2381:'s views of civil resistance into their rebellions. The strike drew a lot attention and encouraged other workers to strike. Strikes for higher wages, improved working conditions and the end of exploitation occurred throughout this period. Other industrial and municipal workers were inspired by the brick and tile workers and also walked off their jobs. A month later, 30,000 black labour workers were on strike in Durban. The entire apartheid system, relied on black labour workers to keep its economy growing, thus the strikes strategically disrupted the system of power. Not only did these strikes distort the nation's economy, they also inspired students to strike on their own. The Durban labour strikes were a foundation for rebellions such as the Soweto Uprising.
1631:. The size of the crowd was estimated to be 20,000 people. The crowd converged on the Sharpeville police station, singing and offering themselves up for arrest for not carrying their pass books. A group of police officers panicked and opened fire on the demonstrators shortly after the crowd approached the police station, killing 69 people and injuring 186. All the victims were black, and most of them had been shot in the back. Many witnesses stated that the crowd was not violent, but Colonel J. Pienaar, the senior police officer in charge on the day, said: "Hordes of natives surrounded the police station. My car was struck with a stone. If they do these things they must learn their lesson the hard way." The event became known as the
2404:'s accession to power, black trade unions were legalised and their role in the resistance struggle grew to all-new proportions. Before 1979, black trade unions had had no legal clout in dealings with employers. All strikes that took place were illegal, but they did help to establish the trade unions and their collective cause. Although the legalisation of black trade unions gave workers the legal right to strike, it also gave the government a degree of control over them, as they had to be registered and hand in their membership records to the government. They were not allowed to support political parties either, though some trade unions did not comply.
1806:(LLA) and the Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA) in Libya. American pressures split the PAC into a "reformist-diplomatic" group under Sibeko, Make, and Pokela, and a Ghanaian Maoist group led by Leballo. APLA was destroyed by the Tanzanian military at Chunya on 11 March 1980 for refusing to accept the reformist-diplomatic leadership by Make. Leballo was influential in the South African 1985 student risings and pivotal in removing Leabua Jonathan's regime in Lesotho, the stress of which caused his death. The PAC never recovered from the 1980 massacre of Leballo's troops and his death and only won 1.2% of the vote in the 1994 South African election.
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people and injuring more than 200. The attack was one of the deadliest in the ANC's armed struggle against
Apartheid. On 30 January 1981, ANC guerrillas launched a surprise attack on the SADF base in Matola, Mozambique, killing 16 SADF soldiers and wounding more than 40. On 8 December 1982, ANC guerrillas attacked the South African embassy in Maseru, Lesotho, killing three people and injuring several others and on 14 November 1987, the ANC targeted the Vlakplaas police station in Pretoria with a car bomb, killing three police officers and injuring 18 others. Vlakplaas was notorious for its role in the repression of anti-apartheid activists.
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zenith in
September 1952, more than 2,500 people from 24 different towns were arrested for defying various laws. After five months, the African and Indian Congresses decided to call off the campaign because of the increasing number of riots, strikes and heavier sentences on participants. During the campaign, almost 8,000 black and Indian people had been detained; at the same time, ANC membership grew from 7,000 to 100,000, and the number of subdivisions went from 14 at the campaign's beginning to 87 at its end. There was also a change in leadership: shortly before the campaign ended, Albert Luthuli was elected as the new ANC president.
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404:
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202:
1798:, and became the PAC's acting president. Soon after he was elected as acting president, he made a public statement that he would launch an attack on South African Police with an army of 150.000 cadres. A few days after that statement, he send two women PAC couriers, Cynthia Lichaba and Thabisa Lethala, to post letters in Ladybrand, a South African town near Lesotho. The letters contained instructions and details of Poqo cadres. The two women were arrested by Basutoland police and correspondence addressed to poqo cells was confiscated. 3,246 PAC and Poqo members were arrested.
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1509:(SACOD) and the South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU) met and founded the National Action Council for the Congress of the People. Delegates were drawn from each of these establishments and a nationwide organiser was assigned. A campaign was publicised for the drafting of a freedom charter, and asked for 10,000 volunteers to help with the conscription of views across the country and the Congress of the People. Demands were documented and sent to the local board of the National Action Council in preparation for drafting the Charter.
2027:(NUSAS) was the first organisation to represent students in South Africa, but it had a principally white membership, and black students saw this as an impediment. White students' concerns were more scholastic than political, and although the administration was multiracial, it was not addressing many of the issues of the mounting number of black students since 1960. This resulted in the 1967 creation of the University Christian Movement (UCM), an organisation rooted in African-American philosophy.
418:
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2940:. These anti-apartheid organisations led protests that were both active (e.g. marching through the streets with torches) and passive (e.g. standing silently in black). Two Jewish organisations were formed in 1985: Jews for Justice (in Cape Town) and Jews for Social Justice (in Johannesburg). They tried to reform South African society and build bridges between the white and black communities. The South African Jewish Board also passed a resolution rejecting apartheid in 1985.
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1482:, the Public Safety Act and the Criminal Procedures Act. Criminal Law Amendment Act No 8 stated that " person who in any way whatsoever advises, encourages, incites, commands, aids or procures any other person ... or uses language calculated to cause any other person to commit an offence by way of protest against the law... shall be guilty of an offence." In December 1952, Mandela, Sisulu and 18 others were tried under the Suppression of Communism Act for leading the
50:
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1180:
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English-speaking white South
Africans, Jews supported either the Progressive Party or the United Party. One organisation, the Union of Jewish Women, sought to alleviate the suffering of blacks through charitable projects and self-help schemes. Fourteen of the 23 whites involved in the 1956 Treason Trial were Jewish and all five whites of the 17 members of the African National Congress who were arrested for anti-apartheid activities in 1963 were Jewish.
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1695:. Slovo and the SACP were instrumental in bolstering MK and developing its tactics for guerrilla warfare, inciting insurrection and urban sabotage. White SACP members such as Jack Hodgson, who had served in the South African Army during World War II, were instrumental in training MK recruits. The SACP was also able to secure promises of military aid from the Soviet Union for the fledgling guerrilla army, and purchased
598:
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Anglicans had generally followed a conciliatory approach to attempt to gain prior government approval. The
Catholics also announced they were laying the groundwork to extend their approach to hospitals, homes and orphanages. In contrast, the Dutch Reformed Church continued to offer biblical justifications for segregation in 1977, although some reformers within the denomination challenged those rationales.
3034:(FSAW or FedSAW) was founded with the objectives to fight against racism and oppression of women and to make African women understand that they had rights both as human beings and as women. While female activists fought along men and participated to demonstrations and guerrilla movements, FSAW and ANCWL also acted independently and organised bus boycotts and campaigns against restrictive passes in
2069:
gave attention to the more global issues of black communities. School learners began to confront the Bantu education policy, which was designed to prepare them to be second-class citizens. They created the South
African Student's Movement (SASM). It was particularly popular in Soweto, where the 1976 insurrection against Bantu Education would prove to be a crossroads in the fight against apartheid.
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recruited from the marginalised white intellectual scene. Many of ARM's members had been part of the
National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Unlike pro-peace opposition NUSAS, ARM was a radical organisation. Its backing came mostly from Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. By 1964, ARM ceased to exist, as most of its members having been arrested or fled the country.
2860:. Only white males were conscripted, but volunteers from other races were also drawn in. The army was used to fight battles on South African borders and in neighbouring states, against the liberation movements and the countries that supported them. During the 1980s, the military was also used to suppress township uprisings, which saw support for the ECC increase markedly.
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communist government. The charge was based on statements and speeches made during the
Defiance Campaign and the Congress of the People. The Freedom Charter was used as proof of the Alliance's communist intent and their conspiracy to oust the government. The State greatly relied on the evidence of Professor Arthur Murray, an ostensible authority on
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changes to its apartheid policies. Trade unions filled the gap left by banned political parties; they assumed tremendous importance because they could act on a wide variety of issues and problems for their people beyond those that were work-related, as links between work issues and broader community grievances became more palpable.
2049:(BPC) and the South African Students Movement (SASM), which represented high-school learners. The BPC originally attempted to unite charitable associations like the Education and Cultural Advancement of African People of South Africa before expanding into a political administration with Biko as its honorary president.
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and merchandise that were meant to make black people "whiter", such as hair straighteners and skin lighteners. Western culture was criticised to be destructive and alien to Africa. Black people became conscious of their own distinctive identity and self-worth and grew more outspoken about their right to freedom.
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Johannesburg's Oxford
Synagogue and Cape Town's Temple Israel established nurseries, medical clinics and adult education programs in the townships and provided legal aid for victims of apartheid laws. Many Jewish lawyers acted as nominees for non-whites who were not allowed to buy properties in white areas.
1505:
1953, at the Cape ANC conference in
Cradock, Professor Z. K. Matthews proposed a national convention of the people to study the national problems on an all-inclusive basis and outline a manifesto of amity. In March 1954, the ANC, the South African Indian Congress (SAIC), the Coloured People's Congress, the
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opinionated elements were prohibited during the 1970s because the government saw them as dangerous. Black
Consciousness in South Africa adopted a drastic theory, much like socialism, as the liberation movement progressed to challenging class divisions and shifting from an ethnic stress to focusing more on
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was the only MP consistently voting against apartheid legislation for many years. Suzman's critics argue that she did not achieve any notable political successes, but helped to shore up claims by the Nationalists that internal, public criticism of apartheid was permitted. Suzman's supporters point to
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was another general secretary of the SACC. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in 1984 and used his position and popularity to denounce the government and its policies. On 29 February 1988 Tutu and some other church leaders were arrested during a protest in front of the parliamentary
2284:
Growing displeasure among black students and the expansion of Black Consciousness led to the incarnation of the South African Students Organisation (SASO) at Turfloop. In July 1969, Steve Biko became the organisation's inaugural head, which boosted the mood of the students and the Black Consciousness
2056:
The BCM drew most of its backing from high schools and tertiary institutions. Black Consciousness ethics were crucial in lifting consciousness amongst black people of their value and right to a better existence, along with the need to insist on these. The BCM's non-violent approach subsided in favour
1744:
Mandela began planning for MK members to be given military training outside South Africa and slipped past authorities as he himself moved in and out of the country, earning him the moniker "The Black Pimpernel". Mandela initially avoided arrest within South Africa, but in August 1962, after receiving
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in Pretoria and protested against the pass laws. On the morning of 5 December 1956, the police detained 156 Congress Alliance leaders: 104 African, 23 white, 21 Indian and eight Coloured people. They were charged with high treason and plotting a violent overthrow of the state, and replacing it with a
1504:
Although the movement was subjected to increasing restrictions, it was still able to struggle against the oppressive instruments of the state. Collaboration between the ANC and NIC increased and strengthened through the Defiance Campaign. Support for the ANC and its endeavours increased. On 15 August
2909:
Some of the first violent incidents of resistance to the system was organised by the African Resistance Movement (ARM), which was founded in the 1960s and were responsible for setting off bombs at power stations (for example, the Park Station bomb). The membership of this group was almost completely
2418:
The establishment of the trade union federations led to greater unity amongst the workers. The tremendous size of the federations gave them increased voice and power. In 1980 many black high-school and university students boycotted their schools and there was a country-wide protest over wages, rents
1767:
The PAC's secretive martial arm was called Poqo, meaning "go it alone". It was prepared to take lives in the quest for liberation: it murdered whites, police informants and black people who supported the government. It sought to arrange a national revolution to conquer the white government, but poor
1489:
The government also tightened the regulation of separate amenities. Protesters had argued to the courts that different amenities for different races ought to be of an equal standard. The Separate Amenities Act removed the façade of mere separation; it gave the owners of public amenities the right to
1433:
When the ANCYL took control of the ANC, the organisation advocated a policy of open defiance and resistance for the first time, which unleashed the 1950s Programme of Action, instituted in 1949, that emphasised the right of the African people to freedom under the flag of African Nationalism. It laid
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in 1954, the Federation of South African Women adopted the "Women's Charter", which focused on rights specific to women both as women and mothers. The Charter referred both to human rights and women's rights and asked for universal equality and national liberation. In 1955, in a document drafted in
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The MDM emerged very late into the resistance, but it added to the effective resistance that the government faced. It organised a series of protests and further united the opposition movement. It was characteristic of the "mass resistance" that characterised the 1980s: many organisations united and
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There were still divides amongst the trade-union faction, which had the membership of only ten per cent of the country's workforce. Not all trade unions joined the federations, while agricultural and domestic workers did not have a trade union to join and were thus more liable. Nevertheless, by the
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Fewer trade-union officials (harassed less by the police and army) were jailed than political leaders in the townships. Union members could meet and make plans within the factory. In this way, trade unions played a pivotal role in the struggle against apartheid, and their efforts generally had wide
2392:
After 1976, trade unions and their workers began to play a massive role in the fight against apartheid. With their thousands of members, the trade unions had great strength in numbers, which they used to their advantage to campaign for the rights of black workers and to force the government to make
2384:
Police employed tear gas and violence against the strikers, but could not apprehend the masses of people involved. The strikers never chose individuals to stand for them because they would be the first to be detained. Blacks were not permitted trade unions, which meant that the government could not
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On 13 June 1976, nearly 400 SASM associates gathered to start a movement for mass action. An Action Committee was created with two agents from each school in Soweto. The committee became known as the Soweto Students' Representatives Council (SSRC). The protest was scheduled for 16 June 1976 and the
2246:
and Orlando West Secondary Schools vented their grievances on school books and refused to attend their schools. This form of protest spread quickly to other schools in Soweto and peaked around 8 June 1976. When law enforcement officers attempted to arrest a regional SASM secretary, they were stoned
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The Azanian People's Organisation was the leading Black Consciousness group of the 1980s. Most of its support came from young black men and women—many of whom were educated at colleges and universities. The organisation received a lot of support in Soweto and also amongst journalists, who helped to
2068:
With Black Consciousness increasing throughout black communities, a number of other organisations were formed to combat apartheid. In 1972, the Black People's Convention was founded, and the black Allied Worker's Union, formed in 1973, focused on black labour matters. The black community programmes
1711:
which heavily influenced SACP and ANC political theory to a lesser extent. MK commanders hoped that through their actions, they could appeal to the masses and inspire a popular uprising against the South African regime. A popular uprising would compensate for the MK's weaknesses as it offered a way
2238:
SASM supported its members with school work, exams and progress from lower school levels to university. Security forces continuously harassed its members until some of its leaders fled the country in 1973. In 1974 and 1975, some affiliates were captured and tried under the Suppression of Communism
2095:
The Black Consciousness Movement began to change its focus during the 1980s from issues of nation and community to issues of class; as a result, they may have made of an impact than in the mid-1970s, though there is some evidence to suggest that it retained at least some influence, particularly in
2019:
movement in the USA. The motto of the movement was "Black is Beautiful", first made popular by boxer Mohammed Ali. BCM endorsed black pride and African customs, and did much to alter feelings of inadequacy while raising awareness of the fallacy of blacks being seen as inferior. It defied practices
1706:
Throughout the 1960s, MK was still a relatively small unit of poorly equipped guerrilla fighters incapable of taking significant action against the South African security forces. Success of the MK's strategy depended on its ability to stoke the anger of a politically conscious black underclass and
2947:
In 1980, South Africa's National Congress of the Jewish Board of Deputies passed a resolution urging "all concerned and, in particular, members of our community to cooperate in securing the immediate amelioration and ultimate removal of all unjust discriminatory laws and practices based on race,
2388:
The influence of the Durban strikes extended to other parts of the country. In 1973 and 1974 opposition to labour expanded to the entire country. There was also a growing resilience among black workers as they found that the state did not retort as harshly as they had expected. They began to form
2293:
The Congress of South African Students (COSAS) was aimed at co-ordinating the education struggle and organised strikes, boycotts and mass protests around community issues. After 1976 it made a number of demands from the Department of Education and Training (DET), including the scrapping of matric
1846:
The government was able to dismantle the ANC's power within South Africa's borders by incarcerating leaders of MK and the ANC, and greatly affect its efficiency outside of them. The ANC faced many problems in the aftermath of the Rivonia Trial, as its inner administration was severely damaged. By
1668:
From 1961 to 1963, the ground in South Africa was slowly being readied for armed revolution. A hierarchical network of covert ANC cells was created for underground operations, military aid solicited from sympathetic African states and the Soviet Union, and a guerrilla training camp established in
1643:
The Sharpeville Massacre persuaded several anti-apartheid movements that nonviolent civil disobedience alone was ineffective at encouraging the National Party government to seek reform. The resurgent tide of armed revolutions in many developing nations and European colonial territories during the
1473:
after the 11 pm curfew that forbade black people's presence. The group was apprehended, but the rest of the country followed its example. Defiance spread throughout the country and black people disregarded racial laws; for example, they walked through "whites only" entries. At the campaign's
2913:
On 24 July 1964, Frederick John Harris, an associate of ARM, planted a time bomb in the Johannesburg station. One person was killed and 22 were injured. Harris explained that he had wanted to show that ARM still existed, but both ARM and the ANC slammed his actions. He was sentenced to death and
2525:
The government's suppression of anti-apartheid political parties limited their influence but not church activism. The government was far less likely to attack or arrest religious leaders, allowing them to potentially be more politically active in the resistance, though the government took action
2302:
In 1986, the National Education Crisis Committee (NECC) was created from parents, teachers and students after the school boycotts. It encouraged students to return to their studies and protest in less disruptive ways to their education. Consumer boycotts were recommended instead and teachers and
1842:
against the South African government. After Sharpeville the ANC and PAC were banned. The SACP denied it existed, having dissolved in 1950 to escape banning as the CPSA. Leaders like Mandela and Sobukwe were either in jail or in exile. Consequently, there were serious mutinies in Angolan camps by
2269:
By 1963, one of the few envoys for tertiary students was the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Although the organisation was meant to be non-racial and anti-government, it was primarily made up of white English students from customarily broad-minded universities such as those in
2215:
Student organisations played a significant role in the Soweto uprisings, and after 1976 protests by school children became frequent. There were two major urban school boycotts in 1980 and 1983 that continued for months. Both involved black, Indian and coloured children. There were also extended
2132:
The resentment grew until 30 April 1976, when children at Orlando West Junior School in Soweto went on strike and refused to go to school. Their rebellion spread to many other schools in Soweto. Students formed an Action Committee (later known as the Soweto Students' Representative Council) and
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In 1974 the Afrikaans Medium Decree forced all black schools to use Afrikaans and English in a 50–50 mix as languages of instruction. The intention was to forcibly promote the use of Afrikaans among black Africans. The Afrikaner-dominated government used the clause of the 1909 Constitution that
2099:
The role of Black Consciousness could be clearly seen in the approach of the National Forum, which believed that the struggle should hold little or no place for whites. The ideal of blacks leading the resistance campaign was an important aim of the traditional Black Consciousness groups, and it
1874:
Despite these developments, the ANC was able to launch several successful guerrilla attacks against the South African Defense Force from their locations in-hiding. For example, On 20 May 1983, the ANC detonated a car bomb outside the South African Air Force headquarters in Pretoria, killing 19
2369:
After apartheid began, South Africa economically flourished due to its newly found trade relations. Products such as gold and coal were being traded along the nation's coastal lines to western countries. The products were mined by black labour workers, who were split up by Bantustan law, which
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were instrumental in persuading the ANC's executive to adopt armed struggle. Mandela first advocated this option during the Defiance Campaign of 1952, but his proposal was rejected by his fellow activists for being too radical. However, with the subsequent success of revolutionary struggles in
2928:
Many Jewish South Africans, both individuals and organisations, helped support the anti-apartheid movement. It was estimated that Jews were disproportionately represented (some sources maintain by as much as 2,500%) among whites involved in anti-apartheid political activities. Much like other
2600:
Later in 1989, the MDM organised a number of peaceful marches against the State of Emergency (extended to four years now) in the major cities. Even though these marches were illegal, no-one was arrested—evidence that apartheid was coming to an end and that the government's hold was weakening.
2587:
article reported that the Catholic Church in South Africa had caught up and surpassed Protestant Churches by authorizing the admission of black students to previously all-white schools. This was done in disregard of South African law which required segregation. Protestant churches such as the
3021:
that took hold of South Africa. Although these female activists were rarely at the head of the main organisations, at least at the beginning of the movement, they were prime actors. One of the earliest organisations was The Bantu Women's League founded in 1913. In the 1930s and 1940s, female
2772:
in 1974, which enshrined the principles of peaceful negotiated transition of power and equality for all. It was the first of such agreements by black and white political leaders in South Africa. In 1975 he led a breakaway from the United Party due to its ineffective approach to criticism of
2060:
After the carnage in Soweto the ANC's Nelson Mandela grudgingly concurred that bloodshed was the only means left to convince the NP to accede to commands for an end to its apartheid policy. A subversive plan of terror was mapped out, with Biko and the BCM at the forefront. The BCM and other
2943:
In addition to the well-known high profile Jewish anti-apartheid personalities, there were very many ordinary Jews who expressed their revulsion of apartheid in diverse ways and contributed to its eventual downfall. Many Jews actively provided humanitarian assistance for black communities.
2596:
The Mass Democratic Movement played a brief but very important role in the resistance. It was formed in 1989 as an alliance between the UDF and COSATU, and organised a campaign that aimed to end segregation in hospitals, schools and beaches. The campaign was successful and managed to bring
2052:
When the BCM's principles were revealed, a number of fresh organisations staunch in their endorsement of black liberation were founded. The Azanian People's Organisation was only launched in 1978, a long time after the birth of the Black Consciousness Movement, as a medium for its message.
1494:, other famous ANC members, Indian Congress, and trade union chiefs' activities were all proscribed under the Suppression of Communism Act. The proscription meant that the headship was restricted to their homes and adjacent areas and they were banned from attending public gatherings.
2140:
23 people were killed on the first day of rioting. The following day 1,500 heavily armed police officers were deployed to Soweto. Crowd control methods used by South African police were primarily dispersal techniques. Many of the officers shot indiscriminately and killed 176 people.
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Natal, Cape Town, the Witwatersrand and Grahamstown. These students sympathised the effort against the state. By 1967, however, NUSAS was prohibited from functioning on black universities, which made it almost impossible for black Student Representative Councils to join the union.
1524:
that had been endorsed by the ANC's National Executive on the eve of the Congress. Among the organisations present were the Indian Congress and the ANC. The Freedom Charter articulated a vision for South Africa that radically differed from the partition policy of apartheid. It:
1426:. They proposed that white authority could only be overthrown through mass campaigns. The ideals of the ANC and ANCYL are stated in the ANC official web site and state, concerning the Tripartite Alliance: "The Alliance is founded on a common commitment to the objectives of the
2136:
Stones were thrown in a confrontation with police, who had barricaded the road along the intended route. Attempts to disperse the crowd with dogs and tear gas failed; pandemonium broke out when the police fired shots into the crowd after they were surrounded by the students.
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in 1985. The newly formed trade-union governing body, committed to improved working conditions and the fight against apartheid, organised a nationwide strike the following year, and a new State of Emergency was declared. COSATU's membership quickly grew to 500,000.
1728:
in 1838. Over the next eighteen months, MK carried out 200 acts of sabotage, mostly targeting pass offices, power pylons, and police stations. In October 1962 the ANC publicly declared responsibility for the sabotage campaign and acknowledged the existence of MK.
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By the end of the campaign, the government was forced to temporarily relax its apartheid legislation. Once things had calmed down, however, the government responded harshly and took several extreme measures, among which were the Unlawful Organisations Act, the
1829:
charge was dropped and all eight were sentenced to life imprisonment. They did not get the death penalty, as it received too much international criticism. Goldberg was sent to the Pretoria Central Prison, and the other seven were imprisoned on Robben Island.
1972:
became apathetic. A revival in anti-apartheid sentiment came in the late 1960s and mid-1970s from a more radical generation. During this epoch, new anti-apartheid ideas and establishments were created, and they gathered support from across South Africa.
1955:
Prior to the 1960s, the NP government managed to quell much of the anti-apartheid opposition within South Africa by outlawing movements like the ANC and PAC, and driving their leaders into exile or captivity. Tertiary-education organisations such as the
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The army played a major role in the government's maintenance of its apartheid policies. It expanded considerably to fight the resistance, and more money was spent on increasing its effectiveness. It is estimated that between 4 billion and 5 billion
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in Copenhagen and in 1980 an essay on the role of women in the liberation movement was prepared for the United Nations World Conference, which was crucial for the recognition of Southern African women and their role in the anti-apartheid movement.
2038:. White students were permitted to live on university grounds, but black students were relegated to accommodation further away in a church vestibule, which led to the creation of the South African Students Organisation (SASO), under Biko, in 1969.
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The Programme of Action was launched with the Defiance Campaign in June 1952. By defying the laws, the organisation hoped to incite mass arrests that would overwhelm the government. Mandela led a crowd of 50 men down the streets of a white area in
1345:, but continued to deny political rights to black South Africans. The resulting controversy triggered a new wave of anti-apartheid social movements and community groups which articulated their interests through a national front in politics, the
1715:
On 16 December 1961, MK operatives bombed a number of public facilities in several major South African cities, namely Johannesburg, Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and Durban. This programme of controlled sabotage was timed to coincide with the
1834:, the defence trial attorney, was also arrested and tried shortly thereafter. The instructions that Mandela gave to make MK an African force were ignored: it continued to be organised and led by the SACP. The trial was condemned by the
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Although church leaders were not completely immune to prosecution, they were able to criticise the government more freely than the leaders of militant groups. They were pivotal in altering public opinion regarding apartheid policies.
2442:
With South Africa facing an unprecedented shortage of skilled white labour, the government was forced to allow black people to fill the vacancies. This, in turn, led to an increase in spending on black, Coloured and Indian education.
1322:(MK). From 1976 to 1987 MK carried out a series of successful bomb attacks targeting government facilities, transportation lines, power stations, and other civil infrastructure. South Africa's military often retaliated by raiding ANC
1854:
The government's effort at defeating all opposition had been effective. The State of Emergency was de-proclaimed, the economy boomed and the government began implementing apartheid by building the infrastructures of the ten separate
1465:, the Bantu Administration Act and other legislation, warning that refusal to do so would be met with a campaign of defiance. Malan referred the Council to the Native Affairs Department and threatened to treat insolence callously.
2265:
After the Sharpeville Massacre, some black student organisations were founded but short-lived under state proscription and antagonism from university staff. They were also unsuccessful in cooperating effectively with one another.
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Biko was taken into custody on 18 August 1977 and brutally tortured by unidentified security personnel until he lapsed into a coma. He was not medically treated for three days and died in Pretoria. At the subsequent inquest, the
2789:'s lawyer until he was also arrested and charged. Through the 1970s and 1980s Schwarz was amongst the most forthright and effective campaigners against apartheid in Parliament who was feared by many National Party ministers.
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While the majority of white South African voters supported the apartheid system for the first few decades, a minority fervently opposed it. Although assassination attempts against government members were rare, Prime Minister
1589:. Halfway through the drawn-out trial, charges against 61 of the accused were withdrawn, and, five years after their arrest, the remaining 30 were acquitted after the court held that the state had failed to prove its case.
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preparation for the Congress of People, the FSAW made more demands, including free education for children, proper housing facilities and good working conditions, such as the abolition of child labour and a minimum wage.
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and bus fares. In 1982, there were 394 strikes involving 141,571 workers. FOSATU and CUSA grew from 70,000 members in 1979 to 320,000 by 1983, which is also the year that the National Forum and the UDF were established.
1960:
and Zululand University began to resist apartheid; they were fashioned by the Extension of University Education Act of 1959, which guaranteed that black and white students would be taught individually and inequitably.
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1964, the ANC went into hiding and planned guerilla activities from overseas. At the end of the 1960s, new organisations and ideas would form to confront apartheid. The next key act of opposition came in 1976 with the
1988:
suggested ideas of autonomy and Black Pride by means of their anti-colonialist writings. Scholars grew in assurance and became far more candid about the NP's bigoted policies and the repression of the black people.
2430:
in 1984 when the new constitution was established. COSAS and FOSATU organised the longest stay-away in South African history, and there were 469 strikes that year, amounting to 378,000 hours in lost business time.
2230:
Students from Soweto high schools Orlando West and Diepkloof created the African Students Movement in 1970, which spread to the Eastern Cape and Transvaal, encouraging other high schools. In March 1972, the
1801:
In 1968, PAC was expelled from Maseru (where it was allied with the opposition Basutoland Congress Party) and Zambia (which was friendlier to the ANC). Between 1974 and 1976 Leballo and Ntantala trained the
1817:
for trying to depose the government and sabotage. Mandela, along with those arrested at Lilliesleaf and another 24 co-conspirators, were tried. Many of them, including Tambo, had already fled the country.
1679:(abbreviated as MK) had been set up by the ANC to coordinate underground militant activity throughout South Africa. By the end of 1962 the ANC established an MK high command consisting of Mandela, Sisulu,
2739:
was in minority opposition politics for over 40 years and was one of the most prominent opponents of the National Party and its policy of apartheid. After assisting in the 1948 general election, Schwarz,
2597:
segregation to an end. Some historians, however, argue that this occurred because the government had planned to end segregation anyway and did not, therefore, feel at all threatened by the MDM's actions.
3053:
At the same time, South African women fought against gender discrimination and called for rights specific to women, such as family, children, gender equality and access to education. At a conference in
2844:. The latter was formed in 1983 to oppose the conscription of white males into the South African military. The ECC's support base was not particularly large, but the government still banned it in 1988.
1752:. They were detained and indicted with sabotage and attempting to bring down the government. At the same time, police collected evidence to be used in the trial that allowed them to arrest others like
2434:
In accordance with the State of Emergency in 1985, COSAS was banned and many UDF leaders were arrested. A meeting in Zambia between leaders of white businesses and the ANC influenced the formation of
2973:
Congress considers that in South Africa the first objective is the removal of discrimination based on race, and is prepared to co-operate with people of all groups who share this ideological outlook.
2125:
The decree was resented deeply by blacks as Afrikaans was widely viewed, in the words of Desmond Tutu and Dean of Johannesburg, as "the language of the oppressor". Teacher organisations such as the
2948:
creed, or colour". This inspired some Jews to intensify their anti-apartheid activism, but the bulk of the community either emigrated or avoided public conflict with the National Party government.
1360:
Secret bilateral negotiations to end apartheid commenced in 1987 as the National Party reacted to increased external pressure and the atmosphere of political unrest. Leading ANC officials such as
1545:
The congress delegates had consented to almost all the sections of the charter when the police announced that they suspected treason and recorded the names and addresses of all those present.
2373:
In 1973, labour action in South Africa was renewed as a result of the numerous strikes in Durban. Abuse of black workers was common, and many black people were consequently paid less than a
4566:
3145:
The ANC made its decision to begin passive resistance against the apartheid system on 17 December 1950. The first significant organised protests against apartheid did not occur until the
1783:
until he died in 1978. Police repeatedly lengthened his incarceration through the "Sobukwe clause", which permitted the state to detain people even after they had served their sentences.
3062:
Their actions and demands gradually attracted the attention of the United Nations and put pressure on the international community. In 1954, Ngoyi attended the World Congress of Women in
4202:
2100:
shaped the thinking of many 1980s activists, especially those in the workforce. Furthermore, the NF focused on workers' issues, which became more and more important to BC supporters.
1748:
In July 1963, the police found the location of the MK headquarters at Lilliesleaf. They raided the farm and arrested many major leaders of the ANC and MK, including Sisulu, Mbeki and
2065:. The BCM became more worried about the destiny of the black people as workers and believed that "economic and political exploitation has reduced the black people into a class".
2724:
for "handing out" too much South African land to the Bantustans. In parliamentary elections during the 1970s and 1980s between 15% and 20% of white voters voted for the liberal
3022:
activists were prevalent in trade union movements, which also served as a vehicle for future organisation. In the 1950s, women-exclusive organisations were created such as the
7431:
2614:
3616:"Historical Overview of Black Resistance, 1932–1952 –The Congress of the People and Freedom Charter Campaign by Ismail Vadi, New Delhi, 1995 | South African History Online"
2554:
was another general secretary of the SACC. He was detained four times because of his criticism of the government and once allegedly had an attempt on his life initiated by
1825:" speech. In June 1964, eight were found guilty of terrorism, sabotage, planning and executing guerrilla warfare and working towards an armed invasion of the country. The
5579:
2107:
Although it did not achieve quite the same level of support that it had in the late 1970s, Black Consciousness still influenced the thinking of a few resistance groups.
3086:. Ngoyi joined the ANC National Executive and was elected first vice-president and later president of FSAW in 1959. Many of these leaders served long prison sentences.
2932:
Some Jewish university students vehemently opposed the apartheid movement. A large number of Jews were also involved in organisations such as the Springbok Legion, the
2242:
When the Southern Transvaal local Bantu Education Department concluded that all junior secondary black students had to be taught in Afrikaans in 1974, SASM groups at
1430:, and the need to unite the largest possible cross-section of South Africans behind these objectives," citing the actionable intent and their goal to end oppression.
1291:
and environmental regulations perceived as unjust by black farmers resulted in a series of arsons targeting sugarcane plantations. Organisations such as the ANC, the
6209:
2385:
act against any particular individuals. Strikes usually concluded when income boosts were tendered, but these were generally lower than what had been insisted upon.
3615:
3667:
1380:. Further apartheid laws were abolished on 17 June 1991, and multiparty negotiations proceeded until the first multi-racial general election held in April 1994.
2294:
examination fees. COSAS barred many DET officials from entering schools, demanded that all students pass their exams—"pass one, pass all"—and disrupted exams.
1303:, some anti-apartheid movements, including the ANC and PAC, began a shift in tactics from peaceful non-cooperation to the formation of armed resistance wings.
2239:
and Terrorism Acts, which hindered the SASM's progress. Many headmasters and headmistresses forbade the organisation from becoming involved in their schools.
1353:(AZAPO), a third militant force, escalated into sectarian violence as the three groups fought for influence. The government took the opportunity to declare a
6998:
2836:
was also Chief of Staff of the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe. Whites also played a significant role in opposing apartheid during the 1980s through the
2084:
There was a strong reaction both within and outside South Africa. Foreign countries imposed even more stringent sanctions, and the United Nations imposed an
1745:
some inside information, the police put up a roadblock and captured him. MK's success declined with his arrest and the police infiltrated the organisation.
1712:
to defeat the National Party politically without having to engage in a direct military confrontation which the guerrillas would have no hope of winning.
1330:
17:
3984:
2285:
Movement. Under the unified configuration of SASO, the principles of Black Consciousness came to the forefront as a fresh incentive for the strugglers.
6456:
6160:
2752:, an ex-soldiers' movement to protest against the disenfranchisement of the coloured people in South Africa. From the 1960s, when he was Leader of the
2716:(the official opposition in 1948–1977) initially opposed the Nationalists' apartheid program and favoured the dismantling of racial segregation by the
2548:(SACC), a religious association that supported anti-apartheid activities. It also notably refused to condemn violence as a means of ending apartheid.
2370:
designated different black South African tribes to work in give areas. It was a strategic move that allowed the white people to easily direct labour.
1771:
The PAC did not have adequate direction. Many PAC principals were taken into custody on 21 March 1960, and those released were hampered by bans. When
7601:
7535:
2652:
2478:
2334:
2176:
1916:
1418:, elected to the ANC's National Executive that year, the ANCYL advocated a radical black nationalist programme that combined the Africanist ideas of
5071:
4591:
4039:. Jansen, Martin,, Thompson, Lynn., Ward, Donovan., Shapiro Jonathan., Mayibuye centre. Cape Town: Workers’ World Media Productions. pp. II-4.
2216:
protests in rural areas in 1985 and 1986. In all of these areas, schools were closed and thousands of students, teachers and parents were arrested.
7656:
7608:
2126:
708:
2377:. In January, 2,000 workers of the Coronation Brick and Tile Company went on strike for a pay raise (from under R10 to R20 a week), incorporating
1623:. The PAC called for blacks to demonstrate against pass books on 21 March 1960. One of the mass demonstrations organised by the PAC took place at
665:
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5355:
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1402:(ANC) became the primary force in opposition to the government after its moderate leadership was superseded by the organisation's more radical
1644:
early 1960s gave ANC and PAC leaders the idea that nonviolent civil disobedience should be complemented by acts of insurrection and sabotage.
7019:
6369:
2576:(WARC). He influenced the founding the UDF and was once jailed for a month after organising a march demanding the release of Nelson Mandela.
1246:
675:
98:
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were released from prison between 1987 and 1989, and in 1990 the ANC and PAC were formally delisted as banned organisations by President
1450:, boycotts, strikes and occasional violent clashes. The 1950 May Day stay-away was a strong, successful expression of black grievances.
7661:
7626:
7068:
6424:
6045:
5565:
5430:
3027:
5471:
4175:
2088:. Young blacks inside South Africa committed themselves even more fervently to the struggle against apartheid, under the catchphrase "
7452:
7313:
7236:
6526:
5451:
1968:
and the banning of the ANC and PAC, the struggle within South Africa was significantly suppressed. The age bracket that had seen the
1245:(NP) government, coupled with South Africa's growing international isolation and economic sanctions, were instrumental in leading to
610:
278:
4409:
1541:
that the people should "share in the country's wealth" – a statement often been interpreted as a call for socialist nationalisation.
7594:
7382:
7117:
6449:
2415:(CUSA), which was influenced strongly by the ideas of Black Consciousness and wanted to work to ensure black leadership of unions.
2408:
2260:
2024:
765:
2411:(FOSATU) was formed as the first genuinely national and non-racial trade union federation in South Africa. It was followed by the
7676:
7375:
7222:
7180:
6928:
6809:
6392:
5927:
5865:
4539:
1993:
1786:
The PAC's management difficulties also existed in exile. When they were outlawed, PAC leaders set up headquarters in places like
1306:
Mass strikes and student demonstrations continued into the 1970s, powered by growing black unemployment, the unpopularity of the
1150:
360:
5325:
7473:
7438:
6956:
6153:
2837:
2544:, Ben Marais and John de Gruchy. Naudé and the Institute were banned in 1977, but he later became the general secretary of the
2537:
1403:
1346:
1279:, and "petty apartheid" segregation in public facilities. Some anti-apartheid demonstrations resulted in widespread rioting in
1066:
815:
800:
289:
4146:
3921:. Saunders, Christopher C.,, Palgrave Connect (Online service) (5th ed.). Hampshire : Macmillan Press. pp. 403–405.
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6914:
6008:
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3959:
3926:
3680:
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1501:
demanded that apartheid be challenged by the United Nations, which led to the establishment of a UN commission on apartheid.
1490:
bar people on the basis of colour or race and made it lawful for different races to be treated inequitably. Sisulu, Mandela,
1665:, the ANC executive became increasingly more open to suggestions by Mandela and Sisulu that it was time for armed struggle.
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7563:
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840:
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Slightly more contentious was the movement's decision to stop working with white liberals in multi-racial organisations.
4408:
Magubane, Bernard; Bonner, Philip; Sithole, Jabulane; Delius, Peter; Cherry, Janet; Gibbs, Patt; April, Thozama (2010).
1976:
The surfacing of the South African Black Consciousness Movement was influenced by its American equivalent, the American
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From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa
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her use of her parliamentary privileges to help the poorest and most disempowered South Africans in any way she could.
2696:, called the "architect of grand apartheid", had two attempts made on his life (the second of which was successful) by
1183:
750:
5157:
3042:. 20,000 women attended the demonstrations. Many participants were arrested, forced into exile or imprisoned, such as
7243:
7110:
7089:
7047:
6589:
6262:
5492:
5235:
5215:
5116:
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4366:
3111:
3031:
2923:
2678:
2545:
2500:
2412:
2356:
2202:
2078:
2041:
The BCM was an umbrella organisation for groups such as SASO. It was created in 1967, and among its members were the
1942:
1760:(Operation Comeback), a plan for bringing exiles back into the country. It also revealed that MK was planning to use
1616:
1606:
1549:
1296:
825:
795:
255:
4899:
Callinicos, Luli (1 September 2012). "Oliver Tambo and the Dilemma of the Camp Mutinies in Angola in the Eighties".
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that led to the realignment of opposition politics in South Africa. Schwarz was one of the defence attorneys in the
2660:
2184:
1924:
7173:
7012:
6181:
6038:
5271:
4676:
Lissoni, Arianna (1 June 2009). "Transformations in the ANC External Mission and Umkhonto we Sizwe, c. 1960–1969".
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3597:
2957:
2725:
2042:
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1457:
and the Coloured People's Congress, agreed on a plan for the defiance of unfair laws. They wrote to Prime Minister
1350:
770:
239:
5384:(International Defense and Aid Fund for Southern Africa. Revised and enlarged edition, London, March 1985), p. 86.
4968:
4722:
3433:
1299:(PAC) remained preoccupied with organising student strikes and work boycotts between 1959 and 1960. Following the
7403:
7166:
7082:
6963:
6949:
6921:
6188:
6132:
4592:"Police arrest members of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) High Command at Lilliesleaf Farm | South African History Online"
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1835:
1130:
755:
650:
6341:
5253:
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6575:
2817:, an organisation of white women formed in 1955 to oppose the removal of Coloured (mixed-race) voters from the
2656:
2482:
2338:
2180:
1920:
1427:
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in 1952, but organised destruction of property was not deliberately employed until 1959. That year, anger over
820:
3874:
Vahed, Goolam (2013). ""f***ed and trussed rather securely by the law": The 1952 Defiance Campaign in Natal".
1707:
its armed struggle was essentially a strategic attempt at mass socialisation.This reflected the principles of
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7054:
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2721:
1992:
During the 1970s, resistance grew stronger through trade unions and strikes, and was then spearheaded by the
1688:
1454:
1318:
radicalised a generation of black activists and greatly bolstered the strength of the ANC's guerrilla force,
1292:
1242:
973:
850:
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226:
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5236:"Legendary Heroes of Africa - Stamps to Commemorate Jewish anti Apartheid South African Liberation struggle"
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The ANC used the lawsuit to draw international interest to its cause. During the trial, Mandela gave his "
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Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs (7 January 2008).
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Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present.
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was used to increase the size of the army, with stiff prison sentences imposed for draft evasion or
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voters' roll. Although they failed, the organisation continued to assist blacks with issues such as
2104:
popularise its views. It also focused on workers' issues, but refused to form any ties with whites.
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2447:
end of this period, the unions emerged as one of the most effective vehicles for black opposition.
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1905:
1860:
1843:
Soweto and Cape student recruits angry at the corrupt and brutal consequences of minority control.
1780:
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41:
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2760:, he became well-known and achieved prominence as a race relations and economic reformist in the
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2471:
2327:
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1957:
1909:
1839:
1803:
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was adopted as a formal South African government policy by the NP following their victory in the
1229:
originated from several independent sectors of South African society and took forms ranging from
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1619:(PAC) in 1959. First on the PAC's agenda was a series of nationwide demonstrations against the
855:
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4382:
3796:
2000:'s leadership. A medical student, Biko was the main force behind the growth of South Africa's
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The Struggle For South Africa: A Reference Guide to Movements, Organizations and Institutions
4567:"Nelson Mandela conquered apartheid, united his country and inspired the world - Macleans.ca"
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2012:
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1969:
1822:
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1635:. In the aftermath the government banned the African National Congress (ANC) and the PAC.
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Native vs Settler: Ethnic Conflict in Israel/Palestine, Northern Ireland and South Africa
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of a more radical element as its resolve to attain liberty was met with state hostility.
1868:
1165:
5005:"1960 - 1994: Armed Struggle and Popular Resistance | South African History Online"
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organisers were determined to only use aggression if they were assaulted by the police.
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5134:
4924:
4701:
4176:"The Sharpeville Massacre: Its historic significance in the struggle against apartheid"
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and Communism. His evidence was that the ANC papers were full of communist terms like "
1443:
1354:
1254:
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122:
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students were encouraged to work together to develop an alternative education system.
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A Military History of South Africa: From the Dutch-Khoi Wars to the End of Apartheid
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was notable among South African anti-apartheid activists from the Indian diaspora.
2717:
2693:
1700:
1658:
1615:
In 1958 a group of disenchanted ANC members broke away from the ANC and formed the
1028:
978:
908:
422:
5486:
ANC, Secretariat for the World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women.
4037:
60 Years of the freedom charter : no cause to celebrate for the working class
2605:
dealt with different aspects of the fight against apartheid and its implications.
2133:
organised a mass rally for 16 June 1976. The protest was intended to be peaceful.
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6123:
5847:
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4912:
3675:. Worger, William H. (2nd ed.). Harlow, England: Longman. pp. 141–143.
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2809:
2116:
2045:, the black Community Programme (which directed welfare schemes for blacks), the
1848:
1696:
1565:
1521:
1462:
1315:
1230:
1145:
1135:
645:
5356:"60 Iconic Women — The people behind the 1956 Women's March to Pretoria (11-20)"
5045:"Apartheid | South Africa, Definition, Facts, Beginning, & End | Britannica"
3849:"United Nations and Apartheid Timeline 1946-1994 | South African History Online"
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2529:
1376:
was released from prison. The same year, MK reached a formal ceasefire with the
1349:(UDF). Simultaneously, inter-factional rivalry between the ANC, the PAC and the
1329:
The NP made several attempts to reform the apartheid system, beginning with the
1275:
of passive resistance. Subsequent civil disobedience protests targeted curfews,
7549:
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7145:
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6327:
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4010:"Congress of the People and the Freedom Charter | South African History Online"
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Covert resistance was expressed by banned organisations like the largely white
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1985:
1772:
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Apartheid's Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and Mozambique
2892:
1790:, London and the United States. In 1962, Potlako Leballo left the country for
1486:. They received nine months' imprisonment, which was suspended for two years.
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2818:
2778:
2764:. As an early and powerful advocate of non-violent resistance, he signed the
2736:
2551:
2541:
2427:
2423:
2062:
2011:
The BCM faction was founded by Biko and materialised out of the ideas of the
1965:
1810:
1787:
1776:
1649:
1586:
1435:
1419:
1407:
1365:
1160:
1033:
983:
655:
640:
522:
500:
348:
4797:
4636:
4434:
3985:"South Africa's Freedom Charter campaign holds lessons for a fairer society"
3705:
3046:. In 1958, 2000 women were arrested during an anti-pass campaign. After the
2863:
Literary opposition to apartheid came from internationally known figures in
7131:
6740:
6561:
6512:
5675:
5589:
4723:"Pan Africanist Congress timeline 1959-2011 | South African History Online"
4481:
4171:
4095:"Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) | South African History Online"
3079:
3055:
3043:
2853:
2782:
2745:
2729:
2562:
2555:
1864:
1831:
1737:
1725:
1721:
1557:
1553:
1517:
1470:
1415:
1226:
1061:
1023:
1013:
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903:
559:
511:
445:
403:
391:
379:
372:
367:
355:
343:
334:
325:
318:
313:
180:
84:
5487:
4780:
Africa today : a multi-disciplinary snapshot of the continent in 1995
4516:
South Africa's 'Border War': Contested Narratives and Conflicting Memories
2122:
recognised only English and Afrikaans as official languages as a pretext.
1453:
In 1952, the Joint Planning Council, made up of members from the ANC, the
6724:
5667:
5239:
5022:"List of uMkhonto weSizwe Operations | South African History Online"
3706:"Mandela, Luthuli, and Nonviolence in the South African Freedom Struggle"
3075:
3039:
3002:
2978:
2962:
2792:
2569:
2518:
2401:
2374:
2081:
eventually took action against the doctors who had failed to treat Biko.
2035:
2016:
2005:
1977:
1708:
1680:
1628:
1624:
1578:
1532:
called for a one-person-one-vote democracy within a single unified state,
1458:
1361:
963:
958:
943:
878:
555:
533:
396:
49:
5275:
3722:
3594:
3263:
The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC Since 1960
1775:(who was jailed following the Sharpeville massacre) was discharged from
7299:
6837:
5950:
5895:
5755:
5739:
5382:
For their Triumphs and for their Tears: Women in Apartheid South Africa
3642:"The defiance campaign by M. P. Naicker | South African History Online"
2937:
2872:
2814:
2804:
2618:
2485: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2341: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2074:
1997:
1795:
1520:. 3,000 delegates gathered under police watch to revise and accept the
1357:
in 1986 and detain thousands of its political opponents without trial.
1323:
1071:
1038:
913:
898:
883:
740:
489:
4491:
2704:, both legally considered white (although Tsafendas had a mother from
6758:
6749:
6680:
6086:
6063:
6052:
3204:
South Africa's Brittle Peace: The Problem of Post-Settlement Violence
3014:
2880:
2857:
2833:
2822:
2741:
2713:
1981:
1863:
was stabbed to death in parliament, but his policies continued under
1692:
1620:
1529:
emphasised that South Africa should be a just and non-racial society,
1447:
1338:
1288:
1276:
1260:
1092:
1056:
993:
589:
478:
113:
106:
4778:. In Alexander, Peter F; Hutchison, Ruth; Schreuder, Deryck (eds.).
4775:
4228:"Sharpeville Massacre, 21 March 1960 | South African History Online"
3050:, many organisations such as FSAW were banned and went into hiding.
2630:
2460:
2316:
2154:
1894:
7528:
7026:
6671:
5795:
5652:
4325:. Santa Barbara: Praeger Security International. pp. 159–169.
4121:"The 1956 Women's March in Pretoria | South African History Online"
4070:"The Freedom Charter by Norman Levy | South African History Online"
3310:
Tom Lodge, "Action against Apartheid in South Africa, 1983–94", in
3063:
3035:
2796:
1856:
1513:
58:
4253:
3823:"Nelson Mandela Timeline 1950–1959 | South African History Online"
3746:"Apartheid Legislation 1850s–1970s | South African History Online"
3494:. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. pp. 114–117.
3322:
Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 213–30.
3074:
Among important activists during the anti-apartheid movement were
5936:
4203:"How the Sharpeville massacre changed the course of human rights"
3229:
Terrorists at the Table: Why Negotiating is the Only Way to Peace
2899:
1826:
1814:
1574:
1570:
1439:
1423:
597:
1535:
stated that all people should be treated equally before the law,
96:
Military stalemate between MK and South African security forces
6663:
5819:
5598:
5458:, Compiled in Preparation for the Congress of the People, 1955.
4465:"The Turn to Sabotage by The Congress Movement in South Africa"
2435:
1791:
1768:
organisation and in-house nuisances crippled the PAC and Poqo.
1082:
5811:
4621:. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. p. 181.
3547:. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, Publishers. pp. 197–199.
2720:, but eventually reverted its policy and even criticised the
2004:(BCM), which stressed the need for psychological liberation,
1732:
1498:
1249:, which began formally in 1990 and ended with South Africa's
4982:
2613:
1703:, just outside Johannesburg, to serve as MK's headquarters.
5102:
4943:"ANC Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission"
4407:
4147:"What Happened at the Treason Trial? - Africa Media Online"
3954:(1st ed.). New York: PublicAffairs. pp. 129–130.
3431:
2254:
5489:
The Role of Women in the Struggle Against Apartheid, 1980.
5202:"Catholic Defiance of Apartheid Is Stirring South Africa,"
4815:"Rivonia Trial 1963 - 1964 | South African History Online"
4540:"uMkhoto weSizwe (MK) launches its first acts of sabotage"
4419:(1st ed.). Cape Town: Zebra Press. pp. 136–142.
4383:"Percy John "Jack" Hodgson | South African History Online"
3522:. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 194–196.
5158:"The Anti-Apartheid Struggle in South Africa (1912-1992)"
4565:
Macdonald, Nancy; Findlay, Stephanie (12 December 2013).
4178:. United Nations Centre against Apartheid. Archived from
3411:. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. pp. 94–96.
1756:. Particularly damaging was the information on Operation
1337:, which allowed for some parliamentary representation of
2389:
trade unions despite being illegitimate and unofficial.
1538:
that land should be "shared among those who work it" and
3797:"Defiance Campaign 1952 | South African History Online"
3379:
Sharpeville: An Apartheid Massacre and Its Consequences
2030:
In July 1967, the annual NUSAS symposium took place at
1512:
The Congress of the People was held 25–26 June 1955 in
571:
21,000 dead as a result of political violence (1948–94)
2297:
2273:
5587:
4415:. In South African Democracy Education Trust. (ed.).
3265:. London: Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 202–210.
3177:
South Africa: Overcoming Apartheid Building Democracy
2288:
1859:
and relocating blacks into these homelands. In 1966,
1720:, the anniversary of an important battle between the
4361:. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. pp. 121–124.
3465:. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. pp.
3409:
States of Emergency: Colonialism, Literature and Law
3346:. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. pp.
3093:
2992:: University Press. 1960. p. 53. Archived from
2795:, a white anti-apartheid activist, exposed a police
3916:
3435:
War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa
3206:. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 90–94.
5104:
3669:South Africa : the rise and fall of apartheid
3595:"A brief history of the African National Congress"
3545:International Terrorism and the Contemporary World
3231:. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 146–147.
2219:
1564:. On 9 August that year, the women marched to the
5216:"More Whites in South Africa Resisting the Draft"
5213:
4518:. London: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 142–146.
3949:
61:in 1960 as part of a civil disobedience campaign.
7638:
5522:Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in South Africa
5298:"The Jews of Africa -- the Jews of South Africa"
4564:
2092:". Black communities became highly politicised.
1638:
6377:Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre
5406:. Volume Two (London: Zed Books, 1984), p. 366.
5028:
4651:"Robert Sobukwe | South African History Online"
4170:
4034:
3066:, Switzerland. The ANC was present at the 1975
1878:
1813:began in October 1963. Ten men were accused of
1461:and demanded that he repeal the Pass Laws, the
75:(45 years, 11 months and 6 days)
4277:
1398:Although its creation predated apartheid, the
5573:
5081:
4316:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4308:
2127:African Teachers' Association of South Africa
1838:and was a major force in the introduction of
1779:in 1969, he was placed under house arrest in
1203:
5238:. Legendary Heroes of Africa. Archived from
4782:. Canberra: Goanna Press. pp. 172–192.
4616:
3382:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.
2591:
1581:", which are often found in the writings of
5402:Rob Davies, Dan O'Meara and Sipho Dlamini,
5139:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
4988:
3666:Clark, Nancy L; Worger, William H. (2011).
3665:
3513:
3511:
3290:. Denver: Outskirts Press. pp. 65–66.
3256:
3254:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3026:(ANCWL) and the Women's Council within the
2659:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2183:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2008:, and non-violent opposition to apartheid.
1923:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1601:Painting depicting the Sharpeville Massacre
1592:
5580:
5566:
5541:Apartheid Guns and Money. A Tale of Profit
5538:
5254:"South Africa Virtual Jewish History Tour"
4898:
4305:
3570:"South Africa ends racial classifications"
3567:
3462:South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order
3343:South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order
1550:Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW)
1210:
1196:
4841:"Anti-apartheid icon reconciled a nation"
4507:
4490:
4480:
4320:
3721:
3452:
2679:Learn how and when to remove this message
2501:Learn how and when to remove this message
2357:Learn how and when to remove this message
2203:Learn how and when to remove this message
1943:Learn how and when to remove this message
137:Integration of the bantustans, change of
27:1950–1994 social movement in South Africa
6450:Reconstruction and Development Programme
5182:"Tutu, Other Clergy Arrested in Protest"
5152:
5150:
5087:
5016:
5014:
4999:
4997:
4747:
4200:
3517:
3508:
3245:
3030:(SWAPO). In April 1954, the more global
3013:South African women participated in the
2773:apartheid, and became leader of the new
2612:
2512:
2409:Federation of South African Trade Unions
2261:National Union of South African Students
2255:National Union of South African Students
2144:
2077:ruled that no-one was culpable, but the
2025:National Union of South African Students
1731:
1596:
7657:Opposition to apartheid in South Africa
6046:1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike
5069:16 June 1976 Student Uprising in Soweto
4966:
4776:"THE PAN AFRICANIST CONGRESS OF AZANIA"
4717:
4715:
4675:
4462:
4359:The Rise, Fall, and Legacy of Apartheid
4352:
4350:
4348:
4346:
4344:
4342:
3982:
3772:"1953. Criminal Law Amendment Act No 8"
3639:
3458:
3371:
3369:
3367:
3339:
3201:
3127:
3028:South West Africa People's Organization
2852:was spent on defence in the mid-1980s.
2306:
1151:Music in the movement against apartheid
14:
7639:
6527:2012 Western Cape farm workers' strike
5323:
5317:
5272:"South African Jews Against Apartheid"
4773:
4513:
3542:
3536:
3489:
3483:
3438:. New Africa Books. pp. 135–136.
3406:
3400:
3333:
3285:
3279:
3260:
3226:
3195:
2538:Christian Institute of Southern Africa
5561:
5519:
5147:
5011:
4994:
4809:
4807:
4748:Mataboge, Mmanaledi (19 March 2010).
4532:
4417:The road to democracy in South Africa
3873:
3710:Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies
3613:
3375:
3220:
2982:
1314:. The brutal suppression of the 1976
5348:
5107:The end of apartheid in South Africa
5103:Eades, Lindsay Michie 1962- (1999).
4712:
4356:
4339:
4067:
3919:South Africa : a modern history
3432:Jacklyn Cock, Laurie Nathan (1989).
3364:
3167:
3165:
2951:
2917:
2657:adding citations to reliable sources
2624:
2558:, former Minister of Law and Order.
2483:adding citations to reliable sources
2454:
2339:adding citations to reliable sources
2310:
2181:adding citations to reliable sources
2148:
1994:South African Students' Organisation
1921:adding citations to reliable sources
1888:
1736:List of attacks attributed to MK in
6457:Truth and Reconciliation Commission
6103:Coloured-vote constitutional crisis
5214:John D. Battersby (28 March 1988).
4969:"African National Congress (ANC) •"
4678:Journal of Southern African Studies
3703:
3425:
2965:, writing in 1960, observed of the
2608:
2574:World Alliance of Reformed Churches
2298:National Education Crisis Committee
2280:South African Students Organisation
2274:South African Students Organisation
1507:South African Congress of Democrats
626:Coloured vote constitutional crisis
24:
18:National Education Crisis Committee
5513:
5324:Pillay, Taschica (12 March 2010).
4804:
4463:Stevens, Simon (1 November 2019).
4201:Wheatley, Stephen (4 April 2020).
3983:Roberts, Benjamin (26 June 2020).
3139:
2540:with other theologians, including
2289:Congress of South African Students
2110:
139:provincial borders in South Africa
25:
7688:
7662:Political history of South Africa
7609:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
7244:South African Party (Cape Colony)
3876:Journal of Natal and Zulu History
3614:Valdi, Ismail (16 January 2012).
3162:
3122:South African Musicians' Alliance
3112:List of massacres in South Africa
3032:Federation of South African Women
2546:South African Council of Churches
2413:Council of Unions of South Africa
2079:South African Medical Association
1617:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
1607:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
1331:Constitutional Referendum of 1983
1241:. Mass action against the ruling
7621:
7620:
4967:Adeleke, Tunde (16 April 2008).
4901:South African Historical Journal
4278:Guardian Staff (22 March 1960).
3096:
3008:
2766:Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith
2629:
2621:, assassinated by police in 1982
2459:
2315:
2226:South African Students' Movement
2153:
1893:
1223:Internal resistance to apartheid
1179:
1178:
1141:Internal resistance to apartheid
596:
549:
538:
527:
516:
505:
494:
483:
472:
461:
450:
439:
427:
416:
402:
390:
378:
366:
354:
342:
324:
312:
283:
272:
261:
245:
232:
212:
200:
189:
173:
159:
48:
35:Internal resistance to apartheid
7258:South African Party (1977–1980)
7251:South African Party (1911–1934)
7167:Progressive Party (Cape Colony)
6964:Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners
5501:
5480:
5461:
5439:
5418:
5409:
5396:
5387:
5374:
5290:
5264:
5246:
5228:
5207:
5191:
5175:
5096:
5062:
5037:
4960:
4935:
4892:
4866:
4833:
4767:
4741:
4669:
4643:
4610:
4584:
4558:
4456:
4401:
4375:
4280:"Police Fire Kills 63 Africans"
4271:
4246:
4220:
4194:
4164:
4139:
4113:
4087:
4061:
4028:
4002:
3976:
3943:
3910:
3867:
3841:
3815:
3789:
3764:
3738:
3697:
3659:
3633:
3607:
3588:
3561:
3543:Pandey, Satish Chandra (2006).
3068:United Nations Decade for Women
2517:Desmond Tutu makes a speech in
2470:needs additional citations for
2326:needs additional citations for
2233:South African Students Movement
2220:South African Students Movement
1836:United Nations Security Council
651:Church Street, Pretoria bombing
7677:Social history of South Africa
6576:2019 service delivery protests
6562:#FeesMustFall student protests
6307:1983 constitutional referendum
3888:10.1080/02590123.2013.11964196
3304:
3132:
1446:, resulting in mass protests,
1428:National Democratic Revolution
13:
1:
7034:Johannesburg Reform Committee
6263:Israel–South Africa Agreement
5656:
5641:
5618:
5611:
5543:. London: C. Hurst & Co.
5524:. London: C. Hurst & Co.
4068:Levy, Norman (18 June 2015).
3640:Naicker, M.P (21 June 2019).
3156:
2924:Israel–South Africa relations
2830:South African Communist Party
2043:Azanian People's Organisation
1980:movement, and directors like
1689:South African Communist Party
1639:Armed resistance and sabotage
1455:South African Indian Congress
1383:
1351:Azanian People's Organisation
1293:South African Communist Party
1247:negotiations to end apartheid
293:(non-violent resistance only)
6689:Black Consciousness Movement
6443:Government of National Unity
5258:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
4913:10.1080/02582473.2012.675813
4544:South African History Online
4410:"The turn to armed struggle"
3917:Davenport, T. R. H. (2000).
2958:India–South Africa relations
2825:, housing and unemployment.
2247:and had their cars torched.
2002:Black Consciousness Movement
1885:Black Consciousness Movement
1879:Black Consciousness Movement
1480:Suppression of Communism Act
1312:Black Consciousness Movement
1267:. From the early 1950s, the
1116:Apartheid in popular culture
7:
7647:Anti-racism in South Africa
6400:Saint James Church massacre
6286:Weapons of mass destruction
5539:van Vuuren, Hennie (2018).
5393:Lachick and Urdang, p. 110.
4321:Stapleton, Timothy (2010).
3568:Myre, Greg (18 June 1991).
3089:
2450:
2090:Liberation before education
1378:South African Defence Force
1251:first multiracial elections
686:Saint James Church massacre
681:Assassination of Chris Hani
10:
7693:
6140:1957 Alexandra bus boycott
6018:South West Africa campaign
5917:Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814
5882:French Huguenot settlement
5078:. africanhistory.about.com
4254:"The Sharpeville Massacre"
3952:Mandela : a Biography
3950:Meredith, Martin. (2010).
2955:
2921:
2813:. Zille was active in the
2277:
2258:
2223:
2114:
1882:
1604:
1387:
691:1994 Bophuthatswana crisis
7652:Apartheid in South Africa
7618:
7595:African National Congress
7584:
7490:
7323:
7055:Liberal Party (1953–1968)
6778:
6769:
6627:
6423:
6393:1992 apartheid referendum
6062:
6007:
5926:
5864:
5837:
5830:
5596:
5520:Douek, Daniel L. (2020).
5090:The White Tribe of Africa
4690:10.1080/03057070902919850
4151:Google Arts & Culture
3776:omalley.nelsonmandela.org
3734:– via escholarship.
3518:Mitchell, Thomas (2008).
3227:Powell, Jonathan (2015).
2842:End Conscription Campaign
2592:Mass Democratic Movements
2047:Black People's Convention
1400:African National Congress
1390:African National Congress
1269:African National Congress
939:Winnie Madikizela-Mandela
570:
565:
302:
149:
73:4 June 1948 – 10 May 1994
65:
47:
39:
34:
7048:Labour Party (1969–1994)
7041:Labour Party (1910–1958)
6597:2020 Phala Phala Robbery
6555:#RhodesMustFall protests
6154:1960 republic referendum
5433:28 February 2008 at the
5204:John Burns, 6 Feb. 1977.
5088:Harrison, David (1987).
4774:Leeman, Bernard (1996).
4035:McKinley, Dale. (2015).
3490:Minter, William (1994).
3459:Ottoway, Marina (1993).
3407:Morton, Stephen (2013).
3340:Ottoway, Marina (1993).
3202:du Toit, Pierre (2001).
3117:Protests in South Africa
2865:South African literature
2748:, and others formed the
2617:Anti-apartheid activist
2566:buildings in Cape Town.
2422:The largest and longest
2400:In 1979, one year after
2129:objected to the decree.
2096:workers' organisations.
1861:Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd
1593:The Sharpeville Massacre
1406:(ANCYL) in 1949. Led by
1326:in neighbouring states.
1310:, and a newly assertive
1308:South African Border War
1126:Cape Qualified Franchise
181:Republic of South Africa
42:decolonisation of Africa
7493:terrorist organisations
6583:2019 Johannesburg riots
6196:Constructive engagement
6161:International isolation
5979:Witwatersrand Gold Rush
5507:Bernstein, pp. 100–101.
4989:Clark & Worger 2011
4754:The Mail & Guardian
3600:5 December 2013 at the
3173:"The Defiance Campaign"
2838:United Democratic Front
2799:regarding the death of
2532:left the pro-apartheid
2526:against some churches.
2235:(SASM) was instituted.
1958:University of the North
1840:international sanctions
1804:Lesotho Liberation Army
1552:was founded and led by
1347:United Democratic Front
1297:Pan Africanist Congress
1156:Nostalgia for apartheid
6506:Attack on Kennedy Road
6117:Congress of the People
5708:South African Republic
5467:ANC official website,
4875:"The End of Apartheid"
4357:Louw, P. Eric (1997).
3286:Ugorji, Basil (2012).
3261:Thomas, Scott (1995).
3000:
2985:Indian People in Natal
2807:as a reporter for the
2728:, whose main champion
2706:Portuguese East Africa
2622:
2522:
1809:The widely publicised
1741:
1740:between 1980 and 1983.
1602:
1333:. This introduced the
1131:Disinvestment campaign
856:State Security Council
303:Commanders and leaders
99:Bilateral negotiations
7076:Natal Indian Congress
6796:Afrikaner Broederbond
6650:Afrikaner nationalism
6436:1994 general election
6407:Bophuthatswana crisis
6300:Church Street bombing
6080:Apartheid legislation
6073:1948 general election
5993:South Africa Act 1909
5788:Union of South Africa
5608:Kingdom of Mapungubwe
5588:Political history of
5474:16 March 2008 at the
4750:"Almost a revolution"
4617:Okoth, Assa. (2006).
4514:Baines, Gary (2014).
2971:
2967:Natal Indian Congress
2616:
2534:Dutch Reformed Church
2516:
2145:Student organisations
2013:civil rights movement
1984:. African heads like
1735:
1600:
1497:On the global stage,
1335:Tricameral Parliament
1265:1948 general election
1121:Apartheid legislation
1111:Afrikaner nationalism
671:Cape Town peace march
661:Trojan Horse Incident
621:1948 general election
566:Casualties and losses
167:Union of South Africa
119:Multiracial elections
7672:Resistance movements
6710:Greater South Africa
6548:2014 platinum strike
6414:Shell House massacre
6342:Transkei coup d'état
6147:Sharpeville massacre
5910:Battle of Blaauwberg
5903:Battle of Muizenberg
5855:Battle of Salt River
5638:Mthethwa Paramountcy
5495:22 June 2008 at the
5454:2 March 2008 at the
5074:1 March 2017 at the
4819:www.sahistory.org.za
4727:www.sahistory.org.za
4655:www.sahistory.org.za
4596:www.sahistory.org.za
4482:10.1093/pastj/gtz030
4444:on 12 September 2013
4387:www.sahistory.org.za
4232:www.sahistory.org.za
4125:www.sahistory.org.za
4099:www.sahistory.org.za
4074:www.sahistory.org.za
4014:www.sahistory.org.za
3827:www.sahistory.org.za
3801:www.sahistory.org.za
3750:www.sahistory.org.za
3646:www.sahistory.org.za
3620:www.sahistory.org.za
3574:Southeast Missourian
3128:Notes and references
3048:Sharpeville massacre
3019:liberation movements
2877:Afrikaans literature
2770:Mangosuthu Buthelezi
2653:improve this section
2479:improve this article
2335:improve this article
2307:Trade union movement
2177:improve this section
1970:Sharpeville massacre
1917:improve this section
1823:I am prepared to die
1709:Leninist vanguardism
1673:. In June 1961, the
1633:Sharpeville massacre
1611:Sharpeville massacre
1301:Sharpeville massacre
1271:(ANC) initiated its
1019:Eugène Terre'Blanche
889:Mangosuthu Buthelezi
696:Shell House massacre
666:Khotso House bombing
636:Sharpeville massacre
434:Eugène Terre'Blanche
7602:Democratic Alliance
6779:Civic and political
6643:Afrikaner Calvinism
6636:African nationalism
6485:African Renaissance
6175:UNSC Resolution 591
6096:Internal resistance
5997:National Convention
5965:Transvaal Civil War
5889:Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars
5772:Orange River Colony
5360:Mail & Guardian
5186:The Harvard Crimson
5111:. Greenwood Press.
4879:2001-2009.state.gov
4847:. 5 December 2013.
4619:A history of Africa
3723:10.5070/F7381025021
3704:Lal, Vinay (2014).
3376:Lodge, Tim (2011).
3104:South Africa portal
2996:on 22 October 2016.
2897:Afrikaner Calvinist
2889:Breyten Breytenbach
2801:Black Consciousness
2407:Later in 1979, the
2397:community support.
1255:universal franchise
1166:Sullivan Principles
123:universal franchise
112:Dissolution of the
7667:Racial segregation
6349:Ciskei coup d'état
6168:UN Resolution 1761
6133:Women's March 1956
5986:South African Wars
5972:Mineral Revolution
5380:Bernstein, Hilda.
5326:"Fatima Meer dies"
5314:The Jews of Africa
5049:www.britannica.com
4947:www.justice.gov.za
4729:. 7 September 2011
4657:. 17 February 2011
4546:. 15 December 2014
4469:Past & Present
4389:. 17 February 2011
3316:Timothy Garton Ash
3183:on 1 December 2016
3024:ANC Women's League
2914:executed in 1965.
2623:
2523:
2244:Naledi High School
1742:
1627:, a township near
1603:
1444:civil disobedience
1355:state of emergency
1235:passive resistance
751:Conservative Party
631:1956 Treason Trial
7634:
7633:
7587:political parties
7580:
7579:
7557:Orde van die Dood
7174:Progressive Party
6880:Congress Alliance
6696:Cape Independence
6628:Political culture
6623:
6622:
6590:COVID-19 pandemic
6520:Marikana massacre
6356:Venda coup d'état
6110:Defiance Campaign
5700:Orange Free State
5630:Dutch Cape Colony
5415:Bernstein, p. 96.
4845:Los Angeles Times
4628:978-9966-25-357-6
4426:978-1-86888-501-5
4046:978-0-620-65513-2
3961:978-1-282-56267-7
3928:978-0-230-28754-9
3682:978-1-4082-4564-4
3445:978-0-86486-115-3
3328:978-0-19-955201-6
3147:Defiance Campaign
2952:Indian resistance
2918:Jewish resistance
2726:Progressive Party
2702:Dimitri Tsafendas
2689:
2688:
2681:
2511:
2510:
2503:
2367:
2366:
2359:
2213:
2212:
2205:
2032:Rhodes University
1953:
1952:
1945:
1762:guerrilla warfare
1676:uMkhonto we Sizwe
1484:Defiance Campaign
1394:Umkhonto we Sizwe
1320:uMkhonto we Sizwe
1273:Defiance Campaign
1239:guerrilla warfare
1220:
1219:
1077:South-West Africa
575:
574:
294:
145:
144:
101:to end apartheid
16:(Redirected from
7684:
7624:
7623:
7611:
7604:
7597:
7573:
7566:
7559:
7552:
7545:
7538:
7531:
7524:
7517:
7510:
7503:
7491:Paramilitary and
7483:
7481:Umkosi Wezintaba
7476:
7469:
7462:
7455:
7448:
7441:
7434:
7427:
7420:
7413:
7406:
7399:
7392:
7385:
7378:
7371:
7364:
7357:
7350:
7343:
7336:
7326:social movements
7324:Trade unions and
7316:
7309:
7302:
7295:
7288:
7281:
7274:
7267:
7260:
7253:
7246:
7239:
7232:
7225:
7218:
7211:
7204:
7197:
7190:
7183:
7176:
7169:
7162:
7155:
7148:
7141:
7134:
7127:
7120:
7113:
7106:
7099:
7092:
7085:
7078:
7071:
7064:
7057:
7050:
7043:
7036:
7029:
7022:
7015:
7008:
7001:
6994:
6987:
6980:
6973:
6966:
6959:
6952:
6945:
6938:
6931:
6924:
6917:
6910:
6903:
6896:
6889:
6882:
6875:
6868:
6861:
6854:
6847:
6845:Boerestaat Party
6840:
6833:
6826:
6819:
6812:
6805:
6798:
6791:
6776:
6775:
6762:
6753:
6744:
6735:
6728:
6719:
6712:
6705:
6698:
6691:
6684:
6675:
6666:
6659:
6652:
6645:
6638:
6616:
6606:
6599:
6592:
6585:
6578:
6571:
6564:
6557:
6550:
6543:
6536:
6529:
6522:
6515:
6508:
6501:
6494:
6487:
6480:
6473:
6466:
6459:
6452:
6445:
6438:
6416:
6409:
6402:
6395:
6388:
6379:
6372:
6365:
6358:
6351:
6344:
6337:
6335:Dakar Conference
6330:
6323:
6316:
6309:
6302:
6295:
6288:
6281:
6274:
6265:
6258:
6256:Israeli alliance
6251:
6244:
6237:
6226:
6219:
6212:
6210:Sporting boycott
6205:
6198:
6191:
6184:
6182:Academic boycott
6177:
6170:
6163:
6156:
6149:
6142:
6135:
6126:
6119:
6112:
6105:
6098:
6089:
6082:
6075:
6055:
6048:
6041:
6039:Great Depression
6034:
6027:
6025:Maritz rebellion
6020:
6000:
5988:
5981:
5974:
5967:
5960:
5953:
5946:
5939:
5919:
5912:
5905:
5898:
5891:
5884:
5877:
5875:Dutch settlement
5857:
5850:
5848:Bantu migrations
5835:
5834:
5823:
5815:
5807:
5799:
5791:
5783:
5780:Transvaal Colony
5775:
5767:
5759:
5751:
5748:Nieuwe Republiek
5743:
5735:
5727:
5719:
5711:
5703:
5695:
5687:
5684:Natalia Republic
5679:
5671:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5653:Ndwandwe Kingdom
5648:
5646:
5643:
5633:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5616:
5613:
5582:
5575:
5568:
5559:
5558:
5554:
5535:
5508:
5505:
5499:
5484:
5478:
5465:
5459:
5443:
5437:
5427:Women's Charter.
5422:
5416:
5413:
5407:
5400:
5394:
5391:
5385:
5378:
5372:
5371:
5369:
5367:
5362:. 25 August 2016
5352:
5346:
5345:
5343:
5341:
5336:on 15 March 2010
5332:. Archived from
5321:
5315:
5313:
5311:
5309:
5304:on 25 April 2005
5300:. Archived from
5294:
5288:
5287:
5285:
5283:
5278:on 28 March 2013
5274:. Archived from
5268:
5262:
5261:
5250:
5244:
5243:
5242:on 5 March 2011.
5232:
5226:
5225:
5211:
5205:
5195:
5189:
5179:
5173:
5172:
5170:
5168:
5154:
5145:
5144:
5138:
5130:
5110:
5100:
5094:
5093:
5085:
5079:
5066:
5060:
5059:
5057:
5055:
5041:
5035:
5032:
5026:
5025:
5018:
5009:
5008:
5001:
4992:
4991:, p. 63-72.
4986:
4980:
4979:
4977:
4975:
4964:
4958:
4957:
4955:
4953:
4939:
4933:
4932:
4896:
4890:
4889:
4887:
4885:
4870:
4864:
4863:
4861:
4859:
4837:
4831:
4830:
4828:
4826:
4811:
4802:
4801:
4771:
4765:
4764:
4762:
4760:
4745:
4739:
4738:
4736:
4734:
4719:
4710:
4709:
4673:
4667:
4666:
4664:
4662:
4647:
4641:
4640:
4614:
4608:
4607:
4605:
4603:
4588:
4582:
4581:
4579:
4577:
4562:
4556:
4555:
4553:
4551:
4536:
4530:
4529:
4511:
4505:
4504:
4494:
4484:
4460:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4449:
4443:
4437:. Archived from
4414:
4405:
4399:
4398:
4396:
4394:
4379:
4373:
4372:
4354:
4337:
4336:
4318:
4303:
4302:
4300:
4298:
4275:
4269:
4268:
4266:
4264:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4239:
4224:
4218:
4217:
4215:
4213:
4198:
4192:
4191:
4189:
4187:
4168:
4162:
4161:
4159:
4157:
4143:
4137:
4136:
4134:
4132:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4108:
4106:
4091:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4080:
4065:
4059:
4058:
4032:
4026:
4025:
4023:
4021:
4006:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3995:
3980:
3974:
3973:
3947:
3941:
3940:
3914:
3908:
3907:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3862:
3860:
3853:sahistory.org.za
3845:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3834:
3819:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3808:
3793:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3782:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3742:
3736:
3735:
3725:
3701:
3695:
3694:
3674:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3637:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3626:
3611:
3605:
3592:
3586:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3576:. Cape Girardeau
3565:
3559:
3558:
3540:
3534:
3533:
3515:
3506:
3505:
3487:
3481:
3480:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3429:
3423:
3422:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3373:
3362:
3361:
3337:
3331:
3308:
3302:
3301:
3283:
3277:
3276:
3258:
3243:
3242:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3179:. Archived from
3169:
3150:
3143:
3106:
3101:
3100:
3099:
2998:
2997:
2718:Fagan Commission
2708:). The moderate
2694:Hendrik Verwoerd
2684:
2677:
2673:
2670:
2664:
2633:
2625:
2609:White resistance
2536:and founded the
2506:
2499:
2495:
2492:
2486:
2463:
2455:
2426:exploded in the
2362:
2355:
2351:
2348:
2342:
2319:
2311:
2208:
2201:
2197:
2194:
2188:
2157:
2149:
1948:
1941:
1937:
1934:
1928:
1897:
1889:
1691:(SACP) activist
1687:, and prominent
1659:French Indochina
1231:social movements
1212:
1205:
1198:
1182:
1181:
979:Albertina Sisulu
974:Benjamin Moloise
909:Arthur Goldreich
600:
577:
576:
554:
553:
552:
543:
542:
541:
532:
531:
530:
521:
520:
519:
510:
509:
508:
499:
498:
497:
488:
487:
486:
477:
476:
475:
466:
465:
464:
455:
454:
453:
444:
443:
442:
432:
431:
430:
423:Constand Viljoen
421:
420:
419:
407:
406:
395:
394:
383:
382:
371:
370:
361:H. van den Bergh
359:
358:
347:
346:
329:
328:
317:
316:
292:
288:
287:
286:
277:
276:
275:
266:
265:
264:
250:
249:
248:
237:
236:
235:
217:
216:
215:
205:
204:
203:
194:
193:
192:
179:
177:
176:
165:
163:
162:
67:
66:
52:
32:
31:
21:
7692:
7691:
7687:
7686:
7685:
7683:
7682:
7681:
7637:
7636:
7635:
7630:
7614:
7607:
7600:
7593:
7586:
7576:
7569:
7562:
7555:
7548:
7541:
7534:
7527:
7520:
7513:
7506:
7499:
7492:
7486:
7479:
7472:
7465:
7458:
7451:
7444:
7437:
7430:
7423:
7416:
7409:
7402:
7395:
7388:
7381:
7374:
7367:
7360:
7353:
7346:
7339:
7332:
7325:
7319:
7312:
7305:
7298:
7291:
7284:
7277:
7270:
7263:
7256:
7249:
7242:
7235:
7228:
7221:
7214:
7207:
7200:
7193:
7186:
7179:
7172:
7165:
7158:
7151:
7144:
7137:
7130:
7123:
7116:
7109:
7102:
7095:
7088:
7081:
7074:
7067:
7060:
7053:
7046:
7039:
7032:
7025:
7018:
7011:
7004:
6997:
6992:HNP (Herstigte)
6990:
6985:HNP (Herenigde)
6983:
6976:
6969:
6962:
6955:
6948:
6941:
6934:
6927:
6920:
6913:
6906:
6899:
6892:
6885:
6878:
6871:
6864:
6857:
6850:
6843:
6836:
6829:
6822:
6815:
6808:
6803:Afrikaner Party
6801:
6794:
6787:
6780:
6771:
6765:
6756:
6747:
6738:
6731:
6722:
6717:Honorary whites
6715:
6708:
6701:
6694:
6687:
6678:
6669:
6662:
6655:
6648:
6641:
6634:
6619:
6609:
6602:
6595:
6588:
6581:
6574:
6567:
6560:
6553:
6546:
6539:
6532:
6525:
6518:
6511:
6504:
6497:
6490:
6483:
6478:Soweto bombings
6476:
6469:
6462:
6455:
6448:
6441:
6434:
6426:
6419:
6412:
6405:
6398:
6391:
6384:
6375:
6368:
6361:
6354:
6347:
6340:
6333:
6326:
6319:
6312:
6305:
6298:
6291:
6284:
6279:Soweto Uprising
6277:
6270:
6261:
6254:
6247:
6240:
6233:
6222:
6215:
6208:
6203:Tar Baby Option
6201:
6194:
6187:
6180:
6173:
6166:
6159:
6152:
6145:
6138:
6131:
6124:Freedom Charter
6122:
6115:
6108:
6101:
6094:
6085:
6078:
6071:
6058:
6051:
6044:
6037:
6030:
6023:
6016:
6003:
5991:
5984:
5977:
5970:
5963:
5956:
5949:
5942:
5935:
5922:
5915:
5908:
5901:
5894:
5887:
5880:
5873:
5860:
5853:
5846:
5826:
5818:
5810:
5802:
5794:
5786:
5778:
5770:
5762:
5754:
5746:
5738:
5730:
5724:Griqualand West
5722:
5716:Griqualand East
5714:
5706:
5698:
5690:
5682:
5674:
5666:
5659:
5651:
5644:
5636:
5628:
5621:
5614:
5606:
5592:
5586:
5551:
5532:
5516:
5514:Further reading
5511:
5506:
5502:
5497:Wayback Machine
5485:
5481:
5476:Wayback Machine
5466:
5462:
5456:Wayback Machine
5448:What Women Want
5444:
5440:
5435:Wayback Machine
5423:
5419:
5414:
5410:
5401:
5397:
5392:
5388:
5379:
5375:
5365:
5363:
5354:
5353:
5349:
5339:
5337:
5322:
5318:
5307:
5305:
5296:
5295:
5291:
5281:
5279:
5270:
5269:
5265:
5252:
5251:
5247:
5234:
5233:
5229:
5212:
5208:
5196:
5192:
5188:, 1 March 1988.
5180:
5176:
5166:
5164:
5156:
5155:
5148:
5132:
5131:
5119:
5101:
5097:
5086:
5082:
5076:Wayback Machine
5067:
5063:
5053:
5051:
5043:
5042:
5038:
5033:
5029:
5020:
5019:
5012:
5003:
5002:
4995:
4987:
4983:
4973:
4971:
4965:
4961:
4951:
4949:
4941:
4940:
4936:
4897:
4893:
4883:
4881:
4871:
4867:
4857:
4855:
4839:
4838:
4834:
4824:
4822:
4821:. 13 March 2011
4813:
4812:
4805:
4790:
4772:
4768:
4758:
4756:
4746:
4742:
4732:
4730:
4721:
4720:
4713:
4674:
4670:
4660:
4658:
4649:
4648:
4644:
4629:
4615:
4611:
4601:
4599:
4598:. 16 March 2011
4590:
4589:
4585:
4575:
4573:
4571:www.macleans.ca
4563:
4559:
4549:
4547:
4538:
4537:
4533:
4526:
4512:
4508:
4461:
4457:
4447:
4445:
4441:
4427:
4412:
4406:
4402:
4392:
4390:
4381:
4380:
4376:
4369:
4355:
4340:
4333:
4319:
4306:
4296:
4294:
4276:
4272:
4262:
4260:
4252:
4251:
4247:
4237:
4235:
4234:. 31 March 2011
4226:
4225:
4221:
4211:
4209:
4207:The Independent
4199:
4195:
4185:
4183:
4182:on 8 April 2005
4172:David M. Sibeko
4169:
4165:
4155:
4153:
4145:
4144:
4140:
4130:
4128:
4119:
4118:
4114:
4104:
4102:
4101:. 31 March 2011
4093:
4092:
4088:
4078:
4076:
4066:
4062:
4047:
4033:
4029:
4019:
4017:
4016:. 21 March 2011
4008:
4007:
4003:
3993:
3991:
3981:
3977:
3962:
3948:
3944:
3929:
3915:
3911:
3872:
3868:
3858:
3856:
3855:. 21 March 2011
3847:
3846:
3842:
3832:
3830:
3821:
3820:
3816:
3806:
3804:
3803:. 21 March 2011
3795:
3794:
3790:
3780:
3778:
3770:
3769:
3765:
3755:
3753:
3752:. 21 March 2011
3744:
3743:
3739:
3702:
3698:
3683:
3672:
3664:
3660:
3650:
3648:
3638:
3634:
3624:
3622:
3612:
3608:
3602:Wayback Machine
3593:
3589:
3579:
3577:
3566:
3562:
3555:
3541:
3537:
3530:
3516:
3509:
3502:
3488:
3484:
3477:
3457:
3453:
3446:
3430:
3426:
3419:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3374:
3365:
3358:
3338:
3334:
3309:
3305:
3298:
3284:
3280:
3273:
3259:
3246:
3239:
3225:
3221:
3214:
3200:
3196:
3186:
3184:
3171:
3170:
3163:
3159:
3154:
3153:
3144:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3102:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3011:
2999:
2977:
2960:
2954:
2926:
2920:
2832:, whose leader
2810:Rand Daily Mail
2685:
2674:
2668:
2665:
2650:
2634:
2611:
2594:
2507:
2496:
2490:
2487:
2476:
2464:
2453:
2363:
2352:
2346:
2343:
2332:
2320:
2309:
2300:
2291:
2282:
2276:
2263:
2257:
2228:
2222:
2209:
2198:
2192:
2189:
2174:
2158:
2147:
2119:
2117:Soweto uprising
2113:
2111:Soweto uprising
1949:
1938:
1932:
1929:
1914:
1898:
1887:
1881:
1849:Soweto uprising
1697:Liliesleaf Farm
1641:
1613:
1605:Main articles:
1595:
1566:Union Buildings
1522:Freedom Charter
1463:Group Areas Act
1396:
1388:Main articles:
1386:
1316:Soweto uprising
1216:
1171:
1170:
1146:Kairos Document
1136:Freedom Charter
1106:
1098:
1097:
1081:
1052:
1044:
1043:
874:Vernon Berrangé
869:
861:
860:
821:Security Branch
711:
701:
700:
646:Soweto uprising
616:
615:
558:
550:
548:
547:
539:
537:
536:
528:
526:
525:
517:
515:
514:
506:
504:
503:
495:
493:
492:
484:
482:
481:
473:
471:
470:
462:
460:
459:
451:
449:
448:
440:
438:
428:
426:
425:
417:
415:
414:
413:
401:
389:
377:
365:
353:
341:
323:
311:
295:
284:
282:
281:
273:
271:
270:
262:
260:
259:
246:
244:
243:
233:
231:
230:
213:
211:
201:
199:
198:
190:
188:
187:
186:
174:
172:
160:
158:
133:
97:
87:
74:
53:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7690:
7680:
7679:
7674:
7669:
7664:
7659:
7654:
7649:
7632:
7631:
7619:
7616:
7615:
7613:
7612:
7605:
7598:
7590:
7588:
7582:
7581:
7578:
7577:
7575:
7574:
7567:
7560:
7553:
7550:Ossewabrandwag
7546:
7539:
7532:
7525:
7518:
7511:
7504:
7496:
7494:
7488:
7487:
7485:
7484:
7477:
7470:
7463:
7456:
7449:
7442:
7435:
7428:
7421:
7414:
7407:
7400:
7393:
7386:
7379:
7372:
7365:
7358:
7351:
7344:
7337:
7329:
7327:
7321:
7320:
7318:
7317:
7310:
7303:
7296:
7293:Unionist Party
7289:
7282:
7275:
7272:Torch Commando
7268:
7261:
7254:
7247:
7240:
7233:
7226:
7219:
7212:
7205:
7198:
7191:
7184:
7177:
7170:
7163:
7156:
7149:
7146:Orde Boerevolk
7142:
7135:
7128:
7121:
7114:
7107:
7100:
7093:
7086:
7079:
7072:
7065:
7058:
7051:
7044:
7037:
7030:
7023:
7016:
7009:
7002:
6995:
6988:
6981:
6974:
6967:
6960:
6953:
6946:
6939:
6932:
6925:
6922:DP (1989–2000)
6918:
6915:DP (1973–1977)
6911:
6908:Dominion Party
6904:
6897:
6890:
6883:
6876:
6869:
6862:
6855:
6848:
6841:
6834:
6827:
6820:
6813:
6806:
6799:
6792:
6789:Afrikaner Bond
6784:
6782:
6773:
6767:
6766:
6764:
6763:
6754:
6745:
6736:
6729:
6720:
6713:
6706:
6703:Day of the Vow
6699:
6692:
6685:
6676:
6667:
6660:
6653:
6646:
6639:
6631:
6629:
6625:
6624:
6621:
6620:
6618:
6617:
6607:
6600:
6593:
6586:
6579:
6572:
6565:
6558:
6551:
6544:
6537:
6530:
6523:
6516:
6509:
6502:
6495:
6488:
6481:
6474:
6471:Floor crossing
6467:
6460:
6453:
6446:
6439:
6431:
6429:
6421:
6420:
6418:
6417:
6410:
6403:
6396:
6389:
6386:Bisho massacre
6382:
6381:
6380:
6366:
6359:
6352:
6345:
6338:
6331:
6328:Operation Vula
6324:
6321:Rubicon speech
6317:
6314:Langa massacre
6310:
6303:
6296:
6289:
6282:
6275:
6268:
6267:
6266:
6252:
6245:
6238:
6231:
6230:
6229:
6228:
6227:
6220:
6206:
6199:
6192:
6185:
6178:
6171:
6157:
6150:
6143:
6136:
6129:
6128:
6127:
6113:
6106:
6099:
6092:
6091:
6090:
6076:
6068:
6066:
6060:
6059:
6057:
6056:
6049:
6042:
6035:
6032:Rand Rebellion
6028:
6021:
6013:
6011:
6005:
6004:
6002:
6001:
5989:
5982:
5975:
5968:
5961:
5958:Boer Republics
5954:
5947:
5940:
5932:
5930:
5924:
5923:
5921:
5920:
5913:
5906:
5899:
5892:
5885:
5878:
5870:
5868:
5862:
5861:
5859:
5858:
5851:
5843:
5841:
5832:
5828:
5827:
5825:
5824:
5816:
5808:
5804:Bophuthatswana
5800:
5792:
5784:
5776:
5768:
5764:Klein Vrystaat
5760:
5752:
5744:
5736:
5728:
5720:
5712:
5704:
5696:
5688:
5680:
5672:
5664:
5649:
5634:
5626:
5603:
5601:
5594:
5593:
5585:
5584:
5577:
5570:
5562:
5556:
5555:
5550:978-1787380974
5549:
5536:
5531:978-1849048804
5530:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5509:
5500:
5479:
5460:
5438:
5417:
5408:
5395:
5386:
5373:
5347:
5316:
5289:
5263:
5245:
5227:
5221:New York Times
5206:
5198:New York Times
5190:
5174:
5146:
5117:
5095:
5080:
5061:
5036:
5027:
5010:
4993:
4981:
4959:
4934:
4907:(3): 587–621.
4891:
4865:
4832:
4803:
4788:
4766:
4740:
4711:
4684:(2): 287–301.
4668:
4642:
4627:
4609:
4583:
4557:
4531:
4525:978-1472509710
4524:
4506:
4475:(1): 221–255.
4455:
4425:
4400:
4374:
4367:
4338:
4332:978-0313365898
4331:
4304:
4270:
4245:
4219:
4193:
4174:(March 1976).
4163:
4138:
4112:
4086:
4060:
4045:
4027:
4001:
3975:
3960:
3942:
3927:
3909:
3866:
3840:
3829:. 4 April 2011
3814:
3788:
3763:
3737:
3696:
3681:
3658:
3632:
3606:
3587:
3560:
3554:978-8176256384
3553:
3535:
3529:978-0313313578
3528:
3507:
3501:978-1439216187
3500:
3482:
3476:978-0815767152
3475:
3451:
3444:
3424:
3418:978-1846318498
3417:
3399:
3393:978-0192801852
3392:
3363:
3357:978-0815767152
3356:
3332:
3303:
3297:978-1432788353
3296:
3278:
3272:978-1850439936
3271:
3244:
3238:978-1250069887
3237:
3219:
3213:978-0333779187
3212:
3194:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3152:
3151:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3108:
3107:
3091:
3088:
3084:Dorothy Nyembe
3015:anti-apartheid
3010:
3007:
2975:
2953:
2950:
2934:Torch Commando
2919:
2916:
2787:Nelson Mandela
2750:Torch Commando
2722:National Party
2687:
2686:
2669:September 2020
2637:
2635:
2628:
2610:
2607:
2593:
2590:
2585:New York Times
2509:
2508:
2491:September 2020
2467:
2465:
2458:
2452:
2449:
2424:black uprising
2379:Mahatma Gandhi
2365:
2364:
2347:September 2020
2323:
2321:
2314:
2308:
2305:
2299:
2296:
2290:
2287:
2278:Main article:
2275:
2272:
2259:Main article:
2256:
2253:
2224:Main article:
2221:
2218:
2211:
2210:
2193:September 2020
2161:
2159:
2152:
2146:
2143:
2115:Main article:
2112:
2109:
1986:Kenneth Kaunda
1951:
1950:
1901:
1899:
1892:
1883:Main article:
1880:
1877:
1773:Robert Sobukwe
1754:Denis Goldberg
1750:Ahmed Kathrada
1718:Day of the Vow
1685:Raymond Mhlaba
1663:French Algeria
1646:Nelson Mandela
1640:
1637:
1594:
1591:
1583:Vladimir Lenin
1562:Amina Cachalia
1543:
1542:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1492:Albert Luthuli
1434:out plans for
1412:Nelson Mandela
1385:
1382:
1374:Nelson Mandela
1370:F. W. de Klerk
1281:Port Elizabeth
1243:National Party
1218:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1207:
1200:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1186:
1173:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1107:
1105:Related topics
1104:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1096:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1029:H. F. Verwoerd
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1009:Adelaide Tambo
1006:
1001:
999:Robert Sobukwe
996:
991:
989:J. G. Strijdom
986:
981:
976:
971:
969:Raymond Mhlaba
966:
961:
956:
954:Nelson Mandela
951:
946:
941:
936:
934:Albert Luthuli
931:
929:Ahmed Kathrada
926:
921:
919:Bantu Holomisa
916:
911:
906:
901:
896:
894:F. W. de Klerk
891:
886:
881:
876:
870:
867:
866:
863:
862:
859:
858:
853:
848:
843:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
811:National Party
808:
803:
798:
793:
788:
783:
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
728:
723:
718:
712:
707:
706:
703:
702:
699:
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
633:
628:
623:
617:
614:
613:
607:
606:
605:
602:
601:
593:
592:
586:
585:
573:
572:
568:
567:
563:
562:
545:Raymond Mhlaba
468:Winnie Mandela
457:Nelson Mandela
436:
412:
411:
409:F. W. de Klerk
399:
387:
385:Eugene de Kock
375:
363:
351:
339:
331:H. F. Verwoerd
321:
308:
305:
304:
300:
299:
297:Torch Commando
209:
185:
184:
170:
155:
152:
151:
147:
146:
143:
142:
135:
129:
128:
127:
126:
116:
110:
93:
89:
88:
83:
81:
77:
76:
71:
63:
62:
55:Nelson Mandela
45:
44:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7689:
7678:
7675:
7673:
7670:
7668:
7665:
7663:
7660:
7658:
7655:
7653:
7650:
7648:
7645:
7644:
7642:
7629:
7628:
7617:
7610:
7606:
7603:
7599:
7596:
7592:
7591:
7589:
7583:
7572:
7568:
7565:
7561:
7558:
7554:
7551:
7547:
7544:
7540:
7537:
7533:
7530:
7526:
7523:
7519:
7516:
7512:
7509:
7505:
7502:
7498:
7497:
7495:
7489:
7482:
7478:
7475:
7471:
7468:
7467:Die Spoorbund
7464:
7461:
7457:
7454:
7450:
7447:
7443:
7440:
7436:
7433:
7429:
7426:
7422:
7419:
7415:
7412:
7408:
7405:
7401:
7398:
7394:
7391:
7387:
7384:
7380:
7377:
7373:
7370:
7366:
7363:
7359:
7356:
7352:
7349:
7345:
7342:
7338:
7335:
7331:
7330:
7328:
7322:
7315:
7311:
7308:
7307:Workers Party
7304:
7301:
7297:
7294:
7290:
7287:
7283:
7280:
7276:
7273:
7269:
7266:
7262:
7259:
7255:
7252:
7248:
7245:
7241:
7238:
7234:
7231:
7227:
7224:
7220:
7217:
7213:
7210:
7206:
7203:
7199:
7196:
7192:
7189:
7188:Radio Freedom
7185:
7182:
7178:
7175:
7171:
7168:
7164:
7161:
7157:
7154:
7150:
7147:
7143:
7140:
7139:Oranjewerkers
7136:
7133:
7129:
7126:
7122:
7119:
7115:
7112:
7108:
7105:
7101:
7098:
7094:
7091:
7087:
7084:
7080:
7077:
7073:
7070:
7066:
7063:
7059:
7056:
7052:
7049:
7045:
7042:
7038:
7035:
7031:
7028:
7024:
7021:
7017:
7014:
7010:
7007:
7003:
7000:
6996:
6993:
6989:
6986:
6982:
6979:
6975:
6972:
6968:
6965:
6961:
6958:
6954:
6951:
6947:
6944:
6940:
6937:
6933:
6930:
6926:
6923:
6919:
6916:
6912:
6909:
6905:
6902:
6898:
6895:
6891:
6888:
6884:
6881:
6877:
6874:
6870:
6867:
6863:
6860:
6856:
6853:
6849:
6846:
6842:
6839:
6835:
6832:
6828:
6825:
6821:
6818:
6814:
6811:
6807:
6804:
6800:
6797:
6793:
6790:
6786:
6785:
6783:
6781:organisations
6777:
6774:
6772:organisations
6768:
6761:
6760:
6755:
6752:
6751:
6746:
6743:
6742:
6737:
6734:
6730:
6727:
6726:
6721:
6718:
6714:
6711:
6707:
6704:
6700:
6697:
6693:
6690:
6686:
6683:
6682:
6677:
6674:
6673:
6668:
6665:
6661:
6658:
6654:
6651:
6647:
6644:
6640:
6637:
6633:
6632:
6630:
6626:
6615:
6613:
6608:
6605:
6601:
6598:
6594:
6591:
6587:
6584:
6580:
6577:
6573:
6570:
6569:Tshwane riots
6566:
6563:
6559:
6556:
6552:
6549:
6545:
6542:
6538:
6535:
6531:
6528:
6524:
6521:
6517:
6514:
6510:
6507:
6503:
6500:
6496:
6493:
6489:
6486:
6482:
6479:
6475:
6472:
6468:
6465:
6461:
6458:
6454:
6451:
6447:
6444:
6440:
6437:
6433:
6432:
6430:
6428:
6422:
6415:
6411:
6408:
6404:
6401:
6397:
6394:
6390:
6387:
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6293:Project Coast
6290:
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6272:Mafeje affair
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6242:Durban Moment
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6189:Disinvestment
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4127:. 13 May 2015
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3989:www.iol.co.za
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3057:
3051:
3049:
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3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3020:
3016:
3009:Role of women
3006:
3004:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2986:
2980:
2974:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2959:
2949:
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2935:
2930:
2925:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2885:Ingrid Jonker
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2845:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2819:Cape Province
2816:
2812:
2811:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2781:who defended
2780:
2779:Rivonia Trial
2776:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2738:
2737:Harry Schwarz
2734:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2683:
2680:
2672:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2643:
2638:This section
2636:
2632:
2627:
2626:
2620:
2615:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2589:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2552:Frank Chikane
2549:
2547:
2543:
2542:Albert Geyser
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2520:
2515:
2505:
2502:
2494:
2484:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2468:This section
2466:
2462:
2457:
2456:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2432:
2429:
2428:Vaal Triangle
2425:
2420:
2416:
2414:
2410:
2405:
2403:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2361:
2358:
2350:
2340:
2336:
2330:
2329:
2324:This section
2322:
2318:
2313:
2312:
2304:
2295:
2286:
2281:
2271:
2267:
2262:
2252:
2248:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2234:
2227:
2217:
2207:
2204:
2196:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2167:
2162:This section
2160:
2156:
2151:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2108:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2091:
2087:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2070:
2066:
2064:
2063:non-racialism
2058:
2054:
2050:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2026:
2021:
2018:
2014:
2009:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1971:
1967:
1966:Rivonia Trial
1962:
1959:
1947:
1944:
1936:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1902:This section
1900:
1896:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1876:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1850:
1844:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1816:
1812:
1811:Rivonia Trial
1807:
1805:
1799:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1788:Dar es Salaam
1784:
1782:
1778:
1777:Robben Island
1774:
1769:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1746:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1713:
1710:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1677:
1672:
1666:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1650:Walter Sisulu
1647:
1636:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1612:
1608:
1599:
1590:
1588:
1587:Joseph Stalin
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1548:In 1956, the
1546:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1508:
1502:
1500:
1495:
1493:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1475:
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1466:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1451:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1420:Anton Lembede
1417:
1413:
1409:
1408:Walter Sisulu
1405:
1401:
1395:
1391:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1366:Walter Sisulu
1363:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1327:
1325:
1321:
1317:
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1302:
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1236:
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1228:
1224:
1213:
1208:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1185:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1161:Project Coast
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1127:
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1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1102:
1101:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1067:Robben Island
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1034:B. J. Vorster
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
987:
985:
984:Walter Sisulu
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
940:
937:
935:
932:
930:
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
871:
865:
864:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
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819:
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809:
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802:
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792:
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772:
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762:
759:
757:
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742:
739:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
713:
710:
709:Organisations
705:
704:
697:
694:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
656:Vaal uprising
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
641:Rivonia Trial
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
618:
612:
609:
608:
604:
603:
599:
595:
594:
591:
588:
587:
583:
579:
578:
569:
564:
561:
557:
546:
535:
524:
523:Walter Sisulu
513:
502:
501:Moses Mabhida
491:
480:
469:
458:
447:
437:
435:
424:
410:
405:
400:
398:
393:
388:
386:
381:
376:
374:
369:
364:
362:
357:
352:
350:
349:B. J. Vorster
345:
340:
338:
337:
332:
327:
322:
320:
315:
310:
309:
307:
306:
301:
298:
291:
280:
269:
257:
253:
241:
228:
224:
220:
210:
208:
197:
182:
171:
168:
157:
156:
154:
153:
148:
140:
136:
131:
130:
124:
120:
117:
115:
111:
108:
105:Abolition of
104:
103:
102:
100:
94:
91:
90:
86:
82:
79:
78:
72:
69:
68:
64:
60:
56:
51:
46:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
7625:
7585:Histories of
7286:United Party
7195:Reform Party
7132:Orangia Unie
6757:
6748:
6741:Swart gevaar
6739:
6723:
6679:
6670:
6611:
6513:Blikkiesdorp
6095:
5839:Pre-colonial
5692:Natal Colony
5676:Zulu Kingdom
5590:South Africa
5540:
5521:
5503:
5488:
5482:
5469:Lilian Nogyi
5463:
5447:
5441:
5426:
5420:
5411:
5403:
5398:
5389:
5381:
5376:
5364:. Retrieved
5359:
5350:
5338:. Retrieved
5334:the original
5329:
5319:
5306:. Retrieved
5302:the original
5292:
5280:. Retrieved
5276:the original
5266:
5257:
5248:
5240:the original
5230:
5219:
5209:
5200:(archives),
5197:
5193:
5185:
5177:
5165:. Retrieved
5161:
5106:
5098:
5089:
5083:
5064:
5052:. Retrieved
5048:
5039:
5030:
4984:
4972:. Retrieved
4962:
4950:. Retrieved
4946:
4937:
4904:
4900:
4894:
4882:. Retrieved
4878:
4868:
4856:. Retrieved
4844:
4835:
4823:. Retrieved
4818:
4779:
4769:
4757:. Retrieved
4753:
4743:
4731:. Retrieved
4726:
4681:
4677:
4671:
4659:. Retrieved
4654:
4645:
4618:
4612:
4600:. Retrieved
4595:
4586:
4574:. Retrieved
4570:
4560:
4548:. Retrieved
4543:
4534:
4515:
4509:
4472:
4468:
4458:
4446:. Retrieved
4439:the original
4416:
4403:
4391:. Retrieved
4386:
4377:
4358:
4322:
4295:. Retrieved
4284:The Guardian
4283:
4273:
4261:. Retrieved
4257:
4248:
4236:. Retrieved
4231:
4222:
4210:. Retrieved
4206:
4196:
4184:. Retrieved
4180:the original
4166:
4154:. Retrieved
4150:
4141:
4129:. Retrieved
4124:
4115:
4103:. Retrieved
4098:
4089:
4077:. Retrieved
4073:
4063:
4036:
4030:
4018:. Retrieved
4013:
4004:
3992:. Retrieved
3988:
3978:
3951:
3945:
3918:
3912:
3882:(2): 68–89.
3879:
3875:
3869:
3857:. Retrieved
3852:
3843:
3831:. Retrieved
3826:
3817:
3805:. Retrieved
3800:
3791:
3779:. Retrieved
3775:
3766:
3754:. Retrieved
3749:
3740:
3716:(1): 36–54.
3713:
3709:
3699:
3668:
3661:
3649:. Retrieved
3645:
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3312:Adam Roberts
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3197:
3185:. Retrieved
3181:the original
3176:
3141:
3080:Helen Joseph
3073:
3061:
3056:Johannesburg
3052:
3044:Lilian Ngoyi
3012:
3001:
2994:the original
2984:
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2904:Beyers Naudé
2869:Roy Campbell
2862:
2854:Conscription
2846:
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2808:
2791:
2783:Jimmy Kantor
2775:Reform Party
2762:United Party
2746:Sailor Malan
2735:
2730:Helen Suzman
2710:United Party
2690:
2675:
2666:
2651:Please help
2639:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2568:
2563:Desmond Tutu
2560:
2556:Adriaan Vlok
2550:
2530:Beyers Naudé
2528:
2524:
2497:
2488:
2477:Please help
2472:verification
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2328:verification
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2086:arms embargo
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2022:
2010:
1991:
1975:
1963:
1954:
1939:
1933:January 2008
1930:
1915:Please help
1903:
1873:
1865:B.J. Vorster
1853:
1845:
1832:Bram Fischer
1820:
1808:
1800:
1785:
1770:
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1757:
1747:
1743:
1738:South Africa
1726:Zulu Kingdom
1722:voortrekkers
1714:
1705:
1675:
1667:
1642:
1614:
1558:Helen Joseph
1554:Lilian Ngoyi
1547:
1544:
1518:Johannesburg
1511:
1503:
1496:
1488:
1476:
1471:Johannesburg
1467:
1452:
1432:
1416:Oliver Tambo
1404:Youth League
1397:
1359:
1328:
1305:
1259:
1227:South Africa
1222:
1221:
1140:
1062:District Six
1024:Desmond Tutu
1014:Oliver Tambo
1004:Helen Suzman
904:Bram Fischer
560:Sailor Malan
512:Moses Kotane
446:Oliver Tambo
373:Dirk Coetzee
335:
150:Belligerents
125:held in 1994
95:
85:South Africa
40:Part of the
29:
6725:Rooi gevaar
6604:2021 unrest
6534:Nkandlagate
6363:Third Force
6224:Rugby union
5822:(1981–1994)
5814:(1979–1994)
5806:(1977–1994)
5798:(1976–1994)
5790:(1910–1961)
5782:(1902–1910)
5774:(1902–1910)
5766:(1886–1891)
5758:(1885–1887)
5750:(1884–1888)
5742:(1882–1885)
5734:(1882–1883)
5726:(1870–1873)
5718:(1861–1879)
5710:(1856–1902)
5702:(1854–1902)
5694:(1843–1910)
5686:(1839–1843)
5678:(1816–1897)
5670:(1795–1910)
5668:Cape Colony
5660: 1780
5645: 1780
5632:(1652–1806)
5622: 1220
5615: 1075
5366:8 September
5167:26 November
4550:23 February
3187:3 September
3133:Annotations
3076:Ida Mntwana
3040:Sharpeville
3003:Fatima Meer
2979:Hilda Kuper
2963:Hilda Kuper
2893:André Brink
2793:Helen Zille
2698:David Pratt
2570:Alan Boesak
2561:Archbishop
2519:Los Angeles
2402:P. W. Botha
2375:living wage
2036:Grahamstown
2017:Black Power
2006:black pride
1978:Black Power
1681:Govan Mbeki
1629:Vereeniging
1625:Sharpeville
1579:proletariat
1516:, south of
1459:D. F. Malan
1362:Govan Mbeki
1324:safe houses
1285:East London
964:Thabo Mbeki
959:Govan Mbeki
949:D. F. Malan
944:Mac Maharaj
879:P. W. Botha
806:Broederbond
556:Lennox Lagu
534:Govan Mbeki
397:P. W. Botha
319:D. F. Malan
183:(from 1961)
132:Territorial
7641:Categories
7536:Greyshirts
7300:Volksparty
6838:Black Sash
6499:Xenophobia
6492:Travelgate
6249:Border War
6053:Bantustans
5951:Great Trek
5896:Xhosa Wars
5756:Upingtonia
5740:Stellaland
5445:ANC/FSAW,
5424:ANC/FSAW,
5330:TIMES Live
4492:1814/75043
3157:References
2956:See also:
2938:Black Sash
2922:See also:
2873:Alan Paton
2815:Black Sash
2805:Steve Biko
2754:Opposition
2619:Ruth First
2075:magistrate
1998:Steve Biko
1964:After the
1869:P.W. Botha
1867:and later
1796:Basutoland
1671:Tanganyika
1448:stay-aways
1384:Background
1295:, and the
1072:Sophiatown
1039:Jacob Zuma
924:Joel Joffe
914:Chris Hani
899:Ruth First
884:Steve Biko
741:Black Sash
490:Joe Modise
114:bantustans
57:burns his
6759:Volkstaat
6750:Uitlander
6681:Boerehaat
6657:Anarchism
6464:Arms Deal
6427:apartheid
6087:Pass laws
6064:Apartheid
6009:1910–1948
5928:1815–1910
5866:1652–1815
5340:5 October
5135:cite book
5127:246092999
5054:9 January
4929:144909892
4921:0258-2473
4853:0458-3035
4706:144101744
4698:0305-7070
4501:0031-2746
4292:0261-3077
4186:20 August
4055:919436893
3970:647906301
3937:681923614
3904:147172313
3896:0259-0123
3732:0041-5715
3691:689549065
3580:18 August
3078:, Ngoyi,
2895:and from
2881:Uys Krige
2875:, and in
2858:desertion
2834:Joe Slovo
2823:pass laws
2758:Transvaal
2742:Uys Krige
2714:Jan Smuts
2640:does not
2164:does not
1982:Malcolm X
1904:does not
1857:Homelands
1781:Kimberley
1693:Joe Slovo
1621:pass laws
1339:Coloureds
1289:pass laws
1277:pass laws
1261:Apartheid
1257:in 1994.
1093:Vlakplaas
1057:Bantustan
994:Joe Slovo
590:Apartheid
479:Joe Slovo
169:(to 1961)
107:apartheid
7627:Category
7529:Boeremag
7027:Jeugkrag
6978:Het Volk
6672:Baasskap
6614:incident
6217:Olympics
5796:Transkei
5599:polities
5597:Defunct
5493:Archived
5472:Archived
5452:Archived
5431:Archived
5072:Archived
4798:38410420
4637:71210556
4435:55800334
3598:Archived
3149:in 1952.
3090:See also
3064:Lausanne
3036:Pretoria
2976:—
2936:and the
2900:dominies
2803:founder
2797:cover-up
2572:led the
2451:Churches
1758:Mayibuye
1724:and the
1514:Kliptown
1440:boycotts
1253:under a
1184:Category
1088:Sun City
582:a series
580:Part of
238:AZANLA (
121:under a
80:Location
59:passbook
7432:SAAPAWU
6770:Defunct
6733:Slavery
5937:Mfecane
5282:26 June
4156:29 June
4131:29 June
4105:29 June
4079:29 June
4020:29 June
3994:29 June
3859:28 June
3833:27 June
3807:27 June
3781:27 June
3651:27 June
3625:27 June
3318:(eds),
2756:in the
2661:removed
2646:sources
2583:A 1977
2185:removed
2170:sources
1925:removed
1910:sources
1827:treason
1815:treason
1701:Rivonia
1577:" and "
1575:comrade
1571:Marxism
1436:strikes
1424:Marxism
1343:Indians
134:changes
109:in 1991
7383:FOSATU
7237:SAYRCO
7209:SADECO
7125:Occupy
6664:Azania
6612:Lady R
6541:Racism
6370:CODESA
5831:Events
5820:Ciskei
5732:Goshen
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5647:–1817)
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1051:Places
868:People
816:COSATU
766:FOSATU
676:CODESA
611:Events
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279:SAYRCO
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164:
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7564:PAGAD
7460:SATUC
7453:SARHU
7439:SACTU
7418:NURHS
7376:FNETU
7362:CTSWU
7355:CNETU
7348:BLATU
7230:SAYCO
7118:NUSAS
6999:IDASA
6810:AITUP
6425:Post-
5812:Venda
4925:S2CID
4702:S2CID
4442:(PDF)
4413:(PDF)
3900:S2CID
3673:(PDF)
3467:50–52
3384:31–34
3348:23–26
2990:Natal
2902:like
2867:like
2768:with
1499:India
1422:with
240:AZAPO
7571:SANF
7501:APLA
7446:SAIF
7425:PAWE
7411:NEUM
7404:MUSA
7369:FCWU
7314:WOSA
7265:TNIP
7223:SASO
7216:SAIC
7202:SABP
7153:PAVN
6887:COSG
6866:CTEG
6859:CNIP
5545:ISBN
5526:ISBN
5368:2016
5342:2015
5310:2005
5284:2013
5169:2019
5162:ICNC
5141:link
5123:OCLC
5113:ISBN
5056:2023
4976:2020
4954:2020
4917:ISSN
4886:2020
4860:2020
4849:ISSN
4827:2020
4794:OCLC
4784:ISBN
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4288:ISSN
4265:2020
4258:CMHR
4240:2020
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4081:2020
4051:OCLC
4041:ISBN
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3956:ISBN
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3923:ISBN
3892:ISSN
3861:2020
3835:2020
3809:2020
3783:2020
3758:2020
3728:ISSN
3687:OCLC
3677:ISBN
3653:2020
3627:2020
3582:2016
3549:ISBN
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3440:ISBN
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3324:ISBN
3314:and
3292:ISBN
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3208:ISBN
3189:2016
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2871:and
2850:rand
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2644:any
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1648:and
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1364:and
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1233:and
851:SACP
841:SAMA
836:SAIC
831:SADF
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721:APLA
252:APLA
227:SACP
70:Date
7522:BBB
7515:AWB
7508:ARM
7474:UDF
7397:IWW
7390:ICU
7341:BCM
7334:APF
7279:UFP
7181:PRP
7160:PFP
7111:NRP
7104:NPP
7090:NNP
7083:NLP
7069:NCP
7020:ISL
6971:GNP
6943:ECC
6936:DSM
6929:DPP
6901:DLF
6873:COD
6852:CDA
6831:BPC
6824:AVF
6817:APO
4909:doi
4686:doi
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726:IFP
716:ANC
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268:ARM
256:PAC
223:ANC
207:AWB
196:AVF
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