28:
404:
4,400 metres (14,400 ft). It only covers a fraction of the area of Pastos
Grandes caldera and is probably a remnant of a once-larger lake that filled the moat of the caldera. Earlier lacustrine episodes left a layer of beige mud behind. This mud freezes during the winter months to a certain depth and
601:
species. Similar but different animal species have been found in other local lakes, indicating that they are largely separate systems. The animal flora of such
Altiplano lakes is not very diverse, probably due to their relative youth and the harsh and often highly variable climates of the past in the
411:
Surfaces of open water are concentrated on the eastern edge of the salt pan, in its very centre and isolated areas on the western side, these all form an intricated network of interconnected ponds especially in the western half of the salt pan. One of these open water surfaces on the western side of
335:
Three large ignimbrite-forming eruptions occurred at Pastos
Grandes during its history. At first, it was assumed that large eruptions first occurred 8.1 million years ago, a second 5.6 million years and a third 2.3 million years ago. However, it is not clear which of any eruption formed the caldera.
403:
At an elevation of 4,430 metres (14,530 ft), Pastos
Grandes contains a lake basin north of Cerro Pastos Grandes, which is 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) wide and covers a surface area of about 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi)-120 square kilometres (46 sq mi) at an elevation of
356:
The 6.1 million years old
Carcote ignimbrite may also have originated here. The 5.22 ± 0.02 million years old Alota ignimbrite was also attributed to Pastos Grandes, although it originated in a centre northeast of the Pastos Grandes caldera known as Cerro Juvina. These ignimbrites crop out on the
419:
of Pastos
Grandes and reach the salt pan; the longest flow through the southeastern parts of the catchment. The entire drainage basin of the lake has a surface area of 655 square kilometres (253 sq mi)-660 square kilometres (250 sq mi) and is delimited to the west and east by
267:
which underwent repeated collapse in the past, most likely along defined sectors of its rim. It has been subdivided into two calderas, a larger
Chuhuila caldera and the 40 by 25 kilometres (25 mi × 16 mi) smaller Pastos Grandes caldera. The caldera is about 35 by 40 kilometres
432:
are active or were recently active on the western side of the salt pan and bear names such as La Salsa, La Rumba and El Ojo Verde, where temperatures of 20–75 °C (68–167 °F) have been measured. On the western shore, colder springs predominate. The heat appears to originate from a
373:. The former of which lies on a lineament that appears to coincide with the caldera rim of Pastos Grandes, and the latter seems to rise from the ring fault of Pastos Grandes. but is apparently unrelated to the caldera. Cerro Chascon-Runtu Jarita is less than 100,000 years old according to
364:
Pastos
Grandes was volcanically active for a long time, more than many other Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex centres. Later more recent volcanic centres formed within the caldera, the youngest of these centres are relatively recent Such recent centres close to Pastos Grandes are
1818:
Salisbury, Morgan J.; Jicha, Brian R.; Silva, Shanaka L. de; Singer, Brad S.; Jiménez, Néstor C.; Ort, Michael H. (2010-12-21). "40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of
Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province".
2004:
Watts, Robert B.; Silva, Shanaka L. de; Rios, Guillermina
Jimenez de; Croudace, Ian (1999-09-01). "Effusive eruption of viscous silicic magma triggered and driven by recharge: a case study of the Cerro Chascon-Runtu Jarita Dome Complex in Southwest Bolivia".
412:
the lake basin is known as Laguna Caliente, while another square-shaped lake in the southern part of the caldera is known as Laguna Khara. Sometimes after heavy precipitation, these open water surfaces can join into a ring lake around the centre.
357:
outside of the Pastos Grandes caldera, where they extend to distances of 50 kilometres (31 mi), but also cover parts of the caldera. Given the volumes involved, at least some of the eruptions are classified as 8 on the
487:
platform with numerous fabrics of carbonate deposition. It is unclear what drives its formation as the climate at Pastos Grandes is similar to that of other salt lakes without such platforms but it may be a consequence of
1745:
Muller, E.; Gaucher, E.C.; Durlet, C.; Moquet, J.S.; Moreira, M.; Rouchon, V.; Louvat, P.; Bardoux, G.; Noirez, S.; Bougeault, C.; Vennin, E.; Gérard, E.; Chavez, M.; Virgone, A.; Ader, M. (June 2020).
1704:"Million-year melt–presence in monotonous intermediate magma for a volcanic–plutonic assemblage in the Central Andes: Contrasting histories of crystal-rich and crystal-poor super-sized silicic magmas"
92:
of the Andes. Pastos Grandes has erupted a number of ignimbrites through its history, some of which exceeded a volume of 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi). After the ignimbrite phase, the
545:
species. Different water surfaces are dominated by different diatom species, distinctions that are only partly mediated by different salinities. Animal species found within the lakes include
1135:
Landrum, J. T.; Bennett, P. C.; Engel, A. S.; Alsina, M. A.; Pastén, P. A.; Milliken, K. (2009-04-01). "Partitioning geochemistry of arsenic and antimony, El Tatio Geyser Field, Chile".
340:
The 8.33 ± 0.15 million years old Sifon ignimbrite has a volume of over 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi), but it is not certain that Pastos Grandes was actually the source.
897:
Kaiser, J. F.; de Silva, S. L.; Ort, M. H.; Sunagua, M. (2011-12-01). "The Pastos Grandes Caldera Complex of SW Bolivia: The building of a composite upper crustal batholith".
352:
The 2.89 ± 0.01 million years old Pastos Grandes ignimbrite that has a volume of 1,500 cubic kilometres (360 cu mi) and is part of the second caldera-forming cycle.
349:
The 5.45 ± 0.02 million years old Chuhuilla ignimbrite with a volume of 1,200 cubic kilometres (290 cu mi) and was responsible for the first caldera-forming cycle.
268:(22 mi × 25 mi) wide and had a maximum depth of 400 metres (1,300 ft). Cerro Pastos Grandes is 5,802 metres (19,035 ft) high and shows traces of a
1673:
de Silva, Shanaka L.; Gosnold, William D. (2007-11-01). "Episodic construction of batholiths: Insights from the spatiotemporal development of an ignimbrite flare-up".
468:
mining. Salt contents range 144–371 grams per litre (0.0052–0.0134 lb/cu in). The salt chemistry is strongly influenced by the climate; the precipitation of
1025:
Francis, P.W.; Silva, S.L. De (1989). "Application of the Landsat Thematic Mapper to the identification of potentially active volcanoes in the central Andes".
1789:
Risacher, Francois; Eugster, Hans P. (1979-04-01). "Holocene pisoliths and encrustations associated with spring-fed surface pools, Pastos Grandes, Bolivia".
346:
The 3.3 ± 0.4 million years old Pastos Grandes II/Juvina ignimbrite has a volume of 50–100 cubic kilometres (12–24 cu mi) from the Juvina centre.
204:
and that volcanic centres are well conserved. The surface covered by volcanic rocks amounts to about 300,000 square kilometres (120,000 sq mi).
511:
formations encountered at Pastos Grandes are caused by the precipitation of calcite from oversaturated waters at the surface. What drives the loss of
2050:
Williams, W. D.; Carrick, T. R.; Bayly, I. a. E.; Green, J.; Herbst, D. B. (1995-03-01). "Invertebrates in salt lakes of the Bolivian Altiplano".
343:
The 6.2 ± 0.7 million years old Pastos Grandes I or Chuhuhuilla ignimbrite has with a volume of over 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi).
280:
on the north-northwestern, southwestern and southeastern side. The activity of Pastos Grandes may be associated with the ongoing development of a
1638:
200:
with the former dominating in the Chilean stratovolcanoes and the latter in the ignimbrites. The dry regional climate means that there is little
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is high and the temperatures can vary by as much as 15 °C (27 °F). During winter, they can drop as far as −25 °C (−13 °F).
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541:
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running through the region have influenced the shape of the calderas, giving them an elliptic shape which is also evident at Pastos Grandes.
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in December–March. An estimate for the total precipitation is about 200 millimetres per year (7.9 in/year). That is, the climate is
2101:
672:
Francis, P. W.; Wells, G. L. (1988-07-01). "Landsat Thematic Mapper observations of debris avalanche deposits in the Central Andes".
1183:
Warren, John K. (2010-02-01). "Evaporites through time: Tectonic, climatic and eustatic controls in marine and nonmarine deposits".
653:
interests, with the Bolivian government seeking businesses to exploit the lithium deposits at Pastos Grandes, Uyuni and Coipasa.
1748:"The origin of continental carbonates in Andean salars: A multi-tracer geochemical approach in Laguna Pastos Grandes (Bolivia)"
1639:"Effusive silicic volcanism in the Central Andes: The Chao dacite and other young lavas of the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex"
17:
2136:
1889:
Servant-Vildary, S.; Roux, M. (1990-05-01). "Multivariate analysis of diatoms and water chemistry in Bolivian saline lakes".
336:
A number of ignimbrites has been attributed to Pastos Grandes, some of them may be different names for the same ignimbrite:
2087:
Understanding large resurgent calderas and associated magma systems: the Pastos Grandes Caldera Complex, southwest Bolivia
370:
97:
2131:
1955:
Silva, Shanaka De; Zandt, George; Trumbull, Robert; Viramonte, José G.; Salas, Guido; Jiménez, Néstor (2006-01-01).
235:. Pastos Grandes is part of the Central Volcanic Zone along with about 50 volcanoes with recent activity and other
1957:"Large ignimbrite eruptions and volcano-tectonic depressions in the Central Andes: a thermomechanical perspective"
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81:
37:
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manifestations suggest that volcanic activity may still occur at Pastos Grandes. Finally, Pastos Grandes and
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1600:
Dejoux, Claude (1993-09-01). "Benthic invertebrates of some saline lakes of the Sud Lipez region, Bolivia".
2121:
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rocks linked to Pastos Grandes were erupted from the Chascon-Runtu Jarita vents 94,000 - 85,000 years ago.
27:
609:
lakes that cover the region. The neighbouring Altiplano was formerly covered by lakes as well during the
1702:
Kaiser, Jason F.; de Silva, Shanaka; Schmitt, Axel K.; Economos, Rita; Sunagua, Mayel (1 January 2017).
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The area of Pastos Grandes has a summer wet climate, with most of the precipitation falling during a
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de Silva, S. L.; Self, S.; Francis, P. W.; Drake, R. E.; Carlos, Ramirez R. (10 September 1994).
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155:. The specific area of Pastos Grandes is remote and poorly accessible, the existence of the
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1567:"The nature and distribution of upper cenozoic ignimbrite centres in the Central Andes"
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1926:
Silva, S. L. de (1989-12-01). "Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex of the central Andes".
1527:"La gobernanza de las empresas estatales en la industria minera de los países andinos"
323:. The magmas underwent slow evolution in the 1,000,000 years preceding each eruption.
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has formed polygonal structures as well as large cracks in the crust on its surface.
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grow within the open waters in Pastos Grandes, the diatoms being represented by
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are found at Pastos Grandes, usually associated with active or former springs.
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1858:"Les diatomées des sédiments superficiels de quelques lacs salés de Bolivie"
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generating volcanic centres. This ignimbritic volcanism began in the late
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Unique among most other salars of the Andes, Pastos Grandes features a
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223:. This process has formed three main volcanic zones at the Andes, the
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rates can reach about 1,400 millimetres per year (55 in/year).
464:, the salt pan has been considered a potential site for lithium and
1139:. 12th International Symposium on Water-Rock Interaction (WRI-12).
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The caldera is the site of a few lakes, some of which are fed by
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272:. It might be a 500–1,200 metres (1,600–3,900 ft) high
1954:
1948:
10.1130/0091-7613(1989)017<1102:APVCOT>2.3.CO;2
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are also encountered close to inactive springs. All these
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Volcanic activity in the region is the consequence of the
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and thus the oversaturation is not clear but may involve
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of water cause changes in the composition of the waters.
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suite. Eruption products of Pastos Grandes are rich in
2003:
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247:, a large volcanic province which clusters around the
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428:contribute to the water budget of Pastos Grandes.
433:200–250 °C (392–482 °F) hot reservoir.
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1961:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
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31:Satellite image of the Pastos Grandes lake basin
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492:degassing under the salar. At numerous points,
1675:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1571:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1524:
1178:
1176:
1646:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
1024:
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159:was first established by satellite imagery.
100:were erupted close to the caldera and along
2052:International Journal of Salt Lake Research
1128:
303:. Minerals encountered in the rock include
1173:
483:40 square kilometres (15 sq mi)
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1727:
1590:
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389:geothermal field west of Pastos Grandes.
131:. Geographically the area is part of the
436:Salts found within the salt pan include
172:The region has been heavily affected by
26:
284:underneath the caldera. Major regional
14:
2094:
1821:Geological Society of America Bulletin
1599:
1525:Poveda Bonilla, Rafael (13 May 2022).
1500:
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243:and formed a large field known as the
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563:in saltwater. Additional animals are
424:ridges. Apart from surface streams,
1708:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
330:
143:. The Altiplano contains two large
24:
1811:10.1111/j.1365-3091.1979.tb00353.x
371:Cerro Chascon-Runtu Jarita complex
111:. A number of minerals, including
98:Cerro Chascon-Runtu Jarita complex
25:
2163:
2080:
649:deposits have drawn attention of
135:, a high plateau bordered by the
1856:Servant-Vildary, Simone (1983).
1695:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.07.015
1752:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
1677:. Large Silicic Magma Systems.
1453:Servant-Vildary & Roux 1990
1321:Servant-Vildary & Roux 1990
1205:10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.11.004
1157:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2008.12.024
415:Intermittent streams drain the
385:may be the heat source for the
245:Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex
82:Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex
2102:Volcanoes of Potosí Department
605:Pastos Grandes is one of many
115:, are dissolved in the lakes.
13:
1:
1981:10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.269.01.04
1862:Sciences Géologiques Bulletin
1027:Remote Sensing of Environment
656:
480:
88:province that is part of the
80:. The caldera is part of the
1592:10.1016/0377-0273(81)90028-7
1047:10.1016/0034-4257(89)90117-x
7:
1441:Risacher & Eugster 1979
1429:Risacher & Eugster 1979
1417:Risacher & Eugster 1979
1333:Risacher & Eugster 1979
1280:Risacher & Eugster 1979
1010:de Silva & Gosnold 2007
939:de Silva & Gosnold 2007
837:de Silva & Gosnold 2007
825:de Silva & Gosnold 2007
765:Risacher & Eugster 1979
753:Risacher & Eugster 1979
291:Pastos Grandes has erupted
263:Pastos Grandes is a nested
167:
123:Pastos Grandes lies in the
118:
10:
2168:
2137:Lakes of Potosí Department
1729:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.09.048
1557:
899:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts
616:
396:
359:volcanic explosivity index
162:
1773:10.1016/j.gca.2020.03.020
188:. Volcanic rocks include
2132:Quaternary South America
566:Euplanaria dorotocephala
258:
2007:Bulletin of Volcanology
1874:10.3406/sgeol.1983.1643
1720:2017E&PSL.457...73K
674:Bulletin of Volcanology
392:
1565:Baker, M.C.W. (1981).
1542:Cite journal requires
233:Southern Volcanic Zone
225:Northern Volcanic Zone
32:
18:Pastos Grandes caldera
2127:Neogene South America
2027:10.1007/s004450050274
1185:Earth-Science Reviews
1075:Salisbury et al. 2010
993:Salisbury et al. 2010
777:Salisbury et al. 2010
557:in freshwater and by
533:species such as some
295:rocks which define a
255:, Bolivia and Chile.
229:Central Volcanic Zone
137:Cordillera Occidental
90:Central Volcanic Zone
30:
2152:Pleistocene calderas
2107:Andean Volcanic Belt
1529:(in Spanish): 13–14.
1513:Williams et al. 1995
1477:Williams et al. 1995
1381:Williams et al. 1995
1369:Servant-Vildary 1983
1259:Williams et al. 1995
1223:Servant-Vildary 1983
1137:Applied Geochemistry
1111:de Silva et al. 1994
1099:de Silva et al. 1994
217:South American Plate
2122:Calderas of Bolivia
2019:1999BVol...61..241W
1973:2006GSLSP.269...47D
1940:1989Geo....17.1102D
1833:2011GSAB..123..821S
1803:1979Sedim..26..253R
1764:2020GeCoA.279..220M
1687:2007JVGR..167..320D
1658:1994JGR....9917805D
1652:(B9): 17805–17825.
1583:1981JVGR...11..293B
1197:2010ESRv...98..217W
1149:2009ApGC...24..664L
1039:1989RSEnv..28..245F
911:2011AGUFM.V21C2509K
686:1988BVol...50..258F
399:Pastos Grandes Lake
377:. This and ongoing
141:Cordillera Oriental
49: /
2064:10.1007/BF01992415
1903:10.1007/BF00026956
1614:10.1007/BF00018807
1405:Muller et al. 2020
1393:Muller et al. 2020
1357:Muller et al. 2020
1345:Muller et al. 2020
1244:Muller et al. 2020
963:Kaiser et al. 2017
927:Kaiser et al. 2017
872:Kaiser et al. 2017
694:10.1007/BF01047488
641:Human exploitation
375:argon-argon dating
276:and is flanked by
176:, including large
33:
2147:Pliocene calderas
1934:(12): 1102–1106.
1666:10.1029/94JB00652
1304:Watts et al. 1999
1123:Watts et al. 1999
1087:Silva et al. 2006
951:Silva et al. 2006
221:Peru-Chile Trench
68:is the name of a
53:21.750°S 67.833°W
16:(Redirected from
2159:
2142:Miocene calderas
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1841:10.1130/B30280.1
1827:(5–6): 821–840.
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1681:(1–4): 320–335.
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948:
942:
936:
930:
924:
915:
914:
894:
875:
869:
852:
846:
840:
834:
828:
822:
816:
810:
804:
798:
792:
786:
780:
774:
768:
762:
756:
750:
731:
725:
714:
713:
669:
482:
472:due to cold and
331:Eruption history
153:Salar de Coipasa
125:Sud Lipez Region
64:
63:
61:
60:
59:
58:-21.750; -67.833
54:
50:
47:
46:
45:
42:
21:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2157:
2156:
2117:VEI-8 volcanoes
2092:
2091:
2083:
2078:
1641:
1560:
1555:
1543:
1541:
1532:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1511:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1487:
1483:
1475:
1471:
1463:
1459:
1451:
1447:
1439:
1435:
1427:
1423:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1391:
1387:
1379:
1375:
1367:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1343:
1339:
1331:
1327:
1319:
1310:
1302:
1298:
1290:
1286:
1278:
1265:
1257:
1250:
1242:
1229:
1221:
1212:
1181:
1174:
1133:
1129:
1121:
1117:
1109:
1105:
1097:
1093:
1085:
1081:
1073:
1069:
1061:
1054:
1023:
1016:
1008:
999:
991:
984:
980:, p. 1104.
976:
969:
961:
957:
949:
945:
937:
933:
925:
918:
895:
878:
870:
855:
847:
843:
835:
831:
823:
819:
815:, p. 1103.
811:
807:
803:, p. 1102.
799:
795:
787:
783:
775:
771:
763:
759:
751:
734:
726:
717:
670:
663:
659:
643:
619:
505:sinter terraces
462:sodium chloride
401:
395:
333:
270:sector collapse
261:
184:extending into
182:stratovolcanoes
170:
165:
121:
57:
55:
51:
48:
43:
40:
38:
36:
35:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2165:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2112:Supervolcanoes
2109:
2104:
2090:
2089:
2082:
2081:External links
2079:
2077:
2076:
2047:
2013:(4): 241–264.
2001:
1952:
1923:
1897:(1): 267–290.
1886:
1868:(4): 249–253.
1853:
1815:
1797:(2): 253–270.
1786:
1742:
1699:
1670:
1634:
1597:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1553:
1544:|journal=
1517:
1505:
1503:, p. 266.
1493:
1491:, p. 261.
1481:
1469:
1467:, p. 262.
1457:
1455:, p. 281.
1445:
1443:, p. 267.
1433:
1431:, p. 261.
1421:
1419:, p. 258.
1409:
1407:, p. 234.
1397:
1395:, p. 221.
1385:
1373:
1371:, p. 252.
1361:
1359:, p. 228.
1349:
1347:, p. 223.
1337:
1335:, p. 256.
1325:
1323:, p. 268.
1308:
1306:, p. 246.
1296:
1294:, p. 258.
1284:
1282:, p. 257.
1263:
1248:
1246:, p. 222.
1227:
1225:, p. 249.
1210:
1172:
1127:
1125:, p. 244.
1115:
1103:
1091:
1079:
1067:
1065:, p. 307.
1052:
1014:
1012:, p. 323.
997:
982:
967:
955:
943:
941:, p. 332.
931:
916:
876:
853:
851:, p. 312.
841:
839:, p. 324.
829:
827:, p. 321.
817:
805:
793:
791:, p. 293.
781:
769:
767:, p. 268.
757:
755:, p. 255.
732:
730:, p. 306.
715:
660:
658:
655:
642:
639:
618:
615:
517:photosynthesis
513:carbon dioxide
490:carbon dioxide
397:Main article:
394:
391:
354:
353:
350:
347:
344:
341:
332:
329:
274:resurgent dome
260:
257:
169:
166:
164:
161:
149:Salar de Uyuni
120:
117:
66:Pastos Grandes
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2164:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1891:Hydrobiologia
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1864:(in French).
1863:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1791:Sedimentology
1787:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1602:Hydrobiologia
1598:
1593:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1549:
1536:
1528:
1521:
1515:, p. 74.
1514:
1509:
1502:
1497:
1490:
1485:
1479:, p. 71.
1478:
1473:
1466:
1461:
1454:
1449:
1442:
1437:
1430:
1425:
1418:
1413:
1406:
1401:
1394:
1389:
1383:, p. 69.
1382:
1377:
1370:
1365:
1358:
1353:
1346:
1341:
1334:
1329:
1322:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1305:
1300:
1293:
1288:
1281:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1261:, p. 66.
1260:
1255:
1253:
1245:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1224:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1179:
1177:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1131:
1124:
1119:
1112:
1107:
1100:
1095:
1089:, p. 51.
1088:
1083:
1076:
1071:
1064:
1059:
1057:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1019:
1011:
1006:
1004:
1002:
995:, p. 12.
994:
989:
987:
979:
974:
972:
965:, p. 85.
964:
959:
953:, p. 53.
952:
947:
940:
935:
929:, p. 75.
928:
923:
921:
912:
908:
905:: V21C–2509.
904:
900:
893:
891:
889:
887:
885:
883:
881:
874:, p. 74.
873:
868:
866:
864:
862:
860:
858:
850:
845:
838:
833:
826:
821:
814:
809:
802:
797:
790:
785:
778:
773:
766:
761:
754:
749:
747:
745:
743:
741:
739:
737:
729:
724:
722:
720:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
668:
666:
661:
654:
652:
648:
638:
636:
632:
628:
624:
614:
612:
608:
603:
600:
596:
592:
588:
587:Harpacticoida
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
567:
562:
561:
556:
552:
548:
544:
543:
538:
537:
532:
528:
524:
520:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
501:Rimstone dams
498:
495:
491:
486:
477:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
434:
431:
427:
423:
418:
413:
409:
407:
406:cryoturbation
400:
390:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
362:
360:
351:
348:
345:
342:
339:
338:
337:
328:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
293:calc-alkaline
289:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
266:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
160:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
116:
114:
110:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
62:
29:
19:
2058:(1): 65–77.
2055:
2051:
2010:
2006:
1967:(1): 47–63.
1964:
1960:
1931:
1927:
1894:
1890:
1865:
1861:
1824:
1820:
1794:
1790:
1755:
1751:
1711:
1707:
1678:
1674:
1649:
1645:
1605:
1601:
1574:
1570:
1535:cite journal
1520:
1508:
1496:
1484:
1472:
1460:
1448:
1436:
1424:
1412:
1400:
1388:
1376:
1364:
1352:
1340:
1328:
1299:
1287:
1191:(3–4): 227.
1188:
1184:
1166:10533/142624
1140:
1136:
1130:
1118:
1106:
1094:
1082:
1077:, p. 2.
1070:
1030:
1026:
958:
946:
934:
902:
898:
844:
832:
820:
808:
796:
784:
779:, p. 9.
772:
760:
677:
673:
644:
620:
604:
571:Chironomidae
564:
558:
540:
534:
521:
478:
452:are rich in
435:
414:
410:
402:
383:Cerro Guacha
363:
355:
334:
290:
262:
215:beneath the
206:
171:
122:
106:
65:
34:
1758:: 220–237.
1501:Dejoux 1993
1489:Dejoux 1993
1465:Dejoux 1993
1292:Dejoux 1993
1033:: 245–255.
631:evaporation
611:Pleistocene
591:Orchestidae
542:Navicularia
531:oligohaline
474:evaporation
430:Hot springs
313:plagioclase
213:Nazca Plate
178:ignimbrites
109:hot springs
74:crater lake
56: /
2096:Categories
1143:(4): 665.
1063:Baker 1981
978:Silva 1989
849:Baker 1981
813:Silva 1989
801:Silva 1989
789:Baker 1981
728:Baker 1981
680:(4): 261.
657:References
635:Insolation
623:wet season
583:Ephydridae
579:Cyclopoida
560:Cricotopus
536:Fragilaria
519:by algae.
470:mirabilite
379:geothermal
367:Cerro Chao
278:lava domes
237:ignimbrite
209:subduction
198:rhyodacite
94:lava domes
86:ignimbrite
84:, a large
2072:1037-0544
2035:0258-8900
1997:129924955
1989:0305-8719
1911:0018-8158
1882:0302-2692
1849:0016-7606
1782:0016-7037
1738:0012-821X
1714:: 73–86.
1622:0018-8158
710:128824938
702:0258-8900
607:endorheic
599:Tipulidae
595:Ostracoda
575:Corixidae
547:amphipods
497:pisoliths
485:carbonate
466:potassium
422:rhyolitic
417:catchment
305:amphibole
301:potassium
253:Argentina
174:volcanism
145:salt pans
133:Altiplano
2043:56303121
1919:12273039
1630:23979914
602:region.
387:El Tatio
325:Plutonic
321:sanidine
251:between
249:tripoint
231:and the
190:andesite
168:Regional
139:and the
119:Location
72:and its
2015:Bibcode
1969:Bibcode
1936:Bibcode
1928:Geology
1829:Bibcode
1799:Bibcode
1760:Bibcode
1716:Bibcode
1683:Bibcode
1654:Bibcode
1579:Bibcode
1558:Sources
1193:Bibcode
1145:Bibcode
1035:Bibcode
907:Bibcode
682:Bibcode
647:lithium
617:Climate
555:leeches
527:diatoms
494:calcite
458:lithium
446:ulexite
426:springs
309:biotite
265:caldera
241:Miocene
219:in the
211:of the
202:erosion
163:Geology
157:caldera
129:Bolivia
113:lithium
96:of the
78:Bolivia
70:caldera
44:67°50′W
41:21°45′S
2070:
2041:
2033:
1995:
1987:
1917:
1909:
1880:
1847:
1780:
1736:
1628:
1620:
708:
700:
651:mining
551:elmids
450:brines
448:. The
442:halite
438:gypsum
317:quartz
297:dacite
286:faults
282:pluton
227:, the
194:dacite
147:, the
102:faults
2039:S2CID
1993:S2CID
1915:S2CID
1642:(PDF)
1626:S2CID
706:S2CID
523:Algae
454:boron
259:Local
186:Chile
2068:ISSN
2031:ISSN
1985:ISSN
1907:ISSN
1878:ISSN
1845:ISSN
1778:ISSN
1734:ISSN
1618:ISSN
1548:help
698:ISSN
645:The
629:and
627:arid
597:and
553:and
539:and
525:and
509:cave
503:and
460:and
444:and
393:Lake
369:and
319:and
196:and
180:and
151:and
2060:doi
2023:doi
1977:doi
1965:269
1944:doi
1899:doi
1895:197
1870:doi
1837:doi
1825:123
1807:doi
1768:doi
1756:279
1724:doi
1712:457
1691:doi
1679:167
1662:doi
1610:doi
1606:267
1587:doi
1201:doi
1161:hdl
1153:doi
1043:doi
690:doi
127:of
76:in
2098::
2066:.
2054:.
2037:.
2029:.
2021:.
2011:61
2009:.
1991:.
1983:.
1975:.
1963:.
1959:.
1942:.
1932:17
1930:.
1913:.
1905:.
1893:.
1876:.
1866:36
1860:.
1843:.
1835:.
1823:.
1805:.
1795:26
1793:.
1776:.
1766:.
1754:.
1750:.
1732:.
1722:.
1710:.
1706:.
1689:.
1660:.
1650:99
1648:.
1644:.
1624:.
1616:.
1604:.
1585:.
1575:11
1573:.
1569:.
1539::
1537:}}
1533:{{
1311:^
1266:^
1251:^
1230:^
1213:^
1199:.
1189:98
1187:.
1175:^
1159:.
1151:.
1141:24
1055:^
1041:.
1031:28
1029:.
1017:^
1000:^
985:^
970:^
919:^
903:21
901:.
879:^
856:^
735:^
718:^
704:.
696:.
688:.
678:50
676:.
664:^
593:,
589:,
585:,
581:,
577:,
573:,
569:,
549:,
481:c.
456:,
440:,
361:.
315:,
311:,
307:,
192:,
104:.
2074:.
2062::
2056:4
2045:.
2025::
2017::
1999:.
1979::
1971::
1950:.
1946::
1938::
1921:.
1901::
1884:.
1872::
1851:.
1839::
1831::
1813:.
1809::
1801::
1784:.
1770::
1762::
1740:.
1726::
1718::
1697:.
1693::
1685::
1668:.
1664::
1656::
1632:.
1612::
1595:.
1589::
1581::
1550:)
1546:(
1207:.
1203::
1195::
1169:.
1163::
1155::
1147::
1049:.
1045::
1037::
913:.
909::
712:.
692::
684::
20:)
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