Calculator - Knowledge

2661: 2616: 2831: 2644: 1751: 2674: 3453:. Pascal invented his machine just four hundred years ago, as a youth of nineteen. He was spurred to it by sharing the burden of arithmetical labor involved in his father's official work as supervisor of taxes at Rouen. He conceived the idea of doing the work mechanically, and developed a design appropriate for this purpose; showing herein the same combination of pure science and mechanical genius that characterized his whole life. But it was one thing to conceive and design the machine, and another to get it made and put into use. Here were needed those practical gifts that he displayed later in his inventions.... 1380: 44: 2529: 1091: 1416: 2197: 1332: 2901: 2257: 2225: 2541: 2241: 2213: 202: 863: 2843: 2344: 1625: 5673: 2718: 2946: 1408:, invented in 1820 as a four-operation mechanical calculator, was released to production in 1851 as an adding machine and became the first commercially successful unit; forty years later, by 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold plus a few hundreds more from two arithmometer clone makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883) and Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100 2438: 2817:. However, CI's more successful calculators involved a line of construction calculators, which evolved and expanded in the 1990s to present. According to Mark Bollman, a mathematics and calculator historian and associate professor of mathematics at Albion College, the "Construction Master is the first in a long and profitable line of CI construction calculators" which carried them through the 1980s, 1990s, and to the present. 2615: 2660: 1506: 2643: 1781:(late 1965) which were solid-state, desktop, printing, floating point, algebraic entry, programmable, stored-program electronic calculators. Both could be programmed by the end user and print out their results. The Programma 101 saw much wider distribution and had the added feature of offline storage of programs via magnetic cards. 1597:(RPN) to the calculator market for a price of $ 2200, which was about three times the cost of an electromechanical calculator of the time. Like Bell Punch, Friden was a manufacturer of mechanical calculators that had decided that the future lay in electronics. In 1964 more all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced: 2525:(COS) technology. An extension of one glass plate needed for the liquid crystal display was used as a substrate to mount the needed chips based on a new hybrid technology. The COS technology may have been too costly since it was only used in a few models before Sharp reverted to conventional circuit boards. 2058:, launched in August 1973. It retailed for £29.95 ($ 41.03), or £5 ($ 6.85) less in kit form, and later models included some scientific functions. The Sinclair calculators were successful because they were far cheaper than the competition; however, their design led to slow and less accurate computations of 3455:

In a sense, Pascal's invention was premature, in that the mechanical arts in his time were not sufficiently advanced to enable his machine to be made at an economic price, with the accuracy and strength needed for reasonably long use. This difficulty was not overcome until well on into the nineteenth

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At the start of the 1970s, hand-held electronic calculators were very costly, at two or three weeks' wages, and so were a luxury item. The high price was due to their construction requiring many mechanical and electronic components which were costly to produce, and production runs that were too small

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rather than binary. BCD is common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each

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By 1976, the cost of the cheapest four-function pocket calculator had dropped to a few dollars, about 1/20 of the cost five years before. The results of this were that the pocket calculator was affordable, and that it was now difficult for the manufacturers to make a profit from calculators, leading

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Inside a Casio scientific calculator from the mid-1990s, showing the processor chip (small square; top-middle; left), keypad contacts, right (with matching contacts on the left), the back of the LCD (top; marked 4L102E), battery compartment, and other components. The solar cell assembly is under the

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tubes for its display. Two models were displayed, the Mk VII for continental Europe and the Mk VIII for Britain and the rest of the world, both for delivery from early 1962. The Mk VII was a slightly earlier design with a more complicated mode of multiplication, and was soon dropped in favour of the

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that real developments began to occur. Although machines capable of performing all four arithmetic functions existed prior to the 19th century, the refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes during the eve of the industrial revolution made large scale production of more compact and modern

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The Japanese Patent Office granted a patent in June 1978 to Texas Instruments (TI) based on US patent 3819921, notwithstanding objections from 12 Japanese calculator manufacturers. This gave TI the right to claim royalties retroactively to the original publication of the Japanese patent application

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The use of calculators will be looked at as part of a national curriculum review, after the schools minister, Nick Gibb, expressed concern that children's mental and written arithmetic was suffering because of reliance on the devices. Gibb said: "Children can become too dependent on calculators if

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calculator was developed in 1948 and, although costly, became popular for its portability. This purely mechanical hand-held device could do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. By the early 1970s electronic pocket calculators ended manufacture of mechanical calculators, although the

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The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these

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With the very wide availability of smartphones and the like, dedicated hardware calculators, while still widely used, are less common than they once were. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the world's general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information. By 2007, this

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with the numbers appearing as bright against a dark background. To present a high-contrast display these models illuminated the LCD using a filament lamp and solid plastic light guide, which negated the low power consumption of the display. These models appear to have been sold only for a year or

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could add and subtract two numbers directly and thus, if the tedium could be borne, multiply and divide by repetition. Schickard's machine, constructed several decades earlier, used a clever set of mechanised multiplication tables to ease the process of multiplication and division with the adding

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to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall

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methods and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in. Others have argued that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent

2372:(RPN). Thus B3-34 defined a new command set, which later was used in a series of later programmable Soviet calculators. Despite very limited abilities (98 bytes of instruction memory and about 19 stack and addressable registers), people managed to write all kinds of programs for them, including 1976:

also introduced their first collaboration in ICs, a full single chip calculator IC for the Monroe Royal Digital III calculator. Pico was a spinout by five GI design engineers whose vision was to create single chip calculator ICs. Pico and GI went on to have significant success in the burgeoning

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CS-10A among electronic calculators. The ANITA weighed roughly 33 pounds (15 kg) due to its large tube system. Bell Punch had been producing key-driven mechanical calculators of the comptometer type under the names "Plus" and "Sumlock", and had realised in the mid-1950s that the future of

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arose which focused on specialized markets. Their first calculator, the Loan Arranger (1978) was a pocket calculator marketed to the Real Estate industry with preprogrammed functions to simplify the process of calculating payments and future values. In 1985, CI launched a calculator for the

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construction industry called the Construction Master which came preprogrammed with common construction calculations (such as angles, stairs, roofing math, pitch, rise, run, and feet-inch fraction conversions). This would be the first in a line of construction related calculators.

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machine as a means of completing this operation. There is a debate about whether Pascal or Shickard should be credited as the known inventor of a calculating machine due to the differences (like the different aims) of both inventions. Schickard and Pascal were followed by

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and libraries of calculus-related functions for engineers. Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of programs were written for these machines, from practical scientific and business software, which were used in real-life offices and labs, to fun games for children. The

2705:. Many firms saw that there were good profits to be made in the calculator business with the margin on such high prices. However, the cost of calculators fell as components and their production methods improved, and the effect of economies of scale was felt. 2649:

The processor chip (integrated circuit package) inside a 1980s Sharp pocket calculator, marked SC6762 1•H. An LCD is directly under the chip. This was a PCB-less design. No discrete components are used. The battery compartment at the top can hold two

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in a research project to produce a portable calculator. It could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and its output device was a paper tape. As a result of the "Cal-Tech" project, Texas Instruments was granted master patents on portable calculators.

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in August 1974. A TI spokesman said that it would actively seek what was due, either in cash or technology cross-licensing agreements. 19 other countries, including the United Kingdom, had already granted a similar patent to Texas Instruments.

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rays. The advantage of LCDs is that they are passive light modulators reflecting light, which require much less power than light-emitting displays such as LEDs or VFDs. This led the way to the first credit-card-sized calculators, such as the

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mode of data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an improved version of the HP 12c, the "HP 12c platinum edition" which added more memory, more built-in functions, and the addition of the algebraic mode of data entry.

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LE-120A "HANDY", which was marketed early in 1971. Made in Japan, this was also the first calculator to use an LED display, the first hand-held calculator to use a single integrated circuit (then proclaimed as a "calculator on a chip"), the

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to many firms dropping out of the business or closing. The firms that survived making calculators tended to be those with high outputs of higher quality calculators, or producing high-specification scientific and programmable calculators.

2571:(ICs) in 1971, but this was leading edge technology of the time and yields were low and costs were high. Many calculators continued to use two or more ICs, especially the scientific and the programmable ones, into the late 1970s. 2400:, which were exploited by applying normal arithmetic operations to error messages, jumping to nonexistent addresses and other methods. A number of respected monthly publications, including the popular science magazine 4292: 2031:

at the time). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than £5 ($ 6.85). Following protracted development over the course of two years including a botched partnership with Texas Instruments,

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programmable calculator came on the market in 1967. A large, printing, desk-top unit, with an attached floor-standing logic tower, it could be programmed to perform many computer-like functions. However, the only

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plugboard programmable calculator was IBM's first all-transistor product, released in 1957; this was a console type system, with input and output on punched cards, and replaced the earlier, larger, vacuum-tube

2414:), featured special columns, dedicated to optimization methods for calculator programmers and updates on undocumented features for hackers, which grew into a whole esoteric science with many branches, named " 1953:, followed by Texas Instruments later in the year. Although these early hand-held calculators were very costly, these advances in electronics, together with developments in display technology (such as the 1896:

By 1970, a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. The first handheld calculator was a 1967 prototype called

1841:(LSI) semiconductor development, squeezing more and more functions into individual integrated circuits. This led to alliances between Japanese calculator manufacturers and U.S. semiconductor companies: 3475:

Pascal and Leibnitz, in the seventeenth century, and Diderot at a later period, endeavored to construct a machine which might serve as a substitute for human intelligence in the combination of figures.

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became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring 5.4 by 2.2 by 0.35 inches (137.2 mm × 55.9 mm × 8.9 mm) and weighing 2.5 ounces (71 g). It retailed for around £79 (

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MK6010, and the first electronic calculator to run off replaceable batteries. Using four AA-size cells the LE-120A measures 4.9 by 2.8 by 0.9 inches (124 mm × 71 mm × 23 mm).

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In 1893, the German calculating machine inventor Arthur Burkhardt was asked to put Leibniz machine in operating condition if possible. His report was favorable except for the sequence in the carry.

2080:(HP) had been developing a pocket calculator. Launched in early 1972, it was unlike the other basic four-function pocket calculators then available in that it was the first pocket calculator with 1399:

invented the first direct multiplication machine in 1834: this was also the second key-driven machine in the world, following that of James White (1822). It was not until the 19th century and the

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The two leading manufacturers, HP and TI, released increasingly feature-laden calculators during the 1980s and 1990s. At the turn of the millennium, the line between a graphing calculator and a

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The following keys are common to most pocket calculators. While the arrangement of the digits is standard, the positions of other keys vary from model to model; the illustration is an example.

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of Italy introduced the IME 84, to which several extra keyboard and display units could be connected so that several people could make use of it (but apparently not at the same time). The

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invented the "Clarke calculator", a simple graph-based calculator for solving line equations involving hyperbolic functions. This allowed electrical engineers to simplify calculations for

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are required to produce high precision results. Sometimes significant design effort is needed to fit all the desired functions in the limited memory space available in the calculator

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instruction was an implied unconditional branch (GOTO) at the end of the operation stack, returning the program to its starting instruction. Thus, it was not possible to include any

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They are number stores where numbers are stored temporarily while doing calculations. All numbers go into the X register first; the number in the X register is shown on the display.

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on several circuit boards with a large power consumption that required an AC power supply. There were great efforts to put the logic required for a calculator into fewer and fewer

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in the mortgage and real estate markets by differentiating the key labeling; changing the "I", "PV", "FV" to easier labeling terms such as "Int", "Term", "Pmt", and not using the

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easier to enter. Most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button; however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with

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digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical

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There were also improvements to the electronics inside the calculators. All of the logic functions of a calculator had been squeezed into the first "calculator on a chip"

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reduced their size and cost. By the end of that decade, prices had dropped to the point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in schools.

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It wasn't until 1902 that the familiar push-button user interface was developed, with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine, developed by James L. Dalton in the

4082: 2884:, voiced concern that children can become "too dependent" on the use of calculators. As a result, the use of calculators is to be included as part of a review of the 2885: 2196: 2015:), measuring 5.2 by 3.0 by 1.5 inches (132 mm × 76 mm × 38 mm), came out in the Autumn of 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red 1771: 2008:) with four functions and an eight-digit display and special characters for a negative number and a warning that the calculation has too many digits to display. 3456:

century, by which time also a renewed stimulus to invention was given by the need for many kinds of calculation more intricate than those considered by Pascal."

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with LCD. However, there were problems with this display and the calculator never went on sale. The first successful calculators with LCDs were manufactured by

1927:"micro Compet". The Canon Pocketronic was a development from the "Cal-Tech" project. It had no traditional display; numerical output was on thermal paper tape. 2240: 3120: 1810:(IF-THEN-ELSE) logic. During this era, the absence of the conditional branch was sometimes used to distinguish a programmable calculator from a computer. 2212: 2418:" ("еггогология"). The error messages on those calculators appear as a Russian word "YEGGOG" ("ЕГГОГ") which, unsurprisingly, is translated to "Error". 1582:

computer project, to lead the development. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick.

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A printing calculator, in addition to a display panel, has a printing unit that prints results in ink onto a roll of paper, using a printing mechanism.

4938: 1376:, but who couldn't design a fully operational machine. There were also five unsuccessful attempts to design a calculating clock in the 17th century. 3740: 1474:

in the logic circuits, appeared in the 1940s and 1950s. Electronic circuits developed for computers also had application to electronic calculators.

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displays often required added driver transistors or ICs, whereas the LCDs were more amenable to being driven directly by the calculator IC itself.

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or button. Some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off (for example, leaving no operation for a moment, covering

3211: 2276:, in 1974; it had a capacity of 100 instructions, and could store and retrieve programs with a built-in magnetic card reader. Two years later the 4874:– includes an extensive history of early pocket calculators and highlights over 1,500 different models from the early 1970s. Book still in print. 3633: 2457:(LCDs) were in their infancy and there was a great deal of concern that they only had a short operating lifetime. Busicom introduced the Busicom 3089:. This distinction blurs with high-end calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded systems design, more so the 2392:

This series of calculators was also noted for a large number of highly counter-intuitive mysterious undocumented features, somewhat similar to "

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calculator in 1957, which was the world's first all-electric (relatively) compact calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on

4295:[The first European pocket calculator was made in Buje. In 1971, it cost as much as a son] (in Croatian). 20 June 2011. Archived from 3923: 3488: 1728:(with a luminescent display) and the ELKA 25, with an built-in printer. Several other models were developed until the first pocket model, the 4851: 3894: 1915:

The first commercially produced portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, and were soon marketed around the world. These included the

4067: 3314: 2686:) pocket calculator. It uses a button battery in combination with a solar cell. The processor is a "Chip on Board" type, covered with dark 3349: 4374: 2889: 1814: 3840: 3811: 3680: 4566: 2167: 2147: 1729: 2908:

Personal computers often come with a calculator utility program that emulates the appearance and functions of a calculator, using the

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The interior of a Casio fx-20 scientific calculator from the mid-1970s, using a VFD. The processor integrated circuit (IC) is made by

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applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities.

4806:, 1954 (filed 1941, refiled 1944), electromechanical (relay) device that could calculate complex numbers, record, and print results. 4045: 3665: 2798:

financial calculator is still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still being made with few changes. The HP 12c featured the

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memory for storing programs and external interface for EEPROM cards and other periphery) was used in Soviet spacecraft program (for

4981: 3782: 2005: 1602: 4163: 3952: 1705:, introduced in 1965, was developed by the Central Institute for Calculation Technologies and built at the Elektronika factory in 4492: 4599: 3388: 1665: 358:. Basic calculators usually store only one number at a time; more specific types are able to store many numbers represented in 2224: 4892: 4773: 4754: 4735: 4712: 3531: 3115: 2036:

released five pocket calculators in 1972. One called the Touch Magic was "no bigger than a pack of cigarettes" according to

1934:, also marketed as the Facit 1111, which was close to being a pocket calculator. It weighed 1.59 pounds (721 grams), had a 4826:, 1974 (originally filed 1967), handheld (45 ounces (1.3 kg)) battery operated electronic device with thermal printer 4433: 3276: 4263: 3566: 4115: 2449:

consumed a lot of power and the calculators either had a short battery life (often measured in hours, so rechargeable

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they use them at too young an age. They shouldn't be reaching for a gadget every time they need to do a simple sum. "

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models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s as the incorporation of

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with the first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine, but these machines were almost always

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calculator was created in the early 1960s. Pocket-sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the

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calculators lay in electronics. They employed the young graduate Norbert Kitz, who had worked on the early British

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could be used to do calculations on most 1970s and 1980s home computers. Calculator functions are included in most

4318: 3724:"'Anita' der erste tragbare elektonische Rechenautomat" ['Anita' the first portable electronic computer]. 1825:

The electronic calculators of the mid-1960s were large and heavy desktop machines due to their use of hundreds of

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In addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific markets. For example, there are

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EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch (13 cm)

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See in particular the section "Limited performance and accuracy". For more coverage of Shirriff's results, see

4087: 3861: 2971: 2892:(NCTM) standards and actively promoted the use of classroom calculators from kindergarten through high school. 2830: 1946: 1021: 2445:

Through the 1970s the hand-held electronic calculator underwent rapid development. The red LED and blue/green

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The store where numbers can be stored by the user. User memory contents can be changed or erased by the user.

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skills would suffer. There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations

5703: 4974: 4860:– Many patents about mechanical calculators are in classifications G06C15/04, G06C15/06, G06G3/02, G06G3/04 2784: 1720:, and it weighed around 8 kg (18 lb). It is the first calculator in the world which includes the 4513:

Thomas J. Bing; Edward F. Redish (7 December 2007). "Symbolic Manipulators Affect Mathematical Mindsets".

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efforts culminated in early 1971 with the introduction of the first "calculator on a chip", the MK6010 by

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The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations were: bones (used to tally items), pebbles, and

5708: 4941:– A thorough analysis of the HP-35 firmware including the Cordic algorithms and the bugs in the early ROM 2967: 2453:

were common) or were large so that they could take larger, higher capacity batteries. In the early 1970s

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use calculators for schoolwork. There was some initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic or

2096:(RPN), also called postfix notation. A calculation like "8 plus 5" is, using RPN, performed by pressing 1838: 5421: 3260: 3047: 2888:. In the United States, many math educators and boards of education have enthusiastically endorsed the 2587: 2574:

The power consumption of the integrated circuits was also reduced, especially with the introduction of

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built from discrete components. Already there was a desire for smaller and less power-hungry machines.

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is encoded and sent to the X register. This "pushes" (shifts) the first number out into the Y register;

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There followed a series of electronic calculator models from these and other manufacturers, including

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is entered, it is picked up by the scanning unit; the number 25 is encoded and sent to the X register;

5713: 3426:"Early Evolution of the Modern Calculator, Part 2. The Modern Era: 4.1 Schickard's Calculating Clock" 3019: 605:

ntry; sometimes called CE/C: a first press clears the last entry (CE), a second press clears all (C)

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This article is about the electronic device. For mechanical precursors to the modern calculator, see

4920:– From Sharp's web presentation of its history; including a picture of the CS-10A desktop calculator 2725:

was a programmable RPN-style calculator that accepted extension modules; it was manufactured in the

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and the calculation is carried out following instructions from the permanent or non-volatile memory;

3915: 3496: 3345: 3150: 2956: 2909: 2877: 2425:, which was also noted for a large number of undocumented features and was much more powerful than 1530: 1443: 362:. Usually these variables are named ans or ans(0). The variables can also be used for constructing 189:. As of 2016, basic calculators cost little, but scientific and graphing models tend to cost more. 3886: 2364:, was developed by the end of 1976 and released at the start of 1977. The successor of B3-21, the 5658: 5469: 5081: 4967: 4059: 3661: 3098: 3035: 2960: 2925: 2814: 2799: 2369: 2093: 2059: 1745: 1594: 1396: 1240: 1063: 965: 855: 790: 93: 5294: 3303: 5431: 5346: 5131: 4838:– 1977 (originally filed GB March 1971, US July 1971), very early single chip calculator claim. 3338: 3078: 3066: 2772: 2470: 2454: 2450: 1962: 1858: 1360: 1098:

A basic explanation as to how calculations are performed in a simple four-function calculator:

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Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942

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in 1642. A device that was at times somewhat over-promoted as being able to perform all four

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in the logic cells of CMOS ICs only used any appreciable power when they changed state. The

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which added log and trig functions to compete with the HP-35, and in 1977 the mass-marketed

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The answer, 34 is sent (shifted) back to the X register. From there, it is converted by the

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A more successful series of calculators using a reflective DSM-LCD was launched in 1972 by

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Sharp put in great efforts in size and power reduction and introduced in January 1971 the

1066:(CPU) is running. It is used as an indicator of the processor's speed, and is measured in 8: 5464: 5171: 3655: 3450: 3145: 3110: 2738: 2521:, which was a slim pocket calculator. This, and another few similar models, used Sharp's 2163: 1784:

Another early programmable desktop calculator (and maybe the first Japanese one) was the

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Hamrick, Kathy B. (October 1996). "The History of the Hand-Held Electronic Calculator".

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device), development of computing tools arrived near the start of the 17th century: the

1090: 5646: 5583: 5306: 5143: 5076: 5036: 5018: 4689: 4548: 4522: 4293:"U Bujama je izrađen prvi europski džepni kalkulator. Te 1971. koštao je koliko i fićo" 3994: 3944: 3601: 3545: 3252: 3125: 2917: 2913: 2702: 2568: 2231: 2055: 2024: 1993: 1973: 1874: 1830: 1807: 1614: 1463: 1415: 929: 120: 4934:

Microprocessor and single chip calculator history; foundations in Glenrothes, Scotland

4484: 4034:"Texas Instruments Celebrates the 35th Anniversary of Its Invention of the Calculator" 2528: 1585:

The tube technology of the ANITA was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured

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The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly termed

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designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes

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The Casio CM-602 Mini electronic calculator provided basic functions in the 1970s.

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The first European-made pocket-sized calculator, DB 800 was made in May 1971 by

1605:, which weighed 25 kilograms (55 lb) and cost 500,000 yen ($ 4555.81), and 1204:

Other functions are usually performed using repeated additions or subtractions.

5578: 5208: 5181: 5056: 5026: 4799: 4425: 4363:"Reversing Sinclair's amazing 1974 calculator hack – half the ROM of the HP-35" 3580: 3130: 3094: 3058: 3027: 2873: 2742: 2540: 2373: 2113: 1890: 1277: 1271: 1191: 1033: 945:

The function for the calculation is stored here until the calculator needs it.

851: 804: 799:(input device) – consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands ( 706: 649: 371: 233:

operations; some even contain "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller

185:

can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, or higher-dimensional

101: 4842: 4830: 4810: 4790: 4271: 3101:

architectures, and some custom designs specialized for the calculator market.

814:

Display panel (output device) – displays input numbers, commands and results.

5692: 5593: 5404: 5361: 5289: 5230: 5121: 5116: 5061: 5031: 5002: 4959: 4147: 3057:

For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement

2868: 2402: 2317: 1834: 1778: 1755: 1681: 1424: 1373: 1352: 1325: 1289: 981: 734: 307: 3240: 1692:, though the Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 appears to have used an early form of 1368:

who spent forty years designing a four-operation mechanical calculator, the

201: 5624: 5557: 5526: 5399: 5394: 5247: 5242: 5086: 4702: 4604: 4600:"Subtracting calculators adds to children's maths abilities, says minister" 3541: 3248: 3086: 2757: 2726: 2597:

as the power source, realised around 1978 by calculators such as the Royal

2292: 2250:, the world's first scientific pocket calculator by Hewlett Packard (1972). 2044: 1965:), led within a few years to the cheap pocket calculator available to all. 1733: 1586: 1431: 1405: 1313: 977: 862: 343: 170: 131: 116: 5384: 5316: 5155: 5148: 5071: 5051: 3597: 2651: 2553: 2415: 2381:

calculator (using the extended B3-34 command set, and featuring internal

2356: 2343: 2321: 1924: 1797: 1721: 1693: 1610: 1570: 1557: 1467: 1439: 1409: 1340: 1317: 1040: 969: 920: 808: 774: 689: 659: 222: 214: 86: 78: 74: 2842: 1569:

simpler Mark VIII. The ANITA had a full keyboard, similar to mechanical

1387:

The 18th century saw the arrival of some notable improvements, first by

5531: 5514: 5497: 5416: 5409: 4819: 4693: 4329:(8). Geyer-McAllister Publications: 68–73 – via Internet Archive. 3304:"A Cordic-based Architecture for High Performance Decimal Calculations" 2929: 2765: 2594: 2579: 2386: 2155: 2085: 1931: 1904: 1842: 1826: 1789: 1677: 1637: 1618: 1565: 1526: 1471: 1435: 1356: 1321: 1055: 1014: 973: 962: 835: 629: 403: 391: 230: 174: 151: 97: 82: 4544: 3034:) built in. The distinction is not clear-cut: some devices classed as 3022:, while calculators are pre-designed with specific functions (such as 2139:

pocket-sized calculator the "B3-18" was completed by the end of 1975.

5653: 5519: 5504: 5326: 5301: 4944: 4663: 4638: 3155: 3090: 3031: 2881: 2626: 2514: 1817:, powered by the power grid, was released at the start of the 1970s. 1702: 1579: 1309: 1297: 1244: 1079: 4927: 4685: 4227: 3865: 2945: 2752:

was not always clear, as some very advanced calculators such as the

2717: 2473:

and sold from 1972 by other companies under such names as: Dataking

2461:

calculator, the first pocket-sized calculator and the first with an

1624: 5441: 5374: 5252: 5235: 5176: 5066: 4639:"Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) Tercentenary of the calculating machine" 4593: 4591: 4083:"50 Jahre Taschenrechner – Die Erfindung, die niemand haben wollte" 3051: 3023: 3007: 2872:

understanding of advanced algebraic concepts. In December 2011 the

2788: 2769: 2630: 2564:

of 1978, which could run for months of normal use on button cells.

2548:

In the mid-1970s the first calculators appeared with field-effect,

2437: 2313: 2262:

Canon Pocketronic calculator prints output using paper tape (1971).

2175: 1833:(chips) and calculator electronics was one of the leading edges of 1775: 1759: 1645: 1561: 1177: 1147: 800: 669: 205:

Scientific calculator displays of fractions and decimal equivalents

4881:

Calculators: A Categorized Compilation of References. Supplement 1

4527: 1105:, one presses keys in the following sequence on most calculators: 5351: 5321: 5225: 4848:

Extended Numerical Keyboard with Structured Data-Entry Capability

3082: 2856: 2355:

The first Soviet pocket battery-powered programmable calculator,

2001: 1981: 1862: 1725: 1657: 1629: 1499: 1494: 1248: 1059: 1045: 847: 414:-powered calculators were also common in the early computer era. 363: 335: 109: 58: 4597: 4588: 4248:"The one-chip calculator is here, and it's only the beginning". 2051:

was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the start of 1974.

1792:

display and had transistor electronics and ferrite core memory.

1239:

Where calculators have added functions (such as square root, or

5281: 3073:

algorithm because CORDIC does not require much multiplication.

3070: 2810: 2795: 2761: 2734: 2382: 2329: 2277: 2092:, along with nearly all later HP engineering calculators, uses 1986: 1950: 1866: 1857:) with North-American Rockwell Microelectronics (later renamed 1837:

development. U.S. semiconductor manufacturers led the world in

1281: 1074:. For basic calculators, the speed can vary from a few hundred 912: 900: 896: 796: 399: 271: 234: 4945:

Bell Punch Company and the development of the Anita calculator

4704:

Empire of the Sum: The Rise and Reign of the Pocket Calculator

4512: 4375:"Google chap reverse engineers Sinclair Scientific Calculator" 4224:"Microprocessor History – Foundations in Glenrothes, Scotland" 2593:

With this low power consumption came the possibility of using

1183:

The numbers in the X and Y registers are then loaded into the

4454: 4362: 3657:

Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine

2921: 2753: 2687: 2637:(PCB). This calculator uses a battery pack as a power source. 2558: 2426: 2422: 2397: 2360: 2348: 2337: 2333: 2301: 2273: 2247: 2179: 2089: 1939: 1916: 1878: 1870: 1785: 1706: 1490: 1482: 1478: 1450: 1285: 1075: 1071: 867: 279: 147: 105: 3209: 4164:"The First Handheld Digital Calculator Celebrates 50 Years" 3995:"Mathatronics Mathatron 8-48M Mod II Electronic Calculator" 3310: 2733:

The first calculator capable of symbolic computing was the

2575: 2368:

wasn't backward compatible with B3-21, even if it kept the

2287: 1997: 1980:

The first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator was the

1653: 1573:

of the time, a feature that was unique to it and the later

1514: 1505: 1232:

keep the track number in BCD, limiting them to 99 tracks.)

177:

calculations. Some calculators even have the ability to do

4923: 4857: 3989: 3987: 3578:

Denis Roegel (October–December 2016). David Walden (ed.).

1758:, an early commercial programmable calculator produced by 1259: 1150:" instruction is also encoded and sent to the flag or the 115:

Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away,

2622: 2578:

technology. Appearing in the Sharp "EL-801" in 1972, the

2132:. It had 35 buttons and was based on Mostek Mk6020 chip. 1228:

system than converting to and from binary. (For example,

407: 63: 2544:

Modern pocket calculator with solar and battery powering

2290:

memory during power-off. In 1979, HP released the first

1457: 4012: 3984: 2421:

A similar hacker culture in the US revolved around the

2171: 1419:

Patent image of the Clarke graph-based calculator, 1921

1229: 354:

Calculators also have the ability to save numbers into

4947:– The story of the first electronic desktop calculator 4598:

Vasagar, Jeevan; Shepherd, Jessica (1 December 2011).

3681:"The Engineer Who Foreshadowed the Smart Grid—in 1921" 2625:(marked μPD978C). Discrete electronic components like 1889:"Pocket calculator" redirects here. For the song, see 1672:, on multiple circuit boards. Display types used were 1168:

key is pressed, a "message" (signal) from the flag or

4887:. Columbus, Ohio, US: Calculator Information Center, 3777:[The Bulgarian ELKA electronic calculators]. 3193: 3191: 3077:

logic designs are more common in calculators whereas

1218:

Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in

4956:– Shows mainly Japanese calculators but also others. 3121:

Comparison of Texas Instruments graphing calculators

3006:

The fundamental difference between a calculator and

2935: 1621:, but production problems delayed sales until 1966. 1049:

numbers which can be displayed on the display unit.

834:

in a basic calculator. Advanced calculators may use

342:

calculators are able to work in vulgar fractions or

4768:. Los Alamitos, California: IEEE Computer Society. 3510:Ginsburg, Jekuthiel (1933). "Scripta Mathematica". 2836:

A Texas Instruments TI-30XIIS scientific calculator

274:are often used to improve readability; while using 4723: 4015:. Australia: Museum of Applied Arts & Sciences 3579: 3405: 3301: 3277:Texas Instruments TI-30X IIB Quick Reference Guide 3188: 2441:A calculator which runs on solar and battery power 2312:(ROM, for software) modules, and peripherals like 2267: 1770:were produced in the mid-1960s. They included the 1094:An office calculating machine with a paper printer 705:The arrangement of digits on calculator and other 4836:Floating Point Calculator With RAM Shift Register 2351:, the first programmable pocket calculator (1974) 2272:The first programmable pocket calculator was the 1813:The first Soviet programmable desktop calculator 1732:, was released in 1974. The writing on it was in 1724:function. Later that same year were released the 777:calculator consists of the following components: 5690: 3567:Mechanical calculator#Other calculating machines 3449:, pp. 508, 509; "Pascal's invention of the 2065: 4221: 4208:"Single Chip Calculator Hits the Finish Line", 4124:American Heritage of Invention & Technology 3210:Martin Hilbert; Priscila López (1 April 2011). 2532:Credit-card-sized, solar-powered calculator by 4989: 4928:Slide Rules and Mechanical Calculators section 3974:"Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator" 3741:"The History of Pocket Electronic Calculators" 3581:"Before Torchi and Schwilgué, There Was White" 2912:to portray a calculator. Examples include the 2328:, and miscellaneous communication interfaces ( 2054:One of the first low-cost calculators was the 1383:The Grant mechanical calculating machine, 1877 895:When a calculator is powered on, it scans the 4975: 4145:Reid, T. R. (July 1982). "The Texas Edison". 4060:"Electronic Calculator Invented 40 Years Ago" 1684:. Memory technology was usually based on the 737:. It is notably different from the layout of 370:capacity to store more numbers; the extended 4199:(British publication), October 1978 p. 1094. 3577: 3489:"Schickard versus Pascal - an empty debate?" 2904:A calculator with a graphical user interface 2062:(maximum three decimal places of accuracy). 1736:, and it was exported to western countries. 1556:ccounting) was announced. This machine used 1359:operations with minimal human intervention. 990:, stored permanently, and cannot be erased. 54:(LCD) that can perform arithmetic operations 2974:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2890:National Council of Teachers of Mathematics 2389:flight) as a backup of the board computer. 2286:, i.e., programs and data were retained in 1942:batteries, and initially sold for US$ 395. 1739: 1493:technology, and was built into a desk. The 263: 261:(VFD); details are provided in the section 4982: 4968: 4127:. Vol. 15, no. 4. pp. 42–54 4072:Audio interview with one of the inventors. 3020:branches according to intermediate results 2174:(π). It was followed the next year by the 1788:(AL-1000) produced in 1967. It featured a 1454:Curta remains a popular collectable item. 4662: 4526: 4351:]. Soviet Digital Electronics Museum. 4319:"Calculators: They Just Keep Multiplying" 3775:"Българските електронни калкулатори ЕЛКА" 3738: 3660:. Chicago: Washington Institute. p. 2994:Learn how and when to remove this message 2432: 2023:, while in August 1972 the four-function 1664:. The early calculators used hundreds of 1207: 961:The instructions for in-built functions ( 366:. Some models have the ability to extend 4763: 4482: 4372: 4349:Collection of Soviet digital electronics 4345:Коллекция советской цифровой электроники 4316: 3518:(2218). Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 149. 3509: 2899: 2716: 2539: 2527: 2505:. The LCDs were an early form using the 2436: 2342: 1749: 1623: 1504: 1414: 1378: 1330: 1089: 861: 200: 57: 42: 4744: 4700: 4671: 4636: 4116:"How the Computer Got Into Your Pocket" 3769: 3767: 3765: 3586:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 3446: 3197: 2712: 1260:Precursors to the electronic calculator 1198:), and then shown on the display panel. 253:(LCD) as output in place of historical 62:A modern scientific calculator with an 47:An electronic pocket calculator with a 27:Electronic device used for calculations 14: 5691: 4877: 4864:Collectors Guide to Pocket Calculators 3042:functions, sometimes with support for 1564:in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode 733:keys is derived from calculators and 517:Calculator buttons and their meanings 4963: 4866:. by Guy Ball and Bruce Flamm, 1997, 4721: 4567:"Calculator Use in Elementary Grades" 3411: 3116:Comparison of HP graphing calculators 2895: 2848:A Catiga CS-103 scientific calculator 1884: 1820: 1458:Development of electronic calculators 1062:refers to the frequency at which the 426:Usual basic pocket calculator layout 134:have included interactive calculator 4878:Suydam, Marilyn N. (December 1980). 4373:Sharwood, Simon (2 September 2013). 4161: 4144: 3762: 3687:. Scientific American Blog Network. 3653: 3486: 3473:. Vol. 202. 1857. p. 100. 3423: 2972:adding citations to reliable sources 2939: 2695: 1292:before 2000 BC. Except for the 1251:, with acceptable calculation time. 1194:unit into a decimal number (usually 768: 613:Toggle positive/negative number aka 398:(for old models), turning on with a 108:for the Japanese calculator company 4485:"Mark->'s Calculator Collection" 4222:James McGonigal (September 2010) . 4113: 3376:Algorithms and accuracy in the HP35 2820: 2465:display, and announced the Busicom 2170:featured an added key for entering 1521:In October 1961, the world's first 1335:17th century mechanical calculators 334:) can be difficult to recognize in 193:had diminished to less than 0.05%. 24: 4918:30th Anniversary of the Calculator 4783: 4726:The Universal History of Computing 4226:. Spingal.plus.com. Archived from 2047:made pocket-sized calculator, the 1176:that the operation to be done is " 290:may also be shown on the display. 25: 5735: 4911: 4674:The American Mathematical Monthly 4317:Bellotto, Sam Jr. (August 1972). 3781:(in Bulgarian). 10 January 2012. 2936:Calculators compared to computers 2787:software, and connect by wire or 2202:Adler 81S pocket calculator with 386:Power sources of calculators are 244: 5672: 5671: 4385:from the original on 2017-08-23. 4264:"The first portable calculators" 4174:from the original on 2017-04-13. 4070:from the original on 2008-12-05. 4044:. 15 August 2002. Archived from 3739:Ball, Guy; Flamm, Bruce (1996). 3678: 3668:from the original on 2016-07-03. 3085:complexity, but takes many more 2944: 2841: 2829: 2791:to other calculators/computers. 2672: 2659: 2642: 2614: 2255: 2239: 2223: 2211: 2195: 1919:ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator", the 314:. Also, some fractions (such as 4898:from the original on 2021-09-19 4858:European Patent Office Database 4816:Miniature electronic calculator 4766:History of Computing Technology 4637:Chapman, S. (31 October 1942). 4612:from the original on 2016-03-09 4577:from the original on 2015-09-05 4559: 4506: 4495:from the original on 2011-07-19 4476: 4465:from the original on 2015-07-03 4447: 4436:from the original on 2011-07-19 4418: 4407:from the original on 2011-07-19 4389: 4355: 4333: 4310: 4285: 4256: 4252:. 18 February 1971. p. 34. 4241: 4215: 4202: 4190: 4178: 4155: 4138: 4107: 4096:from the original on 2017-03-29 4075: 4052: 4026: 4005: 3966: 3955:from the original on 2013-10-16 3937: 3926:from the original on 2013-10-23 3908: 3897:from the original on 2013-10-23 3879: 3862:"ELKA 22, Bulgarian Calculator" 3854: 3843:from the original on 2013-10-23 3825: 3814:from the original on 2013-10-23 3796: 3785:from the original on 2013-10-23 3732: 3717: 3702: 3691:from the original on 2017-08-14 3672: 3647: 3636:from the original on 2013-05-21 3618: 3571: 3559: 3503: 3480: 3459: 3440: 3394:from the original on 2013-10-04 3355:from the original on 2016-03-04 3320:from the original on 2016-03-03 3168: 2268:Programmable pocket calculators 2084:functions that could replace a 1903:, whose development was led by 1607:Industria Macchine Elettroniche 1372:, inventing in the process his 381: 282:) instead of or in addition to 278:(usually a point rather than a 4730:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4162:Okon, Thomas (27 March 2017). 4088:Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 3949:Vintage Calculators Web Museum 3745:Vintage Calculators Web Museum 3713:. December 1961. p. 1244. 3417: 3366: 3331: 3295: 3282: 3270: 3203: 2182:line which is still produced. 1947:integrated circuit development 1513:(LED) display from the 1970s ( 1024:, and provides the results in 13: 1: 4764:Williams, Michael R. (1997). 3999:The Old Calculator Web Museum 3978:The Old Calculator Web Museum 3887:"Elka 101-135 series (photo)" 3728:. November 1961. p. 207. 3182: 3136:History of computing hardware 2878:Minister of State for Schools 2680: 2304:C. It could be expanded with 2166:for $ 150. Shortly after the 2066:Scientific pocket calculators 1284:, known to have been used by 984:form. These instructions are 417: 4924:The Museum of HP calculators 4092:(in German). 27 March 2017. 3920:The Clockwiser's Collections 3891:The Clockwiser's Collections 3837:The Clockwiser's Collections 3808:The Clockwiser's Collections 3779:The Clockwiser's Collections 3524:10.1126/science.86.2218.13-a 2633:and the IC are mounted on a 1977:handheld calculator market. 739:telephone Touch-Tone keypads 7: 4515:American Journal of Physics 3104: 2507:Dynamic Scattering Mode DSM 2447:vacuum fluorescent displays 2112:; instead of the algebraic 1466:computers, initially using 1101:To perform the calculation 980:, etc.) are stored here in 820:vacuum fluorescent displays 406:exposure, or closing their 259:vacuum fluorescent displays 36:Calculator (disambiguation) 10: 5740: 5422:Personal digital assistant 4630: 4212:, February 1, 1971, p. 19. 4066:. NPR. 30 September 2007. 4013:"Casio AL-1000 calculator" 3290:The Pocket Calculator Book 3010:is that a computer can be 2932:also have such a feature. 2204:vacuum fluorescent display 2069: 1955:vacuum fluorescent display 1936:vacuum fluorescent display 1888: 1743: 1668:, which were cheaper than 1302:geometric-military compass 1269: 1263: 1254: 1220:binary-coded decimal (BCD) 1211: 1085: 875:Processor chip's contents 160:personal digital assistant 29: 5667: 5602: 5571: 5548: 5483: 5455: 5360: 5337: 5280: 5271: 5164: 5104: 5097: 5017: 5010: 5001: 4649:(3809). London: 508–509. 4323:Administrative Management 4114:May, Mike (Spring 2000). 3916:"Elka 100 series (photo)" 3292:. (London: Usborne, 1982) 3061:mathematics with code in 3014:in a way that allows the 2679:The interior of a newer ( 2206:(VFD) from the mid-1970s. 2038:Administrative Management 1652:(Smith-Corona-Marchant), 1560:, cold-cathode tubes and 1343:saw the invention of the 349: 310:, for example rounded to 306:are displayed as decimal 249:Calculators usually have 196: 4187:, 17 August 1978 p. 455. 3726:Büromaschinen Mechaniker 3471:The Gentleman's magazine 3346:British Computer Society 3302:University of Alicante. 3161: 3151:Solar-powered calculator 3036:programmable calculators 2926:personal data assistants 2910:graphical user interface 2451:nickel-cadmium batteries 2185:In 1978, a new company, 2162:pocket calculator using 2060:transcendental functions 1768:programmable calculators 1740:Programmable calculators 1709:. The name derives from 1525:calculator, the British 1444:power transmission lines 721:keys two rows above the 338:form; as a result, many 209: 73:is typically a portable 5719:20th-century inventions 5659:Wireless sensor network 4722:Ifrah, Georges (2001). 4701:Houston, Keith (2023). 3380:Hewlett Packard Journal 3241:10.1126/science.1200970 3067:trigonometric functions 2815:reverse Polish notation 2800:reverse Polish notation 2523:Calculator On Substrate 2455:liquid-crystal displays 2370:reverse Polish notation 2094:reverse Polish notation 1839:large scale integration 1746:Programmable calculator 1617:in place of individual 1595:Reverse Polish Notation 1241:trigonometric functions 1172:tells the permanent or 1068:clock cycles per second 1064:central processing unit 903:when a key is pressed. 856:central processing unit 816:Liquid-crystal displays 765:keys on the third row. 251:liquid-crystal displays 77:device used to perform 5724:Electronic calculators 5432:Portable data terminal 4891:. ED199087. SE034434. 4749:(in French). Hermann. 4745:Marguin, Jean (1994). 4397:"The Loan Arranger II" 3654:Felt, Dorr E. (1916). 3279:, Page 1 - Last Answer 2905: 2777:differential equations 2730: 2545: 2537: 2471:Rockwell International 2442: 2433:Technical improvements 2352: 2308:(RAM, for memory) and 1859:Rockwell International 1772:Mathatronics Mathatron 1763: 1633: 1593:(CRT), and introduced 1523:all-electronic desktop 1518: 1420: 1384: 1351:in 1623, and later by 1336: 1296:(an "out of the time" 1225:seven-segment displays 1208:Numeric representation 1095: 899:waiting to pick up an 871: 286:. Various symbols for 264:Technical improvements 217:calculators contain a 206: 167:scientific calculators 94:solid-state electronic 66: 55: 52:liquid-crystal display 34:. For other uses, see 5615:Information appliance 5437:Portable media player 5380:Handheld game console 4889:Ohio State University 4843:U.S. patent 5,623,433 4831:U.S. patent 4,001,566 4811:U.S. patent 3,819,921 4791:U.S. patent 2,668,661 4426:"Construction Master" 4197:Practical Electronics 4064:All Things Considered 3709:"Simple and Silent". 3141:Scientific calculator 3044:programming languages 2903: 2861:elementary arithmetic 2807:Calculated Industries 2720: 2635:printed circuit board 2543: 2531: 2440: 2394:synthetic programming 2346: 2187:Calculated Industries 2072:Scientific calculator 1923:Pocketronic, and the 1753: 1666:germanium transistors 1627: 1613:was the first to use 1529:/Sumlock Comptometer 1508: 1485:, released the Model 1481:Computer Company, in 1418: 1401:Industrial Revolution 1382: 1345:mechanical calculator 1334: 1294:Antikythera mechanism 1266:Mechanical calculator 1146:key is pressed, the " 1093: 1013:The ALU executes all 1008:Arithmetic logic unit 865: 204: 81:, ranging from basic 71:electronic calculator 61: 46: 32:mechanical calculator 5390:Mobile data terminal 5370:Electronic organizer 5042:Intelligent terminal 4038:Education Technology 3598:10.1109/MAHC.2016.46 2968:improve this section 2713:Mid-1980s to present 2306:random-access memory 2146:(TI) introduced the 2034:Eldorado Electrodata 1690:magnetic-core memory 1511:light-emitting diode 1404:units possible. The 1214:Binary-coded decimal 1196:binary-coded decimal 824:light-emitting diode 773:In general, a basic 255:light-emitting diode 183:Graphing calculators 162:(PDA) type devices. 5704:American inventions 4655:1942Natur.150..508C 4537:2008AmJPh..76..418B 4455:"Elektronika B3-21" 4367:Ken Shirriff's blog 4341:"ELEKTRONIKA B3-04" 3893:. 10 January 2012. 3804:"ELKA 6521 (photo)" 3451:calculating machine 3374:"David S. Cochran, 3233:2011Sci...332...60H 3146:Software calculator 3111:Calculator spelling 3065:(ROM), and compute 2855:In most countries, 2739:graphing calculator 2569:integrated circuits 2324:drives, paper-roll 2164:scientific notation 1831:integrated circuits 1670:silicon transistors 1615:integrated circuits 1361:Pascal's calculator 1174:non-volatile memory 876: 826:(LED) displays use 518: 427: 332:significant figures 257:(LED) displays and 121:integrated circuits 104:, was developed by 5709:Mathematical tools 5647:Computer-on-module 5505:Digital wristwatch 5307:Mobile workstation 5077:Video game console 5037:Internet appliance 3467:"A New Calculator" 3126:Formula calculator 3018:to take different 2918:Apple's Calculator 2914:Windows Calculator 2906: 2896:Personal computers 2809:competed with the 2745:released in 1985. 2731: 2703:economies of scale 2546: 2538: 2443: 2396:" of the American 2353: 2234:pocket calculator. 2232:Sinclair Executive 2056:Sinclair Cambridge 2025:Sinclair Executive 1974:General Instrument 1885:Pocket calculators 1875:General Instrument 1821:1970s to mid-1980s 1808:conditional branch 1766:The first desktop 1764: 1634: 1519: 1421: 1385: 1337: 1157:The second number 1096: 874: 872: 870:FX-991s calculator 866:The interior of a 830:to represent each 516: 425: 207: 146:, and interactive 67: 56: 5686: 5685: 5635:Rugged smartphone 5544: 5543: 5540: 5539: 5267: 5266: 5263: 5262: 5221:Small form factor 5047:Interactive kiosk 4824:Texas Instruments 4804:Bell Laboratories 4775:978-0-8186-7739-7 4756:978-2-7056-6166-3 4737:978-0-471-39671-0 4714:978-0-393-88214-8 4545:10.1119/1.2835053 4489:Mathcs.albion.edu 4430:Mathcs.albion.edu 4401:Mathcs.albion.edu 4250:Electronic Design 4168:Electronic Design 4042:Texas Instruments 3833:"ELKA 22 (photo)" 3679:Lott, Melissa C. 3533:978-0-7661-3835-3 3493:Things that Count 3430:Things that Count 3004: 3003: 2996: 2750:handheld computer 2729:from 1985 to 1992 2723:Elektronika MK-52 2696:Mass-market phase 2379:Elektronika MK-52 2366:Elektronika B3-34 2283:continuous memory 2144:Texas Instruments 2135:The first Soviet 2049:Elektronika B3-04 1909:Texas Instruments 1855:Sharp Corporation 1851:Hayakawa Electric 1847:Texas Instruments 1686:delay-line memory 1509:Early calculator 1366:Gottfried Leibniz 1349:Wilhelm Schickard 1053: 1052: 901:electrical signal 783:mains electricity 769:Internal workings 703: 702: 514: 513: 396:mains electricity 288:function commands 276:decimal separator 128:operating systems 117:credit-card-sized 18:Pocket calculator 16:(Redirected from 5731: 5714:Office equipment 5675: 5674: 5510:Calculator watch 5493:Activity tracker 5278: 5277: 5102: 5101: 5015: 5014: 5008: 5007: 4984: 4977: 4970: 4961: 4960: 4955: 4906: 4904: 4903: 4897: 4886: 4845: 4833: 4813: 4796:Complex computer 4793: 4779: 4760: 4741: 4729: 4718: 4697: 4668: 4666: 4664:10.1038/150508a0 4625: 4624: 4618: 4617: 4595: 4586: 4585: 4583: 4582: 4563: 4557: 4556: 4530: 4510: 4504: 4503: 4501: 4500: 4480: 4474: 4473: 4471: 4470: 4451: 4445: 4444: 4442: 4441: 4422: 4416: 4415: 4413: 4412: 4393: 4387: 4386: 4370: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4337: 4331: 4330: 4314: 4308: 4307: 4305: 4304: 4289: 4283: 4282: 4280: 4279: 4270:. Archived from 4260: 4254: 4253: 4245: 4239: 4238: 4236: 4235: 4219: 4213: 4206: 4200: 4194: 4188: 4182: 4176: 4175: 4159: 4153: 4152: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4133: 4132: 4120: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4102: 4101: 4079: 4073: 4071: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4030: 4024: 4023: 4021: 4020: 4009: 4003: 4002: 3991: 3982: 3981: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3960: 3941: 3935: 3934: 3932: 3931: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3903: 3902: 3883: 3877: 3876: 3874: 3873: 3864:. Archived from 3858: 3852: 3851: 3849: 3848: 3829: 3823: 3822: 3820: 3819: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3791: 3790: 3771: 3760: 3759: 3757: 3756: 3747:. Archived from 3736: 3730: 3729: 3721: 3715: 3714: 3706: 3700: 3699: 3697: 3696: 3676: 3670: 3669: 3651: 3645: 3644: 3642: 3641: 3630:Arithmometre.org 3622: 3616: 3615: 3613: 3612: 3583: 3575: 3569: 3563: 3557: 3556: 3507: 3501: 3500: 3495:. Archived from 3484: 3478: 3477: 3463: 3457: 3444: 3438: 3437: 3432:. Archived from 3421: 3415: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3400: 3399: 3393: 3386: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3361: 3360: 3354: 3343: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3326: 3325: 3319: 3308: 3299: 3293: 3286: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3267: 3265: 3259:. Archived from 3216: 3207: 3201: 3195: 3176: 3172: 3063:read-only memory 2999: 2992: 2988: 2985: 2979: 2948: 2940: 2845: 2833: 2821:Use in education 2685: 2682: 2676: 2663: 2646: 2618: 2412:Science and Life 2326:thermal printers 2310:read-only memory 2300:calculator, the 2296:, programmable, 2259: 2243: 2227: 2215: 2199: 2030: 2022: 2013:The Bowmar Brain 1970:Pico Electronics 1591:cathode ray tube 1370:stepped reckoner 1104: 877: 873: 753:keys on top and 519: 515: 428: 424: 329: 328:0.14285714285714 325: 324: 323: 319: 313: 305: 304: 303: 299: 284:vulgar fractions 239:key combinations 179:computer algebra 169:, which include 21: 5739: 5738: 5734: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5729: 5728: 5689: 5688: 5687: 5682: 5663: 5620:Microcontroller 5610:Embedded system 5598: 5567: 5536: 5479: 5451: 5447:Ultra-mobile PC 5356: 5333: 5259: 5160: 5093: 4997: 4988: 4953: 4914: 4901: 4899: 4895: 4884: 4841: 4829: 4809: 4789: 4786: 4784:Further reading 4776: 4757: 4738: 4715: 4686:10.2307/2974875 4633: 4628: 4615: 4613: 4596: 4589: 4580: 4578: 4565: 4564: 4560: 4511: 4507: 4498: 4496: 4481: 4477: 4468: 4466: 4453: 4452: 4448: 4439: 4437: 4424: 4423: 4419: 4410: 4408: 4395: 4394: 4390: 4361: 4360: 4356: 4339: 4338: 4334: 4315: 4311: 4302: 4300: 4291: 4290: 4286: 4277: 4275: 4262: 4261: 4257: 4247: 4246: 4242: 4233: 4231: 4220: 4216: 4207: 4203: 4195: 4191: 4183: 4179: 4160: 4156: 4143: 4139: 4130: 4128: 4118: 4112: 4108: 4099: 4097: 4081: 4080: 4076: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4032: 4031: 4027: 4018: 4016: 4011: 4010: 4006: 3993: 3992: 3985: 3972: 3971: 3967: 3958: 3956: 3943: 3942: 3938: 3929: 3927: 3914: 3913: 3909: 3900: 3898: 3885: 3884: 3880: 3871: 3869: 3860: 3859: 3855: 3846: 3844: 3831: 3830: 3826: 3817: 3815: 3802: 3801: 3797: 3788: 3786: 3773: 3772: 3763: 3754: 3752: 3737: 3733: 3723: 3722: 3718: 3711:Office Magazine 3708: 3707: 3703: 3694: 3692: 3677: 3673: 3652: 3648: 3639: 3637: 3626:"Modèles Payen" 3624: 3623: 3619: 3610: 3608: 3576: 3572: 3564: 3560: 3534: 3508: 3504: 3485: 3481: 3465: 3464: 3460: 3454: 3445: 3441: 3422: 3418: 3410: 3406: 3397: 3395: 3391: 3384: 3372: 3371: 3367: 3358: 3356: 3352: 3341: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3306: 3300: 3296: 3287: 3283: 3275: 3271: 3263: 3227:(6025): 60–65. 3214: 3208: 3204: 3196: 3189: 3185: 3180: 3179: 3173: 3169: 3164: 3107: 3000: 2989: 2983: 2980: 2965: 2949: 2938: 2898: 2853: 2852: 2851: 2850: 2849: 2846: 2838: 2837: 2834: 2823: 2781:word processing 2715: 2698: 2691: 2683: 2677: 2668: 2664: 2655: 2647: 2638: 2619: 2562:Mini Card LC-78 2550:twisted nematic 2517:with the Sharp 2503:Rapidman 1208LC 2459:LE-120A "HANDY" 2435: 2374:adventure games 2270: 2263: 2260: 2251: 2244: 2235: 2228: 2219: 2216: 2207: 2200: 2160:algebraic entry 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2078:Hewlett-Packard 2074: 2068: 2028: 2020: 1938:, rechargeable 1894: 1887: 1853:(later renamed 1823: 1774:(1964) and the 1748: 1742: 1676:, cold-cathode 1601:introduced the 1460: 1278:counting boards 1274: 1268: 1262: 1257: 1216: 1210: 1170:status register 1167: 1160: 1152:status register 1145: 1142:Next, when the 1138: 1134: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1102: 1088: 1058:of a processor 932:and Y register 771: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 744: 741:which have the 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 707:numeric keypads 420: 384: 356:computer memory 352: 327: 321: 317: 316: 315: 311: 301: 297: 296: 295: 247: 212: 199: 187:Euclidean space 130:as far back as 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5737: 5727: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5680: 5668: 5665: 5664: 5662: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5650: 5649: 5639: 5638: 5637: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5606: 5604: 5600: 5599: 5597: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5575: 5573: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5565: 5560: 5554: 5552: 5546: 5545: 5542: 5541: 5538: 5537: 5535: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5523: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5502: 5501: 5500: 5489: 5487: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5461: 5459: 5453: 5452: 5450: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5413: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5366: 5364: 5358: 5357: 5355: 5354: 5349: 5343: 5341: 5335: 5334: 5332: 5331: 5330: 5329: 5324: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5298: 5297: 5286: 5284: 5275: 5269: 5268: 5265: 5264: 5261: 5260: 5258: 5257: 5256: 5255: 5250: 5240: 5239: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5218: 5213: 5212: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5191: 5190: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5168: 5166: 5162: 5161: 5159: 5158: 5153: 5152: 5151: 5141: 5136: 5135: 5134: 5132:Personal super 5124: 5119: 5114: 5108: 5106: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5091: 5090: 5089: 5084: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5027:Arcade cabinet 5023: 5021: 5012: 5005: 4999: 4998: 4991:Computer sizes 4987: 4986: 4979: 4972: 4964: 4958: 4957: 4951:Dentaku-Museum 4948: 4942: 4936: 4931: 4921: 4913: 4912:External links 4910: 4909: 4908: 4875: 4861: 4855: 4839: 4827: 4807: 4785: 4782: 4781: 4780: 4774: 4761: 4755: 4742: 4736: 4719: 4713: 4698: 4680:(8): 633–639. 4669: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4626: 4587: 4558: 4505: 4483:Mark Bollman. 4475: 4446: 4417: 4388: 4354: 4332: 4309: 4284: 4255: 4240: 4214: 4201: 4189: 4177: 4154: 4137: 4106: 4074: 4051: 4048:on 2008-06-27. 4025: 4004: 3983: 3965: 3936: 3907: 3878: 3853: 3824: 3795: 3761: 3731: 3716: 3701: 3671: 3646: 3617: 3570: 3558: 3532: 3502: 3499:on 2014-04-08. 3479: 3458: 3447:Chapman (1942) 3439: 3436:on 2014-04-16. 3416: 3404: 3365: 3330: 3294: 3281: 3269: 3266:on 2012-10-26. 3202: 3198:Houston (2023) 3186: 3184: 3181: 3178: 3177: 3166: 3165: 3163: 3160: 3159: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3133: 3131:HP calculators 3128: 3123: 3118: 3113: 3106: 3103: 3059:floating point 3028:multiplication 3002: 3001: 2952: 2950: 2943: 2937: 2934: 2897: 2894: 2847: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2828: 2827: 2826: 2825: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2743:Casio fx-7000G 2714: 2711: 2697: 2694: 2693: 2692: 2678: 2671: 2669: 2665: 2658: 2656: 2648: 2641: 2639: 2620: 2613: 2501:), Rapid Data 2434: 2431: 2269: 2266: 2265: 2264: 2261: 2254: 2252: 2245: 2238: 2236: 2229: 2222: 2220: 2217: 2210: 2208: 2201: 2194: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2114:infix notation 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2070:Main article: 2067: 2064: 1891:Computer World 1886: 1883: 1822: 1819: 1744:Main article: 1741: 1738: 1682:filament lamps 1628:The Bulgarian 1459: 1456: 1272:Human computer 1264:Main article: 1261: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1212:Main article: 1209: 1206: 1202: 1201: 1200: 1199: 1192:binary decoder 1188: 1181: 1165: 1162: 1158: 1155: 1143: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1087: 1084: 1051: 1050: 1037: 1034:Binary decoder 1030: 1029: 1011: 1004: 1003: 1000: 992: 991: 959: 947: 946: 943: 937: 936: 933: 925: 924: 909: 905: 904: 893: 885: 884: 881: 860: 859: 852:microprocessor 844: 843: 842: 828:seven segments 812: 805:multiplication 794: 781:Power source ( 770: 767: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 735:cash registers 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 701: 700: 697: 693: 692: 687: 683: 682: 677: 673: 672: 667: 663: 662: 657: 653: 652: 650:Multiplication 647: 643: 642: 637: 633: 632: 627: 623: 622: 611: 607: 606: 596: 592: 591: 581: 577: 576: 567: 563: 562: 553: 549: 548: 538: 537:MR, RM, or MRC 534: 533: 523: 512: 511: 508: 505: 502: 498: 497: 494: 491: 488: 484: 483: 480: 477: 474: 470: 469: 466: 463: 460: 456: 455: 452: 449: 446: 442: 441: 438: 435: 432: 419: 416: 383: 380: 372:memory address 351: 348: 308:approximations 246: 245:Display output 243: 211: 208: 198: 195: 102:microprocessor 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5736: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5696: 5694: 5679: 5670: 5669: 5666: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5648: 5645: 5644: 5643: 5640: 5636: 5633: 5632: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5605: 5601: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5576: 5574: 5570: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5555: 5553: 5551: 5547: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5507: 5506: 5503: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5494: 5491: 5490: 5488: 5486: 5482: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5462: 5460: 5458: 5454: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5367: 5365: 5363: 5359: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5344: 5342: 5340: 5336: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5319: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5296: 5293: 5292: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5285: 5283: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5270: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5245: 5244: 5241: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5196: 5195: 5192: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5174: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5163: 5157: 5154: 5150: 5147: 5146: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5133: 5130: 5129: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5109: 5107: 5103: 5100: 5096: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5079: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5062:Smart speaker 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5032:Diskless node 5030: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5022: 5020: 5016: 5013: 5009: 5006: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4985: 4980: 4978: 4973: 4971: 4966: 4965: 4962: 4954:(in Japanese) 4952: 4949: 4946: 4943: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4929: 4925: 4922: 4919: 4916: 4915: 4894: 4890: 4883: 4882: 4876: 4873: 4872:1-888840-14-5 4869: 4865: 4862: 4859: 4856: 4853: 4849: 4844: 4840: 4837: 4832: 4828: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4805: 4801: 4800:G. R. Stibitz 4797: 4792: 4788: 4787: 4777: 4771: 4767: 4762: 4758: 4752: 4748: 4743: 4739: 4733: 4728: 4727: 4720: 4716: 4710: 4706: 4705: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4635: 4634: 4623: 4611: 4607: 4606: 4601: 4594: 4592: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4562: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4509: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4479: 4464: 4460: 4459:www.rskey.org 4456: 4450: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4421: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4392: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4368: 4364: 4358: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4336: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4299:on 2016-03-04 4298: 4294: 4288: 4274:on 2016-10-28 4273: 4269: 4265: 4259: 4251: 4244: 4230:on 2011-07-20 4229: 4225: 4218: 4211: 4205: 4198: 4193: 4186: 4185:New Scientist 4181: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4158: 4150: 4149: 4148:Texas Monthly 4141: 4126: 4125: 4117: 4110: 4095: 4091: 4089: 4084: 4078: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4055: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4029: 4014: 4008: 4000: 3996: 3990: 3988: 3979: 3975: 3969: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3940: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3911: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3882: 3868:on 2015-05-26 3867: 3863: 3857: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3828: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3799: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3751:on 2014-07-03 3750: 3746: 3742: 3735: 3727: 3720: 3712: 3705: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3675: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3658: 3650: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3621: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3506: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3483: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3462: 3452: 3448: 3443: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3420: 3414:, p. 11. 3413: 3408: 3390: 3383: 3381: 3377: 3369: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3334: 3316: 3312: 3305: 3298: 3291: 3285: 3278: 3273: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3221: 3213: 3206: 3199: 3194: 3192: 3187: 3171: 3167: 3157: 3154: 3152: 3149: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3122: 3119: 3117: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3108: 3102: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3055: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 2998: 2995: 2987: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2963: 2962: 2958: 2953:This section 2951: 2947: 2942: 2941: 2933: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2902: 2893: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2844: 2832: 2818: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2801: 2797: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2771: 2767: 2766:differentiate 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2746: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2728: 2724: 2719: 2710: 2706: 2704: 2689: 2675: 2670: 2662: 2657: 2653: 2645: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2617: 2612: 2611: 2610: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2591: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2572: 2570: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2555: 2551: 2542: 2535: 2530: 2526: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2511: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2439: 2430: 2428: 2424: 2419: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2408:Наука и жизнь 2405: 2404: 2403:Nauka i Zhizn 2399: 2395: 2390: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2362: 2358: 2350: 2345: 2341: 2339: 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