1031:
604:
40:
1199:
639:
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which absorbs the light and then transfers energy to the monomer. In general, only the initiation step differs from that of the ordinary thermal polymerization of the same monomer; subsequent propagation, termination, and chain-transfer steps are unchanged. In step-growth photopolymerization,
1026:
Step-growth and chain-growth are the main classes of polymerization reaction mechanisms. The former is often easier to implement but requires precise control of stoichiometry. The latter more reliably affords high molecular-weight polymers, but only applies to certain monomers.
1267:
Photopolymerization can be used as a photographic or printing process because polymerization only occurs in regions which have been exposed to light. Unreacted monomer can be removed from unexposed regions, leaving a relief polymeric image. Several forms of
1254:
reactions are chain-growth polymerizations which are initiated by the absorption of visible or ultraviolet light. Photopolymerization can also be a step-growth polymerization. The light may be absorbed either directly by the reactant monomer
666:(PVC), which are produced in high tonnages each year due to their usefulness in manufacturing processes of commercial products, such as piping, insulation and packaging. In general, polymers such as PVC are referred to as "
1264:
absorption of light triggers an addition (or condensation) reaction between two comonomers that do not react without light. A propagation cycle is not initiated because each growth step requires the assistance of light.
1125:. Once the growth of a chain is initiated by formation of an active center, chain propagation is usually rapid by addition of a sequence of monomers. Long chains are formed from the beginning of the reaction.
1730:
Soto, Marc; SebastiĂĄn, Rosa MarĂa; Marquet, Jordi (2014). "Photochemical
Activation of Extremely Weak Nucleophiles: Highly Fluorinated Urethanes and Polyurethanes from Polyfluoro Alcohols".
974:
902:
830:
750:
1335:
1011:
intermediates, which are in general short-lived and relatively unstable "mid-stage" compounds that react with other non-polar molecules present to form more stable polymeric compounds.
1095:
Step-growth polymers increase in molecular weight at a very slow rate at lower conversions and reach moderately high molecular weights only at very high conversion (i.e., >95%).
1209:
Diverse methods are employed to manipulate the initiation, propagation, and termination rates during chain polymerization. A related issue is temperature control, also called
1765:
Wang, Xifan; Schmidt, Franziska; Hanaor, Dorian; Kamm, Paul H.; Li, Shuang; Gurlo, Aleksander (May 2019). "Additive manufacturing of ceramics from preceramic polymers".
1213:, during these reactions, which are often highly exothermic. For example, for the polymerization of ethylene, 93.6 kJ of energy are released per mole of monomer.
1113:
In chain-growth (or chain) polymerization, the only chain-extension reaction step is the addition of a monomer to a growing chain with an active center such as a
670:", as they consist of repeated long chains or structures of the same monomer unit, whereas polymers that consist of more than one monomer unit are referred to as
1616:
1210:
1128:
Chain-growth polymerization (or addition polymerization) involves the linking together of unsaturated monomers, especially containing carbon-carbon
1236:
and molecular weight may be improved, these methods may introduce additional processing requirements to isolate the product from a solvent.
1049:
In step-growth (or step) polymerization, pairs of reactants, of any lengths, combine at each step to form a longer polymer molecule. The
1132:. The pi-bond is lost by formation of a new sigma bond. Chain-growth polymerization is involved in the manufacture of polymers such as
553:
148:
1014:
Polymerization that is not sufficiently moderated and proceeds at a fast rate can be very hazardous. This phenomenon is known as
1511:
1486:
1056:
Step-growth polymers are formed by independent reaction steps between functional groups of monomer units, usually containing
600:
chains or three-dimensional networks. There are many forms of polymerization and different systems exist to categorize them.
1050:
1546:. Frederick Walter Lampe, James E. Mark (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall. pp. 29â30.
1283:
Multiphoton polymerization using single pulses have also been demonstrated for fabrication of complex structures using a
91:
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17:
1876:
1633:
1587:
1551:
1453:
1405:
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133:
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hydrates or simple aldehydes, are able to polymerize themselves at quite low temperatures (ca. â80 °C) to form
1651:"Visible Light Mediated Controlled Radical Polymerization in the Absence of Exogenous Radical Sources or Catalysts"
1188:
1176:
908:
836:
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180:
687:
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1650:
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and alcohol bifunctional monomers) without loss of water or other volatile molecules, and are classified as
658:
As alkenes can polymerize in somewhat straightforward radical reactions, they form useful compounds such as
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1108:
333:
128:
123:
101:
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1044:
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650:
monomer's double bond reforms as a single bond plus a bond to another styrene monomer. The product is
1225:
539:
81:
1582:(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Professional Technical Reference. p. 23.
1649:
McKenzie, Thomas G.; Fu, Qiang; Wong, Edgar H. H.; Dunstan, Dave E.; Qiao, Greg G. (23 June 2015).
1325:
1302:
615:, polymerization can occur via a variety of reaction mechanisms that vary in complexity due to the
296:
1812:"Single-pulse multiphoton polymerization of complex structures using a digital multimirror device"
1064:, since a small molecule such as water is lost when the polymer chain is lengthened. For example,
1700:
1221:
1217:
1216:
The manner in which polymerization is conducted is a highly evolved technology. Methods include
398:
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167:
1307:
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Mills, Benjamin; Grant-Jacob, James A; Feinaeugle, Matthias; Eason, Robert W (17 June 2013).
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1003:. Generally, because formaldehyde is an exceptionally reactive electrophile it allows
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1701:"A green and fast method for PEDOT: Photoinduced step-growth polymerization of EDOT"
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to afford polyamides (e.g., nylons) is an example of step-growth polymerization.
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such as nitrogen or oxygen. Most step-growth polymers are also classified as
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require more complex synthesis due to the way in which reactants polymerize.
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Introduction to
Polymer Science and Chemistry:A Problem-Solving Approach
638:
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1085:
1008:
368:
348:
190:
1743:
999:, or 4 monomer-unit compounds. Such small polymers are referred to as
1080:
links with loss of water. However, there are exceptions; for example
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to form ring cyclic structures, or undergo further reactions to form
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Allcock, H. R.; Lampe, Frederick Walter; Mark, James E. (2003).
1809:
1506:. V. Arrighi (3rd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 4.
1336:
Reversible additionâfragmentation chain-transfer polymerization
1118:
515:
1053:
increases slowly. Long chains form only late in the reaction.
1021:
1122:
1077:
481:
269:
143:
1504:
Polymers : chemistry and physics of modern materials
1444:
Clayden, Jonathan; Greeves, Nick; Warren, Stuart (2001).
1183:. A special case of chain-growth polymerization leads to
1448:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1450â1466.
1152:
are converted to high molecular weight alkanes (-RCHCH
1764:
1648:
991:; molecules consisting of 3 monomer units, which can
911:
839:
767:
690:
631:; in contrast, reactions involving substitution at a
1443:
1175:Other forms of chain growth polymerization include
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896:
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1439:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1429:
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1868:
1541:
1034:A classification of the polymerization reactions
1617:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
1422:
969:{\displaystyle A+B+A+B...\rightarrow BBAB...}
897:{\displaystyle A+B+A+B...\rightarrow AABB...}
825:{\displaystyle A+B+A+B...\rightarrow ABAB...}
547:
1481:(2nd ed.). CRC Press (published 2013).
1373:The IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology
1278:two-photon absorption 3D photopolymerization
745:{\displaystyle A+A+A+...\rightarrow AAAA...}
619:present in the reactants and their inherent
1609:
1607:
1022:Step-growth vs. chain-growth polymerization
623:. In more straightforward polymerizations,
554:
540:
1838:
1778:
1723:
1380:
149:Nitroxide-mediated radical polymerization
1604:
1197:
1029:
637:
627:form polymers through relatively simple
602:
27:Chemical reaction to form polymer chains
1614:Jeremic, Dusan (2014). "Polyethylene".
1613:
14:
1869:
1620:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 1â42.
1239:
1018:, and can cause fires and explosions.
1717:10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2022.105464
1577:
1501:
1476:
1395:
1084:are step-growth polymers formed from
1698:
1573:
1571:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1148:. In these cases, the alkenes RCH=CH
1259:photopolymerization), or else by a
1092:rather than condensation polymers.
607:IUPAC definition for polymerization
24:
38:
25:
1888:
1568:
1528:
134:Controlled radical polymerization
1705:Reactive and Functional Polymers
1177:cationic addition polymerization
1803:
1758:
1692:
1191:allows considerable control of
1181:anionic addition polymerization
1102:
1642:
1580:Polymer science and technology
1544:Contemporary polymer chemistry
1495:
1470:
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1038:
942:
870:
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676:
13:
1:
1626:10.1002/14356007.a21_487.pub3
1357:
983:Other monomer units, such as
97:FloryâHuggins solution theory
1699:Kaya, Kerem (January 2023).
1678:10.1021/acs.macromol.5b00965
1400:. London: Chapman and Hall.
1346:Sequence-controlled polymers
1230:precipitation polymerization
1189:ZieglerâNatta polymerization
588:), is a process of reacting
7:
1789:10.1016/j.addma.2019.02.012
1341:Ring-opening polymerization
1290:
1109:Chain-growth polymerization
1068:chains grow by reaction of
163:Condensation polymerization
129:Free-radical polymerization
124:Chain-growth polymerization
10:
1893:
1285:digital micromirror device
1280:âuse photopolymerization.
1272:âincluding layer-by-layer
1243:
1106:
1097:Solid state polymerization
1045:Step-growth polymerization
1042:
158:Step-growth polymerization
1396:Young, Robert J. (1981).
1226:suspension polymerization
1877:Polymerization reactions
1502:Cowie, J. M. G. (2008).
1398:Introduction to polymers
1326:Polymer characterization
1303:Enzymatic polymerization
1578:Fried, Joel R. (2003).
1382:10.1351/goldbook.P04740
1232:. Although the polymer
1222:solution polymerization
1218:emulsion polymerization
168:Addition polymerization
102:Coilâglobule transition
1767:Additive Manufacturing
1477:Manas, Chanda (2023).
1206:
1035:
970:
898:
826:
746:
655:
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280:Self-healing hydrogels
43:
1321:Plasma polymerization
1201:
1185:living polymerization
1062:condensation polymers
1033:
971:
899:
827:
747:
644:alkene polymerization
641:
606:
494:Cookware and bakeware
446:Industrial production
314:X-ray crystallography
42:
1840:10.1364/oe.21.014853
909:
837:
765:
688:
1831:2013OExpr..2114853M
1670:2015MaMol..48.3864M
1252:photopolymerization
1240:Photopolymerization
467:Protective Coatings
82:MarkâHouwink theory
18:Photopolymerization
1371:"Polymerization".
1207:
1202:Polymerization of
1142:polyvinyl chloride
1051:average molar mass
1036:
966:
894:
822:
742:
674:(or co-polymers).
664:polyvinyl chloride
656:
613:chemical compounds
609:
44:
1744:10.1021/jo5005789
1738:(11): 5019â5027.
1664:(12): 3864â3872.
1513:978-0-8493-9813-1
1488:978-1-4665-5385-9
1446:Organic chemistry
1274:stereolithography
1193:polymer branching
1090:addition polymers
981:
980:
629:radical reactions
617:functional groups
594:chemical reaction
590:monomer molecules
570:polymer chemistry
564:
563:
477:Consumer products
16:(Redirected from
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460:Applied coatings
297:Characterization
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1331:Polymer physics
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1261:photosensitizer
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1211:heat management
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642:An example of
633:carbonyl group
621:steric effects
592:together in a
582:polymerisation
574:polymerization
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1732:J. Org. Chem
1731:
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1366:
1308:
1282:
1266:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1249:
1246:Photopolymer
1215:
1208:
1174:
1134:polyethylene
1130:double bonds
1127:
1115:free radical
1112:
1103:Chain-growth
1096:
1094:
1055:
1048:
1025:
1013:
1007:addition of
1005:nucleophilic
985:formaldehyde
982:
754:
681:Homopolymers
668:homopolymers
667:
660:polyethylene
657:
643:
610:
581:
573:
567:
565:
511:Vinyl record
455:Blow molding
441:Applications
213:Polyurethane
196:Polyethylene
116:
57:Architecture
1316:Metallocene
1270:3D printing
1144:(PVC), and
1058:heteroatoms
1039:Step-growth
652:polystyrene
526:Plastic bag
472:3D printing
260:Homopolymer
248:Polystyrene
72:Degradation
1780:1905.02060
1711:: 105464.
1358:References
1298:Cross-link
1234:dispersity
1160:(R = H, CH
1086:isocyanate
1009:hemiacetal
758:Copolymers
672:copolymers
487:Whitewalls
409:Staudinger
379:MacDiarmid
363:Scientists
349:Viscometry
191:Polyolefin
67:Morphology
51:Properties
1849:1094-4087
1797:104470679
1773:: 80â90.
1686:0024-9297
1066:polyester
1001:oligomers
997:tetramers
943:→
871:→
799:→
719:→
596:to form
450:Extrusion
429:Braconnot
419:Baekeland
399:de Gennes
384:Shirakawa
344:Rheometry
275:Hydrogels
265:Copolymer
256:Structure
218:Polyester
117:Synthesis
62:Tacticity
1871:Category
1857:23787672
1752:24820955
1598:51769096
1562:51096012
1522:82473191
1464:43338068
1375:. 2014.
1291:See also
1204:ethylene
1164:, Cl, CO
1146:acrylate
499:Bakelite
414:Goodyear
339:Rheology
1827:Bibcode
1666:Bibcode
1416:8086791
1351:Sol-gel
1309:In situ
1070:alcohol
993:cyclize
989:trimers
648:styrene
625:alkenes
598:polymer
424:Hayward
404:Ziegler
394:Edwards
1855:
1847:
1795:
1750:
1684:
1632:
1596:
1586:
1560:
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1520:
1510:
1485:
1462:
1452:
1414:
1404:
1257:direct
1228:, and
1119:cation
580:), or
516:Kevlar
374:Heeger
1815:(PDF)
1793:S2CID
1775:arXiv
1654:(PDF)
1250:Most
1123:anion
1121:, or
1078:ester
482:Tires
389:Natta
369:Flory
1853:PMID
1845:ISSN
1748:PMID
1682:ISSN
1630:ISBN
1594:OCLC
1584:ISBN
1558:OCLC
1548:ISBN
1518:OCLC
1508:ISBN
1483:ISBN
1460:OCLC
1450:ISBN
1412:OCLC
1402:ISBN
1276:and
1179:and
1072:and
662:and
309:FTIR
270:Gels
243:PVAc
144:RAFT
139:ATRP
92:LCST
87:UCST
1835:doi
1785:doi
1740:doi
1713:doi
1709:182
1674:doi
1622:doi
1377:doi
1172:).
611:In
568:In
334:DMA
329:TGA
324:NMR
319:DSC
304:GPC
238:PVA
233:PVC
1873::
1851:.
1843:.
1833:.
1823:21
1821:.
1817:.
1791:.
1783:.
1771:27
1769:.
1746:.
1736:79
1734:.
1707:.
1703:.
1680:.
1672:.
1662:48
1660:.
1656:.
1628:.
1606:^
1592:.
1570:^
1556:.
1530:^
1516:.
1458:.
1424:^
1410:.
1287:.
1224:,
1220:,
1195:.
1187:.
1168:CH
1156:-)
1140:,
1136:,
1117:,
572:,
1859:.
1837::
1829::
1799:.
1787::
1777::
1754:.
1742::
1719:.
1715::
1688:.
1676::
1668::
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1624::
1600:.
1564:.
1524:.
1491:.
1466:.
1418:.
1385:.
1379::
1255:(
1170:3
1166:2
1162:3
1158:n
1154:2
1150:2
964:.
961:.
958:.
955:B
952:A
949:B
946:B
940:.
937:.
934:.
931:B
928:+
925:A
922:+
919:B
916:+
913:A
892:.
889:.
886:.
883:B
880:B
877:A
874:A
868:.
865:.
862:.
859:B
856:+
853:A
850:+
847:B
844:+
841:A
820:.
817:.
814:.
811:B
808:A
805:B
802:A
796:.
793:.
790:.
787:B
784:+
781:A
778:+
775:B
772:+
769:A
740:.
737:.
734:.
731:A
728:A
725:A
722:A
716:.
713:.
710:.
707:+
704:A
701:+
698:A
695:+
692:A
654:.
584:(
576:(
555:e
548:t
541:v
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