500:
carriers commonly transmit disease because they do not realize they are infected, and consequently take no special precautions to prevent transmission. Symptomatic persons who are aware of their illness are not as likely to transmit infection because they take precautions to reduce possible transmission of the disease and/or seek out treatment to prevent the spread of the disease. Direct droplet spread is due to solid particles or liquid droplet suspended in air for some time. Droplet spread is considered the transmission of the pathogen to a susceptible host within a meter of distance; said droplet spread can occur from coughing, sneezing, and/or just by talking.
219:
38:
343:
second possibility is that something about bats' physiology makes them especially good reservoir hosts. Perhaps bats' "food choices, population structure, ability to fly, seasonal migration and daily movement patterns, torpor and hibernation, life span, and roosting behaviors" are responsible for making them especially suitable reservoir hosts.
342:
Numerous zoonotic diseases have been traced back to bats. There are a couple of theories that serve as possible explanations as to why bats carry so many viruses. One proposed theory is that there exist so many bat-borne illnesses because there exist a large number of bat species and individuals. The
543:
Vehicles such as food, water, blood and fomites can act as passive transmission points between reservoirs and susceptible hosts. Fomites are inanimate objects (doorknobs, medical equipment, etc.) that become contaminated by a reservoir source or someone/something that is a carrier. A vehicle, like a
159:
A common criterion in other definitions distinguishes reservoirs from non-reservoirs by the degree to which the infected host shows symptoms of disease. By these definitions, a reservoir is a host that does not experience the symptoms of disease when infected by the pathogen, whereas non-reservoirs
499:
spread. Direct contact transmission between two people can happen through skin contact, kissing, and sexual contact. Humans serving as disease reservoirs can be symptomatic (showing illness) or asymptomatic (not showing illness), act as disease carriers, and often spread illness unknowingly. Human
593:
LH Taylor found that 61% of all human pathogens are classified as zoonotic. Thus, the identification of the natural reservoirs of pathogens prior to zoonosis would be incredibly useful from a public health standpoint. Preventive measures can be taken to lessen the frequency of outbreaks, such as
83:
of a certain species, such as an animal or a plant, inside of which a pathogen survives, often (though not always) without causing disease for the reservoir itself. By some definitions a reservoir may also be an environment external to an organism, such as a volume of contaminated air or water.
539:
Airborne transmission is different from direct droplet spread as it is defined as disease transmission that takes place over a distance larger than a meter. Pathogens that can be transmitted through airborne sources are carried by particles such as dust or dried residue (referred to as droplet
91:
capable of causing disease, precise definitions for what constitutes a natural reservoir are numerous, various, and often conflicting. The reservoir concept applies only for pathogens capable of infecting more than one host population and only with respect to a defined target population – the
630:
are focusing on the "detection and discovery of zoonotic diseases at the wildlife-human interface." There are numerous other organizations around the world experimenting with different methods to predict and identify reservoir hosts. Researchers at the
University of Glasgow created a
454:
Environmental reservoirs include living and non-living reservoirs that harbor infectious pathogens outside the bodies of animals. These reservoirs may exist on land (plants and soil), in water, or in the air. Pathogens found in these reservoirs are sometimes free-living. The bacteria
140:
The great diversity of infectious pathogens, their possible hosts, and the ways in which their hosts respond to infection has resulted in multiple definitions for "natural reservoir", many of which are conflicting or incomplete. In a 2002 conceptual exploration published in the
151:, the natural reservoir of a given pathogen is defined as "one or more epidemiologically connected populations or environments in which the pathogen can be permanently maintained and from which infection is transmitted to the defined target population." The
155:
is the population or species in which the pathogen causes disease; it is the population of interest because it has disease when infected by the pathogen (for example, humans are the target population in most medical epidemiological studies).
445:
originated from monkeys in Africa. In São José do Rio Preto and Belo
Horizonte, Brazil the zika virus has been found in dead monkeys. Genome sequencing has revealed the virus to be very similar to the type that infects humans.
160:
show symptoms of the disease. The pathogen still feeds, grows, and reproduces inside a reservoir host, but otherwise does not significantly affect its health; the relationship between pathogen and reservoir is more or less
1269:
MATHER, THOMAS N.; WILSON, MARK L.; MOORE, SEAN I.; RIBEIRO, JOSE M. C; SPIELMAN, ANDREW (July 1989). "Comparing the
Relative Potential of Rodents as Reservoirs of the Lyme Disease Spirochete (Borreliaburgdorferi)".
1176:
Smith, R. P.; Rand, P. W.; Lacombe, E. H.; Telford, S. R.; Rich, S. M.; Piesman, J.; Spielman, A. (September 1993). "Norway rats as reservoir hosts for Lyme disease spirochetes on
Monhegan Island, Maine".
171:
What further defines a reservoir for a specific pathogen is where it can be maintained and from where it can be transmitted. A "multi-host" organism is capable of having more than one natural reservoir.
107:
Identifying the natural reservoirs of infectious pathogens has proven useful in treating and preventing large outbreaks of disease in humans and domestic animals, especially those diseases for which no
635:
algorithm that is designed to use "viral genome sequences to predict the likely natural host for a broad spectrum of RNA viruses, the viral group that most often jumps from animals to humans."
96:
it to the target population. Reservoirs may comprise one or more different species, may be the same or a different species as the target, and, in the broadest sense, may include
968:
594:
vaccinating the animal sources of disease or preventing contact with reservoir host animals. In an effort to predict and prevent future outbreaks of zoonotic diseases, the
288:, are thought to have a natural reservoir in bats or other animals exposed to the virus. Other zoonotic diseases that have been transmitted from animals to humans include:
1535:
1220:
Rosal, Gumercindo G.; Nogueda-Torres, BenjamĂn; Villagrán, MarĂa E.; De Diego-Cabrera, JosĂ© A.; Montañez-Valdez, Oziel D.; MartĂnez-Ibarra, JosĂ© A. (2018-03-01).
92:
population of organisms in which the pathogen causes disease. The reservoir is any population of organisms (or any environment) which harbors the pathogen and
2419:
544:
reservoir, may also be a favorable environment for the growth of an infectious agent, as coming into contact with a vehicle leads to its transmission.
1337:
2857:
2411:
1528:
547:
Vector transmission occurs most often from insect bites from mosquitoes, flies, fleas, and ticks. There are two sub-categories of vectors:
487:
A disease reservoir acts as a transmission point between a pathogen and a susceptible host. Transmission can occur directly or indirectly.
565:) is transmitted from an infected human host to a susceptible host as they are transmitted by respiration through airborne transmission.
839:"Right Place, Wrong Species: A 20-Year Review of Rabies Virus Cross Species Transmission among Terrestrial Mammals in the United States"
142:
595:
575:) is a common bacterial infection that is spread from human or non-human reservoirs by vehicles such as contaminated food and water.
585:) can be transmitted from an infected mosquito, an animal (non-human) reservoir, to human host by biological vector transmission.
1521:
3192:
3179:
1793:
1549:
79:
naturally lives and reproduces, or upon which the pathogen primarily depends for its survival. A reservoir is usually a living
555:(reproduction of the pathogen occurs within the vector before the pathogen is transmitted to a host). To give a few examples,
2464:
1003:
947:
1806:
837:
Wallace, Ryan M.; Gilbert, Amy; Slate, Dennis; Chipman, Richard; Singh, Amber; Cassie Wedd; Blanton, Jesse D. (2014-10-08).
2981:
2439:
986:
Macpherson, C.N.L.; Craig, P.S. (1991). "Animal reservoirs of schistosomiasis". In
Macpherson, C.N.L.; Craig, P.S. (eds.).
100:, which are otherwise distinct from natural reservoirs. Significantly, species considered reservoirs for a given pathogen
2118:
242:
Animal (non-human) reservoirs consist of domesticated and wild animals infected by pathogens. For example, the bacterium
229:, 2013. Human consumption of animals as bushmeat in equatorial Africa has caused the transmission of diseases, including
3184:
1490:
462:
2188:
2614:
2609:
2219:
513:) is transmitted by sexual contact involving the penis, vagina, mouth, and anus through direct contact transmission.
3153:
2693:
2100:
1716:
904:
Noble, Jr., John (1970). "A Study of New and Old World
Monkeys to Determine the Likelihood of a Simian Reservoir".
323:
Common animal reservoirs include: bats, rodents, cows, pigs, sheep, swine, rabbits, raccoons, dogs, other mammals.
2287:
599:
3028:
2626:
2345:
2323:
1754:
2996:
1694:
1222:"Chagas disease: Importance of rats as reservoir hosts of Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas, 1909) in western Mexico"
615:
430:
479:, can both exist as free-living parasites in certain water sources as well as in invertebrate animal hosts.
3023:
2176:
1939:
1654:
536:
Indirect transmission can occur by airborne transmission, by vehicles (including fomites), and by vectors.
204:
147:
17:
1848:
1470:
164:, whereas in susceptible hosts that do develop disease caused by the pathogen, the pathogen is considered
3065:
2936:
2872:
2840:
2788:
2085:
2067:
2621:
2034:
1774:
180:
Natural reservoirs can be divided into three main types: human, animal (non-human), and environmental.
31:
703:
3125:
3115:
2810:
2746:
2469:
2434:
2237:
2214:
2000:
1813:
1361:
Nelson, Eric J.; Harris, Jason B.; Morris, J. Glenn; Calderwood, Stephen B.; Camilli, Andrew (2009).
1072:
927:
3240:
2943:
2805:
2680:
2534:
1649:
1639:
466:
3130:
3048:
2914:
2444:
2242:
1949:
1887:
1721:
1689:
611:
525:) is transmitted by cough from human reservoir to susceptible host through direct droplet spread.
93:
42:
1801:
2717:
2502:
2252:
2125:
1731:
1588:
1578:
457:
191:
are human beings infected by pathogens that exist on or within the human body. Infections like
120:
of animals confirmed or suspected as reservoirs for human pathogens, such as birds that harbor
116:
can be controlled by isolating or destroying the pathogen's reservoirs of infection. The mass
3245:
3038:
2670:
2539:
2047:
1954:
1873:
659:
577:
505:
97:
1818:
1313:
3120:
3013:
2959:
2887:
2877:
2569:
2424:
2297:
1904:
1513:
1046:"Zoonotic Diseases: Disease Transmitted from Animals to Humans - Minnesota Dept. of Health"
850:
517:
421:
551:(an insect transmits the pathogen to a host without the insect itself being affected) and
8:
3207:
3197:
3163:
2768:
2206:
2042:
1853:
619:
305:
285:
1045:
854:
2931:
2926:
2835:
2815:
2449:
2292:
2257:
2111:
2077:
1627:
1444:
1411:
1387:
1362:
1283:
1136:
1103:
939:
881:
838:
814:
781:
757:
732:
623:
603:
572:
415:
1863:
3217:
3158:
3018:
2971:
2773:
2275:
1934:
1924:
1909:
1726:
1709:
1573:
1449:
1431:
1392:
1295:
1287:
1251:
1243:
1202:
1194:
1141:
1123:
1102:; Childs, James E.; Field, Hume E.; Holmes, Kathryn V.; Schountz, Tony (2006-07-01).
999:
943:
886:
868:
819:
801:
762:
397:
388:
1491:"Emerging Pandemic Threats | Fact Sheet | U.S. Agency for International Development"
3212:
3148:
3135:
2964:
2953:
2845:
2825:
2660:
2574:
2549:
2280:
2227:
2166:
2057:
1704:
1632:
1439:
1423:
1382:
1374:
1279:
1233:
1186:
1131:
1115:
1099:
991:
935:
876:
858:
809:
793:
752:
744:
654:
632:
426:
419:) are one of the most important animal reservoirs for the Lyme disease spirochete (
215:, streptococcal infection, various respiratory pathogens, and the smallpox virus.
3080:
3075:
2919:
2867:
2675:
2652:
2497:
2474:
1858:
1823:
1699:
1644:
863:
627:
471:
337:
313:
271:
244:
121:
52:
1828:
1160:
995:
731:
Haydon, D. T.; Cleaveland, S.; Taylor, L. H.; Laurenson, M. K. (December 2002).
218:
3110:
3043:
2986:
2758:
2647:
2639:
2564:
2517:
2512:
2459:
2183:
1964:
1959:
1919:
1868:
1833:
1671:
1607:
1238:
1221:
1190:
649:
402:
356:
309:
80:
1338:"Discovery of Zika virus in monkeys suggests disease may also have wild cycle"
278:
before completing their life cycles in vertebrate hosts. Viruses of the taxon
3234:
2991:
2948:
2907:
2800:
2783:
2741:
2454:
2005:
1974:
1595:
1435:
1291:
1247:
1198:
1127:
872:
805:
780:
Haydon, D. T.; Cleaveland, S.; Taylor, L. H.; Laurenson, M. K. (2002-12-01).
567:
557:
496:
293:
192:
88:
1841:
1219:
3202:
3140:
2902:
2882:
2830:
2778:
2729:
2529:
2479:
2090:
1661:
1453:
1427:
1396:
1255:
1145:
1019:
890:
823:
797:
782:"Identifying Reservoirs of Infection: A Conceptual and Practical Challenge"
766:
748:
733:"Identifying Reservoirs of Infection: A Conceptual and Practical Challenge"
598:
started the
Emerging Pandemic Threats initiative in 2009. In alliance with
392:
360:
348:
199:, which exist exclusively within a human reservoir, are sometimes known as
161:
101:
56:
1471:"Machine learning tool can predict viral reservoirs in the animal kingdom"
1299:
1206:
30:
This article is about the concept in disease ecology. For other uses, see
3095:
2897:
2820:
2795:
2544:
2524:
2429:
2389:
2313:
1684:
1679:
1600:
1583:
1119:
376:
352:
301:
297:
266:
257:
1378:
3033:
3008:
2976:
2753:
2734:
2724:
2712:
2559:
2171:
2143:
1969:
1929:
442:
372:
344:
317:
280:
165:
129:
72:
1416:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
37:
3105:
2584:
1617:
1612:
1545:
1495:
607:
522:
510:
261:
49:
1363:"Cholera transmission: the host, pathogen and bacteriophage dynamic"
3088:
3003:
2579:
2554:
2507:
2052:
1622:
1565:
664:
364:
222:
196:
125:
113:
76:
1073:"Why Bats Are Such Good Hosts for Ebola and Other Deadly Diseases"
132:, the identity of the presumed natural reservoir remains obscure.
2892:
2763:
2016:
1159:
Luby, Stephen P.; Gurley, Emily S.; Hossain, M. Jahangir (2012).
1024:
582:
562:
476:
253:
249:
208:
117:
109:
371:
viruses have all been traced back to different species of bats.
75:
of organisms or the specific environment in which an infectious
3100:
2665:
2318:
1914:
779:
730:
644:
289:
1020:"About Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever| Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever | CDC"
2329:
368:
275:
230:
226:
212:
128:
in many parts of the world; for other pathogens, such as the
1543:
1360:
495:
Direct transmission can occur from direct contact or direct
1782:
836:
1098:
387:
Rats are known to be the reservoir hosts for a number of
1268:
1410:
Taylor, L H; Latham, S M; Woolhouse, M E (2001-07-29).
1175:
969:"African monkey meat that could be behind the next HIV"
1409:
1104:"Bats: Important Reservoir Hosts of Emerging Viruses"
704:"Principles of Epidemiology | Lesson 1 - Section 10"
395:spirochetes. In Mexico rats are known carriers of
1158:
588:
391:. Norway rats were found to be infested with the
3232:
1162:TRANSMISSION OF HUMAN INFECTION WITH NIPAH VIRUS
27:Type of population in infectious disease ecology
985:
375:in particular serve as the reservoir host for
274:, spend part of their lives inside freshwater
87:Because of the enormous variety of infectious
1895:
1529:
925:
135:
932:Computational Modeling of Infectious Disease
124:, has been effective at containing possible
1465:
1463:
449:
326:
1536:
1522:
1412:"Risk factors for human disease emergence"
988:Parasitic helminths and zoonoses in Africa
903:
698:
696:
694:
692:
690:
688:
686:
684:
682:
680:
425:). Deer mice serve as reservoir hosts for
104:of disease when infected by the pathogen.
1443:
1386:
1237:
1135:
990:. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 224–236.
906:Bulletin of the World Health Organization
880:
862:
813:
756:
726:
724:
722:
720:
596:U.S. Agency for International Development
1460:
531:
217:
36:
2610:Ear-Nose-Throat/Upper respiratory tract
1783:Access to water, sanitation and hygiene
677:
482:
14:
3233:
3193:Infectious disease (medical specialty)
3085:Antimicrobial resistance surveillance
1226:Journal of Infection and Public Health
921:
919:
717:
490:
264:. Parasitic blood-flukes of the genus
175:
1517:
1094:
1092:
1067:
1065:
252:in humans, has natural reservoirs in
2440:Compartmental models in epidemiology
237:
928:"Host-vector and multihost systems"
916:
203:. Humans can act as reservoirs for
183:
24:
1284:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115306
1179:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
1089:
1062:
940:10.1016/b978-0-32-395389-4.00013-x
463:facultative intracellular parasite
25:
3257:
3189:Economics of Infectious Diseases
1272:American Journal of Epidemiology
1165:. National Academies Press (US).
1483:
1403:
1354:
1330:
1306:
1262:
1213:
1169:
1152:
1038:
41:Cows are natural reservoirs of
3198:Infectious disease informatics
3029:Transmission-based precautions
1314:"Ecology | Hantavirus | DHCPP"
1012:
979:
961:
934:, Elsevier, pp. 121–149,
897:
830:
773:
600:University of California-Davis
589:Implications for public health
225:being prepared for cooking in
13:
1:
2615:Chest/Lower respiratory tract
2390:Ocular (Eye) mucosal membrane
1751:Behavioral/lifestyle factors
1108:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
926:von Csefalvay, Chris (2023),
670:
616:Wildlife Conservation Society
431:hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
205:sexually transmitted diseases
2177:Aerosol-generating procedure
1955:Silent/Subclinical infection
1655:Multidrug-resistant bacteria
864:10.1371/journal.pone.0107539
786:Emerging Infectious Diseases
737:Emerging Infectious Diseases
148:Emerging Infectious Diseases
7:
2841:Vaccine-preventable disease
2789:Monoclonal antibody therapy
1367:Nature Reviews Microbiology
996:10.1007/978-94-011-3054-7_8
638:
102:may not experience symptoms
10:
3262:
2982:Respiratory source control
1239:10.1016/j.jiph.2017.07.017
436:
335:
136:Definition and terminology
32:Reservoir (disambiguation)
29:
3172:
3126:Global Health Initiatives
3116:Evolutionary epidemiology
3064:
2856:
2811:Post-exposure prophylaxis
2747:Antimicrobial stewardship
2705:
2692:
2597:
2488:
2470:Multiplicity of infection
2435:Basic reproduction number
2410:
2382:
2368:
2354:
2338:
2306:
2268:
2211:Percutaneous inoculation
2197:
2159:
2152:
2134:
2066:
2033:
2026:
1990:
1983:
1886:
1773:
1695:Host–pathogen interaction
1670:
1564:
1557:
2944:Protective sequestration
2806:Pre-exposure prophylaxis
2097:Generational difference
1650:Horizontal gene transfer
1640:Antimicrobial resistance
1191:10.1093/infdis/168.3.687
450:Environmental reservoirs
327:Common animal reservoirs
3131:Microbial phylogenetics
3049:Wastewater surveillance
2570:Geographic distribution
2445:Critical community size
2243:Surgical site infection
2091:Iatrogenic/Medical care
2010:Microbial translocation
2006:Endogenous reactivation
2001:Normal flora overgrowth
1950:Opportunistic infection
1722:Opportunistic infection
612:Smithsonian Institution
408:
382:
331:
43:African trypanosomiasis
3203:Microbial bioterrorism
2826:efficacy/effectiveness
2234:Surgical intervention
2126:Breakthrough infection
1748:Genetic predisposition
1732:Susceptible individual
1579:Germ theory of disease
1428:10.1098/rstb.2001.0888
798:10.3201/eid0812.010317
749:10.3201/eid0812.010317
458:Legionella pneumophila
234:
112:exists. In principle,
69:reservoir of infection
45:
3039:Universal precautions
1997:Endogenous overgrowth
1849:Poultry and livestock
660:Vector (epidemiology)
626:, the members of the
578:Plasmodium falciparum
532:Indirect transmission
506:Neisseria gonorrhoeae
467:Legionnaires' disease
336:Further information:
221:
40:
3141:Genomic reassortment
3121:Genetic epidemiology
2960:Health communication
2888:Flattening the curve
2878:Disease surveillance
2661:Systemic/Generalized
2425:Animal disease model
1905:Asymptomatic carrier
1120:10.1128/CMR.00017-06
1100:Calisher, Charles H.
624:Harvard universities
518:Bordetella pertussis
483:Disease transmission
422:Borrelia burgdorferi
3208:Pandemic prevention
3164:Viral phylodynamics
3145:Re-emerging disease
3034:Travel restrictions
2238:Postoperative wound
2207:Blood-borne disease
2189:Respiratory droplet
2101:Vertical/Congenital
2086:Nosocomial/Hospital
2043:Spillover infection
1379:10.1038/nrmicro2204
855:2014PLoSO...9j7539W
491:Direct transmission
416:Peromyscus leucopus
413:White-footed mice (
367:-Like Viruses, and
306:cat-scratch disease
286:Ebola virus disease
176:Types of reservoirs
3154:Selection pressure
2450:Force of infection
2078:Contagious disease
2013:Endogenous seeding
1910:Chain of infection
1834:Injection drug use
1745:Vaccination status
1628:Case fatality rate
1546:infectious disease
1050:health.state.mn.us
618:with support from
604:EcoHealth Alliance
573:campylobacteriosis
270:, responsible for
235:
63:, also known as a
46:
3228:
3227:
3218:Tropical medicine
3159:Synthetic biology
3060:
3059:
3019:Social distancing
2972:Outbreak response
2593:
2592:
2420:Agent-based model
2406:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2398:
2397:
1945:Natural reservoir
1935:Infectious period
1925:Incubation period
1882:
1881:
1838:Natural disaster
1807:Tropical diseases
1790:Biodiversity loss
1727:Risk of infection
1717:Microbiome health
1710:Immunosuppression
1422:(1411): 983–989.
1005:978-94-010-5358-7
949:978-0-323-95389-4
792:(12): 1468–1473.
743:(12): 1468–1473.
398:Trypanosoma cruzi
389:zoonotic diseases
238:Animal reservoirs
153:target population
114:zoonotic diseases
65:disease reservoir
61:natural reservoir
16:(Redirected from
3253:
3213:Tropical disease
3149:Reverse zoonosis
3136:One Health Model
2965:Health education
2954:Community health
2873:Cordon sanitaire
2846:Ring vaccination
2816:Repurposed drugs
2703:
2702:
2622:Gastrointestinal
2465:Machine learning
2269:Gastrointestinal
2220:Intravenous line
2157:
2156:
2071:/Cross-infection
2058:Reverse zoonosis
2031:
2030:
1988:
1987:
1893:
1892:
1874:War and conflict
1742:Nutrition status
1705:Immunodeficiency
1562:
1561:
1538:
1531:
1524:
1515:
1514:
1508:
1507:
1505:
1504:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1478:
1477:
1467:
1458:
1457:
1447:
1407:
1401:
1400:
1390:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1349:
1348:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1325:
1324:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1266:
1260:
1259:
1241:
1217:
1211:
1210:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1156:
1150:
1149:
1139:
1096:
1087:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1069:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1056:
1042:
1036:
1035:
1033:
1032:
1016:
1010:
1009:
983:
977:
976:
965:
959:
958:
957:
956:
923:
914:
913:
901:
895:
894:
884:
866:
834:
828:
827:
817:
777:
771:
770:
760:
728:
715:
714:
712:
711:
700:
655:Refuge (ecology)
633:machine learning
427:Sin Nombre virus
189:Human reservoirs
184:Human reservoirs
21:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3250:
3241:Disease ecology
3231:
3230:
3229:
3224:
3168:
3081:Antigenic shift
3076:Antigenic drift
3067:
3056:
2920:Barrier nursing
2868:Contact tracing
2859:
2852:
2697:
2695:
2688:
2599:
2589:
2490:
2484:
2475:Serial interval
2394:
2378:
2369:Cervico-vaginal
2364:
2355:Trans-placental
2350:
2334:
2302:
2264:
2200:Vascular system
2199:
2193:
2148:
2136:
2130:
2070:
2062:
2022:
1979:
1897:
1878:
1769:
1700:Immune response
1666:
1645:Drug resistance
1589:Infectious dose
1553:
1542:
1512:
1511:
1502:
1500:
1489:
1488:
1484:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1468:
1461:
1408:
1404:
1373:(10): 693–702.
1359:
1355:
1346:
1344:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1322:
1320:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1267:
1263:
1218:
1214:
1174:
1170:
1157:
1153:
1097:
1090:
1081:
1079:
1071:
1070:
1063:
1054:
1052:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1030:
1028:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1006:
984:
980:
975:. May 26, 2012.
973:The Independent
967:
966:
962:
954:
952:
950:
924:
917:
902:
898:
849:(10): e107539.
835:
831:
778:
774:
729:
718:
709:
707:
702:
701:
678:
673:
641:
628:PREDICT project
591:
534:
493:
485:
475:, which causes
472:Vibrio cholerae
452:
439:
429:, which causes
411:
401:, which causes
385:
347:(including the
340:
338:Bat-borne virus
334:
329:
314:coccidiomycosis
284:, which causes
272:schistosomiasis
248:, which causes
245:Vibrio cholerae
240:
186:
178:
138:
122:avian influenza
53:disease ecology
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3259:
3249:
3248:
3243:
3226:
3225:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3187:
3182:
3176:
3174:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3111:Emergent virus
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3092:
3091:
3083:
3078:
3072:
3070:
3062:
3061:
3058:
3057:
3055:
3054:
3051:
3046:
3044:Vector control
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
3000:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2987:N95 respirator
2979:
2974:
2969:
2968:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2946:
2941:
2940:
2939:
2929:
2924:
2923:
2922:
2912:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2864:
2862:
2860:pharmaceutical
2854:
2853:
2851:
2850:
2849:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2750:
2749:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2727:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2709:
2707:
2706:Pharmaceutical
2700:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2686:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2657:Cardiovascular
2655:
2650:
2645:
2642:
2637:
2636:Nervous system
2634:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2612:
2603:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2521:
2520:
2515:
2505:
2500:
2494:
2492:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2460:Infection rate
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2416:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2400:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2392:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2372:
2370:
2366:
2365:
2363:
2362:
2358:
2356:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2348:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2332:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2310:
2308:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2247:
2246:
2245:
2240:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2225:
2222:
2217:
2215:Injection site
2209:
2203:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2186:
2184:Dental aerosol
2181:
2180:
2179:
2169:
2163:
2161:
2154:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2146:
2140:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2128:
2123:
2122:
2121:
2116:
2115:
2114:
2109:
2106:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2080:
2074:
2072:
2068:Human-to-human
2064:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2039:
2037:
2028:
2024:
2023:
2021:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1992:
1985:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1965:Super-spreader
1962:
1960:Superinfection
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1901:
1899:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1877:
1876:
1871:
1869:Vector control
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1804:
1798:Climate zones
1796:
1794:Climate change
1791:
1788:
1785:
1779:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1768:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1713:
1712:
1707:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1676:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1637:
1636:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1610:
1608:Quorum sensing
1605:
1604:
1603:
1593:
1592:
1591:
1581:
1576:
1570:
1568:
1559:
1555:
1554:
1541:
1540:
1533:
1526:
1518:
1510:
1509:
1482:
1459:
1402:
1353:
1342:AGĂŠNCIA FAPESP
1329:
1305:
1278:(1): 143–150.
1261:
1232:(2): 230–233.
1212:
1185:(3): 687–691.
1168:
1151:
1114:(3): 531–545.
1088:
1061:
1037:
1011:
1004:
978:
960:
948:
915:
896:
829:
772:
716:
675:
674:
672:
669:
668:
667:
662:
657:
652:
650:Host (biology)
647:
640:
637:
608:Metabiota Inc.
590:
587:
533:
530:
529:
528:
526:
514:
492:
489:
484:
481:
451:
448:
438:
435:
410:
407:
403:Chagas disease
384:
381:
333:
330:
328:
325:
310:histoplasmosis
239:
236:
185:
182:
177:
174:
137:
134:
98:vector species
89:microorganisms
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3258:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3238:
3236:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3171:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3090:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3063:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3024:Sterilization
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2992:Surgical mask
2990:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2952:
2951:
2950:
2949:Public health
2947:
2945:
2942:
2938:
2935:
2934:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2913:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2855:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2801:Phage therapy
2799:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2784:Immunotherapy
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2742:Antimicrobial
2740:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2691:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2635:
2633:Genitourinary
2632:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2620:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2596:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2491:in population
2487:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2455:Herd immunity
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2391:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2381:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2347:
2344:
2343:
2341:
2339:Genitourinary
2337:
2331:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2305:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2282:
2281:Contamination
2279:
2278:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2249:Vector-borne
2248:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2196:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2155:
2151:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2133:
2127:
2124:
2120:
2117:
2113:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2035:Cross-species
2032:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1976:
1975:Window period
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1940:Latent period
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1885:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1843:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1819:Deforestation
1817:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1764:Stress levels
1763:
1760:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1735:
1734:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1669:
1663:
1660:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1642:
1641:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1596:Pathogenicity
1594:
1590:
1587:
1586:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1547:
1539:
1534:
1532:
1527:
1525:
1520:
1519:
1516:
1498:
1497:
1492:
1486:
1472:
1466:
1464:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1406:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1343:
1339:
1333:
1319:
1315:
1309:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1265:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1172:
1164:
1163:
1155:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1095:
1093:
1078:
1074:
1068:
1066:
1051:
1047:
1041:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1015:
1007:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
982:
974:
970:
964:
951:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
922:
920:
911:
907:
900:
892:
888:
883:
878:
874:
870:
865:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
833:
825:
821:
816:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
776:
768:
764:
759:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
727:
725:
723:
721:
705:
699:
697:
695:
693:
691:
689:
687:
685:
683:
681:
676:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
643:
642:
636:
634:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
586:
584:
580:
579:
574:
570:
569:
568:Campylobacter
564:
560:
559:
558:Morbillivirus
554:
550:
545:
541:
537:
527:
524:
520:
519:
515:
512:
508:
507:
503:
502:
501:
498:
488:
480:
478:
474:
473:
468:
465:which causes
464:
460:
459:
447:
444:
434:
432:
428:
424:
423:
418:
417:
406:
404:
400:
399:
394:
390:
380:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
353:Henipaviruses
350:
346:
339:
324:
321:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
294:blastomycosis
291:
287:
283:
282:
277:
273:
269:
268:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
246:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
214:
210:
206:
202:
201:anthroponoses
198:
194:
193:poliomyelitis
190:
181:
173:
169:
167:
163:
157:
154:
150:
149:
144:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
105:
103:
99:
95:
90:
85:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
51:
44:
39:
33:
19:
3246:Epidemiology
2932:Notification
2903:Hand washing
2898:Food hygiene
2883:Disinfection
2779:Immunization
2730:Anthelmintic
2718:prophylactic
2606:Respiratory
2530:Hyperendemic
2480:WAIFW matrix
2135:Environment-
1944:
1888:Transmission
1864:Urbanization
1662:Host tropism
1558:Determinants
1544:Concepts in
1501:. Retrieved
1499:. 2016-05-24
1494:
1485:
1474:. Retrieved
1419:
1415:
1405:
1370:
1366:
1356:
1345:. Retrieved
1341:
1332:
1321:. Retrieved
1317:
1308:
1275:
1271:
1264:
1229:
1225:
1215:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1161:
1154:
1111:
1107:
1080:. Retrieved
1076:
1053:. Retrieved
1049:
1040:
1029:. Retrieved
1023:
1014:
987:
981:
972:
963:
953:, retrieved
931:
909:
905:
899:
846:
842:
832:
789:
785:
775:
740:
736:
708:. Retrieved
592:
576:
566:
556:
552:
548:
546:
542:
538:
535:
516:
504:
494:
486:
470:
456:
453:
440:
420:
414:
412:
396:
393:Lyme disease
386:
349:Rabies virus
345:Lyssaviruses
341:
322:
279:
265:
243:
241:
233:, to people.
200:
188:
187:
179:
170:
158:
152:
146:
139:
130:ebolaviruses
106:
86:
68:
64:
60:
57:epidemiology
47:
18:Natural host
3185:Eradication
3096:Biosecurity
2821:Vaccination
2796:Inoculation
2774:Drug safety
2769:Combination
2696:and Control
2644:Soft tissue
2598:Anatomical
2565:Seasonality
2545:Mesoendemic
2525:Holoendemic
2518:Farr's laws
2430:Attack rate
2228:Animal bite
2224:Insect bite
2160:Respiratory
1787:Air quality
1775:Environment
1685:Comorbidity
1601:Attack rate
1584:Infectivity
706:. CDC. 2012
377:Nipah virus
302:trichinosis
298:psittacosis
267:Schistosoma
258:zooplankton
3235:Categories
3068:infections
3009:Sanitation
2977:Quarantine
2836:resistance
2754:Antiseptic
2735:Ascaricide
2725:Antifungal
2713:Antibiotic
2694:Prevention
2627:Intestinal
2560:Prevalence
2540:Inequality
2489:Occurrence
2288:Breastmilk
2172:Bioaerosol
2144:Sapronosis
2119:Horizontal
1991:Endogenous
1970:Viral load
1930:Index case
1503:2018-10-23
1476:2018-11-10
1347:2018-11-17
1323:2018-11-17
1082:2018-10-23
1055:2018-11-10
1031:2017-12-03
955:2023-03-02
912:: 509–514.
710:2017-11-10
671:References
553:biological
549:mechanical
443:Zika virus
373:Fruit bats
318:salmonella
281:Ebolavirus
73:population
50:infectious
3180:Discovery
3106:Disease X
3066:Emerging
3014:Screening
2915:Isolation
2759:Antiviral
2585:Twindemic
2535:Incidence
2412:Modelling
2375:Perinatal
2307:Cutaneous
2198:Linked to
2108:Perinatal
2027:Exogenous
2019:formation
1761:Pregnancy
1618:Endotoxin
1613:Virulence
1496:usaid.gov
1436:0962-8436
1292:1476-6256
1248:1876-0341
1199:0022-1899
1128:0893-8512
873:1932-6203
806:1080-6040
540:nuclei).
523:Pertussis
511:Gonorrhea
363:viruses,
262:shellfish
166:parasitic
162:commensal
126:epidemics
94:transmits
71:, is the
3089:EARS-Net
3004:Safe sex
2956:services
2927:Lockdown
2698:measures
2600:location
2580:Syndemic
2575:Sporadic
2555:Pandemic
2550:Outbreak
2508:Epidemic
2361:Prenatal
2253:Mosquito
2137:to-human
2112:Neonatal
2105:Prenatal
2053:Zoonosis
1898:concepts
1829:Humidity
1814:Commerce
1690:Diabetes
1623:Exotoxin
1454:11516376
1397:19756008
1256:28774654
1146:16847084
891:25295750
843:PLOS ONE
824:12498665
767:12498665
665:Zoonosis
639:See also
620:Columbia
365:SARS-CoV
357:Menangle
254:copepods
223:Bushmeat
197:smallpox
77:pathogen
2893:Hygiene
2831:booster
2764:Asepsis
2503:Endemic
2498:Cluster
2082:Source
2017:Biofilm
1854:Poverty
1824:Ecology
1802:El Niño
1755:Smoking
1633:factors
1574:Biofilm
1550:Outline
1445:1088493
1388:3842031
1318:cdc.gov
1300:2787105
1207:8354910
1137:1539106
1025:cdc.gov
882:4189788
851:Bibcode
815:2738515
758:2738515
583:malaria
563:measles
497:droplet
477:cholera
437:Monkeys
433:(HPS).
379:(NiV).
250:cholera
209:measles
118:culling
110:vaccine
3101:CRISPR
3053:Zoning
2908:Gloves
2319:Fomite
2153:Routes
2048:Vector
1915:Fomite
1896:Basic
1859:Travel
1739:Gender
1452:
1442:
1434:
1395:
1385:
1298:
1290:
1254:
1246:
1205:
1197:
1144:
1134:
1126:
1002:
946:
889:
879:
871:
822:
812:
804:
765:
755:
645:Fomite
614:, and
469:, and
361:Tioman
290:rabies
276:snails
260:, and
3173:Other
2681:Fetus
2676:Mouth
2671:Tooth
2666:Blood
2653:Joint
2513:Curve
2383:Other
2330:wound
2328:Open
2298:Feces
2293:Water
1984:Modes
1842:Flood
1566:Agent
1077:WIRED
369:Ebola
316:and
231:Ebola
227:Ghana
213:mumps
67:or a
2937:list
2858:Non-
2648:Bone
2640:Skin
2324:Soil
2314:Burn
2276:Food
2258:Tick
1920:Host
1680:Burn
1672:Host
1450:PMID
1432:ISSN
1393:PMID
1296:PMID
1288:ISSN
1252:PMID
1244:ISSN
1203:PMID
1195:ISSN
1142:PMID
1124:ISSN
1000:ISBN
944:ISBN
887:PMID
869:ISSN
820:PMID
802:ISSN
763:PMID
622:and
461:, a
441:The
409:Mice
383:Rats
359:and
332:Bats
195:and
81:host
59:, a
55:and
2997:PPE
2685:Eye
2346:Sex
2167:Air
1736:Age
1440:PMC
1424:doi
1420:356
1383:PMC
1375:doi
1280:doi
1276:130
1234:doi
1187:doi
1183:168
1132:PMC
1116:doi
992:doi
936:doi
877:PMC
859:doi
810:PMC
794:doi
753:PMC
745:doi
351:),
145:'s
143:CDC
48:In
3237::
1493:.
1462:^
1448:.
1438:.
1430:.
1418:.
1414:.
1391:.
1381:.
1369:.
1365:.
1340:.
1316:.
1294:.
1286:.
1274:.
1250:.
1242:.
1230:11
1228:.
1224:.
1201:.
1193:.
1181:.
1140:.
1130:.
1122:.
1112:19
1110:.
1106:.
1091:^
1075:.
1064:^
1048:.
1022:.
998:.
971:.
942:,
930:,
918:^
910:42
908:.
885:.
875:.
867:.
857:.
845:.
841:.
818:.
808:.
800:.
788:.
784:.
761:.
751:.
739:.
735:.
719:^
679:^
610:,
606:,
602:,
405:.
355:,
320:.
312:,
308:,
304:,
300:,
296:,
292:,
256:,
211:,
207:,
168:.
1552:)
1548:(
1537:e
1530:t
1523:v
1506:.
1479:.
1456:.
1426::
1399:.
1377::
1371:7
1350:.
1326:.
1302:.
1282::
1258:.
1236::
1209:.
1189::
1148:.
1118::
1085:.
1058:.
1034:.
1008:.
994::
938::
893:.
861::
853::
847:9
826:.
796::
790:8
769:.
747::
741:8
713:.
581:(
571:(
561:(
521:(
509:(
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
