With the rising cost of energy and concerns over the efficient delivery of power, active PFC has become more common in consumer electronics. Current
2865:
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The power factor describes the amount of real power transmitted along a transmission line relative to the total apparent power flowing in the line.
2207:
Trial-Use
Standard Definitions for the Measurement of Electric Power Quantities Under Sinusoidal, Nonsinusoidal, Balanced, or Unbalanced Conditions
821:
to show the sign of the phase angle. Capacitive loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current lags voltage).
2582:
1698:
3101:
1795:. In a wye-configuration of a transformer, triplen harmonics will not create these currents, but they will result in a non-zero current in the
67:
of the two. A negative power factor occurs when the device (normally the load) generates real power, which then flows back towards the source.
2612:
2336:
Almarshoud, A. F.; et al. (2004), "Performance of Grid-Connected
Induction Generator under Naturally Commutated AC Voltage Controller",
1965:
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reactive elements can interact with the system and with each other to create resonant conditions, resulting in system instability and severe
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2435:
2030:
Another common mnemonic is CIVIL – in a capacitor (C) the current (I) leads voltage (V), voltage (V) leads current (I) in an inductor (L).
2286:
The fact that the solid arc has, at low frequencies, a negative power factor, indicates that the arc is supplying power to the alternator…
2885:
2551:
Wolfle, W.H.; Hurley, W.G. (2003), "Quasi-active power factor correction with a variable inductive filter: theory, design and practice",
350:
The VA and var are non-SI units dimensionally similar to the watt but are used in engineering practice instead of the watt to state what
647:
when the current waveform is behind the voltage waveform. A lagging power factor signifies that the load is inductive, as the load will
1032:
currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency) AC current. This is of importance in practical power systems that contain
968:
For power factor correction of high-voltage power systems or large, fluctuating industrial loads, power electronic devices such as the
2147:
365:
The power factor can also be computed as the cosine of the angle θ by which the current waveform lags or leads the voltage waveform,.
2710:
2007:
on distorted waveforms. Calculating power factor from voltage and current phases is only accurate if both waveforms are sinusoidal.
2803:. 9th International Conference Electrical Power Quality and Utilisation: October 9–11, 2007, Barcelona, Spain. IEEE. pp. 1–5.
985:
Examples of non-linear loads on a power system are rectifiers (such as used in a power supply), and arc discharge devices such as
3024:
2759:
Sugawara, I.; Suzuki, Y.; Takeuchi, A.; Teshima, T. (19–23 Oct 1997), "Experimental studies on active and passive PFC circuits",
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The result when multiplied with the displacement power factor is the overall, true power factor or just power factor (PF):
1787:, or zero-sequence, harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.) have the property of being in-phase when compared line-to-line. In a
358:
explicitly disallows using units for this purpose or as the only source of information about a physical quantity as used.
3671:
1008:
Sinusoidal voltage and non-sinusoidal current give a distortion power factor of 0.75 for this computer power supply load.
1001:
is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the average power transferred to the load.
3779:
3094:
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156:), changing polarity at the same instant in each cycle. All the power entering the load is consumed (or dissipated).
1833:(50 or 60 Hz). The filter consists of capacitors or inductors and makes a non-linear device look more like a
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3562:
3487:
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to change the waveform of current drawn by a load to improve the power factor. Some types of the active PFC are
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power factor, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power factors are usually stated as
3853:
1991:
is the same as that of any phase. The power factor of an unbalanced polyphase circuit is not uniquely defined.
129:
Instantaneous and average power calculated from AC voltage and current for a load with a lagging power factor (
20:
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2027:– the voltage E, leads the current I, in an inductor L. The current I leads the voltage E in a capacitor C.
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2941:, Schenectady, New York: General Electric, Meter and Instrument Department, 1949, pp. 66–68, GET-1087A
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1961:
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198:) have a power factor of almost 1, but circuits containing inductive or capacitive loads (electric motors,
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Accordingly, the generator will consume active power from the grid, which leads to negative power factor.
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Zhang, S. (July 2006), "Analysis of some measurement issues in bushing power factor tests in the field",
1940:
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858:
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Wölfle, W. H.; Hurley, W. G., "Quasi-active Power Factor
Correction: The Role of Variable Inductance",
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is the distortion component associated with the harmonic voltages and currents present in the system.
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
720:
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1791:, these harmonics can result in circulating currents in the delta windings and result in greater
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by the inductive load. A leading power factor signifies that the load is capacitive, as the load
160:
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fluctuations. As such, reactive elements cannot simply be applied without engineering analysis.
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3265:
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2324:…(the measurement) gives both negative power factor and negative resistive current (power loss)
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882:
27:
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Power flow calculated from AC voltage and current entering a load having a zero power factor (
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2953:"The Fundamentals of FFT-Based Signal Analysis and Measurement in LabVIEW and LabWindows/CVI"
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drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation. It is referred to as a
94:
64:
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1780:
rely on the magnitude of certain order harmonics rather than the total harmonic distortion.
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Passive PFC the power factor is low at 60–80%. Active PFC ... a power factor of up to 95%
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8:
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guidelines for computers call for a power factor of ≥ 0.9 at 100% of rated output in the
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The synchronous condenser's installation and operation are identical to those of large
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Duddell, W. (1901), "On the resistance and electromotive forces of the electric arc",
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Chavez, C.; Houdek, J. A. "Dynamic
Harmonic Mitigation and power factor correction".
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1924:, to quickly connect and disconnect capacitors or inductors to improve power factor.
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in power lines, and requiring the use of higher-rated conductors and transformers.
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60:
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97:, spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming equipment.
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The Active PFC Market is
Expected to Grow at an Annually Rate of 12.3% Till 2011
2222:
1932:
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In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in step (or
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1761:{\displaystyle {\mbox{PF}}={\frac {\cos {\varphi }}{\sqrt {1+THD_{i}^{2}}}}}
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requires power factor correction be incorporated into consumer products.
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Bolioli, T.; Duggirala, M.; Haines, E.; Kolappan, R.; Wong, H. (2009),
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between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to the
44:
1885:. Active power factor correction can be single-stage or multi-stage.
3293:
3288:
3174:
3134:
1921:
1900:
configuration may be used to substantially improve the power factor.
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In practice, the local effects of distortion current on devices in a
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designed to work properly with non-sinusoidal currents must be used.
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2939:
Manual of
Electric Instruments Construction and Operating Principles
1811:
1004:
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Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a
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if the current waveform is advanced in phase concerning voltage, or
3407:
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INTELEC 97, 19th
International Telecommunications Energy Conference
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833:
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125:
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35:
2833:"Power Factor – Importance, Calculation and Correction techniques"
2530:"Power Supply Design Principles: Techniques and Solutions, Part 3"
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3318:
2918:(11 ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 3‐29 paragraph 80,
2735:(application note), Fairchild Semiconductor, 2004, archived from
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1024:
Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a
990:
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947:
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is positive as reactive power travels through the circuit and is
105:
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is negative as reactive power is being supplied to the circuit.
317:(VA). The magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power (
179:
then returned to the power grid a fraction of the period later.
3323:
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2392:
The DPF is the cosine of the angle between these two quantities
2019:
Anglophone power engineering students are advised to remember:
1834:
2883:
182:
Electrical circuits containing predominantly resistive loads (
2758:
950:
or to maintain the system power factor at a specified level.
39:
2425:"Single-phase load harmonics vs. three-phase load harmonics"
2132:
961:
transmission projects or in large industrial plants such as
3278:
2143:
2107:: International Electrotechnical Commission. Archived from
634:
252:
897:(single-phase or three-phase units, delta-connection); 6.
843:
2467:
2440:
2139:
1994:
A direct reading power factor meter can be made with a
1964:. According to a white paper authored by Intel and the
355:
2377:
Power Quality in Power Systems and Electrical Machines
1703:
1400:
1082:
1944:
Capacitor bank on a utility pole in San Jose, CA, USA
1927:
1771:
1701:
1663:
1630:
1603:
1458:
1435:
1397:
1076:
752:
723:
685:
679:
reactive power, and therefore the reactive component
657:
390:
323:
299:
267:
237:
2555:, vol. 18, no. 1, IEEE, pp. 248–255,
206:, and others) can have a power factor well below 1.
2374:Ewald Fuchs; Mohammad A. S. Masoum (14 July 2015).
1857:Specifications taken from the packaging of a 610 W
946:onto the network as required to support a system's
1760:
1676:
1649:
1616:
1587:
1414:
1381:
793:
735:
691:
663:
620:
339:
305:
273:
243:
1812:Power factor correction (PFC) in non-linear loads
942:. It operates at a leading power factor and puts
251:) (sometimes called average power), expressed in
3845:
2970:
2049:Power System Harmonics and Passive Filter Design
3014:"Fluke 1760 Three-Phase Power Quality Recorder"
2367:
2234:
1888:In the case of a switched-mode power supply, a
1051:To measure the real power or reactive power, a
19:For the firearms cartridge ranking system, see
2945:
3095:
3055:Harmonics and how they relate to power factor
2641:, Find articles, Mar 16, 2006, archived from
2223:http://powerstandards.com/Shymanski/draft.pdf
1936:75 MVAr capacitor bank in a 150 kV substation
1624:is the fundamental component of the current,
216:
81:) can be corrected with a passive network of
2550:
2240:
1028:to some other form. Non-linear loads create
1012:
2179:Authoritative Dictionary of Standards Terms
3102:
3088:
3006:
2978:"WT3000E Series Precision Power Analyzers"
2916:Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers
2434:, Pacific Gas and Electric, archived from
2335:
1684:is the current on the h harmonic; all are
1058:
702:
373:
2910:
2279:
2074:
1981:
584:
3109:
2798:
2683:, Silverstone Technology, archived from
2580:
2507:
2490:
2403:
1939:
1931:
1852:
1003:
876:
847:
635:Lagging, leading and unity power factors
347:), also expressed in volt-amperes (VA).
124:
104:
2873:(Version 5.0 ed.), US: Energy Star
2527:
2265:
2138:. § 5.3.2 (p. 132, 40 in the
2040:
1920:uses semiconductor switches, typically
844:Power factor correction of linear loads
651:reactive power. The reactive component
16:Ratio of active power to apparent power
3846:
2700:
2101:"SI Units – Electricity and Magnetism"
907:automatic power factor correction unit
852:Power factor correction of linear load
3083:
2709:, Electronic products, archived from
2511:Effects of Harmonics on Power Systems
2494:Effects of Harmonics on Power Systems
2491:Sankaran, C. (1999), "Transformers",
2407:Effects of Harmonics on Power Systems
2338:Electric Power Components and Systems
2297:
1837:load. An example of passive PFC is a
938:. It is started and connected to the
121:power flow (light blue line) of zero.
2729:Power Factor Correction (PFC) Basics
2605:
1966:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
901:(for controls and ventilation fans)
2380:. Elsevier Science. pp. 432–.
2300:IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery
2046:
1040:, some forms of electric lighting,
980:
885:; 2. Network connection points; 3.
794:{\displaystyle |P|=|S|\cos \theta }
13:
3780:Renewable energy commercialization
2867:Program Requirements for Computers
1928:Importance in distribution systems
1772:Distortion in three-phase networks
1475:
100:
14:
3880:
3046:
2887:Version 5.0 System Implementation
368:
3828:
3827:
3248:
2957:National Instruments Corporation
2848:Power Factor Correction Handbook
2703:"PFC options for power supplies"
2153:from the original on 2022-10-09.
2075:Boylestad, Robert (2002-03-04).
2051:. Wiley, IEEE Press. p. 2.
1821:The simplest way to control the
1778:three-phase distribution network
1415:{\displaystyle {\mbox{THD}}_{i}}
163:loads are present, such as with
3030:from the original on 2022-10-09
2931:
2904:
2900:from the original on 2022-10-09
2877:
2858:
2839:
2825:
2792:
2752:
2720:
2694:
2671:
2652:
2629:
2574:
2544:
2521:
2508:Sankaran, C. (1999), "Motors",
2501:
2484:
2455:
2417:
2397:
2329:
928:can supply reactive power. The
2614:ATX Power Supply Units Roundup
2291:
2259:
2199:
2171:
2123:
2093:
2079:(10th ed.). p. 857.
2068:
1914:
1816:
920:In place of a set of switched
913:that are switched by means of
778:
770:
762:
754:
611:
608:
600:
591:
513:
505:
430:
422:
333:
325:
21:Power factor (shooting sports)
1:
3775:Renewable Energy Certificates
3735:Cost of electricity by source
3657:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
3533:High-voltage shore connection
2077:Introductory Circuit Analysis
2033:
1848:
639:Power factor is described as
3790:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
3588:Transmission system operator
3548:Mains electricity by country
3125:Automatic generation control
2893:(white paper), Energy Star,
2241:Suresh Kumar, K. S. (2013).
2014:
1896:For a three-phase SMPS, the
1829:that passes current only at
1046:switched-mode power supplies
883:Reactive power control relay
736:{\displaystyle \cos \theta }
89:. Non-linear loads, such as
7:
3815:List of electricity sectors
3810:Electric energy consumption
3528:High-voltage direct current
3503:Electric power transmission
3493:Electric power distribution
3170:Energy return on investment
2617:, xBit labs, archived from
2591:: Nuigalway, archived from
959:high-voltage direct-current
859:electric power transmission
832:Electrical loads consuming
10:
3885:
3730:Carbon offsets and credits
3448:Three-phase electric power
2914:; Beaty, H. Wayne (1978),
2769:10.1109/INTLEC.1997.646051
2536:, Nuvation, archived from
2528:Schramm, Ben (Fall 2006),
1657:is the total current, and
229:Real power or active power
217:Definition and calculation
18:
3823:
3798:
3785:Renewable Energy Payments
3708:
3645:
3607:
3461:
3398:
3309:
3274:Fossil fuel power station
3264:
3257:
3246:
3117:
3061:, U Texas, archived from
2809:10.1109/EPQU.2007.4424144
2350:10.1080/15325000490461064
2312:10.1109/tpwrd.2006.874616
2245:. Pearson. p. 8.10.
2243:Electric Circuit Analysis
1865:Active PFC is the use of
1861:showing active PFC rating
1424:total harmonic distortion
1019:displacement power factor
1013:Non-sinusoidal components
834:alternating current power
204:fluorescent lamp ballasts
38:system is defined as the
3568:Single-wire earth return
3508:Electrical busbar system
3165:Energy demand management
2854:, ON Semiconductor, 2007
2701:Brooks, Tom (Mar 2004),
2569:10.1109/TPEL.2002.807135
2163:: CS1 maint: location (
354:is being expressed. The
289:Together, they form the
281:), usually expressed in
3699:Residual-current device
3689:Power system protection
3679:Generator interlock kit
2661:Power Factor Correction
2480:: EnergyLogix Solutions
1650:{\displaystyle I_{rms}}
1084:distortion power factor
1065:distortion power factor
1059:Distortion power factor
999:Distortion power factor
75:Power-factor correction
3864:Electrical engineering
3483:Distributed generation
3155:Electric power quality
2680:Why we need PFC in PSU
2645:on September 1, 2009,
2474:Harmonics and IEEE 519
2432:Power System Harmonics
2281:10.1098/rsta.1904.0022
1982:Measurement techniques
1945:
1937:
1862:
1762:
1678:
1651:
1618:
1589:
1479:
1426:of the load current.
1416:
1383:
1009:
970:static VAR compensator
902:
853:
795:
737:
693:
665:
622:
341:
307:
275:
245:
202:valves, transformers,
142:
133: = 45°, cos(
122:
113: = 90°, cos(
28:electrical engineering
3854:Electrical parameters
3755:Fossil fuel phase-out
3523:Electricity retailing
3518:Electrical substation
3498:Electric power system
2404:Sankaran, C. (1999),
1943:
1935:
1883:synchronous condenser
1856:
1789:delta-wye transformer
1763:
1679:
1677:{\displaystyle I_{h}}
1652:
1619:
1617:{\displaystyle I_{1}}
1590:
1459:
1417:
1384:
1044:, welding equipment,
1042:electric arc furnaces
1007:
935:synchronous condenser
889:; 4. Inrush-limiting
880:
851:
796:
738:
694:
666:
623:
342:
308:
283:reactive volt-amperes
276:
246:
128:
108:
3111:Electricity delivery
2985:Yokogawa Corporation
1825:current is to use a
1699:
1661:
1628:
1601:
1433:
1395:
1074:
806:dimensionless number
750:
721:
683:
655:
388:
321:
297:
265:
235:
224:has two components:
3720:Availability factor
3672:Sulfur hexafluoride
3553:Overhead power line
3453:Virtual power plant
3428:Induction generator
3381:Sustainable biofuel
3190:Home energy storage
3180:Grid energy storage
3145:Droop speed control
2835:. 23 November 2018.
2763:, pp. 571–78,
2561:2003ITPE...18..248W
2274:(359–371): 512–15,
2047:Das, J. C. (2015).
1839:valley-fill circuit
1754:
1565:
1547:
1529:
1494:
1371:
1323:
1301:
1283:
1265:
1216:
1198:
1180:
1162:
340:{\displaystyle |S|}
3869:Engineering ratios
3594:Transmission tower
3205:Nameplate capacity
2994:on 7 November 2017
2463:"Harmonic Effects"
2228:2016-03-04 at the
1946:
1938:
1863:
1758:
1740:
1707:
1674:
1647:
1614:
1585:
1551:
1533:
1515:
1495:
1480:
1412:
1404:
1379:
1377:
1357:
1309:
1287:
1269:
1251:
1202:
1184:
1166:
1148:
1086:
1010:
940:electrical network
903:
854:
791:
733:
689:
661:
618:
616:
337:
303:
271:
241:
184:incandescent lamps
143:
123:
3841:
3840:
3745:Environmental tax
3625:Cascading failure
3394:
3393:
3230:Utility frequency
3021:Fluke Corporation
2925:978-0-07-020974-9
2818:978-84-690-9441-9
2778:978-0-7803-3996-5
2584:Power electronics
2387:978-0-12-800988-8
2252:978-8-13-179155-4
2216:978-0-7381-1963-2
2192:978-0-7381-2601-2
2086:978-0-13-097417-4
2058:978-1-118-86162-2
1996:moving coil meter
1989:polyphase circuit
1962:PC's power supply
1867:power electronics
1793:resistive heating
1783:For example, the
1756:
1755:
1706:
1583:
1572:
1507:
1496:
1403:
1373:
1372:
1327:
1326:
1324:
1224:
1223:
1123:
1085:
987:fluorescent lamps
926:synchronous motor
909:consists of some
692:{\displaystyle Q}
664:{\displaystyle Q}
606:
554:
518:
475:
466:
306:{\displaystyle S}
274:{\displaystyle Q}
244:{\displaystyle P}
211:resistive heating
192:electric toasters
3876:
3831:
3830:
3740:Energy subsidies
3694:Protective relay
3635:Rolling blackout
3262:
3261:
3252:
3220:Power-flow study
3160:Electrical fault
3104:
3097:
3090:
3081:
3080:
3075:
3074:
3073:
3067:
3060:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3029:
3018:
3010:
3004:
3003:
3001:
2999:
2993:
2987:. Archived from
2982:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2899:
2892:
2881:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2748:
2747:
2741:
2734:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2656:
2650:
2649:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2600:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2514:, Electro-Test,
2505:
2499:
2498:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2471:
2459:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2444:
2429:
2421:
2415:
2414:
2410:, Electro-Test,
2401:
2395:
2394:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2238:
2232:
2220:
2219:, Std. 1459–2000
2203:
2197:
2196:
2181:(7th ed.),
2175:
2169:
2168:
2162:
2154:
2152:
2137:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2044:
1898:Vienna rectifier
1767:
1765:
1764:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1727:
1726:
1725:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1686:root mean square
1683:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1673:
1672:
1656:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1646:
1645:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1615:
1613:
1612:
1594:
1592:
1591:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1581:
1564:
1559:
1546:
1541:
1528:
1523:
1514:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1493:
1488:
1478:
1473:
1457:
1456:
1451:
1450:
1421:
1419:
1418:
1413:
1411:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1317:
1308:
1300:
1295:
1282:
1277:
1264:
1259:
1249:
1241:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1215:
1210:
1197:
1192:
1179:
1174:
1161:
1156:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1136:
1128:
1124:
1122:
1121:
1106:
1105:
1096:
1087:
1083:
981:Non-linear loads
800:
798:
797:
792:
781:
773:
765:
757:
742:
740:
739:
734:
706:
698:
696:
695:
690:
670:
668:
667:
662:
627:
625:
624:
619:
617:
607:
604:
566:
565:
561:
560:
559:
555:
547:
519:
517:
516:
508:
499:
494:
476:
473:
467:
465:
464:
452:
451:
442:
433:
425:
377:
346:
344:
343:
338:
336:
328:
312:
310:
309:
304:
280:
278:
277:
272:
250:
248:
247:
242:
188:heating elements
186:, devices using
140:
136:
132:
116:
112:
79:induction motors
61:root mean square
48:absorbed by the
3884:
3883:
3879:
3878:
3877:
3875:
3874:
3873:
3844:
3843:
3842:
3837:
3819:
3803:
3801:
3794:
3725:Capacity factor
3713:
3711:
3704:
3684:Numerical relay
3662:Circuit breaker
3650:
3648:
3641:
3603:
3543:Load management
3513:Electrical grid
3478:Demand response
3471:
3466:
3457:
3438:Microgeneration
3390:
3305:
3253:
3244:
3240:Vehicle-to-grid
3113:
3108:
3071:
3069:
3065:
3058:
3052:
3049:
3044:
3043:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3016:
3012:
3011:
3007:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2980:
2976:
2975:
2971:
2961:
2959:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2937:
2936:
2932:
2926:
2912:Fink, Donald G.
2909:
2905:
2897:
2890:
2882:
2878:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2851:
2845:
2844:
2840:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2819:
2797:
2793:
2779:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2743:
2739:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2721:
2713:on 2008-12-02,
2699:
2695:
2687:on 2008-12-22,
2677:
2676:
2672:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2635:
2634:
2630:
2621:on 2008-11-20,
2611:
2610:
2606:
2598:
2596:
2579:
2575:
2549:
2545:
2526:
2522:
2506:
2502:
2489:
2485:
2465:
2461:
2460:
2456:
2448:
2446:
2438:
2427:
2423:
2422:
2418:
2402:
2398:
2388:
2372:
2368:
2334:
2330:
2296:
2292:
2264:
2260:
2253:
2239:
2235:
2230:Wayback Machine
2217:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2193:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2114:
2112:
2099:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2073:
2069:
2059:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2021:ELI the ICE man
2017:
1984:
1930:
1917:
1890:boost converter
1859:PC power supply
1851:
1819:
1814:
1774:
1749:
1744:
1721:
1714:
1712:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1668:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1658:
1635:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1608:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1577:
1573:
1560:
1555:
1542:
1537:
1524:
1519:
1512:
1501:
1497:
1489:
1484:
1474:
1463:
1455:
1446:
1442:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1406:
1399:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1376:
1375:
1366:
1361:
1339:
1330:
1329:
1318:
1313:
1296:
1291:
1278:
1273:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1248:
1236:
1227:
1226:
1211:
1206:
1193:
1188:
1175:
1170:
1157:
1152:
1141:
1137:
1135:
1126:
1125:
1111:
1107:
1101:
1097:
1095:
1088:
1081:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1061:
1015:
983:
955:electric motors
887:Slow-blow fuses
846:
777:
769:
761:
753:
751:
748:
747:
722:
719:
718:
684:
681:
680:
656:
653:
652:
637:
615:
614:
603:
574:
568:
567:
546:
542:
541:
534:
530:
529:
512:
504:
503:
498:
490:
477:
472:
469:
468:
460:
456:
447:
443:
441:
434:
429:
421:
418:
417:
398:
391:
389:
386:
385:
371:
332:
324:
322:
319:
318:
313:) expressed as
298:
295:
294:
266:
263:
262:
236:
233:
232:
219:
177:magnetic fields
138:
134:
130:
114:
110:
103:
101:Linear circuits
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3882:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3835:
3824:
3821:
3820:
3818:
3817:
3812:
3806:
3804:
3800:Statistics and
3799:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3750:Feed-in tariff
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3716:
3714:
3709:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3702:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3675:
3674:
3669:
3659:
3653:
3651:
3646:
3643:
3642:
3640:
3639:
3638:
3637:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3611:
3609:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3538:Interconnector
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3488:Dynamic demand
3485:
3480:
3474:
3472:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3418:Combined cycle
3415:
3410:
3404:
3402:
3396:
3395:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3315:
3313:
3307:
3306:
3304:
3303:
3298:
3297:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3270:
3268:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3247:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3195:Load-following
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3150:Electric power
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3114:
3107:
3106:
3099:
3092:
3084:
3078:
3077:
3048:
3047:External links
3045:
3042:
3041:
3005:
2969:
2944:
2930:
2924:
2903:
2876:
2857:
2838:
2824:
2817:
2791:
2777:
2751:
2719:
2693:
2670:
2651:
2628:
2604:
2573:
2543:
2520:
2500:
2497:, Electro-Test
2483:
2454:
2416:
2396:
2386:
2366:
2344:(7): 691–700,
2328:
2306:(3): 1350–56,
2290:
2258:
2251:
2233:
2215:
2209:, IEEE, 2000,
2198:
2191:
2170:
2122:
2092:
2085:
2067:
2057:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2016:
2013:
1983:
1980:
1929:
1926:
1916:
1913:
1850:
1847:
1831:line frequency
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1724:
1720:
1717:
1711:
1671:
1667:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1634:
1611:
1607:
1596:
1595:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1518:
1511:
1504:
1500:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1477:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1462:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1438:
1409:
1390:
1389:
1369:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1307:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1222:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1140:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1104:
1100:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1080:
1079:
1060:
1057:
1036:loads such as
1014:
1011:
982:
979:
930:reactive power
924:, an unloaded
845:
842:
802:
801:
790:
787:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
732:
729:
726:
717:of the angle,
688:
660:
636:
633:
629:
628:
613:
610:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
583:
580:
577:
575:
573:
570:
569:
564:
558:
553:
550:
545:
540:
537:
533:
528:
525:
522:
515:
511:
507:
502:
497:
493:
489:
486:
483:
480:
478:
471:
470:
463:
459:
455:
450:
446:
440:
437:
435:
432:
428:
424:
420:
419:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
399:
397:
394:
393:
370:
369:Power triangle
367:
335:
331:
327:
302:
287:
286:
270:
259:Reactive power
256:
240:
218:
215:
147:linear circuit
102:
99:
55:apparent power
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3881:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3834:
3826:
3825:
3822:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3797:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3770:Pigouvian tax
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3717:
3715:
3707:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3667:Earth-leakage
3665:
3664:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3654:
3652:
3644:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3608:Failure modes
3606:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3558:Power station
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3443:Rankine cycle
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3423:Cooling tower
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3316:
3314:
3312:
3308:
3302:
3299:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3266:Non-renewable
3263:
3260:
3256:
3251:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3185:Grid strength
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3140:Demand factor
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3105:
3100:
3098:
3093:
3091:
3086:
3085:
3082:
3068:on 2011-09-27
3064:
3057:
3056:
3051:
3050:
3026:
3022:
3015:
3009:
2990:
2986:
2979:
2973:
2958:
2954:
2948:
2940:
2934:
2927:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2907:
2896:
2889:
2888:
2880:
2869:
2868:
2861:
2850:
2849:
2842:
2834:
2828:
2820:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2795:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2755:
2742:on 2014-06-11
2738:
2731:
2730:
2723:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2697:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2681:
2674:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2655:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2639:
2632:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2615:
2608:
2595:on 2020-08-06
2594:
2590:
2586:
2585:
2577:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2547:
2540:on 2007-03-09
2539:
2535:
2531:
2524:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2504:
2496:
2495:
2487:
2479:
2475:
2469:
2464:
2458:
2445:on 2015-09-24
2442:
2437:
2433:
2426:
2420:
2413:
2409:
2408:
2400:
2393:
2389:
2383:
2379:
2378:
2370:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2332:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2262:
2254:
2248:
2244:
2237:
2231:
2227:
2224:
2218:
2212:
2208:
2202:
2194:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2166:
2160:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2134:
2133:
2126:
2111:on 2007-12-11
2110:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2088:
2082:
2078:
2071:
2064:
2060:
2054:
2050:
2043:
2039:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1992:
1990:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1942:
1934:
1925:
1923:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1901:
1899:
1894:
1891:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1860:
1855:
1846:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1809:
1805:
1802:
1801:eddy currents
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1779:
1750:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1722:
1718:
1715:
1709:
1695:
1694:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1669:
1665:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1632:
1609:
1605:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1509:
1502:
1498:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1436:
1429:
1428:
1427:
1425:
1407:
1367:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1334:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1305:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1231:
1220:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1130:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1098:
1092:
1090:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1056:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1022:
1020:
1006:
1002:
1000:
996:
993:machines, or
992:
988:
978:
975:
971:
966:
964:
960:
956:
951:
949:
945:
941:
937:
936:
931:
927:
923:
918:
916:
912:
908:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
879:
875:
873:
867:
863:
860:
850:
841:
838:
835:
830:
826:
822:
820:
816:
812:
807:
788:
785:
782:
774:
766:
758:
746:
745:
744:
730:
727:
724:
716:
712:
707:
705:
700:
686:
678:
674:
658:
650:
646:
642:
632:
597:
594:
588:
585:
581:
578:
576:
571:
562:
556:
551:
548:
543:
538:
535:
531:
526:
523:
520:
509:
500:
495:
491:
487:
484:
481:
479:
461:
457:
453:
448:
444:
438:
436:
426:
414:
411:
408:
405:
402:
400:
395:
384:
383:
382:
378:
376:
366:
363:
359:
357:
353:
348:
329:
316:
300:
292:
291:complex power
284:
268:
260:
257:
254:
238:
230:
227:
226:
225:
223:
214:
212:
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
180:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
157:
155:
150:
148:
127:
120:
107:
98:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
66:
62:
57:
56:
51:
47:
46:
41:
37:
33:
29:
22:
3765:Net metering
3712:and policies
3630:Power outage
3599:Utility pole
3563:Pumped hydro
3469:distribution
3464:Transmission
3413:Cogeneration
3215:Power factor
3214:
3070:, retrieved
3063:the original
3054:
3032:. Retrieved
3020:
3008:
2996:. Retrieved
2989:the original
2984:
2972:
2960:. Retrieved
2956:
2947:
2938:
2933:
2915:
2906:
2886:
2879:
2866:
2860:
2847:
2841:
2827:
2800:
2794:
2760:
2754:
2744:, retrieved
2737:the original
2728:
2722:
2714:
2711:the original
2706:
2696:
2688:
2685:the original
2679:
2673:
2665:
2660:
2654:
2646:
2643:the original
2637:
2631:
2622:
2619:the original
2613:
2607:
2597:, retrieved
2593:the original
2583:
2576:
2552:
2546:
2538:the original
2533:
2523:
2515:
2510:
2503:
2493:
2486:
2473:
2457:
2447:, retrieved
2436:the original
2431:
2419:
2411:
2406:
2399:
2391:
2376:
2369:
2361:
2341:
2337:
2331:
2323:
2303:
2299:
2293:
2285:
2271:
2267:
2261:
2242:
2236:
2206:
2201:
2178:
2173:
2131:
2125:
2113:. Retrieved
2109:the original
2095:
2076:
2070:
2062:
2048:
2042:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2018:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1993:
1985:
1977:
1973:EN 61000-3-2
1970:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1918:
1909:
1902:
1895:
1887:
1864:
1843:
1820:
1808:vibrations.
1806:
1797:neutral wire
1782:
1775:
1691:
1597:
1391:
1064:
1062:
1050:
1023:
1018:
1016:
998:
995:arc furnaces
984:
967:
952:
933:
919:
906:
904:
868:
864:
855:
839:
831:
827:
823:
818:
814:
810:
803:
709:If θ is the
708:
701:
676:
672:
648:
644:
640:
638:
630:
379:
372:
364:
360:
349:
315:volt-amperes
288:
220:
208:
181:
158:
151:
144:
118:
74:
73:
69:
53:
43:
32:power factor
31:
25:
3760:Load factor
3615:Black start
3583:Transformer
3284:Natural gas
3235:Variability
3210:Peak demand
3200:Merit order
3130:Backfeeding
2664:, TECHarp,
2587:(project),
1971:In Europe,
1958:Energy Star
1915:Dynamic PFC
1817:Passive PFC
989:, electric
963:steel mills
899:Transformer
872:overvoltage
711:phase angle
3848:Categories
3802:production
3647:Protective
3578:Super grid
3573:Smart grid
3400:Generation
3334:Geothermal
3225:Repowering
3072:2010-09-20
3034:6 November
2998:6 November
2962:6 November
2746:2009-11-29
2599:2008-11-05
2534:Newsletter
2449:2013-11-26
2195:, Std. 100
2034:References
2025:ELI on ICE
1922:thyristors
1879:buck-boost
1849:Active PFC
1038:rectifiers
1034:non-linear
922:capacitors
915:contactors
911:capacitors
895:Capacitors
891:contactors
165:capacitors
95:substation
91:rectifiers
83:capacitors
45:real power
3710:Economics
3433:Micro CHP
3311:Renewable
3294:Petroleum
3289:Oil shale
3175:Grid code
3135:Base load
2787:109885369
2358:110279940
2159:cite book
2015:Mnemonics
1723:φ
1719:
1570:⋯
1476:∞
1461:∑
1306:⋯
1221:⋯
1053:wattmeter
1026:sine wave
789:θ
786:
731:θ
728:
598:
589:
539:
527:
492:θ
488:
169:inductors
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673:consumed
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3319:Biofuel
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