58:
1973:
20:
218:. In the decarbonylation pathway, aldehydes are produced and decarbonylated to form alkanes, and can be subsequently oxidized to form secondary alcohols and ketones. The wax biosynthesis pathway ends with the transportation of the wax components from the endoplasmic reticulum to the epidermal surface.
307:
evolved more than 450 million years ago during the transition between life in water and life on land. Together, these features enabled upright plant shoots exploring aerial environments to conserve water by internalising the gas exchange surfaces, enclosing them in a waterproof membrane and providing
226:
The primary function of the plant cuticle is as a water permeability barrier that prevents evaporation of water from the epidermal surface, and also prevents external water and solutes from entering the tissues. In addition to its function as a permeability barrier for water and other molecules
227:(prevent water loss), the micro and nano-structure of the cuticle have specialised surface properties that prevent contamination of plant tissues with external water, dirt and microorganisms. Aerial organs of many plants, such as the leaves of the sacred lotus (
194:
The first step of the biosynthesis pathway for the formation of cuticular VLCFAs, occurs with the de novo biosynthesis of C16 acyl chains (palmitate) by chloroplasts in the mesophyll, and concludes with the extension of these chains in the
271:"The waxy sheet of cuticle also functions in defense, forming a physical barrier that resists penetration by virus particles, bacterial cells, and the spores and growing filaments of fungi".
69:
The plant cuticle is a layer of lipid polymers impregnated with waxes that is present on the outer surfaces of the primary organs of all vascular land plants. It is also present in the
441:
Jetter, R, Kunst, L & Samuels, AL (2006) Composition of plant cuticular waxes. In: Riederer, M & Müller, C (2006) Biology of the Plant
Cuticle. Blackwell Publishing, 145-181
1803:
428:
Tegelaar, EW, et al. (1989) Scope and limitations of several pyrolysis methods in the structural elucidation of a macromolecular plant constituent in the leaf cuticle of
1808:
450:
Baker, EA (1982) Chemistry and morphology of plant epicuticular waxes. In: Cutler, DF, Alvin, KL and Price, CE The Plant
Cuticle. Academic Press, 139-165
1941:
419:
Stark, RE and Tian, S (2006) The cutin biopolymer matrix. In: Riederer, M & Müller, C (2006) Biology of the Plant
Cuticle. Blackwell Publishing
410:
Holloway, PJ (1982) The chemical constitution of plant cutins. In: Cutler, DF, Alvin, KL and Price, CE The Plant
Cuticle. Academic Press, pp. 45-85
1859:
85:
The plant cuticle forms a coherent outer covering of the plant that can be isolated intact by treating plant tissue with enzymes such as
43:, young shoots and other aerial plant organs (aerial here meaning all plant parts not embedded in soil or other substrate) that have no
215:
1675:
587:"Arabidopsis Cuticular Wax Biosynthesis Is Negatively Regulated by the DEWAX Gene Encoding an AP2/ERF-Type Transcription Factor"
49:. The film consists of lipid and hydrocarbon polymers infused with wax, and is synthesized exclusively by the epidermal cells.
206:
To form cuticular wax components, VLCFAs are modified through either two identified pathways, an acyl reduction pathway or a
128:
bonds, is the best-known structural component of the cuticular membrane. The cuticle can also contain a non-saponifiable
726:
682:
Barthlott, W.; Neinhuis, C (1997). "Purity of the sacred lotus, or escape from contamination in biological surfaces".
1865:
666:
233:) have ultra-hydrophobic and self-cleaning properties that have been described by Barthlott and Neinhuis (1997). The
760:
1199:
257:
1680:
645:
Raven, J.A. (1977). "The evolution of vascular land plants in relation to supracellular transport processes".
268:
plants from wetter climates that do not have a high risk of dehydration from the under sides of their leaves.
1130:
1849:
1436:
951:
1931:
1685:
1665:
156:
2002:
1815:
1953:
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848:
101:
The cuticle is composed of an insoluble cuticular membrane impregnated by and covered with soluble
203:. An important catalyzer thought to be in this process is the fatty acid elongase (FAE) complex.
1783:
1707:
340:
1512:
358:"Dehydration protection provided by a maternal cuticle improves offspring fitness in the moss
343:. In: Plant Cuticles. Ed. by G. Kerstiens, BIOS Scientific publishers Ltd., Oxford, pp 83-108
1997:
1948:
244:
Dehydration protection provided by a maternal cuticle improves offspring fitness in the moss
196:
179:. Also present are other compounds in cuticular wax which are not VLCFA derivatives, such as
1670:
1567:
1522:
1194:
753:
537:
Kunst, L; Samuels, A. L (2003-01-01). "Biosynthesis and secretion of plant cuticular wax".
214:
converts VLCFAs into primary alcohols, which can then be converted to wax esters through a
1170:
339:
Kolattukudy, PE (1996) Biosynthetic pathways of cutin and waxes, and their sensitivity to
264:
plants adapted to drier climates have more equal cuticle thicknesses compared to those of
8:
1840:
1385:
164:
1778:
1643:
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1113:
899:
795:
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200:
144:
117:
36:
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45:
1936:
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703:
1722:
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133:
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1209:
1204:
1086:
904:
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838:
249:
136:. The cuticular membrane is impregnated with cuticular waxes and covered with
1991:
1906:
1654:
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1507:
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1231:
1033:
1016:
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Cuticular wax is known to be largely composed of compounds which derive from
1901:
1891:
1793:
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978:
628:
602:
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508:
397:
234:
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988:
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808:
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141:
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78:
57:
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965:
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818:
296:
253:
238:
70:
585:
Suh, Mi Chung; Kim, Hae Jin; Kim, Hyojin; Go, Young Sam (2014-04-01).
1854:
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1177:
1101:
1021:
973:
914:
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833:
280:
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261:
211:
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147:, hydrocarbons with chain lengths typically in the range C16 to C36.
110:
90:
86:
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1358:
1028:
813:
160:
74:
62:
1081:
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993:
983:
229:
125:
113:
191:, and thus have different synthetic pathways than those VLCFAs.
1534:
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1155:
1150:
769:
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176:
121:
106:
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300:
82:
40:
24:
432:
L., Journal of
Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 15, 29-54
1529:
1091:
738:
102:
256:
the cuticle tends to be thicker on the top of the leaf (
35:
is a protecting film covering the outermost skin layer (
19:
465:
Yeats, Trevor H.; Rose, Jocelyn K.C. (September 2013).
355:
335:
333:
681:
1989:
356:Budke, J.M.; Goffinet, B.; Jones, C.S. (2013).
330:
467:"The Formation and Function of Plant Cuticles"
435:
754:
640:
638:
150:
1860:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
710:
536:
532:
530:
528:
526:
524:
522:
520:
518:
460:
458:
456:
404:
260:), but is not always thicker. The leaves of
716:
644:
584:
580:
578:
576:
308:a variable-aperture control mechanism, the
761:
747:
635:
210:pathway. In the acyl reduction pathway, a
16:Waterproof covering of aerial plant organs
675:
618:
515:
498:
464:
453:
444:
387:
377:
312:guard cells, which regulate the rates of
1804:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
573:
279:The plant cuticle is one of a series of
56:
18:
351:
349:
1990:
742:
413:
346:
157:very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs)
23:Water beads on the waxy cuticle of
13:
721:. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
14:
2014:
1809:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
1972:
1971:
647:Advances in Botanical Research
422:
248:and in the sporophytes of all
96:
52:
1:
659:10.1016/S0065-2296(08)60361-4
551:10.1016/S0163-7827(02)00045-0
323:
116:composed of inter-esterified
77:, and in both sporophyte and
1850:History of plant systematics
1437:Thorns, spines, and prickles
295:and intercellular spaces in
274:
221:
7:
10:
2019:
1666:Alternation of generations
768:
539:Progress in Lipid Research
151:Cuticular wax biosynthesis
120:which are cross-linked by
1967:
1915:
1879:
1816:Cultivated plant taxonomy
1779:Biological classification
1769:
1642:
1558:
1454:
1404:
1129:
1059:
1002:
964:
938:
874:
794:
776:
1676:Evolutionary development
140:, which are mixtures of
1327:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
303:mesophyll tissue, that
1942:by author abbreviation
1866:Plant taxonomy systems
1784:Botanical nomenclature
603:10.1105/tpc.114.123307
341:environmental stresses
241:technical materials.
66:
28:
1949:Botanical expeditions
696:10.1007/s004250050096
483:10.1104/pp.113.222737
197:endoplasmic reticulum
60:
22:
1681:Evolutionary history
1671:Double fertilization
1523:Cellular respiration
717:Freeman, S. (2002).
360:Funaria hygrometrica
246:Funaria hygrometrica
237:has applications in
900:Non-vascular plants
145:aliphatic compounds
118:omega hydroxy acids
1405:Surface structures
1200:Flower development
719:Biological Science
379:10.1093/aob/mct033
138:epicuticular waxes
67:
29:
1985:
1984:
1624:Herbaceous plants
1450:
1449:
132:polymer known as
2010:
2003:Plant physiology
1975:
1974:
1954:Individual trees
1629:Secondary growth
1600:Succulent plants
1588:Prostrate shrubs
1471:Apical dominance
1456:Plant physiology
1417:Epicuticular wax
962:
961:
955:
946:Plant morphology
763:
756:
749:
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739:
733:
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714:
708:
707:
679:
673:
672:
642:
633:
632:
622:
597:(4): 1666–1680.
582:
571:
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513:
512:
502:
471:Plant Physiology
462:
451:
448:
442:
439:
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426:
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417:
411:
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391:
381:
366:Annals of Botany
353:
344:
337:
283:, together with
230:Nelumbo nucifera
2018:
2017:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2008:
2007:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1963:
1932:Botanical terms
1925:
1911:
1875:
1821:Citrus taxonomy
1799:Author citation
1765:
1659:
1638:
1560:
1554:
1550:Turgor pressure
1458:
1446:
1400:
1215:Floral symmetry
1133:
1125:
1055:
1044:Vascular bundle
1039:Vascular tissue
998:
958:
949:
948:
934:
905:Vascular plants
870:
866:Plant pathology
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772:
767:
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680:
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669:
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436:
430:Agave americana
427:
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409:
405:
354:
347:
338:
331:
326:
319:
277:
258:adaxial surface
250:vascular plants
224:
208:decarbonylation
201:epidermal cells
153:
99:
81:generations of
55:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2016:
2006:
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1982:
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1922:Related topics
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1871:Taxonomic rank
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1789:Botanical name
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1775:
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1771:Plant taxonomy
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1763:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1755:
1754:
1747:Megasporangium
1744:
1743:
1742:
1735:Microsporangia
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1573:Cushion plants
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1552:
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1527:
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1510:
1508:Plant hormones
1505:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1491:Photosynthesis
1488:
1483:
1478:
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1460:
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1234:
1224:
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1210:Floral formula
1207:
1205:Floral diagram
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1197:
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1185:
1180:
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1173:
1168:
1158:
1148:
1143:
1137:
1135:
1134:(incl. Flower)
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1123:
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1034:Storage organs
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890:Archaeplastida
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844:Phytogeography
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839:Phytochemistry
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796:Subdisciplines
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728:978-0130819239
727:
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674:
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591:The Plant Cell
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421:
412:
403:
372:(5): 781–789.
345:
328:
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223:
220:
152:
149:
98:
95:
73:generation of
54:
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15:
9:
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2:
2015:
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1907:Phytochemical
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1545:Transpiration
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1357:
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1350:
1348:
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1338:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1332:Inflorescence
1330:
1328:
1325:
1319:
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1314:
1311:
1307:
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1128:
1120:
1117:
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1112:
1108:
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1100:
1099:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1089:
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1080:
1078:
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1068:
1065:
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1062:
1058:
1052:
1049:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1017:Ground tissue
1015:
1013:
1010:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1001:
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992:
990:
987:
985:
982:
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977:
975:
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953:
947:
944:
943:
941:
940:Plant anatomy
937:
931:
928:
926:
923:
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918:
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913:
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867:
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861:Plant ecology
859:
857:
856:Plant anatomy
854:
850:
847:
846:
845:
842:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
804:Archaeobotany
802:
801:
799:
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793:
787:
784:
782:
779:
778:
775:
771:
764:
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741:
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724:
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668:9780120059058
664:
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621:
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581:
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531:
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385:
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367:
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342:
336:
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329:
321:
315:
314:transpiration
311:
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94:
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84:
80:
76:
72:
64:
61:Anatomy of a
59:
50:
48:
47:
42:
38:
34:
33:plant cuticle
26:
21:
1998:Leaf anatomy
1902:Horticulture
1892:Floriculture
1794:Correct name
1644:Reproduction
1634:Woody plants
1559:Plant growth
1518:Gas Exchange
1503:Phytomelanin
1411:
1381:Plant embryo
1131:Reproductive
979:Phragmoplast
718:
712:
687:
683:
677:
650:
646:
594:
590:
545:(1): 51–80.
542:
538:
474:
470:
446:
437:
429:
424:
415:
406:
369:
365:
359:
278:
270:
245:
243:
235:lotus effect
228:
225:
216:wax synthase
205:
193:
154:
100:
68:
44:
32:
30:
1718:Pollen tube
1713:Pollinators
1703:Pollination
1698:Germination
1513:Respiration
1496:Chlorophyll
1342:Pedicellate
1276:Gametophyte
1195:Aestivation
1146:Antheridium
1141:Archegonium
989:Plasmodesma
966:Plant cells
829:Paleobotany
824:Ethnobotany
809:Astrobotany
653:: 153–219.
477:(1): 5–20.
281:innovations
254:angiosperms
142:hydrophobic
130:hydrocarbon
97:Composition
79:gametophyte
53:Description
1992:Categories
1740:Microspore
1730:Sporangium
1708:Artificial
1396:Sporophyte
1391:Sporophyll
1386:Receptacle
1281:Gynandrium
1151:Androecium
1060:Vegetative
930:Angiosperm
925:Gymnosperm
819:Dendrology
324:References
320:exchange.
299:and later
266:mesophytic
262:xerophytic
239:biomimetic
185:flavonoids
181:terpenoids
159:, such as
71:sporophyte
1937:Botanists
1855:Herbarium
1752:Megaspore
1650:Evolution
1593:Subshrubs
1561:and habit
1486:Nutrition
1481:Cellulose
1476:Bulk flow
1459:Materials
1422:Epidermis
1286:Gynoecium
1267:Endosperm
1262:Dispersal
1178:Staminode
1114:Sessility
1102:Cataphyll
1022:Mesophyll
974:Cell wall
915:Lycophyte
895:Bryophyte
849:Geobotany
834:Phycology
611:1040-4651
559:0163-7827
491:0032-0889
275:Evolution
222:Functions
212:reductase
161:aldehydes
111:polyester
91:cellulase
87:pectinase
75:hornworts
37:epidermis
1977:Category
1897:Forestry
1887:Agronomy
1880:Practice
1831:Cultivar
1826:Cultigen
1686:timeline
1578:Rosettes
1466:Aleurone
1442:Trichome
1359:Perianth
1171:Filament
1029:Meristem
952:glossary
814:Bryology
704:37872229
629:24692420
567:12467640
509:23893170
398:23471009
310:stomatal
165:alcohols
46:periderm
1655:Ecology
1412:Cuticle
1242:Capsule
1232:Anatomy
1183:Tapetum
1107:Petiole
1082:Rhizome
1077:Rhizoid
1004:Tissues
994:Vacuole
984:Plastid
786:Outline
781:History
690:: 1–8.
620:4036578
500:3762664
389:3631323
285:stomata
189:sterols
173:ketones
169:alkanes
126:epoxide
114:polymer
63:eudicot
1959:Plants
1862:(IAPT)
1615:Lianas
1583:Shrubs
1535:Starch
1427:Nectar
1347:Raceme
1313:Stigma
1301:Locule
1291:Carpel
1252:Pyrena
1190:Flower
1166:Anther
1161:Stamen
1156:Pollen
878:groups
770:Botany
725:
702:
684:Planta
665:
627:
617:
609:
565:
557:
507:
497:
489:
396:
386:
316:and CO
305:plants
293:phloem
187:, and
177:esters
175:, and
83:mosses
41:leaves
27:leaves
1919:Lists
1836:Group
1759:Spore
1693:Flora
1610:Vines
1605:Trees
1568:Habit
1540:Sugar
1432:Stoma
1374:Sepal
1369:Petal
1364:Tepal
1352:Umbel
1337:Bract
1318:Style
1306:Ovule
1296:Ovary
1237:Berry
1227:Fruit
1220:Whorl
1087:Shoot
885:Algae
876:Plant
700:S2CID
289:xylem
252:. In
134:Cutan
122:ester
107:Cutin
103:waxes
39:) of
1841:Grex
1723:Self
1257:Seed
1119:Stem
1097:Leaf
1072:Root
1067:Bulb
1051:Wood
1012:Cork
910:Fern
723:ISBN
663:ISBN
625:PMID
607:ISSN
563:PMID
555:ISSN
505:PMID
487:ISSN
394:PMID
301:leaf
297:stem
291:and
124:and
109:, a
89:and
65:leaf
25:kale
1530:Sap
1247:Nut
1092:Bud
692:doi
688:202
655:doi
615:PMC
599:doi
547:doi
495:PMC
479:doi
475:163
384:PMC
374:doi
370:111
199:of
1994::
698:.
686:.
661:.
649:.
637:^
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613:.
605:.
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575:^
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348:^
332:^
287:,
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950:(
762:e
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694::
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657::
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569:.
549::
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481::
400:.
376::
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318:2
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