552:, the common ash of Europe, demonstrates one possible kind of variation. Ash flowers are wind-pollinated and lack petals and sepals. Structurally, the flowers may be bisexual, consisting of two stamens and an ovary, or may be male (staminate), lacking a functional ovary, or female (carpellate), lacking functional stamens. Different forms may occur on the same tree, or on different trees. The Asteraceae (sunflower family), with close to 22,000 species worldwide, have highly modified inflorescences made up of flowers (florets) collected together into tightly packed heads. Heads may have florets of one sexual morphology – all bisexual, all carpellate or all staminate (when they are called
1077:
constraints may be important in the evolution of dioecy, for example, with wind-pollination, separate male flowers arranged in a catkin that vibrates in the wind may provide better pollen dispersal. In climbing plants, rapid upward growth may be essential, and resource allocation to fruit production may be incompatible with rapid growth, thus giving an advantage to delayed production of female flowers. Dioecy has evolved separately in many different lineages, and monoecy in the plant lineage correlates with the evolution of dioecy, suggesting that dioecy can evolve more readily from plants that already produce separate male and female flowers.
158:
265:, etc.) the sporophyte is the dominant generation; the obvious visible plant, whether a small herb or a large tree, is the sporophyte, and the gametophyte is very small. In bryophytes and ferns, the gametophytes are independent, free-living plants, while in seed plants, each female megagametophyte, and the megaspore that gives rise to it, is hidden within the sporophyte and is entirely dependent on it for nutrition. Each male gametophyte typically consists of two to four cells enclosed within the protective wall of a pollen grain.
286:
3778:
3363:
1058:. About 55% of higher plant species reproduce in this way. An additional 7% are partially cross-fertilizing and partially self-fertilizing (autogamy). About 15% produce gametes but are principally self-fertilizing with significant out-crossing lacking. Only about 8% of higher plant species reproduce exclusively by non-sexual means. These include plants that reproduce vegetatively by runners or bulbils, or which produce seeds without embryo fertilization (
31:
539:
995:
2113:
419:
398:
272:. For example, a sporophyte that produces spores that give rise only to male gametophytes may be described as "male", even though the sporophyte itself is asexual, producing only spores. Similarly, flowers produced by the sporophyte may be described as "unisexual" or "bisexual", meaning that they give rise to either one sex of gametophyte or both sexes of the gametophyte.
507:(see the illustration), the common European holly, both kinds of flower have four sepals and four white petals; male flowers have four stamens, female flowers usually have four non-functional reduced stamens and a four-celled ovary. Since only female plants are able to set fruit and produce berries, this has consequences for gardeners.
585:
thus covers a multitude of sexual conditions in its lifetime: nonsexual juvenile plants, young plants that are all male, larger plants with a mix of both male and female flowers, and large plants that have mostly female flowers. Other plant populations have plants that produce more male flowers early
513:
represents the first known group of flowering plants to separate from their common ancestor. It too is dioecious; at any one time, each plant produces either flowers with functional stamens but no carpels, or flowers with a few non-functional stamens and a number of fully functional carpels. However,
459:
or otherwise non-functional. Each flower is either staminate (having only functional stamens and thus male), or carpellate or pistillate (having only functional carpels and thus female). If separate staminate and carpellate flowers are always found on the same plant, the species is described as
1076:
Dioecy, the condition of having unisexual flowers on different plants, necessarily results in outcrossing, and probably evolved for this purpose. However, "dioecy has proven difficult to explain simply as an outbreeding mechanism in plants that lack self-incompatibility". Resource-allocation
797:
flowers. Individuals bearing separate flowers of both sexes at the same time are called simultaneously or synchronously monoecious and individuals that bear flowers of one sex at one time are called consecutively monoecious. (From the Greek
581:(Jack-in-the-pulpit) expresses sexual differences at different stages of growth: smaller plants produce all or mostly male flowers; as plants grow larger over the years the male flowers are replaced by more female flowers on the same plant.
872:
plants) having male parts of flowers developed before female parts, e.g. having flowers that function first as male and then change to female or producing pollen before the stigmas of the same plant are receptive.
518:
plants may change their "sex" over time. In one study, five cuttings from a male plant produced only male flowers when they first flowered, but at their second flowering three switched to producing female flowers.
522:
In extreme cases, almost all of the parts present in a complete flower may be missing, so long as at least one carpel or one stamen is present. This situation is reached in the female flowers of duckweeds
485:
species) produces long catkins containing only male flowers, each with four stamens and a minute perianth, and separate stalked groups of female flowers, each without a perianth. (See the illustration of
887:
plants) having female parts of flowers developed before male parts, e.g. having flowers that function first as female and then change to male or producing pollen after the stigmas of the same plant are
1073:(with the anthers maturing first) or protogynous (with the carpels mature first). Monoecious species, with unisexual flowers on the same plant, may produce male and female flowers at different times.
916:
flowers, some both male and female flowers, and others some combination thereof, such as female and bisexual flowers. The condition is thought to represent a transition between bisexuality and
715:: having either only male or only female flowers. No individual plant of the population produces both pollen and ovules. (From the Greek for "two households". See also the Wiktionary entry for
447:, reduced and sterile. + (Below and bottom right): A shoot with flowers from a female plant; and a female flower enlarged, showing a robust stigma; and showing male-flower stamens (
455:
A perfect flower has both stamens and carpels, and is described as "bisexual" or "hermaphroditic". A unisexual flower is one in which either the stamens or the carpels are missing,
3193:
342:
grains, each containing a microscopic male gametophyte. Stamens may be called the "male" parts of a flower and collectively form the androecium. Finally in the middle there are
3198:
300:
is the characteristic structure concerned with sexual reproduction in flowering plants (angiosperms). Flowers vary enormously in their structure (morphology). A
1069:. Various aspects of floral morphology promote allogamy. In plants with bisexual flowers, the anthers and carpels may mature at different times, plants being
110:
of another, depends on the reproductive morphology, and is the single most important determinant of the genetic structure of nonclonal plant populations.
102:) also have complex interplays between morphological adaptation and environmental factors in their sexual reproduction. The breeding system, or how the
3331:
643:: each flower of each individual has both male and female structures, i.e. it combines both sexes in one structure. Flowers of this kind are called
371:. Two or more carpels may be fused together to varying degrees and the entire structure, including the fused styles and stigmas may be called a
350:, and within each ovule is a tiny female gametophyte. Carpels may be called the "female" parts of a flower and collectively form the gynoecium.
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1012:
2123:
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74:, are the most varied physically and show a correspondingly great diversity in methods of reproduction. Plants that are not flowering plants (
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472:. A 1995 study found that about 6% of angiosperm species are dioecious, and that 7% of genera contain some dioecious species.
226:(bisexual), producing both eggs and sperm, or dioicous (unisexual), either female (producing eggs) or male (producing sperm).
2095:
2043:
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1976:
1951:
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Olson, Matthew S. & Antonovics, Janis (2000). "Correlation between male and female reproduction in the subdioecious herb
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populations with flowers that are not clearly male or female. The population produces normally male or female plants with
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466:. If separate staminate and carpellate flowers are always found on different plants, the species is described as
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that produces one ovule, which when fertilized becomes a seed. If the carpel contains more than one seed, as in
301:
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The complexity of the morphology of flowers and its variation within populations has led to a rich terminology.
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1016:
435:. (Above and top right): A 'shoot' with flowers from a male plant; and a male flower enlarged, showing robust
17:
414:. A pair of maturing male-flower catkins are on the right; female catkins (of the previous year) on the left.
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The primary mechanism used by flowering plants to ensure outcrossing involves a genetic mechanism known as
677:: having sexes developing at different times; producing pollen when the stigmas are not receptive, either
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3473:
3468:
3463:
3392:
3321:
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flowers which occur on the same individual. In the broad sense of the term, it also includes plants with
767:: (of flowers) having some parts that are normally present not developed, e.g. lacking stamens. See also
501:) are dioecious. Each plant produces either functionally male flowers or functionally female flowers. In
210:), but strictly speaking, spores and sporophytes are neither male nor female because they do not produce
1535:
1246:
1062:). The selective advantage of outcrossing appears to be the masking of deleterious recessive mutations.
562:
species) have heads of bisexual florets, like other members of the tribe
Cichorieae, whereas marigolds (
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3527:
3055:
1943:
1510:
1485:
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species) generally have heads with the outer florets bisexual and the inner florets staminate (male).
114:(1793) studied the reproduction of flowering plants and for the first time it was understood that the
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3205:
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male and female sexes reach maturity in synchrony; producing mature pollens when stigma is receptive.
111:
268:
The sporophyte of a flowering plant is often described using sexual terms (e.g. "female" or "male")
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3458:
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1666:
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968:: having either functionally male or functionally female flowers. This condition is also called
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in the year and as plants bloom later in the growing season they produce more female flowers.
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627:: having male, female, and bisexual flowers on the same plant, also called trimonoecious.
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1050:, cross-fertilization or allogamy, in which offspring are formed by the fusion of the
556:), or may have mixtures of two or more sexual forms (heterogamous). Thus goatsbeards (
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with different morphologies. The radiating arms of female gametophores (left) protect
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862:. Or, with bisexual and at least one of male and female flowers on the same plant.
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479:) are examples of monoecious plants with unisexual flowers. A mature alder tree (
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170:. In this species, gametes are produced on different plants on umbrella-shaped
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1899:
Strittmatter, L.I.; Negrón-Ortiz, V. & Hickey, R.J. (2002). "Subdioecy in
1563:
Ewing, J.W. & Klein, R.M. (1982). "Sex
Expression in Jack-in-the-Pulpit".
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375:. The lower part of the pistil, where the ovules are produced, is called the
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529:), which consist of a single carpel, and in the male flowers of spurges (
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179:
175:
171:
139:
115:
2124:
Images of sexual systems in flowering plants at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
1630:
Stace, H.M. (1995). "Protogyny, Self-Incompatibility and
Pollination in
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of two different plants, is the most common mode of reproduction among
1019: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1433:& Soltis, Douglas E. (2004). "Floral Developmental Morphology of
789:: In the commoner narrow sense of the term, it refers to plants with
725:: having hermaphrodite flowers and female flowers on separate plants.
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531:
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468:
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41:
1869:
1808:"Sex segregation ratio and gender expression in the genus Actinidia"
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59:) of those parts of plants directly or indirectly concerned with
202:. Spores may be identical isospores or come in different sizes (
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214:. The alternate generation, the gametophyte, produces gametes,
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67:
45:
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601:: having male flowers on some plants, bisexual ones on others.
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2821:
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2758:
2753:
2741:
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2265:
1509:
Barkley, Theodore M.; Brouillet, Luc & Strother, John L.
1484:
Barkley, Theodore M.; Brouillet, Luc & Strother, John L.
962:: with male, female and bisexual flowers on different plants.
830:, but with either a few flowers of the opposite sex or a few
525:
481:
347:
323:
315:
254:
219:
199:
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that produce eggs. Male gametophores (right) are topped with
103:
2065:
The
Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species
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2486:
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2038:(3rd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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by limiting self-pollination. Some dichogamous plants have
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246:
238:
91:
79:
1400:
1398:
270:
based on the sexuality of the gametophyte it gives rise to
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2919:
2481:
2128:
1903:(Cactaceae): breeding system and embryological studies".
245:), the sexual gametophyte is the dominant generation. In
1267:
1465:
1395:
3377:
1226:
44:(the stigma and part of the style is visible) and the
1805:
1220:
The
Cambridge Illustrated Glossary of Botanical Terms
55:
is the study of the physical form and structure (the
1508:
1483:
844:. Or, mostly monoecious, but also partly polygamous.
2088:
Organogenesis of
Flowers: a Photographic Text-Atlas
1732:
1410:
1365:"Dioecy and its correlates in the flowering plants"
926:: having mostly female flowers, with a few male or
894:: having mostly male flowers, with a few female or
40:(Christmas or Holiday Cactus), showing part of the
1966:
575:, some plants undergo sex-switching. For example,
1428:
542:The basic cases of sexuality of flowering plants.
3794:
1781:Gender and sexual dimorphism in flowering plants
1707:
1892:
1851:
1806:Testolin, R; Cipriani, G; Costa, G (May 1995).
1757:. I. K. International Pvt Ltd. pp. 115–.
1422:
1362:
731:: having only female flowers (the female of a
3393:
2144:
3250:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
1750:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
152:
1754:Definitional Glossary of Agricultural Terms
1701:
806:"house". See also the Wiktionary entry for
735:population); producing seed but not pollen.
70:, which are the reproductive structures of
27:Parts of plant enabling sexual reproduction
3400:
3386:
2151:
2137:
1967:Bernstein, C. & Bernstein, H. (1991).
1845:
1602:
1562:
1556:
1527:
1363:Renner, S.S. & Ricklefs, R.E. (1995).
1320:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1217:
655:. Other terms used for this condition are
611:population); producing pollen but no seed.
607:: having only male flowers (the male of a
330:. The sepals and petals together form the
280:
1931:
1744:
1598:
1596:
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1502:
1477:
1347:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1238:
1147:"The evolution of plant sexual diversity"
1035:Learn how and when to remove this message
451:), reduced, sterile, and with no pollen.
383:) corresponding to the separate carpels.
194:, gives rise to the next generation, the
186:Plants have complex lifecycles involving
3194:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
2071:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
951:
537:
417:
396:
346:, which at maturity contain one or more
284:
156:
29:
2085:
1937:
1660:
1439:International Journal of Plant Sciences
1324:
1144:
1112:Evolutionary history of plants: Flowers
904:: having some individuals in otherwise
854:flowers on the same plant. Also called
14:
3795:
2059:
2011:
1960:
1771:
1654:
1623:
1591:
1471:
1279:
1273:
1244:
1232:
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2132:
2030:
1942:(second ed.). Richmond, Surrey:
1777:
1629:
1565:Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club
1416:
1404:
1202:
1138:
745:and female flowers on the same plant.
1994:
1738:
1533:
1017:adding citations to reliable sources
988:
535:) which consist of a single stamen.
3496:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
637:and male flowers on the same plant.
495:Most hollies (members of the genus
379:. It may be divided into chambers (
275:
24:
2053:
1218:Hickey, M. & King, C. (2001).
912:flowers, but some plants may have
334:. Next inwards there are numerous
25:
3819:
3199:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
2105:
138:, which includes analysis of the
3777:
3776:
3570:Evolution of sexual reproduction
3362:
3361:
2111:
1102:Evolution of sexual reproduction
993:
884:
869:
682:
678:
134:utilized this work to build his
2090:. University of Toronto Press.
1799:
1751:Dinesh Kumar (20 August 2008).
1680:
1663:"Sexual systems in angiosperms"
1004:needs additional citations for
947:
841:
3678:Sexual reproduction in animals
2036:New Flora of the British Isles
984:
909:
905:
827:
790:
768:
732:
704:
694:
608:
589:
443:; and showing a female-flower
164:gametophytes of the liverwort
106:from one plant fertilizes the
13:
1:
2118:Plant reproductive morphology
2014:The Morphology of Angiosperms
1971:. San Diego: Academic Press.
1222:. Cambridge University Press.
1127:
937:
927:
917:
913:
895:
851:
831:
817:
794:
778:
752:
742:
690:
634:
618:
475:Members of the birch family (
393:Flower § Floral function
386:
53:Plant reproductive morphology
3550:Sex as a biological variable
3533:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
3240:History of plant systematics
2827:Thorns, spines, and prickles
1636:Australian Journal of Botany
1552:– via www.eFloras.org.
1523:– via www.eFloras.org.
1498:– via www.eFloras.org.
1263:– via www.eFloras.org.
1132:
66:Among all living organisms,
7:
1080:
850:: having male, female, and
310:shown in the figure, has a
10:
3824:
3688:Penile-vaginal intercourse
3528:Sequential hermaphroditism
3056:Alternation of generations
2158:
1988:
1969:Aging, Sex, and DNA Repair
1944:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
1905:American Journal of Botany
1858:American Journal of Botany
1369:American Journal of Botany
1331:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
834:flowers on the same plant.
390:
188:alternation of generations
3772:
3725:
3558:
3518:Testis-determining factor
3415:
3357:
3305:
3269:
3206:Cultivated plant taxonomy
3169:Biological classification
3159:
3032:
2948:
2844:
2794:
2519:
2449:
2392:
2354:
2328:
2264:
2184:
2166:
1812:Sexual Plant Reproduction
1778:Geber, Monica A. (1999).
1708:G. J. H. Grubben (2004).
326:and both male and female
153:Use of sexual terminology
112:Christian Konrad Sprengel
3459:Sex-determination system
3066:Evolutionary development
1995:Cook, J. Gordon (1968).
1145:Barrett, S.C.H. (2002).
222:. A gametophyte can be
34:Close-up of a flower of
3407:
2717:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
1999:. Watford, UK: Merrow.
1661:Baskauf, Steve (2002).
1154:Nature Reviews Genetics
1092:Vegetative reproduction
281:Basic flower morphology
3442:Sexual differentiation
3332:by author abbreviation
3256:Plant taxonomy systems
3174:Botanical nomenclature
2086:Sattler, Rolf (1973).
2016:. London: Hutchinson.
1940:The Kew Plant Glossary
1938:Beentje, Henk (2016).
1690:. Dictionary of Botany
1606:Plant Breeding Reviews
1544:Flora of North America
1515:Flora of North America
1490:Flora of North America
1327:The Kew Plant Glossary
1325:Beentje, Henk (2010).
1255:Flora of North America
543:
452:
415:
307:Ranunculus glaberrimus
293:
291:Ranunculus glaberrimus
190:. One generation, the
183:
118:process involved both
49:
3484:Temperature-dependent
3339:Botanical expeditions
2012:Sporne, K.R. (1974).
1917:10.3732/ajb.89.9.1373
1901:Consolea spinosissima
693:flowers, others have
541:
421:
400:
304:flower, like that of
288:
167:Marchantia polymorpha
160:
142:of flowers and their
33:
3071:Evolutionary history
3061:Double fertilization
2913:Cellular respiration
2120:at Wikimedia Commons
2067:. London: J. Murray.
1784:. Berlin: Springer.
1632:Anthocercis gracilis
1435:Amborella trichopoda
1329:. Richmond, Surrey:
1245:Whittemore, Alan T.
1067:self-incompatibility
1013:improve this article
3700:Hormonal motivation
3673:Fungal reproduction
3592:Reproductive system
2290:Non-vascular plants
1603:Janick, J. (2010).
1407:, pp. 292–296.
1276:, pp. 125–127.
1117:Flower: Development
952:androgynomonoecious
816:: (of flowers) see
625:Androgynomonoecious
583:Arisaema triphyllum
578:Arisaema triphyllum
182:that produce sperm.
136:theory of evolution
61:sexual reproduction
3705:Human reproduction
3683:Sexual intercourse
3668:Plant reproduction
2795:Surface structures
2590:Flower development
1997:ABC of plant terms
1856:(Saxifragaceae)".
1824:10.1007/BF00242255
1714:. PROTA. pp.
1534:Strother, John L.
1437:(Amborellaceae)".
856:polygamomonoecious
838:Polygamomonoecious
549:Fraxinus excelsior
546:A species such as
544:
453:
416:
294:
184:
50:
3790:
3789:
3710:Lordosis behavior
3425:Sexual dimorphism
3375:
3374:
3014:Herbaceous plants
2840:
2839:
2116:Media related to
2097:978-0-8020-1864-9
2045:978-0-521-70772-5
2023:978-0-09-120611-6
1978:978-0-12-092860-6
1953:978-1-84246-604-9
1854:Astilbe biternata
1764:978-81-906757-4-1
1725:978-90-5782-147-9
1648:10.1071/BT9950451
1474:, pp. 15–16.
1431:Soltis, Pamela S.
1340:978-1-84246-422-9
1235:, pp. 14–15.
1045:
1044:
1037:
824:Polygamodioecious
367:, it is called a
364:Eranthis hyemalis
132:natural selection
16:(Redirected from
3815:
3808:Plant morphology
3780:
3779:
3740:Animal sexuality
3663:Sexual selection
3402:
3395:
3388:
3379:
3378:
3365:
3364:
3344:Individual trees
3019:Secondary growth
2990:Succulent plants
2978:Prostrate shrubs
2861:Apical dominance
2846:Plant physiology
2807:Epicuticular wax
2352:
2351:
2345:
2336:Plant morphology
2153:
2146:
2139:
2130:
2129:
2115:
2101:
2082:
2068:
2049:
2027:
2008:
1983:
1982:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1911:(9): 1373–1387.
1896:
1890:
1889:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1803:
1797:
1795:
1775:
1769:
1768:
1748:
1742:
1736:
1730:
1729:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1695:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1674:
1665:. Archived from
1658:
1652:
1651:
1627:
1621:
1620:
1600:
1589:
1588:
1560:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1550:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1522:
1521:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1497:
1496:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1426:
1420:
1414:
1408:
1402:
1393:
1392:
1360:
1345:
1344:
1322:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1262:
1261:
1242:
1236:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1215:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1196:
1190:
1184:. Archived from
1151:
1142:
1040:
1033:
1029:
1026:
1020:
997:
989:
685:. This promotes
338:, which produce
276:Flowering plants
263:flowering plants
48:that surround it
21:
3823:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3813:
3812:
3803:Plant sexuality
3793:
3792:
3791:
3786:
3768:
3755:Differentiation
3745:Human sexuality
3735:Plant sexuality
3721:
3617:Spermatogenesis
3561:
3554:
3417:
3411:
3406:
3376:
3371:
3353:
3322:Botanical terms
3315:
3301:
3265:
3211:Citrus taxonomy
3189:Author citation
3155:
3049:
3028:
2950:
2944:
2940:Turgor pressure
2848:
2836:
2790:
2605:Floral symmetry
2523:
2515:
2445:
2434:Vascular bundle
2429:Vascular tissue
2388:
2348:
2339:
2338:
2324:
2295:Vascular plants
2260:
2256:Plant pathology
2180:
2162:
2157:
2108:
2098:
2078:Systema Naturae
2061:Darwin, Charles
2056:
2054:Further reading
2046:
2024:
1991:
1986:
1979:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1936:
1932:
1897:
1893:
1870:10.2307/2656891
1850:
1846:
1836:
1834:
1804:
1800:
1792:
1776:
1772:
1765:
1749:
1745:
1737:
1733:
1726:
1706:
1702:
1693:
1691:
1688:"Gynodioecious"
1686:
1685:
1681:
1672:
1670:
1659:
1655:
1634:(Solanaceae)".
1628:
1624:
1617:
1601:
1592:
1577:10.2307/2484467
1561:
1557:
1548:
1546:
1532:
1528:
1519:
1517:
1507:
1503:
1494:
1492:
1482:
1478:
1470:
1466:
1429:Buzgo, Matyas;
1427:
1423:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1396:
1381:10.2307/2445418
1361:
1348:
1341:
1323:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1259:
1257:
1243:
1239:
1231:
1227:
1216:
1203:
1194:
1192:
1188:
1149:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1083:
1041:
1030:
1024:
1021:
1010:
998:
987:
631:Andromonoecious
592:
504:Ilex aquifolium
489:Alnus serrulata
431:flowers and is
424:Ilex aquifolium
410:flowers and is
403:Alnus serrulata
395:
389:
353:Each carpel in
283:
278:
155:
130:'s theories of
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3821:
3811:
3810:
3805:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3784:
3773:
3770:
3769:
3767:
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3763:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3737:
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3719:
3718:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3675:
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3658:
3653:
3643:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3626:
3625:
3624:
3619:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3583:
3582:
3577:
3566:
3564:
3556:
3555:
3553:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3520:
3515:
3514:
3513:
3508:
3501:Sex chromosome
3498:
3493:
3492:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3456:
3455:
3454:
3449:
3439:
3438:
3437:
3432:
3421:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3405:
3404:
3397:
3390:
3382:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3369:
3358:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3335:
3334:
3324:
3318:
3316:
3314:
3313:
3312:Related topics
3310:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3266:
3264:
3263:
3261:Taxonomic rank
3258:
3253:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3213:
3203:
3202:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3179:Botanical name
3171:
3165:
3163:
3161:Plant taxonomy
3157:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3145:
3144:
3137:Megasporangium
3134:
3133:
3132:
3125:Microsporangia
3117:
3116:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3052:
3050:
3048:
3047:
3042:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3010:
3009:
3008:
3007:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2980:
2970:
2965:
2963:Cushion plants
2954:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2916:
2915:
2910:
2900:
2898:Plant hormones
2895:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2881:Photosynthesis
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2852:
2850:
2842:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2798:
2796:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2746:
2745:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2719:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2693:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2614:
2613:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2600:Floral formula
2597:
2595:Floral diagram
2592:
2587:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2548:
2538:
2533:
2527:
2525:
2524:(incl. Flower)
2517:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2494:
2484:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2426:
2424:Storage organs
2421:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2404:
2398:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2360:
2358:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2310:Spermatophytes
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2280:Archaeplastida
2277:
2271:
2269:
2262:
2261:
2259:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2242:
2241:
2234:Phytogeography
2231:
2229:Phytochemistry
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2190:
2188:
2186:Subdisciplines
2182:
2181:
2179:
2178:
2173:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2156:
2155:
2148:
2141:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2121:
2107:
2106:External links
2104:
2103:
2102:
2096:
2083:
2073:Linnaeus, Carl
2069:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2050:
2044:
2028:
2022:
2009:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1977:
1959:
1952:
1930:
1891:
1844:
1798:
1790:
1770:
1763:
1743:
1741:, p. 131.
1731:
1724:
1700:
1679:
1653:
1642:(5): 451–459.
1622:
1615:
1590:
1555:
1526:
1501:
1476:
1464:
1451:10.1086/424024
1445:(6): 925–947.
1421:
1419:, p. 669.
1409:
1394:
1375:(5): 596–606.
1346:
1339:
1278:
1266:
1237:
1225:
1201:
1166:10.1038/nrg776
1160:(4): 274–284.
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1125:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1082:
1079:
1043:
1042:
1001:
999:
992:
986:
983:
982:
981:
963:
955:
941:
931:
921:
899:
892:Subandroecious
889:
878:
877:is also used.)
863:
845:
835:
821:
811:
782:
772:
762:
756:
749:Hermaphroditic
746:
741:: having both
739:Gynomonoecious
736:
726:
720:
708:
698:
672:
661:hermaphroditic
647:, having both
638:
633:: having both
628:
622:
612:
602:
599:Androdioecious
591:
588:
388:
385:
357:species is an
282:
279:
277:
274:
271:
198:asexually via
154:
151:
128:Charles Darwin
126:interactions.
26:
18:Perfect flower
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3820:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3798:
3783:
3775:
3774:
3771:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3747:
3746:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3728:
3724:
3716:
3715:Pelvic thrust
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3689:
3686:
3685:
3684:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3647:
3646:Fertilization
3644:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3631:
3630:
3627:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3612:Gametogenesis
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3557:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3545:parasexuality
3543:
3541:
3538:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3523:Hermaphrodite
3521:
3519:
3516:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3490:
3489:Haplodiploidy
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3461:
3460:
3457:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3443:
3440:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3414:
3410:
3403:
3398:
3396:
3391:
3389:
3384:
3383:
3380:
3368:
3360:
3359:
3356:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3333:
3330:
3329:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3311:
3308:
3307:
3304:
3298:
3297:Phytochemical
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3274:
3272:
3268:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
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3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
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3204:
3200:
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3164:
3162:
3158:
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3131:
3128:
3127:
3126:
3123:
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3121:
3118:
3114:
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3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
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3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3072:
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3062:
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3051:
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3037:
3035:
3031:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3006:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2947:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2935:Transpiration
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2887:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
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2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
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2820:
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2815:
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2808:
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2800:
2799:
2797:
2793:
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2784:
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2777:
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2772:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2750:
2747:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2722:Inflorescence
2720:
2718:
2715:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2682:
2679:
2678:
2677:
2674:
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2648:
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2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
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2618:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2578:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2539:
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2407:Ground tissue
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2330:Plant anatomy
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2251:Plant ecology
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2247:
2246:Plant anatomy
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2240:
2237:
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2227:
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2220:
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2212:
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2197:
2195:
2194:Archaeobotany
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2169:
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2047:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2019:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1992:
1980:
1974:
1970:
1963:
1955:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1895:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1864:(6): 837–44.
1863:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1833:
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1825:
1821:
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1813:
1809:
1802:
1793:
1791:3-540-64597-7
1787:
1783:
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1760:
1756:
1755:
1747:
1740:
1735:
1727:
1721:
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1713:
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1704:
1689:
1683:
1669:on 2018-07-03
1668:
1664:
1657:
1649:
1645:
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1633:
1626:
1618:
1616:9780470650028
1612:
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1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1559:
1545:
1541:
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1530:
1516:
1512:
1511:"Chichorieae"
1505:
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1208:
1206:
1191:on 2013-05-27
1187:
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1061:
1057:
1056:higher plants
1053:
1049:
1039:
1036:
1028:
1018:
1014:
1008:
1007:
1002:This section
1000:
996:
991:
990:
979:
975:
971:
967:
964:
961:
960:
956:
953:
949:
945:
944:Trimonoecious
942:
939:
935:
932:
929:
925:
924:Subgynoecious
922:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
900:
897:
893:
890:
886:
882:
879:
876:
871:
867:
864:
861:
860:trimonoecious
857:
853:
849:
846:
843:
839:
836:
833:
829:
825:
822:
819:
815:
812:
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801:
796:
792:
788:
787:
783:
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766:
763:
760:
757:
754:
750:
747:
744:
740:
737:
734:
730:
727:
724:
723:Gynodioecious
721:
718:
714:
713:
709:
706:
702:
699:
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692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
673:
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62:
58:
54:
47:
43:
39:
38:
37:Schlumbergera
32:
19:
3734:
3634:spermatozoon
3562:reproduction
3511:Y chromosome
3506:X chromosome
3452:Virilization
3447:Feminization
3292:Horticulture
3282:Floriculture
3184:Correct name
3034:Reproduction
3024:Woody plants
2949:Plant growth
2908:Gas Exchange
2893:Phytomelanin
2771:Plant embryo
2521:Reproductive
2520:
2369:Phragmoplast
2087:
2077:
2064:
2035:
2032:Stace, Clive
2013:
1996:
1968:
1962:
1939:
1933:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1894:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1847:
1835:. Retrieved
1815:
1811:
1801:
1780:
1773:
1753:
1746:
1734:
1710:
1703:
1692:. Retrieved
1682:
1671:. Retrieved
1667:the original
1656:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1605:
1571:(1): 47–50.
1568:
1564:
1558:
1547:. Retrieved
1543:
1537:
1529:
1518:. Retrieved
1514:
1504:
1493:. Retrieved
1489:
1486:"Asteraceae"
1479:
1467:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1424:
1412:
1372:
1368:
1326:
1269:
1258:. Retrieved
1254:
1248:
1240:
1228:
1219:
1193:. Retrieved
1186:the original
1157:
1153:
1140:
1075:
1064:
1046:
1031:
1022:
1011:Please help
1006:verification
1003:
977:
973:
969:
965:
957:
943:
933:
923:
902:Subdioecious
901:
891:
880:
875:Protoandrous
874:
865:
859:
855:
847:
837:
823:
813:
803:
799:
784:
774:
764:
758:
748:
738:
728:
722:
710:
700:
674:
668:
664:
660:
656:
644:
640:
630:
624:
614:
604:
598:
593:
582:
576:
572:
570:
563:
557:
547:
545:
530:
524:
521:
515:
508:
502:
496:
494:
487:
480:
474:
467:
461:
454:
432:
428:
422:
411:
407:
401:
362:
354:
352:
305:
295:
290:
267:
228:
185:
172:gametophores
165:
65:
52:
51:
35:
3108:Pollen tube
3103:Pollinators
3093:Pollination
3088:Germination
2903:Respiration
2886:Chlorophyll
2732:Pedicellate
2666:Gametophyte
2585:Aestivation
2536:Antheridium
2531:Archegonium
2379:Plasmodesma
2356:Plant cells
2219:Paleobotany
2214:Ethnobotany
2199:Astrobotany
1837:30 December
1472:Sporne 1974
1274:Sporne 1974
1233:Sporne 1974
1071:protandrous
1048:Outcrossing
985:Outcrossing
885:dichogamous
881:Protogynous
870:dichogamous
866:Protandrous
802:"single" +
775:Monoclinous
759:Homogamous:
687:outcrossing
683:protogynous
679:protandrous
675:Dichogamous
665:monoclinous
657:androgynous
615:Androgynous
605:Androecious
590:Terminology
253:(including
251:seed plants
204:microspores
196:gametophyte
147:pollinators
140:coevolution
116:pollination
96:gymnosperms
76:green algae
72:angiosperms
3797:Categories
3695:Copulation
3416:Biological
3130:Microspore
3120:Sporangium
3098:Artificial
2786:Sporophyte
2781:Sporophyll
2776:Receptacle
2671:Gynandrium
2541:Androecium
2450:Vegetative
2320:Angiosperm
2315:Gymnosperm
2209:Dendrology
1711:Vegetables
1694:2013-04-10
1673:2013-02-27
1549:2013-03-04
1520:2013-03-04
1495:2013-03-04
1417:Stace 2010
1405:Stace 2010
1260:2013-03-04
1249:Ranunculus
1195:2013-02-26
1128:References
974:incomplete
959:Trioecious
948:polygamous
934:Synoecious
888:receptive.
848:Polygamous
842:polygamous
808:monoecious
786:Monoecious
729:Gynoecious
669:synoecious
559:Tragopogon
554:homogamous
477:Betulaceae
463:monoecious
449:staminodes
412:monoecious
391:See also:
387:Variations
355:Ranunculus
328:sex organs
289:Flower of
235:liverworts
231:bryophytes
208:megaspores
192:sporophyte
180:antheridia
176:archegonia
84:liverworts
57:morphology
3750:Mechanics
3727:Sexuality
3622:Oogenesis
3597:Sex organ
3587:Germ cell
3575:Anisogamy
3327:Botanists
3245:Herbarium
3142:Megaspore
3040:Evolution
2983:Subshrubs
2951:and habit
2876:Nutrition
2871:Cellulose
2866:Bulk flow
2849:Materials
2812:Epidermis
2676:Gynoecium
2657:Endosperm
2652:Dispersal
2568:Staminode
2504:Sessility
2492:Cataphyll
2412:Mesophyll
2364:Cell wall
2305:Lycophyte
2285:Bryophyte
2239:Geobotany
2224:Phycology
2005:474319451
1739:Cook 1968
1609:. Wiley.
1538:Calendula
1133:Citations
1025:June 2021
978:imperfect
970:diclinous
966:Unisexual
910:unisexual
906:dioecious
828:dioecious
826:: mostly
791:unisexual
769:Unisexual
765:Imperfect
733:dioecious
717:dioecious
712:Dioecious
705:Unisexual
701:Diclinous
695:unisexual
609:dioecious
573:Amborella
565:Calendula
532:Euphorbia
516:Amborella
510:Amborella
469:dioecious
457:vestigial
433:dioecious
429:unisexual
408:unisexual
322:of inner
314:of outer
243:hornworts
224:monoicous
88:hornworts
42:gynoecium
3782:Category
3760:Activity
3656:Internal
3651:External
3540:Intersex
3367:Category
3287:Forestry
3277:Agronomy
3270:Practice
3221:Cultivar
3216:Cultigen
3076:timeline
2968:Rosettes
2856:Aleurone
2832:Trichome
2749:Perianth
2561:Filament
2419:Meristem
2342:glossary
2204:Bryology
2075:(1735).
2063:(1877).
2034:(2010).
1925:21665739
1886:10860914
1832:25414438
1459:84793812
1174:11967552
1087:Apomixis
1081:See also
1060:apomixis
938:bisexual
930:flowers.
928:bisexual
914:bisexual
898:flowers.
896:bisexual
852:bisexual
832:bisexual
818:bisexual
795:bisexual
779:bisexual
753:bisexual
743:bisexual
697:flowers.
691:bisexual
641:Bisexual
635:bisexual
619:bisexual
369:follicle
332:perianth
259:conifers
162:Dioicous
100:conifers
98:such as
3607:Meiosis
3580:Isogamy
3045:Ecology
2802:Cuticle
2632:Capsule
2622:Anatomy
2573:Tapetum
2497:Petiole
2472:Rhizome
2467:Rhizoid
2394:Tissues
2384:Vacuole
2374:Plastid
2176:Outline
2171:History
1989:Sources
1878:2656891
1585:2484467
1389:2445418
1182:7424193
1122:Meiosis
1052:gametes
814:Perfect
653:carpels
649:stamens
645:perfect
437:stamens
381:locules
344:carpels
336:stamens
320:corolla
302:perfect
229:In the
218:and/or
212:gametes
124:abiotic
68:flowers
46:stamens
3629:Gamete
3602:Mating
3560:Sexual
3435:Female
3349:Plants
3252:(IAPT)
3005:Lianas
2973:Shrubs
2925:Starch
2817:Nectar
2737:Raceme
2703:Stigma
2691:Locule
2681:Carpel
2642:Pyrena
2580:Flower
2556:Anther
2551:Stamen
2546:Pollen
2268:groups
2160:Botany
2094:
2042:
2020:
2003:
1975:
1950:
1923:
1884:
1876:
1830:
1788:
1761:
1722:
1613:
1583:
1457:
1387:
1337:
1180:
1172:
1107:Flower
1097:Botany
946:: see
936:: see
918:dioecy
883:: (of
868:: (of
840:: see
777:: see
751:: see
703:: see
617:: see
445:stigma
441:pollen
373:pistil
359:achene
348:ovules
340:pollen
324:petals
318:and a
316:sepals
298:flower
255:cycads
241:, and
239:mosses
200:spores
144:insect
120:biotic
80:mosses
3418:terms
3309:Lists
3226:Group
3149:Spore
3083:Flora
3000:Vines
2995:Trees
2958:Habit
2930:Sugar
2822:Stoma
2764:Sepal
2759:Petal
2754:Tepal
2742:Umbel
2727:Bract
2708:Style
2696:Ovule
2686:Ovary
2627:Berry
2617:Fruit
2610:Whorl
2477:Shoot
2275:Algae
2266:Plant
1874:JSTOR
1828:S2CID
1818:(3).
1581:JSTOR
1455:S2CID
1385:JSTOR
1189:(PDF)
1178:S2CID
1150:(PDF)
804:oikia
800:monos
571:Like
526:Lemna
482:Alnus
439:with
377:ovary
312:calyx
247:ferns
220:sperm
104:sperm
92:ferns
3639:ovum
3430:Male
3231:Grex
3113:Self
2647:Seed
2509:Stem
2487:Leaf
2462:Root
2457:Bulb
2441:Wood
2402:Cork
2300:Fern
2092:ISBN
2040:ISBN
2018:ISBN
2001:OCLC
1973:ISBN
1948:ISBN
1921:PMID
1882:PMID
1839:2020
1796:p. 4
1786:ISBN
1759:ISBN
1720:ISBN
1611:ISBN
1335:ISBN
1170:PMID
950:and
667:and
651:and
498:Ilex
427:has
406:has
296:The
249:and
216:eggs
206:and
122:and
108:ovum
94:and
3409:Sex
2920:Sap
2637:Nut
2482:Bud
1913:doi
1866:doi
1820:doi
1718:–.
1716:255
1644:doi
1573:doi
1569:109
1447:doi
1443:165
1377:doi
1162:doi
1015:by
976:or
858:or
681:or
492:.)
3799::
3479:ZO
3474:XO
3469:ZW
3464:XY
1946:.
1919:.
1909:89
1907:.
1880:.
1872:.
1862:87
1860:.
1826:.
1814:.
1810:.
1640:43
1638:.
1593:^
1579:.
1567:.
1542:.
1513:.
1488:.
1453:.
1441:.
1397:^
1383:.
1373:82
1371:.
1367:.
1349:^
1333:.
1281:^
1253:.
1204:^
1176:.
1168:.
1156:.
1152:.
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810:.)
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257:,
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63:.
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2340:(
2152:e
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2138:v
2100:.
2081:.
2048:.
2026:.
2007:.
1981:.
1956:.
1927:.
1915::
1888:.
1868::
1841:.
1822::
1816:8
1794:.
1767:.
1728:.
1697:.
1676:.
1650:.
1646::
1619:.
1587:.
1575::
1540:"
1536:"
1461:.
1449::
1391:.
1379::
1343:.
1251:"
1247:"
1198:.
1164::
1158:3
1038:)
1032:(
1027:)
1023:(
1009:.
980:.
954:.
940:.
920:.
873:(
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781:.
771:.
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707:.
671:.
621:.
523:(
233:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
